Matter and Energy Cycles in the Space-Time System

1. Theory, Problems, and Explanations

"In order to talk about the nature of the universe and to discuss questions such as whether it has a beginning or an end, you have to be clear about what a scientific theory is…

A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations. For example, Newton’s theory of gravity was based on an even simpler model, in which bodies attracted each other with a force that was proportional to a quantity called their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Yet it predicts the motions of the sun, the moon, and the planets to a high degree of accuracy." [Stephen Hawking p. 10]

The most current theory of the origin of the universe is called The Big Bang Theory (TBB or TBBT) [Hawking p. 9] [Lederman & Teresi p. 23-4]. This was originally a term of derision coined by Fred Hoyle in 1949 [Hawking p. 50] [Fred Hoyle][Mitton p.197]. Originally titled the Metric Expansion of Space Theory (MEST) proposed by Georges Lemaître states that the universe started as an infinitely dense hot seed, the Primeval Atom, which became unstable and expanded from a central point into an ever-expanding universe. All matter and energy were created at this point and predict a dark (energy-less) ever-expanding outcome [Hawking p. 123-4] [Big Bang cosmology] [Lemaître 1931]¹. Although it fits much of the present interpreted redshift data, the following problems still persist:

First, observations show that the universe has a nearly constant temperature (approximately 3 Kelvin) [Hawking p. 111]. If the Big Bang were the origin, one side of the universe would be significantly warmer than the other.

Second, there is a distinct lack of anti-matter in the universe. Moreover, if MEST were the process, there should have been nearly equal amounts of both types of matter.

Third, the observable universe is approximately 93 billion light years across (measured by observing cepheid variable stars and Type 1a supernovae) [Lineweaver & Davis], however, the birth of the universe is calculated to be somewhere between 7 and 20 billion years ago. The consensus was reached at an average of 13.8 billion years ago [Universe] [Suyu, et al. 2010]. Remember that consensus is not science, it is politics.

Fourth, using the Big Bang theory (and the numbers above), the Doppler interpretation of redshifted data of distant galaxies and quasars violates the universal speed limit (the speed of light) by more than six times [Science Daily]. In other words, those galaxies are apparently going at a speed faster than light. If galaxies are retreating at speeds faster than light doesn’t the accompanying time dilation affect them also? If the redshift effect we see was truly velocity, time should be slowing them to a crawl (for those galaxies just under the speed of light) and even reversing the flow of time (for those above the speed of light). For galaxies in the extreme visible range, reportedly above 6c, we should see Type 1a supernovae occurring in reverse and at more than six times the speed.

Fifth, if TBB is the true mechanism for the birth of the universe, one should expect to see galaxies of the same age relatively the same distance from some universal center [Metric Expansion of Space] [Baryshev]. This should look like old galaxies on one side of the universe and newborn galaxies on the other side. What is observed are galaxies of various ages scattered throughout the visible universe.

Sixth, if hydrogen (74% of the universe) is fused into successively heavier and heavier atomic elements, with the passing of billions of years, one should see nearby galaxies of heavier elements with less hydrogen and very distant galaxies composed only of hydrogen and helium. The James Webb Telescope has shown this to be incorrect. [O’Callaghan, 2024] (Frank, 2022)

Seventh, virtually all of the redshift data have been attributed to velocity, and with a few nearby exceptions, all galaxies apparently retreat from the Milky Way. This gives the unlikely illusion that the Milky Way is the center of the universe.

Eighth, astronomers have yet to find a time or distance when there were no galaxies. If TBBT is correct, galaxies should not exist at the extreme limits of the visible universe. This is not what is observed. [O’Callaghan, 2024] (3 new studies indicate a conflict