Introduction to Computer Engineering

CS/ECE 252, Fall 2012 Prof. Guri Sohi Computer Sciences Department University of Wisconsin Madison

Chapter 3 Digital Logic Structures

Slides based on set prepared by Gregory T. Byrd, North Carolina State University

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Transistor: Building Block of Computers

Microprocessors contain millions of transistors
Intel Pentium II: 7 million Compaq Alpha 21264: 15 million Intel Pentium III: 28 million

Logically, each transistor acts as a switch Combined to implement logic functions

AND, OR, NOT

Combined to build higher-level structures

Adder, multiplexer, decoder, register,

Combined to build processor

LC-3 3-3

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Simple Switch Circuit

Switch open:
No current through circuit Light is off Vout is +2.9V

Switch closed:
Short circuit across switch Current flows Light is on Vout is 0V

Switch-based circuits can easily represent two states: on/off, open/closed, voltage/no voltage.

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N-type MOS Transistor

MOS = Metal Oxide Semiconductor
two types: N-type and P-type

N-type
when Gate has positive voltage, short circuit between #1 and #2 (switch closed) when Gate has zero voltage, open circuit between #1 and #2 (switch open)

Gate = 1

Gate = 0
Terminal #2 must be connected to GND (0V).

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P-type MOS Transistor

P-type is complementary to N-type
when Gate has positive voltage, open circuit between #1 and #2 (switch open) when Gate has zero voltage, short circuit between #1 and #2 (switch closed)

Gate = 1

Gate = 0
Terminal #1 must be connected to +2.9V.

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Logic Gates
Use switch behavior of MOS transistors to implement logical functions: AND, OR, NOT. Digital symbols:
recall that we assign a range of analog voltages to each digital (logic) symbol

assignment of voltage ranges depends on electrical properties of transistors being used typical values for "1": +5V, +3.3V, +2.9V, +1.1V for purposes of illustration, we'll use +2.9V 3-7

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CMOS Circuit
Complementary MOS Uses both N-type and P-type MOS transistors
P-type Attached to + voltage Pulls output voltage UP when input is zero N-type Attached to GND Pulls output voltage DOWN when input is one For all inputs, make sure that output is either connected to GND or to +, but not both!

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Inverter (NOT Gate)

Truth table
In 2.9 V Out 0V In 0 1 Out 1 0 3-9

0 V 2.9 V

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NOR Gate

A 0
0

B 0
1

C 1
0

1
1
Note: Serial structure on top, parallel on bottom.

0
1

0
0 3-10

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OR Gate
A 0 0 1 B 0 1 0 C 0 1 1

Add inverter to NOR.

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NAND Gate (AND-NOT)

A 0
0

B 0
1

C 1
1

1
1
Note: Parallel structure on top, serial on bottom.

0
1

1
0 3-12

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AND Gate
A 0 0 1 B 0 1 0 C 0 0 0

Add inverter to NAND.

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Basic Logic Gates

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More than 2 Inputs?

AND/OR can take any number of inputs.
AND = 1 if all inputs are 1. OR = 1 if any input is 1. Similar for NAND/NOR.

Can implement with multiple two-input gates, or with single CMOS circuit.

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Practice
Implement a 3-input NOR gate with CMOS.

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Logical Completeness
Can implement ANY truth table with AND, OR, NOT.
A 0
0

B 0
0

C 0
1

D 0
0 1. AND combinations that yield a "1" in the truth table.

0
0 1 1 1 1

1
1 0 0 1 1

0
1 0 1 0 1

1
0 0 1 0 0

2. OR the results of the AND gates.

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Practice
Implement the following truth table.
A 0
0

B 0
1

C 0
1

1
1

0
1

1
0

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DeMorgan's Law
Converting AND to OR (with some help from NOT) Consider the following gate:

A B 0 0

A B

A B

To convert AND to OR (or vice versa), invert inputs and output.

0 1
1 0 1 1

1
0 0

0
1 0

0
0 0

1
1 1

Same as A+B!
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Summary
MOS transistors are used as switches to implement logic functions.
N-type: connect to GND, turn on (with 1) to pull down to 0 P-type: connect to +2.9V, turn on (with 0) to pull up to 1

Basic gates: NOT, NOR, NAND

Logic functions are usually expressed with AND, OR, and NOT

Properties of logic gates

Completeness can implement any truth table with AND, OR, NOT DeMorgan's Law convert AND to OR by inverting inputs and output 3-20

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Building Functions from Logic Gates

We've already seen how to implement truth tables using AND, OR, and NOT -- an example of combinational logic. Combinational Logic Circuit
output depends only on the current inputs stateless

Sequential Logic Circuit

output depends on the sequence of inputs (past and present) stores information (state) from past inputs

We'll first look at some useful combinational circuits, then show how to use sequential circuits to store information.
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Decoder
n inputs, 2n outputs
exactly one output is 1 for each possible input pattern

2-bit decoder

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Multiplexer (MUX)
n-bit selector and 2n inputs, one output
output equals one of the inputs, depending on selector

4-to-1 MUX
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Full Adder
Add two bits and carry-in, produce one-bit sum and carry-out.
A B Cin S Cout 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 0
1 1 1 1

1
0 1

0
0 1

1
1 1

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Four-bit Adder

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Combinational vs. Sequential

Combinational Circuit
always gives the same output for a given set of inputs ex: adder always generates sum and carry, regardless of previous inputs

Sequential Circuit
stores information output depends on stored information (state) plus input so a given input might produce different outputs, depending on the stored information example: ticket counter advances when you push the button output depends on previous state useful for building memory elements and state machines
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R-S Latch: Simple Storage Element

R is used to reset or clear the element set it to zero. S is used to set the element set it to one.
1 0 1 1 1 1 0

1 1

0 1

If both R and S are one, out could be either zero or one.

quiescent state -- holds its previous value note: if a is 1, b is 0, and vice versa
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Clearing the R-S latch

Suppose we start with output = 1, then change R to zero.
1
0 1 1

1 1

Output changes to zero.

1

0 0

Then set R=1 to store value in quiescent state.

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Setting the R-S Latch

Suppose we start with output = 0, then change S to zero.
1
1 0

0 1

Output changes to one.

0

1 1

Then set S=1 to store value in quiescent state.

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R-S Latch Summary

R=S=1
hold current value in latch

S = 0, R=1
set value to 1

R = 0, S = 1
set value to 0

R=S=0
both outputs equal one final state determined by electrical properties of gates Dont do it!

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Gated D-Latch
Two inputs: D (data) and WE (write enable)
when WE = 1, latch is set to value of D S = NOT(D), R = D when WE = 0, latch holds previous value S = R = 1

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Register
A register stores a multi-bit value.
We use a collection of D-latches, all controlled by a common WE. When WE=1, n-bit value D is written to register.

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Representing Multi-bit Values

Number bits from right (0) to left (n-1)
just a convention -- could be left to right, but must be consistent

Use brackets to denote range: D[l:r] denotes bit l to bit r, from left to right
15

A = 0101001101010101
A[14:9] = 101001
A[2:0] = 101

May also see A<14:9>, especially in hardware block diagrams.

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Memory
Now that we know how to store bits, we can build a memory a logical k m array of stored bits.

Address Space: number of locations

(usually a power of 2)

k = 2n locations

Addressability: number of bits per location

(e.g., byte-addressable)

m bits 3-34

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22 x 3 Memory
address write enable word select word WE input bits

address decoder output bits

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More Memory Details

This is a not the way actual memory is implemented.
fewer transistors, much more dense, relies on electrical properties

But the logical structure is very similar.

address decoder word select line word write enable

Two basic kinds of RAM (Random Access Memory) Static RAM (SRAM)
fast, maintains data without power

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

slower but denser, bit storage must be periodically refreshed
Also, non-volatile memories: ROM, PROM, flash,

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State Machine
Another type of sequential circuit
Combines combinational logic with storage Remembers state, and changes output (and state) based on inputs and current state

State Machine

Inputs

Combinational Logic Circuit

Outputs

Storage Elements

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Combinational vs. Sequential

Two types of combination locks

30 25 5

4 1 8 4

20
15

10

Combinational Success depends only on the values, not the order in which they are set.

Sequential Success depends on the sequence of values (e.g, R-13, L-22, R-3).

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State
The state of a system is a snapshot of all the relevant elements of the system at the moment the snapshot is taken. Examples:
The state of a basketball game can be represented by the scoreboard. Number of points, time remaining, possession, etc.

The state of a tic-tac-toe game can be represented by the placement of Xs and Os on the board.

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State of Sequential Lock

Our lock example has four different states, labelled A-D: A: The lock is not open, and no relevant operations have been performed. B: The lock is not open, and the user has completed the R-13 operation. C: The lock is not open, and the user has completed R-13, followed by L-22. D: The lock is open.

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State Diagram
Shows states and actions that cause a transition between states.

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Finite State Machine

A description of a system with the following components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A finite number of states A finite number of external inputs A finite number of external outputs An explicit specification of all state transitions An explicit specification of what causes each external output value.

Often described by a state diagram.

Inputs may cause state transitions. Outputs are associated with each state (or with each transition).
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The Clock
Frequently, a clock circuit triggers transition from one state to the next.
1 0

One Cycle

time

At the beginning of each clock cycle, state machine makes a transition, based on the current state and the external inputs.
Not always required. In lock example, the input itself triggers a transition.

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Implementing a Finite State Machine

Combinational logic
Determine outputs and next state.

Storage elements
Maintain state representation.

State Machine

Inputs

Combinational Logic Circuit

Outputs

Clock

Storage Elements

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Storage: Master-Slave Flipflop

A pair of gated D-latches, to isolate next state from current state.

During 1st phase (clock=1), previously-computed state becomes current state and is sent to the logic circuit.

During 2nd phase (clock=0), next state, computed by logic circuit, is stored in Latch A.
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Storage
Each master-slave flipflop stores one state bit. The number of storage elements (flipflops) needed is determined by the number of states (and the representation of each state). Examples:
Sequential lock Four states two bits Basketball scoreboard 7 bits for each score, 5 bits for minutes, 6 bits for seconds, 1 bit for possession arrow, 1 bit for half, 3-46

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Complete Example
A blinking traffic sign
No lights on 1 & 2 on 1, 2, 3, & 4 on 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5 on (repeat as long as switch is turned on)
3 4 1 2 5

DANGER
MOVE RIGHT

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Traffic Sign State Diagram

Switch on Switch off

State bit S1

State bit S0 Outputs

Transition on each clock cycle.

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Traffic Sign Truth Tables

Outputs (depend only on state: S1S0)
Lights 1 and 2 Lights 3 and 4

Next State: S1S0 (depend on state and input)

Switch

In 0 1

S1 X 0

S0 S1 S0 X 0 0 0 0 1

Light 5

S1
0 0 1 1

S0
0 1 0 1

Z
0 1 1 1

Y
0 0 1 1

X
0 0 0 1

1
1

0
1

1
0

1
1

0
1

Whenever In=0, next state is 00.

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Traffic Sign Logic

Master-slave flipflop

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From Logic to Data Path

The data path of a computer is all the logic used to process information.
See the data path of the LC-2 on next slide.

Combinational Logic
Decoders -- convert instructions into control signals Multiplexers -- select inputs and outputs ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) -- operations on data

Sequential Logic
State machine -- coordinate control signals and data movement Registers and latches -- storage elements

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LC-2/LC-3 Data Path

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