Aquatic Resource Management Strategies

Aquatic Resource Management Strategies

Aquatic Resource Management Strategies

Chandak Somayaji

Aquatic Resource Management Strategies

Chandak Somayaji

ISBN - 9789361520976

COPYRIGHT © 2025 by Educohack Press. All rights reserved.

This work is protected by copyright, and all rights are reserved by the Publisher. This includes, but is not limited to, the rights to translate, reprint, reproduce, broadcast, electronically store or retrieve, and adapt the work using any methodology, whether currently known or developed in the future.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, or similar designations in this publication does not imply that such terms are exempt from applicable protective laws and regulations or that they are available for unrestricted use.

The Publisher, authors, and editors have taken great care to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information presented in this publication at the time of its release. However, no explicit or implied guarantees are provided regarding the accuracy, completeness, or suitability of the content for any particular purpose.

If you identify any errors or omissions, please notify us promptly at [email protected] & [email protected] We deeply value your feedback and will take appropriate corrective actions.

The Publisher remains neutral concerning jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Published by Educohack Press, House No. 537, Delhi- 110042, INDIA

Email: [email protected] & [email protected]

Cover design by Team EDUCOHACK

Preface

This book deals with the fisheries management process in detail. Fisheries management, as a process, includes various elements that are crucial to study. Their breeding, pond culture, policies have been discussed in detail. This book includes all the information about the fisheries policy, how they are handled in different countries, and what are the legal measures to manage them.

Table of Contents

1 Fisheries Policy 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Fisheries Management 4

1.2.1 History 7

1.2.2 Political Objectives 8

1.2.3 International Objectives 8

1.2.4 Management Mechanism 10

1.2.5 Catch Quotas 10

1.2.6 Precautionary Management 11

1.2.7 Fisheries Law 11

1.2.8 Climate Change 12

1.2.9 Population Dynamics 13

1.2.10 Ecosystems Based Fisheries 13

1.2.11 Elderly Maternal Fish 15

1.2.12 Data Quality 16

1.2.13 Eco-path 16

1.2.14 Human Factors 16

1.2.15 Performance 18

1.3 Working Principles of Fisheries Management 19

1.3.1 Goals and Objectives 25

1.3.2 Management plans, measures and strategies 29

1.3.3 Primary Considerations 31

1.3.4 Biological Considerations 31

1.3.5 Ecological and Environmental Considerations 33

1.3.6 Technological Considerations 35

1.3.7 Social and Cultural Considerations 37

1.3.8 Economic Considerations 38

1.3.9 Considerations Imposed by Other Parties 40

1.3.10 National Legislation 41

1.3.11 International legislation and instruments 42

1.4 Exercise 44

2 Fish Farming 45

2.1 What is Fish Farming? 45

2.1.1 Major Species 46

2.2 Importance 49

2.3 Types of Fish Farming 52

2.3.1 Extensive Aquaculture 52

2.3.2 Intensive Aquaculture 53

2.4 Fish Farms 56

2.4.1 Cage System 56

2.4.2 Irrigation Ditch or Pond Systems 59

2.4.3 Integrated Recycling Systems 61

2.4.4 Classic Fry Farming 62

2.5 Issues 63

2.6 Labeling 69

2.7 Indoor Fish Farming 70

2.8 Slaughter Methods 71

2.9 Inhumane Methods 72

2.10 More Humane Methods 73

2.11 Exercise 73

3 Fish Pond Culture 74

3.1 Introduction 74

3.2 Culture Species 75

3.3 Site Selection 76

3.4 Pond Layout 78

3.4.1 Design of Pond Facilities 81

3.4.2 Pond Management 89

3.4.3 Pond Preparation 90

3.4.4 Stocking 91

3.4.5 Feeding 91

3.4.6 Water Management 93

3.4.7 Pond Maintenance 96

3.4.8 Harvesting 98

4 National Fisheries Policy 99

4.1 Introduction 99

4.2 Fisheries Resources in Bangladesh 99

4.3 Objectives of the National Fisheries Policy 100

4.4 The legal status of the National Fisheries Policy 101

4.5 Range of the National Fisheries Policy 101

4.6 Policy for procurement of Fish for the Open

Freshwater Bodies 103

4.7 Fish Culture and Management Policy in Closed

Water Bodies 105

4.8 Coastal Shrimp and Aquaculture Policy 108

4.9 Exercise 111

5 Fisheries Management 112

5.1 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Fisheries Resources 112

5.1.1 The 1982 UNCLOS 112

5.1.2 The UN Fish Stocks Agreement 118

5.1.3 Obligations Under Customary International Law 121

5.1.4 General Principles of Law 127

5.1.5 Precautionary Principles 129

5.1.6 The 1982 UNCLOS 130

5.1.7 General International Law 133

5.2 Trans-boundary Operations 137

5.2.1 Fisheries Treaties 137

5.3 Exercise 141

6 Promotion and Management of Fisheries in

Different Countries 142

6.1 Introduction 142

6.2 Indonesia 143

6.3 Kenya 148

6.4 Namibia 150

6.5 Brazil 153

6.6 Mexico 156

6.7 European Union 160

6.8 Exercise 164

7 The Common Fisheries Policy 165

7.1 Introduction 165

7.2 Importance of Fishing in Europe 166

7.2.1 Aquaculture 167

7.3 The Mechanisms of CFP 167

7.3.1 Fishing Controls 168

7.3.2 Structural Policy and Onshore Fishing Industry 168

7.3.3 Producer Organizations 169

7.4 International Relations 170

7.4.1 Areas of co-operation 170

7.4.2 Compliance 170

7.4.3 Funding Provision 172

7.4.4 Fishing and the Environment 172

7.4.5 Criticism 172

7.4.6 Management 173

7.4.7 History 175

7.5 Exercise 178

8 Fisheries science 179

8.1 Introduction 179

8.1.1 How does scientific Advice Feed Into

the Politics of the CFP? 180

8.1.2 Deficiencies of Fisheries Science 189

8.2 The Future-a new Relationship Between Politics and Fisheries Science? 194

8.3 Exercise 197

9 Towards a Legal Clinic for Fisheries Management 198

9.1 Legal Inquiry into Fisheries Management 198

9.2 A Legal Clinic for Fisheries 200

9.2.1 The Methodology of a Legal Clinic 200

9.2.2 Rules of Good Practice in

Fisheries Management 205

9.3 Exercise 240

Appendix 241

Glossary 243

Index 244

Chapter - 1 Fisheries Policy

1.1 Introduction

Fish and fisheries are an integral part of most societies and make important contributions to economic and social health and well-being in many countries and areas. It has been estimated that approximately 12.5 million people are employed in fishery-related activities, and in recent years global production from capture fisheries has tended to vary between approximately 85 and 90 million tonnes. The products from these fisheries are used in a wide variety of ways, ranging from subsistence use to international trade as highly sought-after and highly-valued items. The value of fish traded internationally is approximately US$40 billion per year.

Despite this enormous importance and value, or more correctly, because of these attributes, the world’s fish resources are suffering the combined effects of heavy exploitation and, in some cases, environmental degradation. The FAO (2000) estimated that, in 1999, 47% of the 441 stocks for which some information on status was available were fully exploited, 18% overexploited, 9% depleted and 1% recovering. This pattern is broadly consistent with similar statistics available from other regions. For example, the National Marine Fisheries Service of the United States of America estimated in 1998 that 30% of the stocks in the waters of that country for which information was available were overfished. In the waters of the European Community, it was estimated that in 1990, 57% of the stocks were ‘heavily exploited.’ Fish stocks throughout the rest of the globe are likely to be in a similar condition to those in these regions.

There are many reasons for this unacceptable state of affairs, but the primary reasons all come down to a failure in fisheries governance in most countries. The responsibility for declining stocks and falling economic returns and employment opportunities in fisheries must be shared amongst fishers, fisheries management authorities, fishery scientists and those involved in environmental degradation. Not all of the underlying problems lie within the realm of fisheries management, but the fisheries manager is the person who is most often in the best position to observe and record what is happening in the fisheries under his or her jurisdiction, establishing the underlying cause or causes of any problems, to rectify those within their jurisdiction, and to bring the others to the attention of both the interested parties in fisheries and those with a responsibility covering the external causes. However, all too often, the fisheries manager remains either unaware of the state of the resources or fails to act sufficiently as the fisheries slip further and further into decay and crisis, or both. This is rarely, if ever, a deliberate choice and more often comes down to a lack of available information, an incomplete understanding of the nature of the task of fisheries management, and inadequate resources, structures and support to address the problems and utilize the resources in a planned and efficient manner.

Fig 1.1 : Fisheries

Source: https://img.etimg.com/thumb/width-640,height-480,imgsize-444358,resizemode-1,msid-70971588/centre-plans-rs-25000-crore-investment-in-fisheries-sector.jpg

The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries was produced in response to global concern over the clear signs of over-exploitation of fish stocks throughout the world and to recommend new approaches to fisheries management, which included conservation, environmental, social and economic considerations. It was developed by and through FAO and was accepted as a voluntary instrument by the 28th Session of the FAO Conference in October 1995. In addition to five introductory Articles and one on General Principles, the Code contains six thematic articles on Fisheries Management, Fishing Operations, Aquaculture Development, Integration of Fisheries into Coastal Area Management, Post-Harvest Practices and Trade, and Fisheries Research. Overall it incorporates the key considerations in responsible fisheries and guides how these should be addressed in order to ensure sustainable and responsible fisheries. Subsequently, FAO has produced some Technical Guidelines on different aspects of the Code, including the FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries.

This Guidebook has been produced to supplement the Code of Conduct and the Technical Guidelines No. 4 (FAO, 1997) in order to provide managers with additional and more detailed information in determining the scope of their tasks and how to execute their fisheries management functions. It cannot address in detail all of the issues which fall under Article 7 of the Code, the Article dealing directly with fisheries management, but focuses mainly on those aspects directly related to strategic and operational management of the fisheries themselves and the resources on which they depend. These are the areas in which the fisheries manager generally holds a direct mandate and responsibility.

1.2 Fisheries Management

Fisheries management is the activity of protecting fishery resources, so sustainable exploitation is possible, drawing on fisheries science, and including the precautionary principle. Modern fisheries management is often referred to as a governmental system of appropriate management rules based on defined objectives, and a mix of management means to implement the rules, which are put in place by a system of monitoring control and surveillance. A popular approach is the ecosystem approach to fisheries management. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), there are no clear and generally accepted definitions of fisheries management. However, the working definition used by the FAO and much-cited elsewhere is:

The integrated process of information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, of regulations or rules which govern fisheries activities in order to ensure the continued productivity of the resources and the accomplishment of other fisheries objectives.

There is no clear and generally accepted definition of fisheries management. We do not wish to get embroiled in a debate about exactly what fisheries management is and is not, but use here the working definition used in the Technical Guidelines to provide a summary of the task of fisheries management:

"The integrated process of information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, of regulations or rules which govern fisheries activities in order to ensure the continued productivity of the resources and the accomplishment of other fisheries objectives.

From this description, it can be seen that fisheries management involves a complex and wide-ranging set of tasks, which collectively have the achievement of sustained optimal benefits from the resources as the underlying goal.

There has been a lot of interest in recent years in moving from fisheries management-focused essentially on single-species or single fisheries, to management with an ecosystem orientation. This expanded approach has been termed ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) and was recently discussed at The Reykjavik Conference on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem (1-4 October 2001), which was organized jointly by FAO and the Governments of Iceland and Norway. The Conference agreed on the Reykjavik Declaration, which included an affirmation that incorporation of ecosystem considerations implies more effective conservation of the ecosystem and sustainable use and also a reaffirmation of the principles of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.

In writing this Guidebook, the authors have implicitly accepted EBFM as a principle inherent in fisheries management and, while the term is not explicitly referred to in the Guidebook, its principles and requirements in fisheries management are incorporated and discussed throughout the volume.

Fig 1.2: Diagrammatic representation of the functions and responsibilities of a fisheries management authority in relation to fishing, and the inter-relationships between the functions.

Source: http://www.fao.org/3/y3427e/y3427e01.gif

1.2.1 History

Fisheries have been explicitly managed in some places for hundreds of years. More than 80 percent of the world’s commercial exploitation of fish and shellfish is harvested from naturally occurring populations in the oceans and freshwater areas. For example, the Māori people, New Zealand residents for about 700 years, had prohibitions against taking more than what could be eaten and about giving back the first fish caught as an offering to sea god Tangaroa. Starting in the 18th-century, attempts were made to regulate fishing in the North Norwegian Fishery. This resulted in the enactment of a law in 1816 on the Lofoten fishery, which established in some measure what has come to be known as territorial use rights.

The fishing banks were divided into areas belonging to the nearest fishing base on land and further subdivided into fields where the boats were allowed to fish. The allocation of the fishing fields was in the hands of local governing committees, usually headed by the owner of the onshore facilities, which the fishermen had to rent for accommodation and for drying the fish.

Governmental resource protection-based fisheries management is a relatively new idea, first developed for North European fisheries after the first Overfishing Conference held in London in 1936. In 1957 British fisheries researchers Ray Beverton and Sidney Holt published a seminal work on North Sea commercial fisheries dynamics. In the 1960s, the work became the theoretical platform for North European management schemes.

After some years away from the field of fisheries management, Beverton criticized his earlier work in a paper given at the first World Fisheries Congress in Athens in 1992. The Dynamics of Exploited Fish Populations expressed his concerns, including the way his and Sidney Holt’s work had been misinterpreted and misused by fishery biologists and managers during the previous 30 years. Nevertheless, the institutional foundation for modern fishery management had been laid.

In 1996, the Marine Stewardship Council was founded to set standards for sustainable fishing. In 2010, the Aquaculture Stewardship Council was created to do the same for aquaculture.

A report by Prince Charles’ International Sustainability Unit, the New York-based Environmental Defense Fund and 50in10 published in July 2014 estimated global fisheries were adding $270 billion a year to global GDP, but by full implementation of sustainable fishing, that figure could rise by an extra amount of as much as $50 billion.

1.2.2 Political Objectives

According to the FAO, fisheries management should be based explicitly on political objectives, ideally with transparent priorities. Typical political objectives when exploiting a fish resource are to:

• maximize sustainable biomass yield

• maximize sustainable economic yield

• secure and increase employment

• secure protein production and food supplies

• increase export income

Such political goals can also be a weak part of fisheries management since the objectives can conflict with each other.

1.2.3 International Objectives

Fisheries’ objectives need to be expressed in concrete management rules. In most countries, fisheries management rules should be based on the internationally agreed, though non-binding, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, agreed at a meeting of the U.N.’s Food and Agriculture Organization FAO session in 1995. The precautionary approach it prescribes is typically implemented in concrete management rules as minimum spawning biomass, maximum fishing mortality rates, etc. In 2005 the UBC Fisheries Centre at the University of British Columbia comprehensively reviewed the performance of the world›s major fishing nations against the Code.

International agreements are required in order to regulate fisheries in international waters. The desire for agreement on this and other maritime issues led to three conferences on the Law of the Sea, and ultimately to the treaty known as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Concepts such as exclusive economic zones (EEZ, extending 200 nautical miles (370 km) from a nation›s coasts) allocate certain sovereign rights and responsibilities for resource management to individual countries.

Other situations need additional intergovernmental coordination. For example, in the Mediterranean Sea and other relatively narrow bodies of water, EEZ of 200 nautical miles (370 km) is irrelevant. International waters beyond 12-nautical-mile (22 km) from shore require explicit agreements.

Straddling fish stocks, which migrate through more than one EEZ, also present challenges? Here sovereign responsibility must be agreed with neighboring coastal states and fishing entities. Usually, this is done through the medium of a regional organization set up for the purpose of coordinating the management of that stock.

UNCLOS does not prescribe precisely how fisheries confined only to international waters should be managed. Several new fisheries (such as high seas bottom trawling fisheries) are not (yet) subject to international agreement across their entire range. In November 2004, the U.N. General Assembly issued a resolution on Fisheries that prepared for further development of international fisheries management law.

1.2.4 Management Mechanism

Many countries have set up Ministries/Government Departments, named "Ministry of Fisheries" or similar, controlling aspects of fisheries within their exclusive economic zones. Four categories of management means have been devised, regulating either input/investment, or output, and operating either directly or indirectly:

Technical means may include:

• prohibiting devices such as bows and arrows, and spears, or firearms

• prohibiting nets

• setting minimum mesh sizes

• limiting the average potential catch of a vessel in the fleet (vessel and crew size, gear, electronic gear and other physical inputs.[15]

• prohibiting bait

• snagging

• limits on fish traps

• limiting the number of poles or lines per fisherman

• restricting the number of simultaneous fishing vessels

• limiting a vessel’s average operational