Assemblers

System Software by Leland L. Beck

Chapter 2

Role of Assembler
Object Assembler Code Linker

Source Program

Executable Code

Loader

Chap 2

Chapter 2 -- Outline

Basic Assembler Functions Machine-dependent Assembler Features Machine-independent Assembler Features Assembler Design Options

Chap 2

Introduction to Assemblers

Fundamental functions
translating

mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels

Machine dependency
different

machine instruction formats and codes

Chap 2

Example Program (Fig. 2.1)

Purpose
reads

records from input device (code F1) copies them to output device (code 05) at the end of the file, writes EOF on the output device, then RSUB to the operating system program

Chap 2

Example Program (Fig. 2.1)

Data transfer (RD, WD)

a

buffer is used to store record buffering is necessary for different I/O rates the end of each record is marked with a null character (0016) the end of the file is indicated by a zero-length record

Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)

RDREC,

WRREC save link register first before nested jump

Chap 2

Assembler Directives

Pseudo-Instructions
Not translated into machine instructions Providing information to the assembler

Basic assembler directives

START END BYTE WORD RESB RESW
Chap 2

Object Program

Header
Col. 1 H Col. 2~7 Program name Col. 8~13 Starting address (hex) Col. 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (hex)

Text
Col.1 T Col.2~7 Starting address in this record (hex) Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex) Col. 10~69 Object code (69-10+1)/6=10 instructions

End
Col.1 Col.2~7 E Address of first executable instruction (hex) (END program_name)
Chap 2

Fig. 2.3
H COPY 001000 00107A T 001000 1E 141033 482039 001036 281030 301015 482061 ... T 00101E 15 0C1036 482061 081044 4C0000 454F46 000003 000000 T 002039 1E 041030 001030 E0205D 30203F D8205D 281030 T 002057 1C 101036 4C0000 F1 001000 041030 E02079 302064 T 002073 07 382064 4C0000 05 E 001000

Chap 2

Figure 2.1 (Pseudo code)

Program copy { save return address; cloop: call subroutine RDREC to read one record; if length(record)=0 { call subroutine WRREC to write EOF; } else { call subroutine WRREC to write one record; goto cloop; } load return address return to caller }

Chap 2

An Example (Figure 2.1, Cont.)

Subroutine RDREC {
clear A, X register to 0; rloop: read character from input device to A register if not EOR { store character into buffer[X]; X++; if X < maximum length goto rloop; } store X to length(record); return } EOR: character x00

Chap 2

An Example (Figure 2.1, Cont.)

Subroutine WDREC {
clear X register to 0; wloop: get character from buffer[X] write character from X to output device X++; if X < length(record) goto wloop; return }

Chap 2

Assemblers functions

Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses Build the machine instructions in the proper format Convert the data constants to internal machine representations Write the object program and the assembly listing
Chap 2

Example of Instruction Assemble

STCH
8 opcode

BUFFER,X
1 x 15 address m

549039

(54)16

1 (001)2

(039)16

Forward reference

Chap 2

Difficulties: Forward Reference

Forward reference: reference to a label that is defined later in the program.

Loc
1000
1003 1012 1033

Label
FIRST
CLOOP RETADR

Operator
STL
JSUB J RESW

Operand
RETADR
RDREC CLOOP 1

Chap 2

Two Pass Assembler

Pass 1
Assign addresses to all statements in the program Save the values assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2 Perform some processing of assembler directives

Pass 2
Assemble instructions Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD Perform processing of assembler directives not done in Pass 1 Write the object program and the assembly listing

Chap 2

Two Pass Assembler

Read from input line

LABEL,

OPCODE, OPERAND

Source program

Pass 1
OPTAB SYMTAB

Intermediate file

Pass 2
SYMTAB

Object codes

Chap 2

Data Structures

Operation Code Table (OPTAB) Symbol Table (SYMTAB) Location Counter(LOCCTR)

Chap 2

OPTAB (operation code table)

Content
menmonic,

machine code (instruction format,

length) etc.

Characteristic
static

table
or hash table, easy for search

Implementation
array

Chap 2

SYMTAB (symbol table)

Content

COPY 1000 FIRST label name, value, flag, (type, length) etc.1000 CLOOP 1003 ENDFIL 1015 Characteristic EOF 1024 dynamic table (insert, delete,THREE search) 102D ZERO 1030 Implementation RETADR 1033 hash table, non-random keys, hashing function LENGTH 1036 BUFFER 1039 RDREC 2039

Chap 2

Homework #3
SUM FIRST LOOP START LDX LDA ADD TIX JLT STA RSUB RESW RESW WORD RESW END 4000 ZERO ZERO TABLE,X COUNT LOOP TOTAL 2000 1 0 1 FIRST
Chap 2

TABLE COUNT ZERO TOTAL

Assembler Design

Machine Dependent Assembler Features

instruction formats and addressing modes program relocation

Machine Independent Assembler Features

literals symbol-defining statements expressions program blocks control sections and program linking

Chap 2

Machine-dependent Assembler Features

Sec. 2-2

Instruction formats and addressing modes Program relocation

Instruction Format and Addressing Mode

SIC/XE
PC-relative or Base-relative addressing: op m Indirect addressing: op @m Immediate addressing: op #c Extended format: +op m Index addressing: op m,x register-to-register instructions larger memory -> multi-programming (program allocation)

Example program

Chap 2

Translation

Register translation
register name (A, X, L, B, S, T, F, PC, SW) and their values (0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9) preloaded in SYMTAB

Address translation
Most register-memory instructions use program counter relative or base relative addressing Format 3: 12-bit address field

base-relative: 0~4095 pc-relative: -2048~2047

Format 4: 20-bit address field

Chap 2

PC-Relative Addressing Modes

PC-relative

10

0000
op(6)

FIRST STL
n I xbp e

RETADR
disp(12)

17202D

(14)16

110010
J
n I xbp e

(02D) 16
CLOOP 3F2FEC

displacement=

RETADR - PC = 30-3 = 2D

40

0017
op(6)

disp(12)

(3C)16 1 1 0 0 1 0 (FEC) 16 displacement= CLOOP-PC= 6 - 1A= -14= FEC

Chap 2

Base-Relative Addressing Modes

Base-relative
base register is under the control of the programmer 12 LDB #LENGTH 13 BASE LENGTH 160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003

op(6) ( 54 )16

n I xbp e 111100

disp(12)

( 003 ) 16

(54)

111010

0036-1051= -101B16

displacement=

BUFFER - B = 0036 - 0033 = 3

NOBASE is used to inform the assembler that the contents of the base register no longer be relied upon for addressing
Chap 2

Immediate Address Translation

Immediate addressing

55

0020 op(6) ( 00 )16 103C op(6) ( 74 )16

LDA n I xbp e 010000

#3

010003 disp(12)

( 003 ) 16

133

+LDT #4096 75101000 n I xbp e disp(20) 0 1 0 0 0 1 ( 01000 ) 16

Chap 2

Immediate Address Translation (Cont.)

Immediate addressing

12

0003 LDB #LENGTH op(6) n I xbp e disp(12) ( 68)16 0 1 0 0 1 0 ( 02D ) 16 ( 68)16 010000 ( 033)16

69202D

690033

the

immediate operand is the symbol LENGTH the address of this symbol LENGTH is loaded into register B LENGTH=0033=PC+displacement=0006+02D if immediate mode is specified, the target address becomes the operand
Chap 2

Indirect Address Translation

Indirect addressing
target only

addressing is computed as usual (PC-

relative or BASE-relative)

the n bit is set to 1

002A
op(6)

70

J
n I xbp e

@RETADR
disp(12)

3E2003

( 3C )16

100010

( 003 ) 16

TA=RETADR=0030
TA=(PC)+disp=002D+0003

Chap 2

Program Relocation

Example Fig. 2.1

Absolute Relocate

program, starting address 1000

LDA THREE 00102D

e.g. 55 101B e.g. 55 101B

Each

the program to 2000

LDA THREE 00202D

Absolute address should be modified

Example Fig. 2.5:

Except for absolute address, the rest of the instructions need not be modified
not a memory address (immediate addressing) PC-relative, Base-relative

The only parts of the program that require modification at load time are those that specify direct addresses Chap 2

Example

Chap 2

Relocatable Program

Modification record
Col

1 M Col 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be

modified, relative to the beginning of the program
Col

8-9 length of the address field to be modified, in halfbytes

Chap 2

Object Code

Chap 2

Machine-Independent Assembler Features

Literals Symbol Defining Statement Expressions Program Blocks Control Sections and Program Linking

Literals

Design idea
Let

programmers to be able to write the value of a constant operand as a part of the instruction that uses it. This avoids having to define the constant elsewhere in the program and make up a label for it.

Example

e.g. 45

001A

ENDFIL

LDA

=CEOF

032010

93 002D
e.g. 215 1062

*
WLOOP

LTORG =CEOF
TD =X05

454F46
E32011
Chap 2

Literals vs. Immediate Operands

Immediate Operands
The

operand value is assembled as part of the machine instruction

e.g. 55 0020 LDA #3 010003

Literals
The

assembler generates the specified value as a constant at some other memory location
e.g. 45 001A ENDFIL LDA =CEOF 032010

Compare (Fig. 2.6)

e.g. 45 001A ENDFIL 80 002D EOF

LDA EOF 032010 BYTE CEOF 454F46

Chap 2

Literal - Implementation (1/3)

Literal pools
Normally
see

literals are placed into a pool at the end of the program

Fig. 2.10 (END statement)

In

some cases, it is desirable to place literals into a pool at some other location in the object program
assembler

directive LTORG reason: keep the literal operand close to the instruction

Chap 2

Literal - Implementation (2/3)

Duplicate literals
215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05 e.g. 230 106B WD =X05 The assemblers should recognize duplicate literals and store only one copy of the specified data value
e.g.
Comparison

of the defining expression

Same literal name with different value, e.g. LOCCTR=*

Comparison

of the generated data value

The benefits of using generate data value are usually not great enough to justify the additional complexity in the assembler

Chap 2

Literal - Implementation (3/3)

LITTAB

literal name, the operand value and length, the address assigned to the operand

Pass 1
build LITTAB with literal name, operand value and length, leaving the address unassigned when LTORG statement is encountered, assign an address to each literal not yet assigned an address

Pass 2
search LITTAB for each literal operand encountered generate data values using BYTE or WORD statements generate modification record for literals that represent an address in the program

Chap 2

Symbol-Defining Statements

Labels on instructions or data areas

the

value of such a label is the address assigned to the statement

Defining symbols
symbol EQU

value value can be: constant, other symbol, expression making the source program easier to understand no forward reference
Chap 2

Symbol-Defining Statements

Example 1

MAXLEN

EQU 4096 +LDT #MAXLEN

R1 R2 R3

+LDT

#4096

Example 2 (Many general purpose registers)

BASE EQU COUNT EQU INDEX EQU

Example 3

MAXLEN

EQU

BUFEND-BUFFER

Chap 2

ORG (origin)

Indirectly assign values to symbols Reset the location counter to the specified value

ORG value

Value can be: constant, other symbol, expression No forward reference Example
SYMBOL:

6bytes VALUE: 1word STAB FLAGS: 2bytes (100 entries)

SYMBOL

VALUE FLAGS

LDA

VALUE, X
. . . . . . . . .
Chap 2

ORG Example

Using EQU statements

STAB SYMBOL VALUE FLAG

RESB EQU EQU EQU

1100 STAB STAB+6 STAB+9

Using ORG statements

STAB

SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS

RESB 1100 ORG STAB RESB 6 RESW 1 RESB 2 ORG STAB+1100

Chap 2

Expressions

Expressions can be classified as absolute expressions or relative expressions

MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER BUFEND and BUFFER both are relative terms, representing addresses within the program However the expression BUFEND-BUFFER represents an absolute value

When relative terms are paired with opposite signs, the dependency on the program starting address is canceled out; the result is an absolute value

Chap 2

SYMTAB

None of the relative terms may enter into a multiplication or division operation Errors:
BUFEND+BUFFER 100-BUFFER 3*BUFFER

The type of an expression

keep

track of the types of all symbols defined in the program Symbol Type Value
RETADR BUFFER BUFEND MAXLEN R R R A 30 36 1036 1000
Chap 2

Example 2.9
SYMTAB
Name COPY FIRST CLOOP ENDFIL RETADR LENGTH BUFFER BUFEND MAXLEN RDREC RLOOP EXIT INPUT WREC WLOOP Value 0 0 6 1A 30 33 36 1036 1000 1036 1040 1056 105C 105D 1062

LITTAB
C'EOF' X'05' 454F46 05 3 1 002D 1076

Chap 2

Program Blocks

Program blocks
refer

to segments of code that are rearranged within a single object program unit USE [blockname] Default block Example: Figure 2.11 Each program block may actually contain several separate segments of the source program

Chap 2

Program Blocks - Implementation

Pass 1
each program block has a separate location counter each label is assigned an address that is relative to the start of the block that contains it at the end of Pass 1, the latest value of the location counter for each block indicates the length of that block the assembler can then assign to each block a starting address in the object program

Pass 2

The address of each symbol can be computed by adding the assigned block starting address and the relative address of the symbol to that block
Chap 2

Figure 2.12

Each source line is given a relative address assigned and a block number
Block name Block number (default) 0 CDATA 1 CBLKS 2 Address 0000 0066 0071 Length 0066 000B 1000

For absolute symbol, there is no block number

line

107

Example
20 0006 0 LDA LENGTH 032060 LENGTH=(Block 1)+0003= 0066+0003= 0069 LOCCTR=(Block 0)+0009= 0009

Chap 2

Program Readability

Program readability
No extended format instructions on lines 15, 35, 65 No needs for base relative addressing (line 13, 14) LTORG is used to make sure the literals are placed ahead of any large data areas (line 253)

Object code
It

is not necessary to physically rearrange the generated code in the object program see Fig. 2.13, Fig. 2.14

Chap 2

Chap 2

Control Sections and Program Linking

Control Sections
are

most often used for subroutines or other logical subdivisions of a program the programmer can assemble, load, and manipulate each of these control sections separately instruction in one control section may need to refer to instructions or data located in another section because of this, there should be some means for linking control sections together Fig. 2.15, 2.16

Chap 2

External Definition and References

External definition
EXTDEF

name [, name] EXTDEF names symbols that are defined in this control section and may be used by other sections

External reference
EXTREF

name [,name] EXTREF names symbols that are used in this control section and are defined elsewhere

Example
15 0003 CLOOP 160 0017 190 0028 MAXLEN

+JSUB RDREC 4B100000 +STCH BUFFER,X 57900000 WORD BUFEND-BUFFER 000000

Chap 2

Implementation

The assembler must include information in the object program that will cause the loader to insert proper values where they are required Define record
Col. 1 D Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control section (hexadeccimal) Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols

Refer record
Col. 1 D Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section Col. 8-73 Name of other external reference symbols

Chap 2

Modification Record

Modification record
Col. 1 M Col. 2-7 Starting address of the field to be modified (hexiadecimal) Col. 8-9 Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes (hexadeccimal) Col.11-16 External symbol whose value is to be added to or subtracted from the indicated field Note: control section name is automatically an external symbol, i.e. it is available for use in Modification records.

Example
Figure 2.17 M00000405+RDREC M00000705+COPY

Chap 2

External References in Expression

Earlier definitions
required

all of the relative terms be paired in an expression (an absolute expression), or that all except one be paired (a relative expression)
terms in each pair must be relative within the same control section

New restriction
Both

Ex: BUFEND-BUFFER Ex: RDREC-COPY

In general, the assembler cannot determine whether or not the expression is legal at assembly time. This work will be handled by a linking loader.

Chap 2

Assembler Design Options

One-pass assemblers Multi-pass assemblers Two-pass assembler with overlay structure

Two-Pass Assembler with Overlay Structure

For small memory

pass

1 and pass 2 are never required at the same time three segments
root:

driver program and shared tables and subroutines pass 1 pass 2

tree

structure overlay program

Chap 2

One-Pass Assemblers

Main problem
forward
data

references

items labels on instructions

Solution
data

items: require all such areas be defined before they are referenced labels on instructions: no good solution

Chap 2

One-Pass Assemblers

Main Problem
forward
data

reference

items labels on instructions

Two types of one-pass assembler

load-and-go
produces

object code directly in memory for immediate execution

the

other
usual kind of object code for later
Chap 2

produces

execution

Load-and-go Assembler

Characteristics
Useful

for program development and testing Avoids the overhead of writing the object program out and reading it back Both one-pass and two-pass assemblers can be designed as load-and-go. However one-pass also avoids the over head of an additional pass over the source program For a load-and-go assembler, the actual address must be known at assembly time, we can use an absolute program
Chap 2

Forward Reference in One-pass Assembler

For any symbol that has not yet been defined

1. omit the address translation 2. insert the symbol into SYMTAB, and mark this symbol undefined 3. the address that refers to the undefined symbol is added to a list of forward references associated with the symbol table entry 4. when the definition for a symbol is encountered, the proper address for the symbol is then inserted into any instructions previous generated according to the forward reference list
Chap 2

Load-and-go Assembler (Cont.)

At the end of the program

any

SYMTAB entries that are still marked with * indicate undefined symbols search SYMTAB for the symbol named in the END statement and jump to this location to begin execution

The actual starting address must be specified at assembly time

Example

Figure 2.18, 2.19

Chap 2

Producing Object Code

When external working-storage devices are not available or too slow (for the intermediate file between the two passes Solution:
When definition of a symbol is encountered, the assembler must generate another Tex record with the correct operand address The loader is used to complete forward references that could not be handled by the assembler The object program records must be kept in their original order when they are presented to the loader

Example: Figure 2.20

Chap 2

Multi-Pass Assemblers

Restriction on EQU and ORG

no

forward reference, since symbols value cant be defined during the first pass
link list to keep track of whose value depend on an undefined symbol

Example
Use

Figure 2.21

Chap 2