Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial Last Updated : 10 Sep, 2025 Comments Improve Suggest changes Like Article Like Report Computer architecture defines how a computer’s components communicate through electronic signals to perform input, processing, and output operations.It covers the design and organisation of the CPU, memory, storage, and input/output devices.Describes how these components interact through buses, control signals, and data pathways.It directly influences the overall speed, functionality, and reliability of a computer system.Basic Computer StructureThis section introduces the fundamentals of computer organisation and architecture, explaining system components, design issues, and different architectural models.What is Computer?Issues in Computer DesignVon Neumann ArchitectureHarvard ArchitectureFlynn's TaxonomyNumber System and Data RepresentationCovers how data, numbers, and characters are represented inside a computer, along with techniques to ensure accuracy and reliability in storage and communication.Number SystemsBase ConversionsCharacter RepresentationError Detection and Correction CodesFixed & Floating-Point FormatsRepresenting numbers in digital systems using fixed-point and floating-point formats for precision and range.Fixed Point RepresentationFloating Point RepresentationDigital Logic & CircuitsDesigning digital systems using logic gates, Boolean algebra, and combinational/sequential circuits.Digital Electronic and Logic GateBoolean AlgebraCombinational Circuits and Sequential CircuitsRegister Transfer & Micro-OperationsManaging data movement and operations in registers using bus/memory transfers, arithmetic, and shift micro-operations.Register Transfer Language Data Transfers (Bus/Memory)Arithmetic Micro-OperationsShift Micro-OperationsMicrooperationsHardwired vs. Microprogrammed Control UnitInstruction Set Architecture (ISA)Defining the set of instructions, formats, and addressing modes for processor communication.Instruction FormatAddressing ModesAssembly-Level DesignMicroarchitecture and Instruction Set ArchitectureInstruction Cycle & Control FlowExecuting instructions through the fetch-decode-execute cycle, timing, and control in RISC/CISC architectures.Instruction Fetch-Decode-Execute CycleInstruction CycleTiming and ControlRISC vs CISC ArchitecturesComputer ArithmeticExplore all the concepts of computer arithmetic, including ALU operations, number complements, division algorithms, Booth’s method, overflow handling, and negative number representation.ALU and Data PathComputer Arithmetic | Set 1Computer Arithmetic | Set 2Difference between 1’s complement and 2’s complementRestoring Division AlgorithmNon-Restoring Division Booth’s AlgorithmOverflow in Arithmetic AdditionNegative Number Representation in MemoryMemory OrganizationThis section explains memory organization, covering types of memory, storage hierarchy, addressing methods, virtual memory techniques, and key architectural differences.Memory & Memory UnitsMain Memory Secondary StorageCache MemoryPagingSegmentationVirtual MemoryPage Replacement AlgorithmsTranslation Lookaside BufferRAM vs ROMNUMA vs UMA ArchitecturesMemory InterleavingByte Addressable & Word Addressable MemorySimultaneous vs Hierarchical Access MemoryInput/Output OrganizationThis section covers input/output organization, including interfaces, interrupts, DMA, peripheral devices, synchronization methods, bus systems, and processor communication.Introduction to I/O InterfaceI/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/OInterruptsDMAModes of DMA TransferDMA controller 8257/8237Programmable peripheral interface 8255Asynchronous & Synchronous I/O SynchronizationInterface 8255 with 8085 microprocessor for 1’s and 2’s complement of a numberMicrocomputer systemWorking of 8085-based Single board microcomputerInterface 8254 PIT with 8085 microprocessorSynchronous Data TransferInput-Output ProcessorBus SystemsMPU CommunicationBUS ArbitrationPipelining & Parallel ProcessingThis section explains pipelining and parallel processing, covering ILP, execution stages, hazards, VLIW, branch prediction, and Amdahl’s law.Pipelining ConceptsInstruction Level ParallelismExecution, Stages and ThroughputVery Long Instruction Word (VLIW) ArchitectureTypes and StallingDependencies and Data HazardBranch Prediction in PentiumAmdahl's law and its ProofImportant LinksGenerations of computerMicroprocessorMemory BankingEvolution of MicroprocessorsIntroduction to Parallel Computing2D and 2.5D Memory organizationProgramsProgram for Binary To Decimal ConversionProgram for Decimal to Binary ConversionProgram for decimal to octal conversionProgram for octal to decimal conversionProgram for hexadecimal to decimalQuizzes and Problems Links‘Quizzes’ on Computer Organization and Architecture‘Practice Problems’ on Computer Organization and ArchitectureProblem Solving on Instruction FormatQuiz on Number Representation Comment More infoAdvertise with us K kartik Follow Improve Article Tags : Computer Organization & Architecture Computer Organization and Architecture Explore Basic Computer InstructionsWhat is a Computer? 8 min read Issues in Computer Design 1 min read Difference between assembly language and high level language 2 min read Addressing Modes 7 min read Difference between Memory based and Register based Addressing Modes 4 min read Von Neumann Architecture 6 min read Harvard Architecture 3 min read Interaction of a Program with Hardware 3 min read Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) 4 min read Instruction Set used in simplified instructional Computer (SIC) 1 min read Instruction Set used in SIC/XE 2 min read RISC and CISC in Computer Organization 5 min read Vector processor classification 5 min read Essential Registers for Instruction Execution 3 min read Introduction of Single Accumulator based CPU organization 2 min read Stack based CPU Organization 4 min read Machine Control Instructions in Microprocessor 4 min read Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) Architecture 4 min read Input and Output SystemsComputer Organization | Different Instruction Cycles 11 min read Machine Instructions 5 min read Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction) 6 min read Difference between 2-address instruction and 1-address instructions 4 min read Difference between 3-address instruction and 0-address instruction 4 min read Register content and Flag status after Instructions 3 min read Debugging a machine level program 3 min read Vector Instruction Format in Vector Processors 7 min read Vector Instruction Types 4 min read Instruction Design and FormatIntroduction of ALU and Data Path 8 min read Computer Arithmetic | Set - 1 5 min read Computer Arithmetic | Set - 2 4 min read Difference Between 1's Complement Representation and 2's Complement Representation Technique 5 min read Restoring Division Algorithm For Unsigned Integer 5 min read Non-Restoring Division For Unsigned Integer 4 min read Computer Organization | Booth's Algorithm 7 min read How the Negative Numbers are Stored in Memory? 2 min read Microprogrammed ControlMicro-Operation 2 min read Microarchitecture and Instruction Set Architecture 5 min read Types of Program Control Instructions 6 min read Difference between CALL and JUMP instructions 5 min read Hardwired and Micro-programmed Control Unit 3 min read Implementation of Micro Instructions Sequencer 4 min read Performance of Computer in Computer Organization 5 min read Introduction of Control Unit and its Design 5 min read Computer Organization | Amdahl's law and its proof 2 min read Subroutine, Subroutine nesting and Stack memory 5 min read Different Types of RAM (Random Access Memory ) 8 min read Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) 8 min read 2D and 2.5D Memory organization 4 min read Input and Output OrganizationPriority Interrupts | (S/W Polling and Daisy Chaining) 5 min read I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode) 6 min read Direct memory access with DMA controller 8257/8237 3 min read Computer Organization | Asynchronous input output synchronization 7 min read Programmable peripheral interface 8255 4 min read Synchronous Data Transfer in Computer Organization 4 min read Introduction of Input-Output Processor 5 min read MPU Communication in Computer Organization 4 min read Memory Mapped I/O and Isolated I/O 5 min read Memory OrganizationIntroduction to memory and memory units 4 min read Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics 6 min read Register Allocations in Code Generation 6 min read Cache Memory 5 min read Cache Organization | Set 1 (Introduction) 3 min read Multilevel Cache Organisation 6 min read Difference between RAM and ROM 7 min read Difference Between CPU Cache and TLB 4 min read Introduction to Solid-State Drive (SSD) 7 min read Read and Write operations in Memory 3 min read PipeliningInstruction Level Parallelism 5 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 1 (Execution, Stages and Throughput) 9 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 3 (Types and Stalling) 3 min read Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 2 (Dependencies and Data Hazard) 6 min read Last Minute Notes Computer Organization 15+ min read Like