The Basics of Wireless Communication

Octav Chipara

Agenda
Channel model: the protocol model High-level media access TDMA, CSMA hidden/exposed terminal problems WLAN Fundamentals of routing proactive on-demand

Channel models
Channel models - document assumptions of wireless properties the basis upon which we build and analyze network protocols A good model is one that is simple - reason effectively about the properties of protocols accurate - capture prevalent properties of wireless channels these requirements are often conicting Must provide insight into fundamental problems media access routing congestion Today, simple channel model..., next lecture more realistic models
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Protocol model
Network is modeled as a graph vertices - all nodes in a graph edges - connect nodes that may communicate Properties: captures connectivity information packet collisions (collisions happen only at the receiver) radios are half-duplex

Protocol model
Network is modeled as a graph vertices - all nodes in a graph edges - connect nodes that may communicate Properties: captures connectivity information packet collisions (collisions happen only at the receiver) radios are half-duplex

Protocol model
Network is modeled as a graph vertices - all nodes in a graph edges - connect nodes that may communicate Properties: captures connectivity information packet collisions (collisions happen only at the receiver) radios are half-duplex

Media Access and Control (MAC)

Problem: multiple nodes want to transmit concurrently nodes transmitting concurrently packet collisions Metrics for characterizing MAC performance throughput - number of packets delivered per second latency - time to deliver a packet energy efciency - energy consumed for tx and rx fairness - each node gets its fair share of the channel exibility - how does the MAC handle changes in workload Approaches CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

CSMA
CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Approach: 1: node will attempt to transmit after a random delay t CW
2: check if channel is available free perform packet transmission busy CW = CW * 2, go to step 1

Notes: nodes operate independently! the underlying performance is highly dependent on selecting CW CW - reects the expected number of contenders for the channel CW increases exponentially [the rate depends on protocol] assumption: the sender can accurately check if channel is free/busy usually holds because: receiver sensibility << channel quality required for communication
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CSMA
CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Approach: 1: node will attempt to transmit after a random delay t CW
2: check if channel is available free perform packet transmission busy CW = CW * 2, go to step 1

Notes: nodes operate independently! the underlying performance is highly dependent on selecting CW CW - reects the expected number of contenders for the channel CW increases exponentially [the rate depends on protocol] assumption: the sender can accurately check if channel is free/busy usually holds because: receiver sensibility << channel quality required for communication
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Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range communication possible low error rate Detection range detection of the signal possible no communication possible Interference range signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise

sender

transmission distance detection interference

TDMA
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access Approach: 1: construct a frame in which each node gets a slot to transmit F - frame size, fn - slot in which node n is assigned to transmit 2: a node n will transmit at time (t mod F) = fn Notes: time synchronization is required frame construction requires a global agreement among nodes underlying performance depends on matching a nodes workload demand with its slot allocations hard to do due to dynamic workloads and channel properties assumption: only one successful transmission per slot

TDMA
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access Approach: 1: construct a frame in which each node gets a slot to transmit F - frame size, fn - slot in which node n is assigned to transmit 2: a node n will transmit at time (t mod F) = fn Notes: time synchronization is required frame construction requires a global agreement among nodes underlying performance depends on matching a nodes workload demand with its slot allocations hard to do due to dynamic workloads and channel properties assumption: only one successful transmission per slot

Single-hop vs. multiple hops

Single-hop networks both CSMA and TDMA protocols are easy to implement Multi-hop networks important challenges arise due to asymmetrical views of the networks hidden-terminal problem exposed-terminal problem

Hidden terminal problem

Node A and C are hidden (edge (AC) is not in the graph) they cannot sense their packet transmissions Consequences for MAC protocols CSMA protocols will never increase CW TDMA protocols will have to agree on a frame over multiple hops

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Hidden terminal problem

Node A and C are hidden (edge (AC) is not in the graph) they cannot sense their packet transmissions Consequences for MAC protocols CSMA protocols will never increase CW TDMA protocols will have to agree on a frame over multiple hops

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Hidden terminal problem undetected collisions

A B C

Node A and C are hidden (edge (AC) is not in the graph) they cannot sense their packet transmissions Consequences for MAC protocols CSMA protocols will never increase CW TDMA protocols will have to agree on a frame over multiple hops

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Exposed terminal problem

Node B and C can communicate (BA) and (CD) can occur currently (collisions at receivers) Consequences for MAC protocols CSMA will increase CW unnecessarily

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Exposed terminal problem false positives

A B C D

Node B and C can communicate (BA) and (CD) can occur currently (collisions at receivers) Consequences for MAC protocols CSMA will increase CW unnecessarily

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RTS/CTS a solution for CSMA protocols

Add two additional messages to the TDMA protocol RTS - request to send CTS - clear to send Algorithm node n wants to send packet to m transmit RTS(n, m) node a1, a2, ..., an, m receive RTS(n, m) node m replies with CTS(n, m) if its channel is free node b1, b2, ..., bn, n receives CTS(n, m) node n transmits the data packet The algorithm signals access requests over 2-hops

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Hidden terminal problem

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Hidden terminal problem

send RTS(C,B)

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Hidden terminal problem

recv RTS(C,B) send RTS(C,B)

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Hidden terminal problem

recv RTS(C,B) send RTS(C,B)

send CTS(C,B)

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Hidden terminal problem

recv RTS(C,B) send RTS(C,B)

recv CTS(C,B)

send CTS(C,B)

recv CTS(C,B)

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

A A

B B

C C

D
send CTS

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

A A

B B

C
ready to tx

D
send CTS

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

A A A

B B B

C
ready to tx

D
send CTS

C C

D D

send RTS(B, A) ready to tx

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

A A A
send CTS

B B B B

C
ready to tx

D
send CTS

C C
ready to tx

D D D

send RTS(B, A) ready to tx

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Exposed terminal problem

send RTS(C,D)

A A A A

B B B B

C
ready to tx

D
send CTS

C C
ready to tx

D D D

send RTS(B, A) ready to tx

send CTS ready to tx

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WLAN technology
Protocol soup:
Local wireless networks WLAN 802.11

WiFi

802.11a

802.11b

802.11h 802.11i/e//w 802.11g

Goals: seamless operation leverage on existing wired infrastructure low-power operation on stations Two architectures: infrastructure + ad-hoc

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802.11: Architecture of an infrastructure network

802.11 LAN

Station (STA)
802.x LAN
terminal with wireless access

STA1

mechanisms to contact the access point

BSS1 Access Point Portal

Basic Service Set (BSS)

group of stations using the same radio

frequency
Access Point
station integrated into the wireless LAN

Distribution System
ESS BSS2 Access Point

and the distribution system

Portal
bridge to other (wired) networks

Distribution System
STA2 802.11 LAN STA3
interconnection network to/form one

logical network
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802.11: Architecture of an ad-hoc network

802.11 LAN

STA1

BSS1

STA3

Direct communication within a limited range Station (STA): terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS): group of stations using the same radio frequency When no direct link is feasible between two station, a third station may act as a relay (multihop communications)

STA2

802.11 LAN
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802.11b - Distributed Coordination Function

Exponential back-off Chosen for uniformly from (0, CW-1), CW increase exponentially with the number of failed attempts CWmin minimum contention window CWmax = 2mCWmin maximum contention window

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802.11b - Distributed Coordination Function

Message resent when the backoff counter reaches zero Backoff counter decremented only when the channel is idle Backoff counter is reset to zero after a successful transmission

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Routing
Routing consists of two fundamental steps Forwarding packets to the next hop (from an input interface to an output interface in a traditional wired network) Determining how to forward packets (building a routing table or specifying a route) Forwarding packets is easy, but knowing where to forward packets (especially efciently) is hard Reach the destination Minimize the number of hops (path length) Minimize delay Minimize packet loss Minimize cost

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Routing Decision Point

Source routing Sender determines a route and species it in the packet header Hop-by-hop (datagram) routing A routing decision is made at each forwarding point (at each router) Standard routing scheme for IP Virtual circuit routing Determine and congure a path prior to sending rst packet Used in ATM (and analogous to voice telephone system)

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Routing Table
A routing table contains information to determine how to forward packets Source routing: Routing table is used to determine route to the destination to be specied in the packet Hop-by-hop routing: Routing table is used to determine the next hop for a given destination Virtual circuit routing: Routing table used to determine path to congure through the network

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Routing Approaches
Reactive (On-demand) protocols discover routes when needed source-initiated route discovery Proactive protocols traditional distributed shortest-path protocols based on periodic updates. High routing overhead Tradeoff state maintenance trafc vs. route discovery trafc route via maintained route vs. delay for route discovery

Distance Vector Algorithms (1)

Distance of each link in the network is a metric that is to be minimized each link may have distance 1 to minimize hop count algorithm attempts to minimize distance The routing table at each node species the next hop for each destination species the distance to that destination Neighbors can exchange routing table information to nd a route (or a better route) to a destination

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Distance Vector Algorithms (2)

Dest Next Metric A B 2 B B 1 D D 1 A Dest Next Metric B B 1 C B 2 D B 3 C D Dest Next Metric A C 3 B C 2 C C 1

B Dest Next Metric A A 1 C C 1 D C 2

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Distance Vector Algorithms (3)

Node A will learn of Node Cs shorter path to Node D and update its routing table

Dest Next Metric A A 1 B B 1 D D 1 C D

A Dest Next Metric B B 1 C C 1 D C 2

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Reactive Routing Source initiated

Source oods the network with a route request packet when a route is required to a destination ood is propagated outwards from the source pure ooding = every node transmits the request only once Destination replies to request reply uses reversed path of route request sets up the forward path

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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B D A E C F

Initiator

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A

Initiator

G D

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A

E C F

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A A-B

Initiator

G D

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A

E C F

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A A-B

Initiator

G D

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A A-C

E C F

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A A-B

Initiator

G D
A-C-E

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A A-C

E C

A-C-E A-C-E

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A A-B

Initiator

G D
A-C-E A-B-D

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A A-C

E C

A-C-E A-C-E

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A A-B

Initiator

G D
A-C-E A-B-D A-C-E-H

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

A
A A-C

E C

A-C-E A-C-E

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery
RREQ FORMAT

B
A-B-D-G A

A-B-D-G A-B

Initiator

A-B-D-G A-B-D

G
A-C-E-H

Initiator seq # Destination ID Partial Route

D
A-C-E

A
A A-C

E C

A-C-E A-C-E

A-B-C
Route Request (RREQ)

A-B-C
Route Reply (RREP)
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Route Discovery: at source A

A need to send to G

Lookup Cache for route A to G

Start Route Discovery Protocol

Buffer packet Continue normal processing

no

Route found? yes

Route Discovery nished

wait

yes

Write route in packet header

Packet in buffer? no done

Send packet to next-hop

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Route Discovery: At an intermediate node

Accept route request packet <src,id> in recent requests list? no Host already in partial route Append myAddr to partial route Store <src,id> in list Broadcast packet no no myAddr =target Send route reply packet done
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yes

Discard route request

yes

Discard route request

Route Discovery
Route Reply message containing path information is sent back to the source either by the destination, or intermediate nodes that have a route to the destination reverse the order of the route record, and include it in Route Reply. unicast, source routing Each node maintains a Route Cache which records routes it has learned and overheard over time

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Route Maintenance
Route maintenance performed only while route is in use Error detection: monitors the validity of existing routes by passively listening to data packets transmitted at neighboring nodes When problem detected, send Route Error packet to original sender to perform new route discovery Host detects the error and the host it was attempting; Route Error is sent back to the sender the packet original src

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