The capability of a class to derive properties and characteristics from another class is called Inheritance. Inheritance is one of the most important features of Object-Oriented Programming in C++. In this article, we will learn about inheritance in C++, its modes and types along with the information about how it affects different properties of the class.
Syntax
C++
class DerivedClass : mode_of_inheritance BaseClass {
// Body of the Derived Class
};
where mode of inheritance controls the access level of the inherited members of the base class in the derived class. In C++, there are 3 modes of inheritance:
Mode
| Description
|
|---|
Public Inheritance Mode
| Public member of the base class will become public in the derived class and protected members of the base class will become protected in the derived class.
|
Protected Inheritance Mode
| Both public and protected members of the base class will become protected in the derived class.
|
Private Inheritance Mode
| Both public members and protected members of the base class will become private in the derived class. Private mode is the default mode that is applied when we don’t specify any mode.
|
Access Base Class Members
Members of the base class can be accessed in the derived class by simply using their name.
C++
class Base {
public:
int n;
void printN() {
cout << n << endl;
}
};
// Inheriting Base class publicly
class Derived : public Base {
public:
void func () {
// Accessing Base class members
n = 22;
}
};
The public members of the Base class can be accessed through the objects of the Derived class if the Base class is inherited publicly as in the above example.
C++
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
class Base {
public:
int n;
void printN() {
cout << n << endl;
}
};
// Inheriting Base class publicly
class Derived : public Base {
public:
void func () {
// Accessing Base class members
n = 22;
}
};
int main() {
//Driver Code Ends }
// Creating objects of derived
Derived d;
// Accessing Derived class member
d.func();
// Accessing Base class member
d.printN();
//Driver Code Starts{
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
The private members in the base class cannot be directly accessed in the derived class, while protected and public members can be directly accessed. To access or update the private members of the base class in derived class, we have to use the corresponding getter and setter functions of the base class or declare the derived class as friend class.
Example of Inheritance
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
// Base class that is to be inherited
//Driver Code Ends }
class Parent {
public:
int id_p;
Parent(int x = 22) : id_p(x) {}
void printID_p() {
cout << "Base ID: " << id_p << endl;
}
};
// Derived publicly inheriting from Base
// Class
class Child : public Parent {
public:
int id_c;
Child(int x = 22) : id_c(x) {}
void printID_c() {
cout << "Child ID: " << id_c << endl;
}
};
int main() {
Child obj1;
// An object of class child has all data members
// and member functions of class parent
// so we try accessing the parents method and data from
// the child class object.
obj1.id_p = 7;
obj1.printID_p();
// finally accessing the child class methods and data
// too
obj1.id_c = 91;
obj1.printID_c();
//Driver Code Starts{
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputBase ID: 7
Child ID: 91
Explanation: In the above program, the ‘Child‘ class is publicly inherited from the ‘Parent‘ class so the public data members of the class ‘Parent’ will also be inherited by the class ‘Child’.
Types Of Inheritance in C++
The inheritance can be classified on the basis of the relationship between the derived class and the base class. In C++, we have 5 types of inheritances:
- Single inheritance
- Multilevel inheritance
- Multiple inheritance
- Hierarchical inheritance
- Hybrid inheritance
1. Single Inheritance
In single inheritance, a class is allowed to inherit from only one class. i.e. one base class is inherited by one derived class only.
Single Inheritance
Example:
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle() {
cout << "This is a Vehicle"<< endl;
}
};
// Sub class derived from a single base classes
class Car : public Vehicle {
public:
Car() {
cout << "This Vehicle is Car"<< endl;
}
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
// Creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base classes
Car obj;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputThis is a Vehicle
This Vehicle is Car
2. Multiple Inheritance
Multiple Inheritance is a feature of C++ where a class can inherit from more than one class. i.e one subclass is inherited from more than one base class.
Multiple Inheritance
Example:
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class LandVehicle {
public:
LandVehicle() {
cout << "This is a LandVehicle"<< endl;
}
};
class WaterVehicle {
public:
WaterVehicle() {
cout << "This is a WaterVehicle"<< endl;
}
};
// sub class derived from two base classes
class AmphibiousVehicle : public WaterVehicle, public LandVehicle {
public:
AmphibiousVehicle() {
cout << "This is an AmphibiousVehicle"<< endl;
}
//Driver Code Starts{
};
int main() {
// Creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base classes.
AmphibiousVehicle obj;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputThis is a WaterVehicle
This is a LandVehicle
This is an AmphibiousVehicle
3. Multilevel Inheritance
In multilevel inheritance, a derived class is created from another derived class and that derived class can be derived from a base class or any other derived class. There can be any number of levels. For example, a vehicle can be a four-wheeler, and a four-wheeler vehicle can be a car.
Multilevel Inheritance
Example:
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle() {
cout << "This is a Vehicle"<< endl;
}
};
class fourWheeler : public Vehicle {
public:
fourWheeler() {
cout << "4 Wheeler Vehicles"<< endl;
}
};
class Car : public fourWheeler {
public:
Car() {
cout << "This 4 Wheeler Vehical is a Car";
}
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
// Creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base classes.
Car obj;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputThis is a Vehicle
4 Wheeler Vehicles
This 4 Wheeler Vehical is a Car
4. Hierarchical Inheritance
In hierarchical inheritance, more than one subclass is inherited from a single base class. i.e. more than one derived class is created from a single base class. For example, cars and buses both are vehicle.
Hierarchical Inheritance
Example:
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle() {
cout << "This is a Vehicle"<< endl;
}
};
class Car : public Vehicle {
public:
Car() {
cout << "This Vehicle is Car"<< endl;
}
};
class Bus : public Vehicle {
public:
Bus() {
cout << "This Vehicle is Bus"<< endl;
}
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
// Creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base class.
Car obj1;
Bus obj2;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputThis is a Vehicle
This Vehicle is Car
This is a Vehicle
This Vehicle is Bus
5. Hybrid Inheritance
Hybrid Inheritance is implemented by combining more than one type of inheritance. For example: Combining Hierarchical inheritance and Multiple Inheritance will create hybrid inheritance in C++.
There is no particular syntax of hybrid inheritance. We can just combine two of the above inheritance types. Below image shows one of the combinations of hierarchical and multiple inheritances:
Hybrid Inheritance
Example:
CPP
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Vehicle {
public:
Vehicle() {
cout << "This is a Vehicle"<< endl;
}
};
class Fare {
public:
Fare() {
cout << "Fare of Vehicle"<< endl;
}
};
class Car : public Vehicle {
public:
Car() {
cout << "This Vehical is a Car"<< endl;
}
};
class Bus : public Vehicle, public Fare {
public:
Bus() {
cout << "This Vehicle is a Bus with Fare";
}
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
// Creating object of sub class will
// invoke the constructor of base class.
Bus obj2;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputThis is a Vehicle
Fare of Vehicle
This Vehicle is a Bus with Fare
Multipath Inheritance
This is the special case of special case of hybrid inheritance. In multipath inheritance, a class is derived from two base classes and these two base classes in turn are derived from one common base class. An ambiguity can arise in this type of inheritance in the most derived class. This problem is also called diamond problem due to the diamond shape formed in the UML inheritance diagram.
Effects of Inheritance
Let’s see how different components of class are affected in inheritance:
Static Members and Inheritance
In C++, static members belong to the class itself, not to any object. This means static variables and methods are shared across all instances of the class. When it comes to inheritance, static members from the base class are not inherited by the derived class in the traditional way. However, they can still be accessed using the class name like className::staticMember.
Friend Function and Class in Inheritance
Friend functions and classes in inheritance provides functions or classes to access private and protected members of a class, providing flexibility and better control over class interactions.
- Friend Function: It is a special function that can access private and protected members of a class, even though they are not part of that class.
- Friend Class: It is a class that is allowed to access the private and protected members of another class.
Constructors and Destructors in Inheritance
Constructors and Destructors are generally defined by the programmer and if not, the compiler automatically creates them, so they are present in every class in C++. Now, the question arises what happens to the constructor and destructor when a class is inherited by another class.
In C++ inheritance, the constructors and destructors are not inherited by the derived class, but we can call the constructor of the base class in derived class.
- The constructors will be called by the complier in the order in which they are inherited. It means that base class constructors will be called first, then derived class constructors will be called.
- The destructors will be called in reverse order in which the compiler is declared.
- We can also call the constructors and destructors manually in the derived class.
Example:
C++
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Parent {
public:
// base class constructor
Parent() { cout << "Inside base class" << endl; }
};
// sub class
class Child : public Parent {
public:
// sub class constructor
Child() { cout << "Inside sub class" << endl; }
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
// creating object of sub class
Child obj;
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
OutputInside base class
Inside sub class
Polymorphism in Inheritance
In Inheritance, we can redefine the base class member function in the derived class. This type of inheritance is called Function Overriding. Generally, in other programming languages, function overriding is runtime polymorphism but in C++, we can do it at both runtime and compile time. For runtime polymorphism, we have to use the virtual functions.
Example:
C++
//Driver Code Starts{
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
//Driver Code Ends }
class Parent {
public:
void GeeksforGeeks_Print() {
cout << "Base Function" << endl;
}
};
class Child : public Parent {
public:
void GeeksforGeeks_Print() {
cout << "Derived Function";
}
};
//Driver Code Starts{
int main() {
Child Child_Derived;
Child_Derived.GeeksforGeeks_Print();
return 0;
}
//Driver Code Ends }
Inheritance vs Polymorphism
Inheritance and Polymorphism both works differently. Inheritance allows a new class to inherit properties from an existing class, promoting code reuse, while polymorphism enables a class to perform tasks in different ways, depending on the method used. Inheritance focuses on class relationships, and polymorphism focuses on method behaviour.
Similar Reads
C++ Programming Language
C++ is a computer programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup as an extension of the C language. It is known for is fast speed, low level memory management and is often taught as first programming language. It provides: Hands-on application of different programming concepts.Similar syntax to
5 min read
C++ Overview
Introduction to C++ Programming Language
C++ is a general-purpose programming language that was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup as an enhancement of the C language to add object-oriented paradigm. It is a high-level programming language that was first released in 1985 and since then has become the foundation of many modern technologies like
4 min read
Features of C++
C++ is a general-purpose programming language that was developed as an enhancement of the C language to include an object-oriented paradigm. It is an imperative and compiled language. C++ has a number of features, including: Object-Oriented ProgrammingMachine IndependentSimpleHigh-Level LanguagePopu
6 min read
History of C++
The C++ language is an object-oriented programming language & is a combination of both low-level & high-level language - a Middle-Level Language. The programming language was created, designed & developed by a Danish Computer Scientist - Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Telephone Laboratories (
7 min read
Interesting Facts about C++
C++ is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language. It supports generic programming and low-level memory manipulation. Bjarne Stroustrup (Bell Labs) in 1979, introduced the C-With-Classes, and in 1983 with the C++. Here are some awesome facts about C++ that may interest you: The name of
2 min read
Setting up C++ Development Environment
C++ is a general-purpose programming language and is widely used nowadays for competitive programming. It has imperative, object-oriented, and generic programming features. C++ runs on lots of platforms like Windows, Linux, Unix, Mac, etc. Before we start programming with C++. We will need an enviro
8 min read
Difference between C and C++
C++ is often viewed as a superset of C. C++ is also known as a "C with class" This was very nearly true when C++ was originally created, but the two languages have evolved over time with C picking up a number of features that either weren't found in the contemporary version of C++ or still haven't m
3 min read
C++ Basics
Writing First C++ Program - Hello World Example
The "Hello World" program is the first step towards learning any programming language and is also one of the most straightforward programs you will learn. It is the basic program that demonstrates the working of the coding process. All you have to do is display the message "Hello World" on the outpu
4 min read
C++ Basic Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules and regulations for writing statements in a programming language. They can also be viewed as the grammatical rules defining the structure of a programming language. The C++ language also has its syntax for the functionalities it provides. Different statements have differen
4 min read
C++ Comments
Comments in C++ are meant to explain the code as well as to make it more readable. Their purpose is to provide information about code lines. When testing alternative code, they can also be used to prevent execution of some part of the code. Programmers commonly use comments to document their work. E
3 min read
Tokens in C
In C programming, tokens are the smallest units in a program that have meaningful representations. Tokens are the building blocks of a C program, and they are recognized by the C compiler to form valid expressions and statements. Tokens can be classified into various categories, each with specific r
4 min read
C++ Keywords
Keywords are the reserved words that have special meanings in the C++ language. They are the words that have special meaning in the language. C++ uses keywords for a specifying the components of the language, such as void, int, public, etc. They can't be used for a variable name, function name or an
2 min read
Difference between Keyword and Identifier in C
In C, keywords and identifiers are basically the fundamental parts of the language used. Identifiers are the names that can be given to a variable, function or other entity while keywords are the reserved words that have predefined meaning in the language. The below table illustrates the primary dif
3 min read
C++ Variables and Constants
C++ Variables
In C++, variable is a name given to a memory location. It is the basic unit of storage in a program. The value stored in a variable can be accessed or changed during program execution. Creating a VariableCreating a variable and giving it a name is called variable definition (sometimes called variabl
5 min read
Constants in C
In C programming, constants are read-only values that cannot be modified during the execution of a program. These constants can be of various types, such as integer, floating-point, string, or character constants. They are initialized with the declaration and remain same till the end of the program.
3 min read
Scope of Variables in C++
In C++, the scope of a variable is the extent in the code upto which the variable can be accessed or worked with. It is the region of the program where the variable is accessible using the name it was declared with. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using names
7 min read
Storage Classes in C++ with Examples
C++ Storage Classes are used to describe the characteristics of a variable/function. It determines the lifetime, visibility, default value, and storage location which helps us to trace the existence of a particular variable during the runtime of a program. Storage class specifiers are used to specif
7 min read
Static Keyword in C++
The static keyword in C++ has different meanings when used with different types. In this article, we will learn about the static keyword in C++ along with its various uses. In C++, a static keyword can be used in the following context: Table of Content Static Variables in a FunctionStatic Member Var
5 min read
C++ Data Types and Literals
C++ Data Types
Data types specify the type of data that a variable can store. Whenever a variable is defined in C++, the compiler allocates some memory for that variable based on the data type with which it is declared as every data type requires a different amount of memory. C++ supports a wide variety of data ty
8 min read
Literals in C
In C, Literals are the constant values that are assigned to the variables. Literals represent fixed values that cannot be modified. Literals contain memory but they do not have references as variables. Generally, both terms, constants, and literals are used interchangeably. For example, “const int =
4 min read
Derived Data Types in C++
The data types that are derived from the primitive or built-in datatypes are referred to as Derived Data Types. They are generally the data types that are created from the primitive data types and provide some additional functionality. In C++, there are four different derived data types: Table of Co
4 min read
User Defined Data Types in C++
User defined data types are those data types that are defined by the user himself. In C++, these data types allow programmers to extend the basic data types provided and create new types that are more suited to their specific needs. C++ supports 5 user-defined data types: Table of Content ClassStruc
4 min read
Data Type Ranges and Their Macros in C++
Most of the times, in competitive programming, there is a need to assign the variable, the maximum or minimum value that data type can hold but remembering such a large and precise number comes out to be a difficult job. Therefore, C++ has certain macros to represent these numbers, so that these can
4 min read
C++ Type Modifiers
In C++, type modifiers are the keywords used to change or give extra meaning to already existing data types. It is added to primitive data types as a prefix to modify their size or range of data they can store. C++ have 4 type modifiers which are as follows: Table of Content signed Modifierunsigned
4 min read
Type Conversion in C++
Type conversion means converting one type of data to another compatible type such that it doesn't lose its meaning. It is essential for managing different data types in C++. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { // Two variables of
4 min read
Casting Operators in C++
The casting operators is the modern C++ solution for converting one type of data safely to another type. This process is called typecasting where the type of the data is changed to another type either implicitly (by the compiler) or explicitly (by the programmer). Let's take a look at an example: [G
5 min read
C++ Operators
Operators in C++
In C++, an operator is a symbol that operates on a value to perform specific mathematical or logical computations on given values. They are the foundation of any programming language. Example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { int a = 10 + 20; cout << a;
9 min read
C++ Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic Operators in C++ are used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations on the operands (generally numeric values). An operand can be a variable or a value. For example, ‘+’ is used for addition, '-' is used for subtraction, '*' is used for multiplication, etc. Let's take a look at an
4 min read
Unary Operators in C
In C programming, unary operators are operators that operate on a single operand. These operators are used to perform operations such as negation, incrementing or decrementing a variable, or checking the size of a variable. They provide a way to modify or manipulate the value of a single variable in
6 min read
Bitwise Operators in C
In C, the following 6 operators are bitwise operators (also known as bit operators as they work at the bit-level). They are used to perform bitwise operations in C. The & (bitwise AND) in C takes two numbers as operands and does AND on every bit of two numbers. The result of AND is 1 only if bot
7 min read
Assignment Operators in C
In C, assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. The left operand is the variable and the right operand is the value being assigned. The value on the right must match the data type of the variable otherwise, the compiler will raise an error. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTAB
5 min read
C++ sizeof Operator
The sizeof operator is a unary compile-time operator used to determine the size of variables, data types, and constants in bytes at compile time. It can also determine the size of classes, structures, and unions. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namespac
3 min read
Scope Resolution Operator in C++
In C++, the scope resolution operator (::) is used to access the identifiers such as variable names and function names defined inside some other scope in the current scope. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> int main() { // Accessing cout from std namespace usin
3 min read
C++ Control Statements
Decision Making in C (if , if..else, Nested if, if-else-if )
In C, programs can choose which part of the code to execute based on some condition. This ability is called decision making and the statements used for it are called conditional statements. These statements evaluate one or more conditions and make the decision whether to execute a block of code or n
8 min read
C++ if Statement
The C++ if statement is the most simple decision-making statement. It is used to decide whether a certain statement or block of statements will be executed or not executed based on a certain condition. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int
3 min read
C++ if else Statement
The if statement alone tells us that if a condition is true it will execute a block of statements and if the condition is false, it won’t. But what if we want to do something else if the condition is false. Here comes the C++ if else statement. We can use the else statement with if statement to exec
4 min read
C++ if else if Ladder
In C++, the if-else-if ladder helps the user decide from among multiple options. The C++ if statements are executed from the top down. As soon as one of the conditions controlling the if is true, the statement associated with that if is executed, and the rest of the C++ else-if ladder is bypassed. I
3 min read
Switch Statement in C++
In C++, the switch statement is a flow control statement that is used to execute the different blocks of statements based on the value of the given expression. It is an alternative to the long if-else-if ladder which provides an easy way to execute different parts of code based on the value of the e
6 min read
Jump statements in C++
Jump statements are used to manipulate the flow of the program if some conditions are met. It is used to terminate or continue the loop inside a program or to stop the execution of a function. In C++, there is four jump statement: Table of Content continue Statementbreak Statementreturn Statementgot
4 min read
C++ Loops
In C++ programming, sometimes there is a need to perform some operation more than once or (say) n number of times. For example, suppose we want to print "Hello World" 5 times. Manually, we have to write cout for the C++ statement 5 times as shown. [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namesp
8 min read
for Loop in C++
In C++, for loop is an entry-controlled loop that is used to execute a block of code repeatedly for the given number of times. It is generally preferred over while and do-while loops in case the number of iterations is known beforehand. Let's take a look at an example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <bit
6 min read
Range-Based for Loop in C++
In C++, the range-based for loop introduced in C++ 11 is a version of for loop that is able to iterate over a range. This range can be anything that is iteratable, such as arrays, strings and STL containers. It provides a more readable and concise syntax compared to traditional for loops. Let's take
3 min read
C++ While Loop
In C++, the while loop is an entry-controlled loop that repeatedly executes a block of code as long as the given condition remains true. Unlike the for loop, while loop is used in situations where we do not know the exact number of iterations of the loop beforehand as the loop execution is terminate
3 min read
C++ do while Loop
In C++, the do-while loop is an exit-controlled loop that repeatedly executes a block of code at least once and continues executing as long as a given condition remains true. Unlike the while loop, the do-while loop guarantees that the loop body will execute at least once, regardless of whether the
4 min read
C++ Pointers and References
Pointers and References in C++
In C++ pointers and references both are mechanisms used to deal with memory, memory address, and data in a program. Pointers are used to store the memory address of another variable whereas references are used to create an alias for an already existing variable. Pointers in C++ Pointers in C++ are a
5 min read
C++ Pointers
A pointer is a variable that stores the address of another variable. Pointers can be used with any data type, including basic types (e.g., int, char), arrays, and even user-defined types like classes and structures. Create PointerA pointer can be declared in the same way as any other variable but wi
9 min read
Dangling, Void , Null and Wild Pointers in C
In C programming pointers are used to manipulate memory addresses, to store the address of some variable or memory location. But certain situations and characteristics related to pointers become challenging in terms of memory safety and program behavior these include Dangling (when pointing to deall
6 min read
Applications of Pointers in C
Pointers in C are variables that are used to store the memory address of another variable. Pointers allow us to efficiently manage the memory and hence optimize our program. In this article, we will discuss some of the major applications of pointers in C. Prerequisite: Pointers in C. C Pointers Appl
4 min read
Understanding nullptr in C++
Consider the following C++ program that shows problem with NULL (need of nullptr) [GFGTABS] CPP // C++ program to demonstrate problem with NULL #include <bits/stdc++.h> using namespace std; // function with integer argument void fun(int N) { cout << "fun(int)"; return;} // Over
3 min read
References in C++
In C++, a reference works as an alias for an existing variable, providing an alternative name for it and allowing you to work with the original data directly. Example: [GFGTABS] C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { int x = 10; // ref is a reference to x. int& ref = x;
6 min read
Can References Refer to Invalid Location in C++?
Reference Variables: You can create a second name for a variable in C++, which you can use to read or edit the original data contained in that variable. While this may not sound appealing at first, declaring a reference and assigning it a variable allows you to treat the reference as if it were the
2 min read
Pointers vs References in C++
Prerequisite: Pointers, References C and C++ support pointers, which is different from most other programming languages such as Java, Python, Ruby, Perl and PHP as they only support references. But interestingly, C++, along with pointers, also supports references. On the surface, both references and
5 min read
Passing By Pointer vs Passing By Reference in C++
In C++, we can pass parameters to a function either by pointers or by reference. In both cases, we get the same result. So, what is the difference between Passing by Pointer and Passing by Reference in C++? Let's first understand what Passing by Pointer and Passing by Reference in C++ mean: Passing
5 min read
When do we pass arguments by pointer?
In C, the pass-by pointer method allows users to pass the address of an argument to the function instead of the actual value. This allows programmers to change the actual data from the function and also improve the performance of the program. In C, variables are passed by pointer in the following ca
5 min read