The Physics GRE Solution Guide

GR8677 Test

FT
RA
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/physicsgre_v2

November 3, 2009
D

Author:
David S. Latchman
2

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Preface

This solution guide initially started out on the Yahoo Groups web site and was pretty

FT
successful at the time. Unfortunately, the group was lost and with it, much of the the
hard work that was put into it. This is my attempt to recreate the solution guide and
make it more widely avaialble to everyone. If you see any errors, think certain things
could be expressed more clearly, or would like to make suggestions, please feel free to
do so.
David Latchman
RA
Document Changes
05-11-2009 1. Added diagrams to GR0177 test questions 1-25
2. Revised solutions to GR0177 questions 1-25

04-15-2009 First Version

D
ii

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents

FT
Preface i

Classical Mechanics xv
0.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
0.2 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
0.3 Work & Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
RA
0.4 Oscillatory Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
0.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
0.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
0.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
0.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
0.9 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
0.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
D

0.11 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

Electromagnetism xxix
0.12 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
0.13 Currents and DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.14 Magnetic Fields in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.15 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.16 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.17 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.18 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
iv Contents
0.19 AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.20 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiv
0.21 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.22 Energy in a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.23 Energy in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.24 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.25 Current Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.26 Current Density of Moving Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.27 Resistance and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
0.28 Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi

FT
0.29 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi
0.30 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi
0.31 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi
0.32 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi
0.33 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvi
RA
0.34 Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii
0.35 Relationship between E and B Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii
0.36 Energy Density of an EM wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxviii
0.37 Poynting’s Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxviii

Optics & Wave Phonomena xxxix

0.38 Wave Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix
0.39 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix
D

0.40 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix

0.41 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix
0.42 Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix
0.43 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxix
0.44 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xl
0.45 Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xl

Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics xli

0.46 Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli
0.47 Thermodynamic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli

David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents v
0.48 Equations of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli
0.49 Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli
0.50 Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli
0.51 Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xli
0.52 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermodynamic Properties . . . xlii
0.53 Thermal Expansion & Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlii
0.54 Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlii
0.55 Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlii
0.56 Heat and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlii
0.57 First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlii

FT
0.58 Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliii
0.59 Heat Conduction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliii
0.60 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliv
0.61 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equation . . . . . . . . xliv
0.62 RMS Speed of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliv
RA
0.63 Translational Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliv
0.64 Internal Energy of a Monatomic gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xliv
0.65 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlv
0.66 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlv
0.67 Equipartition of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlv
0.68 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlvii
0.69 Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlvii
D

Quantum Mechanics xlix

0.70 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlix
0.71 Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlix
0.72 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liv
0.73 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liv
0.74 Wave Funtion Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liv
0.75 Elementary Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liv

Atomic Physics lv
0.76 Properties of Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lv

©2009 David S. Latchman

vi Contents
0.77 Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lv
0.78 Energy Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvi
0.79 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvi
0.80 Atomic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvi
0.81 Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvii
0.82 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lvii
0.83 X-Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lviii
0.84 Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lix

Special Relativity lxiii

FT
0.85 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxiii
0.86 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxiii
0.87 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxiii
0.88 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxiii
0.89 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxiv
0.90 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxv
RA
0.91 Velocity Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxvi
0.92 Relativistic Doppler Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxvi
0.93 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxvi
0.94 Space-Time Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxvii

Laboratory Methods lxix

0.95 Data and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxix
D

0.96 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxi

0.97 Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxi
0.98 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxi
0.99 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxii
0.100Lasers and Optical Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxii
0.101Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxii
0.102Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . lxxii

GR8677 Exam Solutions lxxiii

0.103Motion of Rock under Drag Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxiii

David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents vii
0.104Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxiv
0.105Speed of Light in a Dielectric Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxiv
0.106Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxiv
0.107Inelastic Collision and Putty Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxv
0.108Motion of a Particle along a Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxvi
0.109Resolving Force Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxvi
0.110Nail being driven into a block of wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxvii
0.111Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxvii
0.112Charge inside an Isolated Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxviii
0.113Vector Identities and Maxwell’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxix

FT
0.114Doppler Equation (Non-Relativistic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxix
0.115Vibrating Interference Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxix
0.116Specific Heat at Constant Pressure and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxix
0.117Helium atoms in a box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxx
0.118The Muon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxi
RA
0.119Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxi
0.120Schrödinger’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxii
0.121Energy Levels of Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxii
0.122Relativistic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxiii
0.123Space-Time Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxiii
0.124Lorentz Transformation of the EM field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxiv
0.125Conductivity of a Metal and Semi-Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxiv
D

0.126Charging a Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxv

0.127Lorentz Force on a Charged Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxv
0.128K-Series X-Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxv
0.129Electrons and Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxvi
0.130Normalizing a wavefunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxvii
0.131Right Hand Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxviii
0.132Electron Configuration of a Potassium atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxviii
0.133Photoelectric Effect I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxix
0.134Photoelectric Effect II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxix
0.135Photoelectric Effect III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxix

©2009 David S. Latchman

viii Contents
0.136Potential Energy of a Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxix
0.137Hamiltonian of a Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xc
0.138Principle of Least Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xc
0.139Tension in a Conical Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xc
0.140Diode OR-gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xci
0.141Gain of an Amplifier vs. Angular Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xci
0.142Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xci
0.143Binding Energy per Nucleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcii
0.144Scattering Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcii
0.145Coupled Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcii

FT
0.146Collision with a Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xciv
0.147Compton Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xciv
0.148Stefan-Boltzmann’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xciv
0.149Franck-Hertz Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcv
0.150Selection Rules for Electronic Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcv
RA
0.151The Hamilton Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcv
0.152Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcvi
0.153Debye and Einstein Theories to Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcvii
0.154Potential inside a Hollow Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcvii
0.155EM Radiation from Oscillating Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcviii
0.156Polarization Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcviii
0.157Kinetic Energy of Electrons in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcviii
D

0.158Expectation or Mean Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcix

0.159Eigenfuction of Wavefunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xcix
0.160Holograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c
0.161Group Velocity of a Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ci
0.162Potential Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ci
0.163Rocket Equation I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cii
0.164Rocket Equation II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cii
0.165Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cii
0.166Maximum Power Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ciii
0.167Magnetic Field far away from a Current carrying Loop . . . . . . . . . . ciii

David S. Latchman ©2009

Contents ix
0.168Maxwell’s Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . civ
0.169Partition Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cv
0.170Particle moving at Light Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cv
0.171Car and Garage I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cv
0.172Car and Garage II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvi
0.173Car and Garage III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvi
0.174Refrective Index of Rock Salt and X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvi
0.175Thin Flim Non-Reflective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvii
0.176Law of Malus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvii
0.177Geosynchronous Satellite Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cviii

FT
0.178Hoop Rolling down and Inclined Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cviii
0.179Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cix
0.180Total Energy between Two Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cx
0.181Maxwell’s Equations and Magnetic Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cx
0.182Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxi
RA
0.183Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxii
0.184Zeeman Effect and the emission spectrum of atomic gases . . . . . . . . cxii
0.185Spectral Lines in High Density and Low Density Gases . . . . . . . . . . cxiii
0.186Term Symbols & Spectroscopic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxiii
0.187Photon Interaction Cross Sections for Pb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxiv
0.188The Ice Pail Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxiv
0.189Equipartition of Energy and Diatomic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxiv
D

0.190Fermion and Boson Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxv

0.191Wavefunction of Two Identical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxv
0.192Energy Eigenstates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxvi
0.193Bragg’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxvii
0.194Selection Rules for Electronic Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxvii
0.195Moving Belt Sander on a Rough Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxviii
0.196RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxviii
0.197Carnot Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxx
0.198First Order Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxii
0.199Colliding Discs and the Conservation of Angular Momentum . . . . . . cxxii

©2009 David S. Latchman

x Contents
0.200Electrical Potential of a Long Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxiii
0.201Ground State of a Positronium Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxiv
0.202The Pinhole Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxiv

Constants & Important Equations cxxvii

.1 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxvii
.2 Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxvii
.3 Commutators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxviii
.4 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxix

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

List of Tables

FT
0.67.1Table of Molar Specific Heats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xlvi

0.140.1
Truth Table for OR-gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xci
Specific Heat, cv for a diatomic molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxiv
0.189.1

.1.1 Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cxxvii

RA
D
xii List of Tables

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

List of Figures

FT
RA
D
xiv List of Figures

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Classical Mechanics

0.1 Kinematics

FT
0.1.1 Linear Motion

Average Velocity

∆x x2 − x1
v= = (0.1.1)
∆t t2 − t1
RA
Instantaneous Velocity

∆x dx
v = lim = = v(t) (0.1.2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Kinematic Equations of Motion

The basic kinematic equations of motion under constant acceleration, a, are

D

v = v0 + at (0.1.3)
v2 = v20 + 2a (x − x0 ) (0.1.4)
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2 (0.1.5)
2
1
x − x0 = (v + v0 ) t (0.1.6)
2

0.1.2 Circular Motion

In the case of Uniform Circular Motion, for a particle to move in a circular path, a
radial acceleration must be applied. This acceleration is known as the Centripetal
Acceleration
xvi Classical Mechanics
Centripetal Acceleration

v2
a= (0.1.7)
r

Angular Velocity

v
ω= (0.1.8)
r
We can write eq. (0.1.7) in terms of ω

a = ω2 r (0.1.9)

FT
Rotational Equations of Motion

The equations of motion under a constant angular acceleration, α, are

ω = ω0 + αt (0.1.10)
ω + ω0
θ= t (0.1.11)
2
1
θ = ω0 t + αt2 (0.1.12)
RA
2
ω = ω0 + 2αθ
2 2
(0.1.13)

0.2 Newton’s Laws

0.2.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon
by an external unbalanced force.
D

Second Law The net force on a body is proportional to its rate of change of momentum.
dp
F= = ma (0.2.1)
dt

Third Law When a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously

exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction.

FAB = −FBA (0.2.2)

0.2.2 Momentum

p = mv (0.2.3)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Work & Energy xvii
0.2.3 Impulse
w
∆p = J = Fdt = Favg dt (0.2.4)

0.3 Work & Energy

0.3.1 Kinetic Energy

1
K ≡ mv2 (0.3.1)
2

FT
0.3.2 The Work-Energy Theorem

The net Work done is given by

Wnet = K f − Ki (0.3.2)

0.3.3 Work done under a constant Force

RA
The work done by a force can be expressed as

W = F∆x (0.3.3)

In three dimensions, this becomes

W = F · ∆r = F∆r cos θ (0.3.4)

For a non-constant force, we have

wx f
D

W= F(x)dx (0.3.5)
xi

0.3.4 Potential Energy

The Potential Energy is

dU(x)
F(x) = − (0.3.6)
dx
for conservative forces, the potential energy is

wx
U(x) = U0 − F(x0 )dx0 (0.3.7)
x0

©2009 David S. Latchman

xviii Classical Mechanics
0.3.5 Hooke’s Law

F = −kx (0.3.8)
where k is the spring constant.

0.3.6 Potential Energy of a Spring

1
U(x) = kx2 (0.3.9)
2

0.4 Oscillatory Motion

0.4.1 Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion

FT
x(t) = A sin (ωt + δ) (0.4.1)
where the Amplitude, A, measures the displacement from equilibrium, the phase, δ, is
the angle by which the motion is shifted from equilibrium at t = 0.
RA
0.4.2 Period of Simple Harmonic Motion

2π
T= (0.4.2)
ω

0.4.3 Total Energy of an Oscillating System

D

Given that
x = A sin (ωt + δ) (0.4.3)
and that the Total Energy of a System is

E = KE + PE (0.4.4)

The Kinetic Energy is

1
KE = mv2
2
1 dx
= m
2 dt
1
= mA2 ω2 cos2 (ωt + δ) (0.4.5)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Oscillatory Motion xix
The Potential Energy is
1
U = kx2
2
1
= kA2 sin2 (ωt + δ) (0.4.6)
2
Adding eq. (0.4.5) and eq. (0.4.6) gives
1
E = kA2 (0.4.7)
2

0.4.4 Damped Harmonic Motion

dx
Fd = −bv = −b (0.4.8)

FT
dt
where b is the damping coefficient. The equation of motion for a damped oscillating
system becomes
dx d2 x
− kx − b = m 2 (0.4.9)
dt dt
Solving eq. (0.4.9) goves
x = Ae−αt sin (ω0 t + δ) (0.4.10)
We find that
RA
b
α= (0.4.11)
2m
r
k b2
ω0 = −
m 4m2
r
b2
= ω20 −
4m2
q
= ω20 − α2 (0.4.12)
D

0.4.5 Small Oscillations

The Energy of a system is

1
E = K + V(x) = mv(x)2 + V(x) (0.4.13)
2
We can solve for v(x), r
2
v(x) = (E − V(x)) (0.4.14)
m
where E ≥ V(x) Let the particle move in the potential valley, x1 ≤ x ≤ x2 , the potential
can be approximated by the Taylor Expansion
" # " 2 #
dV(x) 1 2 d V(x)
V(x) = V(xe ) + (x − xe ) + (x − xe ) + ··· (0.4.15)
dx x=xe 2 dx2 x=xe

©2009 David S. Latchman

xx Classical Mechanics
At the points of inflection, the derivative dV/dx is zero and d V/dx2 is positive. This
2

means that the potential energy for small oscillations becomes

1
V(x) u V(xe ) + k(x − xe )2 (0.4.16)
2
where " #
d2 V(x)
k≡ ≥0 (0.4.17)
dx2 x=xe

As V(xe ) is constant, it has no consequences to physical motion and can be dropped.

We see that eq. (0.4.16) is that of simple harmonic motion.

0.4.6 Coupled Harmonic Oscillators

FT
Consider the case of a simple pendulum of length, `, and the mass of the bob is m1 .
For small displacements, the equation of motion is

θ̈ + ω0 θ = 0

We can express this in cartesian coordinates, x and y, where

(0.4.18)
RA
x = ` cos θ ≈ ` (0.4.19)
y = ` sin θ ≈ `θ (0.4.20)

eq. (0.4.18) becomes

ÿ + ω0 y = 0 (0.4.21)
This is the equivalent to the mass-spring system where the spring constant is
mg
k = mω20 = (0.4.22)
`
D

This allows us to to create an equivalent three spring system to our coupled pendulum
system. The equations of motion can be derived from the Lagrangian, where

L=T−V
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 2
 
= m ẏ1 + m ẏ2 − ky1 + κ y2 − y1 + ky2
2 2 2 2 2
1  2  1  
2 
= m y˙1 + y˙2 2 − k y21 + y22 + κ y2 − y1 (0.4.23)
2 2
We can find the equations of motion of our system

d ∂L ∂L
!
= (0.4.24)
dt ∂ ẏn ∂yn
1
Add figure with coupled pendulum-spring system

David S. Latchman ©2009

Oscillatory Motion xxi
The equations of motion are
m ÿ1 = −ky1 + κ y2 − y1


(0.4.25)
m ÿ2 = −ky2 + κ y2 − y1


(0.4.26)
We assume solutions for the equations of motion to be of the form
y1 = cos(ωt + δ1 ) y2 = B cos(ωt + δ2 )
(0.4.27)
ÿ1 = −ωy1 ÿ2 = −ωy2
Substituting the values for ÿ1 and ÿ2 into the equations of motion yields
 
k + κ − mω2 y1 − κy2 = 0 (0.4.28)
 
−κy1 + k + κ − mω2 y2 = 0 (0.4.29)
We can get solutions from solving the determinant of the matrix

FT
 k + κ − mω2


−κ
 = 0 (0.4.30)
 −κ k + κ − mω2 
Solving the determinant gives
 2  
mω2 − 2mω2 (k + κ) + k2 + 2kκ = 0 (0.4.31)
This yields
g

k
=


`

ω2 =  m
RA

(0.4.32)

 k + 2κ g 2κ
= +


m ` m

We can now determine exactly how the masses move with each mode by substituting
ω2 into the equations of motion. Where
k
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = κ (0.4.33)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = y2 (0.4.34)
D

We see that the masses move in phase with each other. You will also notice
the absense of the spring constant term, κ, for the connecting spring. As the
masses are moving in step, the spring isn’t stretching or compressing and hence
its absence in our result.
k+κ
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = −κ (0.4.35)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = −y2 (0.4.36)
Here the masses move out of phase with each other. In this case we see the
presence of the spring constant, κ, which is expected as the spring playes a role.
It is being stretched and compressed as our masses oscillate.

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxii Classical Mechanics
0.4.7 Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect is the shift in frequency and wavelength of waves that results from
a source moving with respect to the medium, a receiver moving with respect to the
medium or a moving medium.

Moving Source If a source is moving towards an observer, then in one period, τ0 , it

moves a distance of vs τ0 = vs / f0 . The wavelength is decreased by
vs v − vs
λ0 = λ − − (0.4.37)
f0 f0
The frequency change is
v v
 
f0 = = f0 (0.4.38)
λ0 v − vs

FT
Moving Observer As the observer moves, he will measure the same wavelength, λ, as
if at rest but will see the wave crests pass by more quickly. The observer measures
a modified wave speed.
v0 = v + |vr | (0.4.39)
The modified frequency becomes
v0 vr
 
f0 = = f0 1 + (0.4.40)
λ
RA
v

Moving Source and Moving Observer We can combine the above two equations
v − vs
λ0 = (0.4.41)
f0
v = v − vr
0
(0.4.42)

To give a modified frequency of

v0 v − vr
 
f = 0 =
0
f0 (0.4.43)
λ v − vs
D

0.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

0.5.1 Moment of Inertia

Z
I= R2 dm (0.5.1)

0.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy

1
K = Iω2 (0.5.2)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis xxiii
0.5.3 Parallel Axis Theorem

I = Icm + Md2 (0.5.3)

0.5.4 Torque

τ=r×F (0.5.4)
τ = Iα (0.5.5)

where α is the angular acceleration.

0.5.5 Angular Momentum

we can find the Torque FT

L = Iω

dL
(0.5.6)
RA
τ= (0.5.7)
dt

0.5.6 Kinetic Energy in Rolling

With respect to the point of contact, the motion of the wheel is a rotation about the
point of contact. Thus
1
K = Krot = Icontact ω2 (0.5.8)
2
D

Icontact can be found from the Parallel Axis Theorem.

Icontact = Icm + MR2 (0.5.9)

Substitute eq. (0.5.8) and we have

1 
K= Icm + MR2 ω2
2
1 1
= Icm ω2 + mv2 (0.5.10)
2 2

The kinetic energy of an object rolling without slipping is the sum of hte kinetic energy
of rotation about its center of mass and the kinetic energy of the linear motion of the
object.

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxiv Classical Mechanics
0.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles

0.6.1 Center of Mass of a System of Particles

Position Vector of a System of Particles

m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + · · · + mN rN
R= (0.6.1)
M

Velocity Vector of a System of Particles

dR
V=

FT
dt
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + · · · + mN vN
= (0.6.2)
M

Acceleration Vector of a System of Particles

dV
A=
dt
RA
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + · · · + mN aN
= (0.6.3)
M

0.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics

0.7.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

GMm
 
F=− r̂ (0.7.1)
r2
D

0.7.2 Potential Energy of a Gravitational Force

GMm
U(r) = − (0.7.2)
r

0.7.3 Escape Speed and Orbits

The energy of an orbiting body is

E=T+U
1 GMm
= mv2 − (0.7.3)
2 r

David S. Latchman ©2009

Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics xxv
The escape speed becomes
1 GMm
E = mv2esc − =0 (0.7.4)
2 RE
Solving for vesc we find
r
2GM
vesc = (0.7.5)
Re

0.7.4 Kepler’s Laws

First Law The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.

Second Law A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal

FT
intervals of time.

Third Law The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the
cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

T2
=C (0.7.6)
R3
where C is a constant whose value is the same for all planets.
RA
0.7.5 Types of Orbits

The Energy of an Orbiting Body is defined in eq. (0.7.3), we can classify orbits by their
eccentricities.

Circular Orbit A circular orbit occurs when there is an eccentricity of 0 and the orbital
energy is less than 0. Thus
D

1 2 GM
v − =E<0 (0.7.7)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
GM
v= (0.7.8)
r

Elliptic Orbit An elliptic orbit occurs when the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 but the
specific energy is negative, so the object remains bound.
r
2 1
 
v= GM − (0.7.9)
r a

where a is the semi-major axis

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxvi Classical Mechanics
Parabolic Orbit A Parabolic Orbit occurs when the eccentricity is equal to 1 and the
orbital velocity is the escape velocity. This orbit is not bounded. Thus

1 2 GM
v − =E=0 (0.7.10)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
2GM
v = vesc = (0.7.11)
r

Hyperbolic Orbit In the Hyperbolic Orbit, the eccentricity is greater than 1 with an
orbital velocity in excess of the escape velocity. This orbit is also not bounded.
r
GM
v∞ =

FT
(0.7.12)
a

0.7.6 Derivation of Vis-viva Equation

The total energy of a satellite is

1 GMm
E = mv2 − (0.7.13)
RA
2 r
For an elliptical or circular orbit, the specific energy is

GMm
E=− (0.7.14)
2a
Equating we get
2 1
 
v = GM −
2
(0.7.15)
r a
D

0.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics

0.9 Fluid Dynamics

When an object is fully or partially immersed, the buoyant force is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced.

0.9.1 Equation of Continuity

ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 (0.9.1)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Non-inertial Reference Frames xxvii
0.9.2 Bernoulli’s Equation
1
P + ρv2 + ρgh = a constant (0.9.2)
2

0.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames

0.11 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Formalism

0.11.1 Lagrange’s Function (L)

L=T−V (0.11.1)

FT
where T is the Kinetic Energy and V is the Potential Energy in terms of Generalized
Coordinates.

0.11.2 Equations of Motion(Euler-Lagrange Equation)

∂L d ∂L
!
= (0.11.2)
RA
∂q dt ∂q̇

0.11.3 Hamiltonian

H =T+V
= pq̇ − L(q, q̇) (0.11.3)

where
D

∂H
= q̇ (0.11.4)
∂p
∂H ∂L
=−
∂q ∂x
= −ṗ (0.11.5)

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxviii Classical Mechanics

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electromagnetism

0.12 Electrostatics

0.12.1 Coulomb’s Law

F12 =
1

FT
The force between two charged particles, q1 and q2 is defined by Coulomb’s Law.

q1 q2
4π0 r212

where 0 is the permitivitty of free space, where

!
r̂12

0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N.m2

(0.12.1)

(0.12.2)
RA
0.12.2 Electric Field of a point charge

The electric field is defined by mesuring the magnitide and direction of an electric
force, F, acting on a test charge, q0 .
F
E≡ (0.12.3)
q0
The Electric Field of a point charge, q is
D

1 q
E= r̂ (0.12.4)
4π0 r2
In the case of multiple point charges, qi , the electric field becomes
n
1 X qi
E(r) = r̂i (0.12.5)
4π0 i=1 r2i

Electric Fields and Continuous Charge Distributions

If a source is distributed continuously along a region of space, eq. (0.12.5) becomes

Z
1 1
E(r) = r̂dq (0.12.6)
4π0 r2
xxx Electromagnetism
If the charge was distributed along a line with linear charge density, λ,

dq
λ= (0.12.7)
dx

The Electric Field of a line charge becomes

λ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dx (0.12.8)
4π0 r2
line

In the case where the charge is distributed along a surface, the surface charge density
is, σ
Q dq
σ= = (0.12.9)

FT
A dA
The electric field along the surface becomes

σ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dA (0.12.10)
4π0 r2
Surface

In the case where the charge is distributed throughout a volume, V, the volume charge
RA
density is
Q dq
ρ= = (0.12.11)
V dV
The Electric Field is
ρ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dV (0.12.12)
4π0 r2
Volume
D

0.12.3 Gauss’ Law

The electric field through a surface is

I I
Φ= dΦ = E · dA (0.12.13)
surface S surface S

The electric flux through a closed surface encloses a net charge.

I
Q
E · dA = (0.12.14)
0

where Q is the charge enclosed by our surface.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electrostatics xxxi
0.12.4 Equivalence of Coulomb’s Law and Gauss’ Law

The total flux through a sphere is

I
q
E · dA = E(4πr2 ) = (0.12.15)
0
From the above, we see that the electric field is
q
E= (0.12.16)
4π0 r2

0.12.5 Electric Field due to a line of charge

Consider an infinite rod of constant charge density, λ. The flux through a Gaussian

FT
cylinder enclosing the line of charge is
Z Z Z
Φ= E · dA + E · dA + E · dA (0.12.17)
top surface bottom surface side surface

At the top and bottom surfaces, the electric field is perpendicular to the area vector, so
for the top and bottom surfaces,
E · dA = 0 (0.12.18)
RA
At the side, the electric field is parallel to the area vector, thus

E · dA = EdA (0.12.19)

Thus the flux becomes, Z Z

Φ= E · dA = E dA (0.12.20)
side sirface

The area in this case is the surface area of the side of the cylinder, 2πrh.
D

Φ = 2πrhE (0.12.21)

Applying Gauss’ Law, we see that Φ = q/0 . The electric field becomes

λ
E= (0.12.22)
2π0 r

0.12.6 Electric Field in a Solid Non-Conducting Sphere

Within our non-conducting sphere or radius, R, we will assume that the total charge,
Q is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume. So the charge density of our
sphere is
Q Q
ρ= = 4 (0.12.23)
V 3
πR 3

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxxii Electromagnetism
The Electric Field due to a charge Q is
Q
E= (0.12.24)
4π0 r2
As the charge is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume we can say that
the charge density is
dq = ρdV (0.12.25)
where dV = 4πr2 dr. We can use this to determine the field inside the sphere by
summing the effect of infinitesimally thin spherical shells
Z E Z r
dq
E= dE = 2
0 0 4πr
ρ
Z r
= dr
0 0

FT
Qr
= 4 (0.12.26)
3
π 0 R3

0.12.7 Electric Potential Energy

1
U(r) = qq0 r (0.12.27)
4π0
RA
0.12.8 Electric Potential of a Point Charge

The electrical potential is the potential energy per unit charge that is associated with a
static electrical field. It can be expressed thus
U(r) = qV(r) (0.12.28)
And we can see that
1 q
V(r) = (0.12.29)
D

4π0 r
A more proper definition that includes the electric field, E would be
Z
V(r) = − E · d` (0.12.30)
C

where C is any path, starting at a chosen point of zero potential to our desired point.
The difference between two potentials can be expressed such
Z b Z a
V(b) − V(a) = − E · d` + E · d`
Z b
=− E · d` (0.12.31)
a

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electrostatics xxxiii
This can be further expressed
Z b
V(b) − V(a) = (∇V) · d` (0.12.32)
a

And we can show that

E = −∇V (0.12.33)

0.12.9 Electric Potential due to a line charge along axis

Let us consider a rod of length, `, with linear charge density, λ. The Electrical Potential
due to a continuous distribution is

FT
Z Z
1 dq
V= dV = (0.12.34)
4π0 r

The charge density is

dq = λdx (0.12.35)
Substituting this into the above equation, we get the electrical potential at some distance
x along the rod’s axis, with the origin at the start of the rod.
RA
1 dq
dV =
4π0 x
1 λdx
= (0.12.36)
4π0 x
This becomes
λ x2
 
V= ln (0.12.37)
4π0 x1
where x1 and x2 are the distances from O, the end of the rod.
Now consider that we are some distance, y, from the axis of the rod of length, `. We
D

again look at eq. (0.12.34), where r is the distance of the point P from the rod’s axis.
Z
1 dq
V=
4π0 r
Z `
1 λdx
=
4π0 0 x2 + y2
12
λ
   12 `
= ln x + x2 + y2
4π0 0
λ  12 
 
= ln ` + `2 + y2 − ln y
4π0

1 
λ  ` + `2 + y2 2 
= ln   (0.12.38)
4π0  d


©2009 David S. Latchman

xxxiv Electromagnetism
0.13 Currents and DC Circuits

0.14 Magnetic Fields in Free Space

0.15 Lorentz Force

FT
4

0.16 Induction

5
RA
0.17 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications

0.18 Electromagnetic Waves

D

0.19 AC Circuits

0.20 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter

David S. Latchman ©2009

Capacitance xxxv
0.21 Capacitance
Q = CV (0.21.1)

0.22 Energy in a Capacitor

Q2
U=
2C
CV 2
=
2
QV

FT
= (0.22.1)
2

0.23 Energy in an Electric Field

U 0 E2
u≡ = (0.23.1)
volume 2
RA
0.24 Current
dQ
I≡ (0.24.1)
dt

0.25 Current Destiny

D

Z
I= J · dA (0.25.1)
A

0.26 Current Density of Moving Charges

I
J= = ne qvd (0.26.1)
A

0.27 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

V
R≡ (0.27.1)
I

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxxvi Electromagnetism
0.28 Resistivity and Conductivity

L
R=ρ (0.28.1)
A

E = ρJ (0.28.2)

J = σE (0.28.3)

0.29 Power

0.30 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules

Write Here
FT
P = VI (0.29.1)
RA
0.31 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule

Write Here

0.32 RC Circuits
D

Q
E − IR − =0 (0.32.1)
C

0.33 Maxwell’s Equations

0.33.1 Integral Form

Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields

w Q
E · dA = (0.33.1)
0
closed surface

David S. Latchman ©2009

Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave xxxvii
Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
w
B · dA = 0 (0.33.2)
closed surface

Ampère’s Law
z d w
B · ds = µ0 I + µ0 0 E · dA (0.33.3)
dt
surface

Faraday’s Law
z d w
E · ds = − B · dA (0.33.4)
dt
surface

0.33.2 Differential Form

Gauss’ Law for Electric Fields

Gauss’ Law for Magnetism

Ampère’s Law
FT
∇·E=

∇·B=0
ρ
0
(0.33.5)

(0.33.6)
RA
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (0.33.7)
∂t
Faraday’s Law
∂B
∇·E=− (0.33.8)
∂t

0.34 Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave

1
D

c= √ (0.34.1)
µ0 0
In a material with dielectric constant, κ,
√ c
c κ = (0.34.2)
n
where n is the refractive index.

0.35 Relationship between E and B Fields

E = cB (0.35.1)
E·B=0 (0.35.2)

©2009 David S. Latchman

xxxviii Electromagnetism
0.36 Energy Density of an EM wave
!
1 B2
u= + 0 E2 (0.36.1)
2 µ0

0.37 Poynting’s Vector

1
S= E×B (0.37.1)
µ0

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Optics & Wave Phonomena

0.38 Wave Properties

0.39

2
Superposition

FT
RA
0.40 Interference

0.41 Diffraction
D

0.42 Geometrical Optics

0.43 Polarization

6
xl Optics & Wave Phonomena
0.44 Doppler Effect
7

0.45 Snell’s Law

0.45.1 Snell’s Law

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (0.45.1)

0.45.2 Critical Angle and Snell’s Law

FT
The critical angle, θc , for the boundary seperating two optical media is the smallest
angle of incidence, in the medium of greater index, for which light is totally refelected.
From eq. (0.45.1), θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θc and n2 > n1 .

n1 sin 90 = n2 sinθc
sin θc =
n1
(0.45.2)
RA
n2
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

0.46 Laws of Thermodynamics

0.47

2 FT
Thermodynamic Processes
RA
0.48 Equations of State

0.49 Ideal Gases

D

0.50 Kinetic Theory

0.51 Ensembles

6
xlii Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
0.52 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermody-
namic Properties

0.53 Thermal Expansion & Heat Transfer

FT
0.54 Heat Capacity
 
Q = C T f − Ti (0.54.1)

where C is the Heat Capacity and T f and Ti are the final and initial temperatures
respectively.
RA
0.55 Specific Heat Capacity
 
Q = cm T f − ti (0.55.1)

where c is the specific heat capacity and m is the mass.

D

0.56 Heat and Work

Z Vf
W= PdV (0.56.1)
Vi

0.57 First Law of Thermodynamics

dEint = dQ − dW (0.57.1)

where dEint is the internal energy of the system, dQ is the Energy added to the system
and dW is the work done by the system.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature xliii
0.57.1 Special Cases to the First Law of Thermodynamics
Adiabatic Process During an adiabatic process, the system is insulated such that there
is no heat transfer between the system and its environment. Thus dQ = 0, so

∆Eint = −W (0.57.2)

If work is done on the system, negative W, then there is an increase in its internal
energy. Conversely, if work is done by the system, positive W, there is a decrease
in the internal energy of the system.

Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process If the volume is held constant, then the system
can do no work, δW = 0, thus
∆Eint = Q (0.57.3)

FT
If heat is added to the system, the temperature increases. Conversely, if heat is
removed from the system the temperature decreases.

Closed Cycle In this situation, after certain interchanges of heat and work, the system
comes back to its initial state. So ∆Eint remains the same, thus

∆Q = ∆W (0.57.4)

The work done by the system is equal to the heat or energy put into it.
RA
Free Expansion In this process, no work is done on or by the system. Thus ∆Q =
∆W = 0,
∆Eint = 0 (0.57.5)

0.58 Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature

Starting with eq. (0.56.1), we substitute the Ideal gas Law, eq. (0.60.1), to get
D

Z Vf
dV
W = nRT
Vi V
Vf
= nRT ln (0.58.1)
Vi

0.59 Heat Conduction Equation

The rate of heat transferred, H, is given by

Q TH − TC
H= = kA (0.59.1)
t L
where k is the thermal conductivity.

©2009 David S. Latchman

xliv Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
0.60 Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT (0.60.1)
where
n = Number of moles
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
and R is the Universal Gas Constant, such that
R ≈ 8.314 J/mol. K

FT
We can rewrite the Ideal gas Law to say
PV = NkT (0.60.2)
where k is the Boltzmann’s Constant, such that
R
k= ≈ 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
NA
RA
0.61 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equa-
tion
P(T) = σT4 (0.61.1)

0.62 RMS Speed of an Ideal Gas

D

r
3RT
vrms = (0.62.1)
M

0.63 Translational Kinetic Energy

3
K̄ = kT (0.63.1)
2

0.64 Internal Energy of a Monatomic gas

3
Eint = nRT (0.64.1)
2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume xlv
0.65 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume

Let us define, CV such that

Q = nCV ∆T (0.65.1)

Substituting into the First Law of Thermodynamics, we have

∆Eint + W = nCV ∆T (0.65.2)

At constant volume, W = 0, and we get

1 ∆Eint

FT
CV = (0.65.3)
n ∆T

Substituting eq. (0.64.1), we get

3
CV = R = 12.5 J/mol.K (0.65.4)
2
RA
0.66 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

Starting with
Q = nCp ∆T (0.66.1)

and
D

∆Eint = Q − W
⇒ nCV ∆T = nCp ∆T + nR∆T
∴ CV = Cp − R (0.66.2)

0.67 Equipartition of Energy

!
f
CV = R = 4.16 f J/mol.K (0.67.1)
2

where f is the number of degrees of freedom.

©2009 David S. Latchman

Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

©2009
FT Degrees of Freedom Predicted Molar Specific Heats
CP = CV + R
RA
Molecule Translational Rotational Vibrational Total ( f ) CV
3 5
Monatomic 3 0 0 3 2
R 2
R
5 7
Diatomic 3 2 2 5 2
R 2
R
Polyatomic (Linear) 3 3 3n − 5 6 3R 4R
Polyatomic (Non-Linear) 3 3 3n − 6 6 3R 4R
Table 0.67.1: Table of Molar Specific Heats
D

David S. Latchman
xlvi
Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas xlvii
0.68 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
PV γ = a constant (0.68.1)
where γ = CCVP .
We can also write
TV γ−1 = a constant (0.68.2)

0.69 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Something.

FT
RA
D

©2009 David S. Latchman

xlviii Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Quantum Mechanics

0.70 Fundamental Concepts

1

0.71 Schrödinger Equation

Let us define Ψ to be
FT
Ψ = Ae−iω(t− v )
x

Simplifying in terms of Energy, E, and momentum, p, we get

(0.71.1)
RA
i(Et−px)
Ψ = Ae− ~ (0.71.2)
We obtain Schrödinger’s Equation from the Hamiltonian
H =T+V (0.71.3)
To determine E and p,
∂2 Ψ p2
= − Ψ (0.71.4)
∂x2 ~2
∂Ψ iE
= Ψ (0.71.5)
∂t ~
D

and
p2
H= +V (0.71.6)
2m
This becomes
EΨ = HΨ (0.71.7)
~ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ 2
EΨ = − p2 Ψ = −~2 2
i ∂t ∂x
The Time Dependent Schrödinger’s Equation is
∂Ψ ~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
i~ =− + V(x)Ψ (0.71.8)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The Time Independent Schrödinger’s Equation is
~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − + V(x)Ψ (0.71.9)
2m ∂x2
l Quantum Mechanics
0.71.1 Infinite Square Wells

Let us consider a particle trapped in an infinite potential well of size a, such that

for 0 < x < a

(
0
V(x) =
∞ for |x| > a,

so that a nonvanishing force acts only at ±a/2. An energy, E, is assigned to the system
such that the kinetic energy of the particle is E. Classically, any motion is forbidden
outside of the well because the infinite value of V exceeds any possible choice of E.
Recalling the Schrödinger Time Independent Equation, eq. (0.71.9), we substitute V(x)
and in the region (−a/2, a/2), we get

~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ (0.71.10)

FT
2m dx2
This differential is of the form
d2 ψ
+ k2 ψ = 0 (0.71.11)
dx2
where r
2mE
k= (0.71.12)
~2
We recognize that possible solutions will be of the form
RA
cos kx and sin kx
As the particle is confined in the region 0 < x < a, we say

A cos kx + B sin kx for 0 < x < a

(
ψ(x) =
0 for |x| > a

We have known boundary conditions for our square well.

ψ(0) = ψ(a) = 0 (0.71.13)
D

It shows that
⇒ A cos 0 + B sin 0 = 0
∴A=0 (0.71.14)
We are now left with
B sin ka = 0
ka = 0; π; 2π; 3π; · · ·
(0.71.15)
While mathematically, n can be zero, that would mean there would be no wave function,
so we ignore this result and say
nπ
kn = for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
a

David S. Latchman ©2009

Schrödinger Equation li
Substituting this result into eq. (0.71.12) gives
√
nπ 2mEn
kn = = (0.71.16)
a ~
Solving for En gives
n2 π2 ~2
En = (0.71.17)
2ma2
We cna now solve for B by normalizing the function
Z a
a
|B|2 sin2 kxdx = |A|2 = 1
0 2
2
So |A|2 = (0.71.18)
a

FT
So we can write the wave function as
r
2 nπx
 
ψn (x) = sin (0.71.19)
a a

0.71.2 Harmonic Oscillators

Classically, the harmonic oscillator has a potential energy of

RA
1
V(x) = kx2 (0.71.20)
2
So the force experienced by this particle is
dV
F=− = −kx (0.71.21)
dx
where k is the spring constant. The equation of motion can be summed us as
d2 x
m = −kx (0.71.22)
dt2
D

And the solution of this equation is

 
x(t) = A cos ω0 t + φ (0.71.23)

where the angular frequency, ω0 is

r
k
ω0 = (0.71.24)
m
The Quantum Mechanical description on the harmonic oscillator is based on the eigen-
function solutions of the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation. By taking V(x)
from eq. (0.71.20) we substitute into eq. (0.71.9) to get
d2 ψ 2m k 2
!
mk 2 2E
 
= 2 x −E ψ= 2 x − ψ
dx2 ~ 2 ~ k

©2009 David S. Latchman

lii Quantum Mechanics
With some manipulation, we get
√
d2 ψ  mk 2 2E m 
r 
~
√ 2
=  x −  ψ
mk dx ~ ~ k 

This step allows us to to keep some of constants out of the way, thus giving us
√
mk 2
ξ2 = x (0.71.25)
~r
2E m 2E
and λ = = (0.71.26)
~ k ~ω0

This leads to the more compact

d2 ψ  2

FT

= ξ − λ ψ (0.71.27)
dξ2
where the eigenfunction ψ will be a function of ξ. λ assumes an eigenvalue anaglaous
to E.
From eq. (0.71.25), we see that the maximum value can be determined to be
√
mk 2
ξmax =
2
A (0.71.28)
RA
~
Using the classical connection between A and E, allows us to say
√
mk 2E
ξmax =
2
=λ (0.71.29)
~ k
From eq. (0.71.27), we see that in a quantum mechanical oscillator, there are non-
vanishing solutions in the forbidden regions, unlike in our classical case.
A solution to eq. (0.71.27) is
ψ(ξ) = e−ξ /2
2
(0.71.30)
D

where
dψ
= −ξe−ξ /2
2

dξ
dψ 2 −xi2 /2 −ξ2 /2
e−ξ /2
  2
and = ξ e − e = ξ 2
− 1
dξ2
This gives is a special solution for λ where

λ0 = 1 (0.71.31)

Thus eq. (0.71.26) gives the energy eigenvalue to be

~ω0 ~ω0
E0 = λ0 = (0.71.32)
2 2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Schrödinger Equation liii
−ξ2 /2
The eigenfunction e corresponds to a normalized stationary-state wave function
!1
mk 8 − √mk x2 /2~ −iE0 t/~
Ψ0 (x, t) = 2 2 e e (0.71.33)
π~
This solution of eq. (0.71.27) produces the smallest possibel result of λ and E. Hence,
Ψ0 and E0 represents the ground state of the oscillator. and the quantity ~ω0 /2 is the
zero-point energy of the system.

0.71.3 Finite Square Well

For the Finite Square Well, we have a potential region where

(
−V0 for −a ≤ x ≤ a
V(x) =

FT
0 for |x| > a
We have three regions

Region I: x < −a In this region, The potential, V = 0, so Schrödinger’s Equation be-

comes
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ
RA
⇒ 2 = κ2 ψ
√ dx
−2mE
where κ=
~
This gives us solutions that are
ψ(x) = A exp(−κx) + B exp(κx)
As x → ∞, the exp(−κx) term goes to ∞; it blows up and is not a physically
realizable function. So we can drop it to get
D

ψ(x) = Beκx for x < −a (0.71.34)

Region II: −a < x < a In this region, our potential is V(x) = V0 . Substitutin this into
the Schrödinger’s Equation, eq. (0.71.9), gives
~2 d2 ψ
− − V0 ψ = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ
or 2
= −l2 ψ
p dx
2m (E + V0 )
where l ≡ (0.71.35)
~
We notice that E > −V0 , making l real and positive. Thus our general solution
becomes
ψ(x) = C sin(lx) + D cos(lx) for −a < x < a (0.71.36)

©2009 David S. Latchman

liv Quantum Mechanics
Region III: x > a Again this Region is similar to Region III, where the potential, V = 0.
This leaves us with the general solution

ψ(x) = F exp(−κx) + G exp(κx)

As x → ∞, the second term goes to infinity and we get

ψ(x) = Fe−κx for x > a (0.71.37)

This gives us  κx

 Be for x < a
ψ(x) =  for 0 < x < a

D cos(lx) (0.71.38)

for x > a

 Fe−κx


FT
0.71.4 Hydrogenic Atoms

0.72 Spin
RA
3

0.73 Angular Momentum

4

0.74 Wave Funtion Symmetry

D

0.75 Elementary Perturbation Theory

6

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atomic Physics

0.76 Properties of Electrons

1

0.77 Bohr Model

FT
To understand the Bohr Model of the Hydrogen atom, we will take advantage of our
knowlegde of the wavelike properties of matter. As we are building on a classical
model of the atom with a modern concept of matter, our derivation is considered to be
RA
‘semi-classical’. In this model we have an electron of mass, me , and charge, −e, orbiting
a proton. The cetripetal force is equal to the Coulomb Force. Thus
1 e2 me v2
= (0.77.1)
4π0 r2 r
The Total Energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies, so
p2
E=K+U = − | f race2 4π0 r (0.77.2)
2me
We can further reduce this equation by subsituting the value of momentum, which we
D

find to be
p2 1 e2
= me v2 = (0.77.3)
2me 2 8π0 r
Substituting this into eq. (0.77.2), we get
e2 e2 e2
E= − =− (0.77.4)
8π0 r 4π0 r 8π0 r
At this point our classical description must end. An accelerated charged particle, like
one moving in circular motion, radiates energy. So our atome here will radiate energy
and our electron will spiral into the nucleus and disappear. To solve this conundrum,
Bohr made two assumptions.

1. The classical circular orbits are replaced by stationary states. These stationary
states take discreet values.
lvi Atomic Physics
2. The energy of these stationary states are determined by their angular momentum
which must take on quantized values of ~.
L = n~ (0.77.5)

We can find the angular momentum of a circular orbit.

L = m3 vr (0.77.6)
From eq. (0.77.1) we find v and by substitution, we find L.
r
m3 r
L=e (0.77.7)
4π0
Solving for r, gives
L2

FT
r= (0.77.8)
me e2 /4π0
We apply the condition from eq. (0.77.5)
n2 ~2
rn = = n2 a0 (0.77.9)
me e /4π0
2

where a0 is the Bohr radius.

a0 = 0.53 × 10−10 m (0.77.10)
RA
Having discreet values for the allowed radii means that we will also have discreet
values for energy. Replacing our value of rn into eq. (0.77.4), we get
!
me e2 13.6
En = − 2 = − 2 eV (0.77.11)
2n 4π0 ~ n

0.78 Energy Quantization

3
D

0.79 Atomic Structure

4

0.80 Atomic Spectra

0.80.1 Rydberg’s Equation

1 1 1
 
= RH 02 − 2 (0.80.1)
λ n n

David S. Latchman ©2009

Selection Rules lvii
where RH is the Rydberg constant.
For the Balmer Series, n0 = 2, which determines the optical wavelengths. For n0 = 3, we
get the infrared or Paschen series. The fundamental n0 = 1 series falls in the ultraviolet
region and is known as the Lyman series.

0.81 Selection Rules

6

0.82 Black Body Radiation

0.82.1

0.82.2
Plank Formula

FT
8π~ f3
u( f, T) = 3 h f /kT

Stefan-Boltzmann Formula
c e −1
(0.82.1)
RA
P(T) = σT4 (0.82.2)

0.82.3 Wein’s Displacement Law

λmax T = 2.9 × 10−3 m.K (0.82.3)

0.82.4 Classical and Quantum Aspects of the Plank Equation

D

Rayleigh’s Equation

8π f 2
u( f, T) = kT (0.82.4)
c3
We can get this equation from Plank’s Equation, eq. (0.82.1). This equation is a classical
one and does not contain Plank’s constant in it. For this case we will look at the
situation where h f < kT. In this case, we make the approximation

ex ' 1 + x (0.82.5)

Thus the demonimator in eq. (0.82.1) becomes

hf hf
eh f /kT − 1 ' 1 + −1= (0.82.6)
kT kT

©2009 David S. Latchman

lviii Atomic Physics
Thus eq. (0.82.1) takes the approximate form

8πh 3 kT 8π f 2
u( f, T) ' 3 f = 3 kT (0.82.7)
c hf c
As we can see this equation is devoid of Plank’s constant and thus independent of
quantum effects.

Quantum

At large frequencies, where h f > kT, quantum effects become apparent. We can
estimate that
eh f /kT − 1 ' eh f /kT (0.82.8)

FT
Thus eq. (0.82.1) becomes
8πh 3 −h f /kT
u( f, T) ' f e (0.82.9)
c3

0.83 X-Rays

0.83.1 Bragg Condition

RA
2d sin θ = mλ (0.83.1)
for constructive interference off parallel planes of a crystal with lattics spacing, d.

0.83.2 The Compton Effect

The Compton Effect deals with the scattering of monochromatic X-Rays by atomic
targets and the observation that the wavelength of the scattered X-ray is greater than
the incident radiation. The photon energy is given by
D

hc
E = hυ = (0.83.2)
λ
The photon has an associated momentum

E= pc (0.83.3)
E hυ h
⇒p = = = (0.83.4)
c c λ
The Relativistic Energy for the electron is

E2 = p2 c2 + m2e c4 (0.83.5)

where
p − p0 = P (0.83.6)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields lix
Squaring eq. (0.83.6) gives
p2 − 2p · p0 + p02 = P2 (0.83.7)
Recall that E = pc and E 0 = cp0 , we have

c2 p2 − 2c2 p · p0 + c2 p02 = c2 P2
E 2 − 2E E 0 cos θ + E 02 = E2 − m2e c4 (0.83.8)

Conservation of Energy leads to

E + me c2 = E 0 + E (0.83.9)

Solving

E − E 0 = E − me c2
E 2 − 2E E 0 + E 0 = E2 − 2Eme c2 + m2e c4 (0.83.10)

FT
2E E 0 − 2E E 0 cos θ = 2Eme c2 − 2m2e c4 (0.83.11)

Solving leads to
h
∆λ = λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ) (0.83.12)
me c
where λc = h
me c
is the Compton Wavelength.

h
RA
λc = = 2.427 × 10−12 m (0.83.13)
me c

0.84 Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields

0.84.1 The Cyclotron Frequency

A test charge, q, with velocity v enters a uniform magnetic field, B. The force acting on
the charge will be perpendicular to v such that
D

FB = qv × B (0.84.1)

or more simply FB = qvB. As this traces a circular path, from Newton’s Second Law,
we see that
mv2
FB = = qvB (0.84.2)
R
Solving for R, we get
mv
R= (0.84.3)
qB
We also see that
qB
f = (0.84.4)
2πm
The frequency is depends on the charge, q, the magnetic field strength, B and the mass
of the charged particle, m.

©2009 David S. Latchman

lx Atomic Physics
0.84.2 Zeeman Effect

The Zeeman effect was the splitting of spectral lines in a static magnetic field. This is
similar to the Stark Effect which was the splitting in the presence in a magnetic field.
In the Zeeman experiment, a sodium flame was placed in a magnetic field and its
spectrum observed. In the presence of the field, a spectral line of frequency, υ0 was
split into three components, υ0 − δυ, υ0 and υ0 + δυ. A classical analysis of this effect
allows for the identification of the basic parameters of the interacting system.
The application of a constant magnetic field, B, allows for a direction in space in which
the electron motion can be referred. The motion of an electron can be attributed to a
simple harmonic motion under a binding force −kr, where the frequency is
r
1 k
υ0 = (0.84.5)

FT
2π me
The magnetic field subjects the electron to an additional Lorentz Force, −ev × B. This
produces two different values for the angular velocity.
v = 2πrυ
The cetripetal force becomes
me v2
= 4π2 υ2 rme
r
RA
Thus the certipetal force is
4π2 υ2 rme = 2πυreB + kr for clockwise motion
4π2 υ2 rme = −2πυreB + kr for counterclockwise motion
We use eq. (0.84.5), to emiminate k, to get
eB
υ2 − υ − υ0 = 0 (Clockwise)
2πme
eB
υ2 + υ − υ0 = 0 (Counterclockwise)
2πme
D

As we have assumed a small Lorentz force, we can say that the linear terms in υ are
small comapred to υ0 . Solving the above quadratic equations leads to
eB
υ = υ0 + for clockwise motion (0.84.6)
4πme
eB
υ = υ0 − for counterclockwise motion (0.84.7)
4πme
We note that the frequency shift is of the form
eB
δυ = (0.84.8)
4πme
If we view the source along the direction of B, we will observe the light to have two
polarizations, a closckwise circular polarization of υ0 + δυ and a counterclosckwise
circular polarization of υ0 − δυ.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields lxi
0.84.3 Franck-Hertz Experiment

The Franck-Hertz experiment, performed in 1914 by J. Franck and G. L. Hertz, mea-

sured the colisional excitation of atoms. Their experiement studied the current of
electrons in a tub of mercury vapour which revealed an abrupt change in the current
at certain critical values of the applied voltage.2 They interpreted this observation as
evidence of a threshold for inelastic scattering in the colissions of electrons in mer-
cury atoms.The bahavior of the current was an indication that electrons could lose
a discreet amount of energy and excite mercury atoms in their passage through the
mercury vapour. These observations constituted a direct and decisive confirmation of
the existence os quantized energy levels in atoms.

FT
RA
D

2
Put drawing of Franck-Hertz Setup

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxii Atomic Physics

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Special Relativity

0.85 Introductory Concepts

0.85.1 Postulates of Special Relativity

We can define
γ= q
FT
1. The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames.

2. The speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.

1
(0.85.1)
RA
u2
1− c2

0.86 Time Dilation

∆t = γ∆t0 (0.86.1)
where ∆t0 is the time measured at rest relative to the observer, ∆t is the time measured
in motion relative to the observer.
D

0.87 Length Contraction

L0
L= (0.87.1)
γ
where L0 is the length of an object observed at rest relative to the observer and L is the
length of the object moving at a speed u relative to the observer.

0.88 Simultaneity

4
lxiv Special Relativity
0.89 Energy and Momentum

0.89.1 Relativistic Momentum & Energy

In relativistic mechanics, to be conserved, momentum and energy are defined as

Relativistic Momentum
p̄ = γmv̄ (0.89.1)

Relativistic Energy
E = γmc2 (0.89.2)

FT
0.89.2 Lorentz Transformations (Momentum & Energy)

E
 
p0x= γ px − β (0.89.3)
c
py = py
0
(0.89.4)
= pz
p0z (0.89.5)
0
RA
E E
 
=γ − βpx (0.89.6)
c c

0.89.3 Relativistic Kinetic Energy

K = E − mc2 (0.89.7)
 
 
 1 
= mc  q
2
− 1 (0.89.8)
D

v2
1−
 
c2

= mc2 γ − 1


(0.89.9)

0.89.4 Relativistic Dynamics (Collisions)

∆E
 
∆P0x = γ ∆Px − β (0.89.10)
c
∆P y = ∆P y
0
(0.89.11)
∆P0z = ∆Pz (0.89.12)
∆E0 ∆E
 
=γ − β∆Px (0.89.13)
c c

David S. Latchman ©2009

Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation lxv
0.90 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation
We can represent an event in S with the column matrix, s,

 x 
 
 y 
s =  (0.90.1)
 
 z 

 
ict

A different Lorents frame, S0 , corresponds to another set of space time axes so that
 0 
 x 
 y0 
s0 =  0  (0.90.2)
 z 
 0 

FT
ict

The Lorentz Transformation is related by the matrix

 x   γ
 0  
0 0 iγβ   x 
 
 y0   0 1 0 0   y 
 0  =  (0.90.3)
     
 z   0 0 1 0   z 
  
ict0 −iγβ 0 0 γ ict
RA
We can express the equation in the form

s0 = L s (0.90.4)

The matrix L contains all the information needed to relate position four–vectors for
any given event as observed in the two Lorentz frames S and S0 . If we evaluate

 x 
 
h i  y 
sT s = x y z ict   = x2 + y2 + z2 − c2 t2 (0.90.5)
 z 
 
ict
D

Similarly we can show that

s0T s0 = x02 + y02 + z02 − c2 t02 (0.90.6)

We can take any collection of four physical quantities to be four vector provided that
they transform to another Lorentz frame. Thus we have

 bx 
 
 b 
b =  y  (0.90.7)
 
 bz 
 
ibt

this can be transformed into a set of quantities of b0 in another frame S0 such that it
satisfies the transformation
b0 = L b (0.90.8)

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxvi Special Relativity
Looking at the momentum-Energy four vector, we have

 px 
 
 p 
p =  y  (0.90.9)
 
 pz 
 
iE/c
Applying the same transformation rule, we have
p0 = L p (0.90.10)
We can also get a Lorentz-invariation relation between momentum and energy such
that
p0T p0 = pT p (0.90.11)
The resulting equality gives

FT
E02 E2
x + p y + pz −
p02 = + +
02 02 2 2 2
px p y p z − (0.90.12)
c2 c2

0.91 Velocity Addition

v−u
v0 = (0.91.1)
1 − uv
RA
c2

0.92 Relativistic Doppler Formula

r r
c+u c−u
ῡ = υ0 let r = (0.92.1)
c−u c+u
We have
ῡreceding = rυ0 red-shift (Source Receding) (0.92.2)
D

υ0
ῡapproaching = blue-shift (Source Approaching) (0.92.3)
r

0.93 Lorentz Transformations

Given two reference frames S(x, y, z, t) and S0 (x0 , y0 , z0 , t0 ), where the S0 -frame is moving
in the x-direction, we have,
x0 = γ (x − ut) x = (x0 − ut0 ) (0.93.1)
y0 = y y = y0 (0.93.2)
z0 = y y0 = y (0.93.3)
u u 0
   
t = γ t − 2x
0
t = γ t + 2x
0
(0.93.4)
c c

David S. Latchman ©2009

Space-Time Interval lxvii
0.94 Space-Time Interval

(∆S)2 = (∆x)2 + ∆y 2 + (∆z)2 − c2 (∆t)2

(0.94.1)
Space-Time Intervals may be categorized into three types depending on their separa-
tion. They are

Time-like Interval

c2 ∆t2 > ∆r2 (0.94.2)

∆S > 0
2
(0.94.3)

When two events are separated by a time-like interval, there is a cause-effect

relationship between the two events.

FT
Light-like Interval

c2 ∆t2 = ∆r2 (0.94.4)

S2 = 0 (0.94.5)

Space-like Intervals
RA
c2 ∆t2 < ∆r2 (0.94.6)
∆S < 0 (0.94.7)
D

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxviii Special Relativity

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Laboratory Methods

0.95 Data and Error Analysis

0.95.1 Addition and Subtraction

The Error in x is

FT
x=a+b−c

(δx)2 = (δa)2 + (δb)2 + (δc)2

(0.95.1)

(0.95.2)
RA
0.95.2 Multiplication and Division

a×b
x= (0.95.3)
c
The error in x is
!2
δx δa δb δc
 2  2  2
= + + (0.95.4)
x a b c
D

0.95.3 Exponent - (No Error in b)

x = ab (0.95.5)
The Error in x is
δx δa
 
=b (0.95.6)
x a

0.95.4 Logarithms

Base e

x = ln a (0.95.7)
lxx Laboratory Methods
We find the error in x by taking the derivative on both sides, so

d ln a
δx = · δa
da
1
= · δa
a
δa
= (0.95.8)
a

Base 10

x = log10 a (0.95.9)

FT
The Error in x can be derived as such

d(log a)
δx = δa
da
ln a
ln 10
= δa
da
1 δa
=
ln 10 a
δa
RA
= 0.434 (0.95.10)
a

0.95.5 Antilogs

Base e

x = ea (0.95.11)
We take the natural log on both sides.
D

ln x = a ln e = a (0.95.12)

Applaying the same general method, we see

d ln x
δx = δa
dx
δx
⇒ = δa (0.95.13)
x

Base 10

x = 10a (0.95.14)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Instrumentation lxxi
We follow the same general procedure as above to get
log x = a log 10
log x
δx = δa
dx
1 d ln a
δx = δa
ln 10 dx
δx
= ln 10δa (0.95.15)
x

0.96 Instrumentation
2

0.97
3

0.98
Radiation Detection

Counting Statistics
FT
RA
Let’s assume that for a particular experiment, we are making countung measurements
for a radioactive source. In this experiment, we recored N counts in time T. The
counting rate for this trial is R = N/T. This rate should be close to the average
√ rate, R̄.
The standard deviation or the uncertainty of our count is a simply called the N rule.
So √
σ= N (0.98.1)
Thus we can report our results as
√
D

Number of counts = N ± N (0.98.2)

We can find the count rate by dividing by T, so
√
N N
R= ± (0.98.3)
T T
δN
The fractional uncertainty of our count is N
. We can relate this in terms of the count
rate.
δN
δR T δN
= N
=
R T
N
√
N
=
N
1
= (0.98.4)
N

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxii Laboratory Methods
We see that our uncertainty decreases as we take more counts, as to be expected.

0.99 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter

5

0.100 Lasers and Optical Interferometers

6

FT
0.101 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is used to understand physical situations involving a mis of
different types of physical quantities. The dimensions of a physical quantity are
associated with combinations of mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature,
represented by symbols M, L, T, Q, and θ, respectively, each raised to rational powers.
RA
0.102 Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statis-
tics
8
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

GR8677 Exam Solutions

0.103 Motion of Rock under Drag Force

From the information provided we can come up with an equation of motion for the

FT
rock.
mẍ = −mg − kv (0.103.1)
If you have seen this type of equation, and solved it, you’d know that the rock’s speed
will asymtotically increase to some max speed. At that point the drag force and the
force due to gravity will be the same. We can best answer this question through analysis
and elimination.
RA
A Dividing eq. (0.103.1) by m gives

k
ẍ = −g − ẋ (0.103.2)
m
We see that this only occurs when ẋ = 0, which only happens at the top of the
flight. So FALSE.

B At the top of the flight, v = 0. From eq. (0.103.2)

⇒ ẍ = g (0.103.3)
D

we see that this is TRUE.

C Again from eq. (0.103.2) we see that the acceleration is dependent on whether the
rock is moving up or down. If ẋ > 0 then ẍ < −g and if ẋ < 0 then ẍ > −g. So this
is also FALSE.

D If there was no drag (fictional) force, then energy would be conserved and the rock
will return at the speed it started with but there is a drag force so energy is lost.
The speed the rock returns is v < v0 . Hence FALSE.

E Again FALSE. Once the drag force and the gravitational force acting on the rock is
balanced the rock won’t accelerate.

Answer: (B)
lxxiv GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.104 Satellite Orbits
The question states that the astronaut fires the rocket’s jets towards Earth’s center. We
infer that no extra energy is given to the system by this process. Section 0.7.5, shows
that the only other orbit where the specific energy is also negative is an elliptical one.
Answer: (A)

0.105 Speed of Light in a Dielectric Medium

Solutions to the Electromagnetic wave equation gives us the speed of light in terms of
the electromagnetic permeability, µ0 and permitivitty, 0 .

FT
1
c= √ (0.105.1)
µ0 0
where c is the speed of light. The speed through a dielectric medium becomes
1
v = √
µ0
1
=
2.1µ0 0
p
RA
c
= √ (0.105.2)
2.1
Answer: (D)

0.106 Wave Equation

We are given the equation
t x
 
y = A sin
D

− (0.106.1)
T λ
We can analyze and eliminate from what we know about this equation

A The Amplitude, A in the equation is the displacement from equilibrium. So this

choice is incorrect.
 
B As the wave moves, we seek to keep the Tt − λx term constant. So as t increases, we
expect x to increase as well as there is a negative sign in front of it. This means
that the wave moves in the positive x-direction. This choice is also incorrect.
 
C The phase of the wave is given by Tt − λx , we can do some manipulation to show
t x
 
2π − = 2π f t − kx = 0
T λ
= ωt − kx (0.106.2)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Inelastic Collision and Putty Spheres lxxv
Or rather
kx = ωt (0.106.3)
Differentiating eq. (0.106.3) gives us the phase speed, which is
λ
v= (0.106.4)
T
This is also incorrect
E From eq. (0.106.4) the above we see that is the answer.

Answer: (E)

0.107 Inelastic Collision and Putty Spheres

Thus
Mgh0 = Mv20
2

v20 = 2gh0
FT
We are told the two masses coalesce so we know that the collision is inelastic and
hence, energy is not conserved. As mass A falls, it looses Potential Energy and gains
Kinetic Energy.
1
(0.107.1)

(0.107.2)
RA
Upon collision, momentum is conserved, thus
Mv0 = (3M + M) v1
= 4Mv1
v0
⇒ v1 = (0.107.3)
4
The fused putty mass rises, kinetic energy is converted to potential energy and we find
our final height.
1
(4M) v21 = 4Mgh1 (0.107.4)
D

2
This becomes
v21 = 2gh1 (0.107.5)
Substituting eq. (0.107.3), we get
2
v0

= 2gh1 (0.107.6)
4
and substituting, eq. (0.107.2),
2gh0
= 2gh1 (0.107.7)
16
Solving for h1 ,
h0
h1 = (0.107.8)
16
Answer: (A)

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxvi GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.108 Motion of a Particle along a Track
As the particle moves from the top of the track and runs down the frictionless track,
its Gravitational Potential Energy is converted to Kinetic Energy. Let’s assume that the
particle is at a height, y0 when x = 0. Since energy is conserved, we get3
1
mgy0 = mg(y0 − y) + mv2
2
1 2
⇒ v = gy (0.108.1)
2
So we have a relationship between v and the particle’s position on the track.
The tangential acceleration in this case is
mv2

FT
mg cos θ = (0.108.2)
r
where r is the radius of curvature and is equal to x2 + y2 .
p

Substituting this into eq. (0.108.2) gives

v2
g cos θ =
r
gx2
RA
=
2 x2 + y2
p
gx
= √ (0.108.3)
x2 + 4
Answer: (D)

0.109 Resolving Force Components

D

This question is a simple matter of resolving the horizontal and vertical components
of the tension along the rope. We have

T sin θ = F (0.109.1)
T cos θ = mg (0.109.2)

Thus we get
F
tan θ =
mg
10 1
= ≈ (0.109.3)
(2)(9.8) 2
Answer: (A)
3
Insert Free Body Diagram of particle along track.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Nail being driven into a block of wood lxxvii
0.110 Nail being driven into a block of wood

We recall that
v2 = v20 + 2as (0.110.1)

where v, v0 , a and s are the final speed, initial speed, acceleration and displacement
that the nail travels. Now it’s just a matter of plugging in what we know

0 = 100 + 2a(0.025)
100
⇒a=− = −2000 m s−2 (0.110.2)
2(0.025)

The Force on the nail comes from Newton’s Second Law

FT
F = ma
= 5 · 2000 = 10 000 N (0.110.3)

Answer: (D)

0.111 Current Density

RA
We can find the drift velocity from the current density equation

J = envd (0.111.1)

where e is the charge of an electron, n is the density of electrons per unit volume and
vd is the drift speed. Plugging in what we already know

I
J=
A
I =nAvd e
D

I
vd =
nAe
100
= (0.111.2)
π × 2 × 10−4
(1 × 1028 ) 1.6 × 10−19
4
paying attention to the indices of the equation we get

2 − 28 + 4 + 19 = −4 (0.111.3)

So we expect an answer where vd ≈ 10−4 m s−1 .4

Answer: (D)
4
It also helps if you knew that the electron drift velocity was slow, in the order of mm/s.

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxviii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.112 Charge inside an Isolated Sphere

You can answer this by thinking about Gauss’ Law. The bigger the Gaussian surface
the more charge it encloses and the bigger the electric field. Beyond the radius of the
sphere, the field decreases exponentially5 .
We can calculate these relationships by using Gauss’ Law.
I
Qenclosed
E · dS = (0.112.1)
0
S

where the current density, ρ is

Q Qenclosed
ρ= =

FT
(0.112.2)
4
3
πR3 4
3
πr3

where R is the radius of the sphere.

for r < R The enclosed charge becomes

4 3 Qr3
 
Qenclosed = ρ πr = 3 (0.112.3)
3 R
RA
Gauss’ Law becomes
  Qr3
E 4πr2 = (0.112.4)
0 R3
The Electric field is
Qr
E(r<R) = (0.112.5)
4π0 R3
This is a linear relationship with respect to r.
D

for r ≥ R The enclosed charge is

Qenclosed = Q (0.112.6)
Gauss’ Law becomes
  Q
E 4πr2 = (0.112.7)
0
The Electric field is
Q
E(r≥R) = (0.112.8)
4π0 r2

The linear increase is exhibited by choice (C).

Answer: (C)
5
Draw diagrams.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Vector Identities and Maxwell’s Laws lxxix
0.113 Vector Identities and Maxwell’s Laws
We recall the vector identity
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0 (0.113.1)
Thus
 
∇ · (∇ × H) = ∇ · Ḋ + J
=0 (0.113.2)
Answer: (A)

0.114 Doppler Equation (Non-Relativistic)

FT
We recall the Doppler Equation6

v − vr
 
f = f0 (0.114.1)
v − vs

where vr and vs are the observer and source speeds respectively. We are told that vr = 0
and vs = 0.9v. Thus
RA
v
 
f = f0
v − 0.9v
= 10 f0
= 10 kHz (0.114.2)
Answer: (E)

0.115 Vibrating Interference Pattern

D

Answering this question takes some analysis. The sources are coherent, so they will
produce an interference pattern. We are also told that ∆ f = 500 Hz. This will produce
a shifting interference pattern that changes too fast for the eye to see.7
Answer: (E)

0.116 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure and Volume

From section 0.65 and section 0.66, we see that
Cp = CV + R (0.116.1)
6
Add reference to Dopler Equations.
7
Add Young’s Double Slit Experiment equations.

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxx GR8677 Exam Solutions
The difference is due to the work done in the environment by the gas when it expands
under constant pressure.
We can prove this by starting with the First Law of Thermodynamics.
dU = −dW + dQ (0.116.2)
Where dU is the change in Internal Energy, dW is the work done by the system and dQ
is the change in heat of the system.
We also recall the definition for Heat Capacity
dQ = CdT (0.116.3)

At constant volume, there is no work done by the system, dV = 0. So it follows that

dW = 0. The change in internal energy is the change of heat into the system, thus we

FT
can define, the heat capacity at constant volume to be
dUV = CV dT = dQV (0.116.4)
At constant pressure, the change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in heat
flow as well as a change in the volume of the gas, thus
dUp = −dWp + dQp
= −pdV + Cp dT where pdV = nRdT
= −nRdT + Cp dT
RA
(0.116.5)
If the changes in internal energies are the same in both cases, then eq. (0.116.5) is equal
to eq. (0.116.4). Thus
CV dT = −nRdT + Cp dT
This becomes
Cp = CV + nR (0.116.6)
We see the reason why Cp > CV is due to the addition of work on the system; eq. (0.116.4)
shows no work done by the gas while eq. (0.116.5) shows that there is work done.
Answer: (A)
D

0.117 Helium atoms in a box

Let’s say the probability of the atoms being inside the box is 1. So the probability that
an atom will be found outside of a 1.0 × 10−6 cm3 box is
P = 1 − 1.0 × 10−6 (0.117.1)
As there are N atoms and the probability of finding one is mutually exclusive of the
other, the probabolity becomes
 N
P = 1 − 1.0 × 10−6 (0.117.2)
Answer: (C)

David S. Latchman ©2009

The Muon lxxxi
0.118 The Muon

It helps knowing what these particles are

Muon The muon, is a lepton, like the electron. It has the ame charge, −e and spin, 1/2,
as the electron execpt it’s about 200 times heavier. It’s known as a heavy electron.

Electron This is the answer.

Graviton This is a hypothetical particle that mediates the force of gravity. It has no
charge, no mass and a spin of 2. Nothing like an electron.

FT
Photon The photon is the quantum of the electromagnetic field. It has no charge or
mass and a spin of 1. Again nothing like an electron.

Pion The Pion belongs to the meson family. Again, nothing like leptons.

Proton This ia a sub atomic particle and is found in the nucleus of all atoms. Nothing
like an electron.
RA
Answer: (A)

0.119 Radioactive Decay

From the changes in the Mass and Atomic numbers after the subsequent decays, we
expect an α and β decay.
D

Alpha Decay
Z−2 X +2 α
A
ZX →A−4 0 4
(0.119.1)

Beta Decay
A
ZX →AZ+1 X0 +−1 e− + ῡe (0.119.2)

Combining both gives

A
ZX
A−4
→Z−2 X0 +42 α →AZ−1 Y +−1 e− + ῡe (0.119.3)

Answer: (B)

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxxii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.120 Schrödinger’s Equation

We recall that Schrödinger’s Equation is

~2 ∂2 ψ
Eψ = − + V(x)ψ (0.120.1)
2m ∂x2

Given that ( 2 2)
bx
ψ(x) = A exp − (0.120.2)
2
We differentiate and get
∂2 ψ  4 2 
= b x − b 2
ψ (0.120.3)
∂x2

FT
Plugging into Schrödinger’s Equation, eq. (0.120.1), gives us

~2  4 2 
Eψ = − b x − b2 ψ + V(x)ψ (0.120.4)
2m
Applying the boundary condition at x = 0 gives

~2 2
Eψ = bψ (0.120.5)
RA
2m
This gives
~2 b2 ~2  4 2 
ψ=− b x − b2 ψ + V(x)ψ (0.120.6)
2m 2m
Solving for V(x) gives
~2 b4 x2
V(x) = (0.120.7)
2m
Answer: (B)
D

0.121 Energy Levels of Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom

We recall that the Energy Levels for the Hydrogen atom is

Z2
En = − 13.6eV (0.121.1)
n2

where Z is the atomic number and n is the quantum number. This can easily be reduced
to
A
En = − 2 (0.121.2)
n
Answer: (E)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Relativistic Energy lxxxiii
0.122 Relativistic Energy
The Rest Energy of a particle is given

E = mc2 (0.122.1)

The Relativistic Energy is for a relativistic particle moving at speed v

E = γv mc2 (0.122.2)

We are told that a kaon moving at relativistic speeds has the same energy as the rest
mass as a proton. Thus
EK + = Ep (0.122.3)
where

FT
EK+ = γv mK+ c2 (0.122.4)
Ep = mp c 2
(0.122.5)

Equating both together gives

mp
γv =
mK+
939
=
RA
494
940
≈ (0.122.6)
500
This becomes !−1/2
v2
γv = 1 − 2 ≈ 1.88 (0.122.7)
c
This is going to take some approximations and estimations but
!−1
v2
1− 2 = 3.6 (0.122.8)
D

c
which works out to
v2
= 0.75 (0.122.9)
c2
We expect this to be close to the 0.85c answer.
Answer: (E)

0.123 Space-Time Interval

We recall the Space-Time Interval from section 0.94.

(∆S)2 = (∆x)2 + ∆y 2 + (∆z)2 − c2 (∆t)2

(0.123.1)

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxxiv GR8677 Exam Solutions
We get

∆S2 = (5 − 3)2 + (3 − 3)2 + (3 − 1)2 − c2 (5 − 3)2

= 22 + 02 + 22 − 22
= 22
∆S = 2 (0.123.2)

Answer: (C)

0.124 Lorentz Transformation of the EM field

Lorentz transformations show that electric and magnetic fields are different aspects of

FT
the same force; the electromagnetic force. If there was one stationary charge in our
rest frame, we would observe an electric field. If we were to move to a moving frame
of reference, Lorentz transformations predicts the presence of an additional magnetic
field.
Answer: (B)

0.125 Conductivity of a Metal and Semi-Conductor

RA
More of a test of what you know.

A Copper is a conductor so we expect its conductivity to be much greater than that of

a semiconductor. TRUE.

B As the temperature of the conductor is increased its atoms vibrate more and disrupt
the flow of electrons. As a result, resistance increases. TRUE.
D

C Different process. As temperature increases, electrons gain more energy to jump the
energy barrier into the conducting region. So conductivity increases. TRUE.

D You may have paused to think for this one but this is TRUE. The addition of an
impurity causes an increase of electron scattering off the impurity atoms. As a
result, resistance increases.8

E The effect of adding an impurity on a semiconductor’s conductivity depends on

how many extra valence electrons it adds or subtracts; you can either widen or
narrow the energy bandgap. This is of crucial importance to electronics today.
So this is FALSE.

Answer: (E)
8
There are one or two cases where this is not true. The addition of Silver increases the conductivity
of Copper. But the conductivity will still be less than pure silver.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Charging a Battery lxxxv
0.126 Charging a Battery

The Potential Difference across the resistor, R is

PD = 120 − 100 = 20 V (0.126.1)

The Total Resistance is

V
R+r=
I
20
=
10
R+1=2
⇒ R = 1Ω (0.126.2)

Answer: (C)

0.127
FT
Lorentz Force on a Charged Particle

We are told that the charged particle is released from rest in the electric and magnetic
RA
fields. The charged particle will experience a force from the magnetic field only when
it moves perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines. The particle will
move along the direction of the electric field.
We can also anylize this by looking at the Lorentz Force equation

Fq = q [E + (v × B)] (0.127.1)

v is in the same direction as B so the cross product between them is zero. We are left
with
Fq = qE
D

(0.127.2)
The force is directed along the electrical field line and hence it moves in a straight line.
Answer: (E)

0.128 K-Series X-Rays

To calculate we look at the energy levels for the Bohr atom. As the Bohr atom considers
the energy levels for the Hydrogen atom, we need to modify it somewhat
 
 1 1 
En = Z2  2 − 2  13.6eV (0.128.1)
eff n ni
f

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxxvi GR8677 Exam Solutions
where Zeff is the effective atomic number and n f and ni are the energy levels. For the
n f = 1 transition
Zeff = Z − 1 (0.128.2)
where Z = 28 for nickle. As the electrons come in from ni = ∞, eq. (0.128.1) becomes

1 1
 
2
E1 = (28 − 1) − 13.6eV (0.128.3)
12 ∞2
This works out to

E1 = (272 )13.6eV
≈ (30)2 × 13.6eV (0.128.4)

This takes us in the keV range.

FT
Answer: (D)

0.129 Electrons and Spin

It helps if you knew some facts here.

RA
A The periodic table’s arrangement of elements tells us about the chemical properties
of an element and these properties are dependent on the valent electrons. How
these valent electrons are arranged is, of course, dependent on spin. So this
choice is TRUE.

B The energy of an electron is quantized and obey the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. All
the electrons are accommodated from the lowest state up to the Fermi Level and
the distribution among levels is described by the Fermi distribution function,
f (E), which defines the probability that the energy level, E, is occupied by an
D

electron.
1, E < EF
(
f (E) =
0, E > EF
where f (E) is the Fermi-Dirac Distribution

1
f (E) = (0.129.1)
eE−EF /kT +1
As a system goes above 0K, thermal energy may excite to higher energy states
but this energy is not shared equally by all the electrons. The way energy is
distributed comes about from the exclusion principle, the energy an electron my
absorb at room temperature is kT which is much smaller than EF = 5eV. We can
define a Fermi Temperature,
EF = kTF (0.129.2)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Normalizing a wavefunction lxxxvii
which works out to be, TF = 60000K. Thus only electrons close to this temperature
can be excited as the levels above EF are empty. This results in a small number of
electrons being able to be thermally excited and the low electronic specific heat.

π2
!
T
C= Nk where kT << EF
2 Tf

So this choice is also TRUE.

C The Zeeman Effect describes what happens to Hydrogen spectral lines in a magnetic
field; the spectral lines split. In some atoms, there were further splits in spectral
lines that couldn’t be explained by magnetic dipole moments. The explanation
for this additional splitting was discovered to be due to electron spin.9

FT
D The deflection of an electron in a uniform magnetic field deflects only in one way
and demonstrates none of the electron’s spin properties. Electrons can be de-
flected depending on their spin if placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, as was
demonstrated in the Stern-Gerlach Experiment.10

E When the Hydrogen spectrum is observed at a very high resolution, closely spaced
doublets are observed. This was one of the first experimental evidence for electron
spin.11
RA
Answer: (D)

0.130 Normalizing a wavefunction

We are given
ψ(φ) = Aeimφ (0.130.1)
D

Normalizing a function means

Z ∞
|Ψ(x)|2 dx = 1 (0.130.2)
−∞

In this case, we want

Z 2π  2
ψ(φ) dφ = 1 (0.130.3)
0

and that  2
ψ(x) = ψ∗ (x)ψ(x) (0.130.4)
9
Write up on Zeeman and anomalous Zeemen effects
10
Write up on Stern-Gerlach Experiment
11
Write up on Fine Structure

©2009 David S. Latchman

lxxxviii GR8677 Exam Solutions
So
 2
⇒ ψ(φ) = A2 eimφ e−imφ
Z 2π
A 2
dφ = 1
0
A2 [2π − 0] = 1
1
⇒A = √ (0.130.5)
2π

0.131 Right Hand Rule

FT
First we use the ‘Grip’ rule to tell what direction the magnetic field lines are going.
Assuming the wire and current are coming out of the page, the magnetic field is in a
clockwise direction around the wire. Now we can turn to Fleming’s Right Hand Rule,
to solve the rest of the question.
As we want the force acting on our charge to be parallel to the current direction, we
see that this will happen when the charge moves towards the wire12 .
Answer: (A)
RA
0.132 Electron Configuration of a Potassium atom

We can alalyze and eliminate

A The n = 3 shell has unfilled d-subshells. So this is NOT TRUE.

D

B The 4s subshell only has one electron. The s subshell can ‘hold’ two electrons so this
is also NOT TRUE.

C Unknown.

D The sum of all the electrons, we add all the superscripts, gives 19. As this is a
ground state, a lone potassium atom, we can tell that the atomic number is 19.
So this is NOT TRUE.

E Potassium has one outer electron, like Hydrogen. So it will also have a spherically
symmetrical charge distribution.

12
Don’t forget to bring your right hand to the exam

David S. Latchman ©2009

Photoelectric Effect I lxxxix
0.133 Photoelectric Effect I

We are given
|eV| = hυ − W (0.133.1)

We recall that V is the stopping potential, the voltage needed to bring the current to
zero. As electrons are negatively charged, we expect this voltage to be negative.
Answer: (A)

0.134 Photoelectric Effect II

FT
Some history needs to be known here. The photoelectric effect was one of the exper-
iments that proved that light was absorbed in discreet packets of energy. This is the
experimental evidence that won Einstein the Nobel Prize in 1921.
Answer: (D)

0.135 Photoelectric Effect III

RA
The quantity W is known as the work function of the metal. This is the energy that is
needed to just liberate an electron from its surface.
Answer: (D)

0.136 Potential Energy of a Body

D

We recall that
dU
F=− (0.136.1)
dx
Given that
U = kx4 (0.136.2)

The force on the body becomes

d 4
F = − kx
dx
= −4kx3 (0.136.3)

Answer: (B)

©2009 David S. Latchman

xc GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.137 Hamiltonian of a Body
The Hamiltonian of a body is simply the sum of the potential and kinetic energies.
That is
H =T+V (0.137.1)
where T is the kinetic energy and V is the potential energy. Thus
1
H = mv2 + kx4 (0.137.2)
2
We can also express the kinetic energy in terms of momentum, p. So
p2
H= + kx4 (0.137.3)
2m

FT
Answer: (A)

0.138 Principle of Least Action

Hamilton’s Principle of Least Action13 states
Z
Φ=




T q(t), q̇(t) − V q(t) dt (0.138.1)
RA
T

where T is the kinetic energy and V is the potential energy. This becomes
Z t2 
1 2

Φ= 4
mv − kx dt (0.138.2)
t1 2
Answer: (A)

0.139 Tension in a Conical Pendulum

D

This is a simple case of resolving the horizontal and vertical components of forces. So
we have
T cos θ = mg (0.139.1)
T sin θ = mrω2 (0.139.2)
Squaring the above two equations and adding gives
T2 = m2 g2 + m2 r2 ω4 (0.139.3)
Leaving us with  
T = m g2 + r2 ω4 (0.139.4)
Answer: (E)
13
Write something on this

David S. Latchman ©2009

Diode OR-gate xci
0.140 Diode OR-gate
This is an OR gate and can be illustrated by the truth table below.

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Table 0.140.1: Truth Table for OR-gate

FT
Answer: (A)

0.141 Gain of an Amplifier vs. Angular Frequency

We are given that the amplifier has some sort of relationship where
G = Kωa (0.141.1)
RA
falls outside of the amplifier bandwidth region. This is that ‘linear’ part of the graph
on the log-log graph. From the graph, we see that, G = 102 , for ω = 3 × 105 second-1 .
Substituting, we get
 a
102 = K 3 × 105
h  i
∴ log(102 ) = a log K 3.5 × 105
⇒a≈2−5 (0.141.2)
We can roughly estimate by subtracting the indices. So our relationship is of the form
D

G = Kω−2 (0.141.3)
Answer: (E)

0.142 Counting Statistics

√
We recall from section 0.98 , that he standard deviation of a counting rate is σ = N ,
where N is the number of counts. We have a count of N = 9934, so the standard
deviation is
√ √
σ = N = 9934
√
≈ 10000
= 100 (0.142.1)

©2009 David S. Latchman

xcii GR8677 Exam Solutions
Answer: (A)

0.143 Binding Energy per Nucleon

More of a knowledge based question. Iron is the most stable of all the others.14
Answer: (C)

0.144 Scattering Cross Section

We are told the particle density of our scatterer is ρ = 1020 nuclei per cubic centimeter.

FT
Given the thickness of our scatterer is ` = 0.1 cm, the cross sectional area is
N
ρ=
V
N
=
A`
N
⇒A= (0.144.1)
ρ`
RA
Now the probability of striking a proton is 1 in a million. So

1 × 10−6
A=
1020 × 0.1
= 10−25 cm2 (0.144.2)

Answer: (C)

0.145 Coupled Oscillators

D

There are two ways this system can oscillate, one mass on the end moves a lot and the
other two move out of in the opposite directions but not as much or the centermass
can be stationary and the two masses on the end move out of phase with each other. In
the latter case, as there isn’t any energy transfer between the masses, the period would
be that of a single mass-spring system. The frequency of this would simply be
r
1 k
f = (0.145.1)
2π m
where k is the spring constant and m is the mass.
Answer: (B)
14
Write up on Binding Energy

David S. Latchman ©2009

Coupled Oscillators xciii
0.145.1 Calculating the modes of oscillation

In case you require a more rigorous approach, we can calculate the modes of oscillation.
The Lagrangian of the system is
L=T−V
1 h i 1 h i
= m ẋ21 + 2ẋ22 + ẋ23 − k (x2 − x2 )2 + (x3 − x2 )2 (0.145.2)
2 2
The equation of motion can be found from
d ∂L ∂L
!
= (0.145.3)
dt ∂ẋn ∂xn
The equations of motion are

FT
mẍ1 = k (x2 − x1 ) (0.145.4)
2mẍ2 = kx1 − 2kx2 + kx3 (0.145.5)
mẍ3 = −k (x3 − x2 ) (0.145.6)
The solutions of the equations are
x1 = A cos(ωt) x2 = B cos(ωt) x3 = C cos(ωt)
(0.145.7)
ẍ1 = −ω2 x1 ẍ2 = −ω2 x2 ẍ3 = −ω2 x3
RA
Solving this, we get
 
k − mω2 x1 − kx2 = 0 (0.145.8)
 
−kx1 + 2k − 2mω2 x2 − kx3 = 0 (0.145.9)
 
−kx2 + k − mω2 x3 = 0 (0.145.10)
We can solve the modes of oscillation by solving
 
k − mω2 −k 0 
 −k 2k − 2mω2 −k  = 0 (0.145.11)
k − mω2 
D

0 −k
 

Finding the determinant results in

   2  h  i
k − mω 2 k − mω − k − k k k − mω2
2 2 2
(0.145.12)

Solving, we get √
k k 2k
ω= ; ± (0.145.13)
m m m
Substituting ω = k/m into the equations of motion, we get
x1 = −x3 (0.145.14)
x2 = 0 (0.145.15)
We see that the two masses on the ends move out of phase with each other and the
middle one is stationary.

©2009 David S. Latchman

xciv GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.146 Collision with a Rod
Momentum will be conserved, so we can say

mv = MV
mv
V= (0.146.1)
M
Answer: (A)

0.147 Compton Wavelength

We recall from section 0.83.2, the Compton Equation from eq. (0.83.12)

FT
∆λ = λ0 − λ =

Let θ = 90◦ , we get the Compton Wavelength

λc =
h
mc

h
mc
(1 − cos θ) (0.147.1)

(0.147.2)
RA
where m is the mass of the proton, mp , thus

h
λc = (0.147.3)
mp c
Answer: (C)

0.148 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Equation

D

We recall the Stefan-Boltzmann’s Equation, eq. (0.61.1)

P(T) = σT4 (0.148.1)

At temperature, T1 ,
P1 = σT1 = 10 mW (0.148.2)
We are given T2 = 2T1 , so

P2 = σT24
= σ (2T1 )4
= 16T14
= 16P1 = 160 mW (0.148.3)

Answer: (E)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Franck-Hertz Experiment xcv
0.149 Franck-Hertz Experiment
The Franck-Hertz Experiment as seen in section 0.84.3 deals with the manner in which
electrons of certain energies scatter or collide with Mercury atoms. At certain energy
levels, the Mercury atoms can ‘absorb’ the electrons energy and be excited and this
occurs in discreet steps.
Answer: (C)

0.150 Selection Rules for Electronic Transitions

We recall the selection rules for photon emission

FT
∆` = ±1 Orbital angular momentum
∆m` = 0, ±1 Magnetic quantum number
∆ms = 0 Secondary spin quantum number,
∆j = 0, ±1 Total angular momentum

NOT FINISHED
Answer: (D)
RA
0.151 The Hamilton Operator
The time-independent Schrödinger equation can be written

Ĥψ = Eψ (0.151.1)

We can determine the energy of a quantum particle by regarding the classical nonrel-
ativistic relationship as an equality of expectation values.
D

* 2+
p
hHi = + hVi (0.151.2)
2m

We can solve this through the substition of a momentum operator

~ ∂
p→ (0.151.3)
i ∂x
Substituting this into eq. (0.151.2) gives us
Z +∞ "
∂ 2
#
~
hHi = ψ∗ − ψ + V(x)ψ dx
−∞ 2m ∂x2
Z +∞
∂
= ψ∗ i~ ψdx (0.151.4)
−∞ ∂t

©2009 David S. Latchman

xcvi GR8677 Exam Solutions
We know from the Schrödinger Time Dependent Equation

~2 ∂2 Ψ ∂Ψ
− + V(x)Ψ = i~ (0.151.5)
2m ∂x 2 ∂t

So we can get a Hamiltonian operator

∂
H → i~ (0.151.6)
∂t

Answer: (B)

0.152 Hall Effect

FT
The Hall Effect describes the production of a potential difference across a current
carrying conductor that has been placed in a magnetic field. The magnetic field is
directed perpendicularly to the electrical current.
As a charge carrier, an electron, moves through the conductor, the Lorentz Force will
cause a deviation in the carge carrier’s motion so that more charges accumulate in one
location than another. This asymmetric distribution of charges produces an electric
RA
field that prevents the build up of more electrons. This ‘equilibrium’ voltage across the
conductor is known as the Hall Voltage and remains as long as a current flows through
our conductor.
As the deflection and hence, the Hall Voltage, is determined by the sign of the carrier,
this can be used to measure the sign of charge carriers.
An equilibrium condition is reached when the electric force, generated by the accumu-
lated charge carriers, is equal the the magnetic force, that causes the accumulation of
charge carriers. Thus
Fm = evd B Fe = eE (0.152.1)
D

The current through the conductor is

I = nAvd e (0.152.2)

For a conductor of width, w and thickness, d, there is a Hall voltage across the width
of the conductor. Thus the electrical force becomes

Fe = eE
EVH
= (0.152.3)
w
The magnetic force is
BI
Fm = (0.152.4)
neA

David S. Latchman ©2009

Debye and Einstein Theories to Specific Heat xcvii
eq. (0.152.3) is equal to eq. (0.152.4), thus
eVH BI
=
w newd
BI
∴ VH = (0.152.5)
ned
So for a measured magnetic field and current, the sign of the Hall voltage gives is the
sign of the charge carrier.
Answer: (C)

0.153 Debye and Einstein Theories to Specific Heat

FT
The determination of the specific heat capacity was first deermined by the Law of
Dulong and Petite. This Law was based on Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics and was
accurate in its predictions except in the region of low temperatures. At that point there
is a departure from prediction and measurements and this is where the Einstein and
Debye models come into play.
Both the Einstein and Debye models begin with the assumption that a crystal is made
up of a lattice of connected quantum harmonic oscillators; choice B.
RA
The Einstein model makes three assumptions

1. Each atom is a three-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillator.

2. Atoms do not interact with each other.
3. Atoms vibrate with the same frequency.

Einstein assumed a quantum oscillator model, similar to that of the black body radi-
ation problem. But despite its success, his theory predicted an exponential decress in
heat capacity towards absolute zero whereas experiments followed a T3 relationship.
D

This was solved in the Debye Model.

The Debye Model looks at phonon contribution to specific heat capacity. This theory
correctly predicted the T3 proportionality at low temperatures but suffered at inteme-
diate temperatures.
Answer: (B)

0.154 Potential inside a Hollow Cube

By applying Gauss’ Law and drawing a Gaussian surface inside the cube, we see that
no charge is enclosed and hence no electric field15 . We can realte the electric field to
15
Draw Cube at potential V with Gaussian Surface enclosing no charge

©2009 David S. Latchman

xcviii GR8677 Exam Solutions
the potential
E = −∇V (0.154.1)
Where V is the potential.
Gauss’ Law shows that with no enclosed charge we have no electric field inside our
cube. Thus
E = −∇V = 0 (0.154.2)
As eq. (0.154.1) is equal to zero, the potential is the same throughout the cube.16
Answer: (E)

0.155 EM Radiation from Oscillating Charges

FT
As the charge particle oscillates, the electric field oscillates as well. As the field oscillates
and changes, we would expect this changing field to affect a distant charge. If we
consider a charge along the xy-plane, looking directly along the x-axis, we won’t “see”
the charge oscillating but we would see it clearly if we look down the y-axis. If we
were to visualize the field, it would look like a doughnut around the x-axis. Based on
that analysis, we choose (C)
Answer: (C)
RA
0.156 Polarization Charge Density

D = 0 E + P (0.156.1)

∇ · D = 0 ∇ · E + ∇ · P
D ∇ · E
= − σp
D

κ
Answer: (E)17

0.157 Kinetic Energy of Electrons in Metals

Electrons belong to a group known as fermions18 and as a result obey the Pauli Exclu-
sion Principle19 . So in the case of a metal, there are many fermions present each with
16
As we expect there to be no Electric Field, we must expect the potential to be the same throughout
the space of the cube. If there were differences, a charge place inside the cube would move.
17
Check Polarization in Griffiths
18
Examples of fermions include electrons, protons and neutrons
19
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two fermions may occupy the same quantum state

David S. Latchman ©2009

Expectation or Mean Value xcix
a different set of quantum numbers. The electron with the highest energy state is has
an energy value known as the Fermi Energy.
NOT FINISHED
Answer: (B)

0.158 Expectation or Mean Value

This is a definition question. The question states that for an operator Q,
Z +∞
hQi = ψ∗ Qψdx (0.158.1)
−∞

FT
This is the very definition of the expectation or mean value of Q.
Answer: (C)

0.159 Eigenfuction of Wavefunction

We are given the momentum operator as
RA
∂
p = −i~ (0.159.1)
∂x
With an eigenvalue of ~k. We can do this by trying each solution and seeing if they
match20
∂ψ
− i~ = ~kψ (0.159.2)
∂x
A: ψ = cos kx We expect ψ, to have the form of an exponential function. Substituting
this into the eigenfuntion, eq. (0.159.2), we have
D

∂
−i~ cos kx = −i~ (−k sin kx)
∂x
= i~k sin kx , ~kψ
ψ does not surive our differentiation and so we can eliminate it.
B: ψ = sin kx This is a similar case to the one above and we can eliminate for this
reason.
∂
−i~ sin kx = −i~ (k cos kx)
∂x
= −i~k cos kx , ~kψ
20
We can eliminate choices (A) & (B) as we would expect the answer to be an exponential function in
this case. These choices were just done for illustrative purposes and you should know to avoid them in
the exam.

©2009 David S. Latchman

c GR8677 Exam Solutions
Again we see that ψ does not survive when we apply our operator and so we can
eliminate this choice as well.

C: ψ = exp −ikx Substituting this into eq. (0.159.2), gives

∂ −ikx  
−i~ e = −i~ −ike−ikx
∂x
= −~ke−ikx , ~kψ

Close but we are off, so we can eliminate this choice as well.

D: ψ = exp ikx If the above choice didn’t work, this might be more likely to.

∂ ikx

FT
 
−i~ e = −i~ ikeikx
∂x
= ~ke−ikx = ~kψ

Success, this is our answer.

E: = ψ = exp −kx
RA
∂ −kx  
−i~ e = −i~ −ke−kx
∂x
= −i~ke−kx , ~kψ

Again this choice does not work, so we can eliminate this as well

Answer: (D)
D

0.160 Holograms

The hologram is an image that produces a 3-dimensional image using both the Am-
plitude and Phase of a wave. Coherent, monochromatic light, such as from a laser, is
split into two beams. The object we wish to “photograph” is placed in the path of the
illumination beam and the scattered light falls on the recording medium. The second
beam, the reference beam is reflected unimpeded to the recording medium and these
two beams produces an interference pattern.
The intensity of light recorded on our medium is the same as the scattered light from
our object. The interference pattern is a result of phase changes as light is scattered off
our object. Thus choices (I) and (II) are true.
Answer: (B)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Group Velocity of a Wave ci
0.161 Group Velocity of a Wave
We are given the dispersion relationship of a wave as
  12
ω2 = c2 k2 + m2 (0.161.1)
The Group Velocity of a Wave is
dω
vg = (0.161.2)
dk
By differentiating eq. (0.161.1) with respect to k, we can determine th group velocity
2ωdω = 2c2 kdk
dω c2 k
⇒ =
dk ω

FT
c2 k
= √ (0.161.3)
c2 k2 + m2
We want to examine the cases as k → 0 and k → ∞.
As k → 0, we have
dω c2 0
= √
dk 0 + m2
=0 (0.161.4)
RA
As k → ∞, c2 k2 >> m2 the denominator becomes
√
c2 k 2 + m ≈ c2 k 2 (0.161.5)
Replacing the denominator for our group velocity gives
dω c2 k
= =c (0.161.6)
dk ck
Answer: (E)
D

0.162 Potential Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion

We are given a potential energy of
V(x) = a + bx2 (0.162.1)
We can determine the mass’s spring constant, k, from V 00 (x)
V 00 (x) = 2b = k (0.162.2)
The angular frequency, ω, is
k 2b
ω2 = = (0.162.3)
m m
We see this is dependent on b and m.
Answer: (C)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.163 Rocket Equation I

We recall from the rocket equation that u in this case is the speed of the exaust gas
relative to the rocket.
Answer: (E)

0.164 Rocket Equation II

The rocket equation is

dv dm
m +u =0 (0.164.1)
dt dt

FT
Solving this equation becomes

mdv = udm
Z v Z m
dm
dv = u
0 m0 m
m
 
v = u ln (0.164.2)
m0
RA
This fits none of the answers given.
Answer: (E)

0.165 Surface Charge Density

This question was solved as ‘The Classic Image Problem’. Below is an alternative
method but the principles are the same. Instead of determining the electrical potential,
D

as was done by Griffiths, we will find the electrical field of a dipole and determine the
surface charge density using
σ
E= (0.165.1)
0

Our point charge, −q will induce a +q on the grounded conducting plane. The resulting
electrical field will be due to a combination of the real charge and the ‘virtual’ induced
charge. Thus

E = −E y ĵ = (E− + E+ ) ĵ
= 2E− ĵ (0.165.2)

Remember the two charges are the same, so at any point along the x-axis, or rather our
grounded conductor, the electrical field contributions from both charges will be the

David S. Latchman ©2009

Maximum Power Theorem ciii
same. Thus
q d
E− = cos θ where cos θ =
4πr2 r
qd
= (0.165.3)
4π0 r3
Our total field becomes
2qd
E= (0.165.4)
4π0 r3
You may recognize that 2qd is the electrical dipole moment. Now, putting eq. (0.165.4)
equal to eq. (0.165.1) gives us
σ qd
= (0.165.5)
0 2π0 r3

FT
where r = D, we get
qd
σ= (0.165.6)
2πD2
Answer: (C)

0.166 Maximum Power Theorem

RA
We are given the impedance of our generator

Z g = R g + jX g (0.166.1)

For the maximum power to be transmitted, the maximum power theorem states that the
load impedance must be equal to the complex conjugate of the generator’s impedance.

Z g = Z∗` (0.166.2)

Thus
D

Z` = R g + jX`
= R g − jX g (0.166.3)

Answer: (C)

0.167 Magnetic Field far away from a Current carrying

Loop
The Biot-Savart Law is
µ0 i d` × r̂
dB = (0.167.1)
4π r3

©2009 David S. Latchman

civ GR8677 Exam Solutions
Let θ be the angle between the radius, b and the radius vector, r, we get

µ0 i rd` cos θ b
B= 3
where cos θ =
4π r r
mu0 i d` cos θ
=
4π r2
µ0 i bd` √
= where r = b2 + h2
4π r3
µ0 i bd`
= where d` = b · dθ
4π (b2 + h2 ) 32
Z2π
µ0i b2
= · dθ
4π (b2 + h2 ) 23
0

FT
µ0 i b2
= (0.167.2)
2 (b2 + h2 ) 32

we see that
B ∝ ib2 (0.167.3)

Answer: (B)
RA
0.168 Maxwell’s Relations

To derive the Maxwell’s Relations we begin with the thermodynamic potentials

First Law
dU = TdS − PdV (0.168.1)

Entalpy
D

H = E + PV
∴ dH = TdS + VdP (0.168.2)

Helmholtz Free Energy

F = E − TS
∴ dF = −SdT − PdV (0.168.3)

Gibbs Free Energy

G = E − TS + PV
∴ dG = −SdT + VdP (0.168.4)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Partition Functions cv
All of these differentials are of the form

∂z ∂z
! !
dz = dx + dy
∂x y
∂y x

= Mdx + Ndy

For the variables listed, we choose eq. (0.168.1) and applying the above condition we
get
∂U ∂U
! !
T= P= (0.168.5)
∂S V ∂V S
Thus taking the inverse of T, gives us

∂S
!
1

FT
= (0.168.6)
T ∂U V

Answer: (E)

0.169 Partition Functions

RA
NOT FINISHED

0.170 Particle moving at Light Speed

Answer: (A)
D

0.171 Car and Garage I

We are given the car’s length in its rest frame to be L0 = 5 meters and its Lorentz
Contracted length to be L = 3 meters. We can determine the speed from eq. (0.87.1)
r
v2
L=L 1− 2 0
c
 2 2
3 v
=1− 2
5 c
4
⇒v= c (0.171.1)
5

Answer: (C)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cvi GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.172 Car and Garage II
As the car approaches the garage, the driver will notice that things around him, in-
cluding the garage, are length contracted. We have calculated that the speed that
he is travelling at to be, v = 0.8c, in the previous section. We again use the Length
Contraction formula, eq. (0.87.1), to solve this question.
!
v2
Lg = Lg 1 − 2
0
c
 
= 4 1 − 0.82
= 2.4 meters (0.172.1)

Answer: (A)

0.173 Car and Garage III

FT
This is more of a conceptual question. What happens depends on whose frame of
reference you’re in.
Answer: (E)
RA
0.174 Refrective Index of Rock Salt and X-rays
No special knowledge is needed but a little knowledge always helps. You can start by
eliminating choices when in doubt.

Choice A NOT TRUE Relativity says nothing about whether light is in a vacuum or
not. If anything, this choice goes against the postulates of Special Relativity. The
D

laws of Physics don’t change in vacuum.

Choice B NOT TRUE. X-rays can “transmit” signals or energy; any waveform can
once it is not distorted too much during propagation.

Choice C NOT TRUE. Photons have zero rest mass. Though the tachyon, a hypothet-
ical particle, has imaginary mass. This allows it to travel faster than the speed or
light though they don’t violate the principles of causality.

Choice D NOT TRUE. How or when we discover physical theories has no bearing
on observed properties or behavior; though according to some it may seem so at
times.

Choice E The phase and group speeds can be different. The phase velocity is the rate at
which the crests of the wave propagate or the rate at which the phase of the wave
is moving. The group speed is the rate at which the envelope of the waveform

David S. Latchman ©2009

Thin Flim Non-Reflective Coatings cvii
is moving or rather it’s the rate at which the amplitude varies in the waveform.
We can use this principle of n < 1 materials to create X-ray mirrors using “total
external reflection”.

Answer: (E)

0.175 Thin Flim Non-Reflective Coatings

To analyze this system, we consider our lens with refractive index, n3 , being coated by
our non-reflective coating of refractive index, n2 , and thickness, t, in air with refractive
index, n1 , where
n1 < n2 < n3

FT
(0.175.1)
As our ray of light in air strikes the first boundary, the coating, it moves from a less
optically dense medium to a more optically dense one. At the point where it reflects,
there will be a phase change in the reflected wave. The transmitted wave goes through
without a phase change.
The refracted ray passes through our coating to strike our glass lens, which is optically
more dense than our coating. As a result there will be a phase change in our reflected
RA
ray. Destructive interference occurs when the optical path difference, 2t, occurs in
half-wavelengths multiples. So

1 λ
 
2t = m + (0.175.2)
2 n2

where m = 0; 1; 2; 3. The thinnest possible coating occurs at m = 0. Thus

1λ
t= (0.175.3)
4 n2
D

We need a non-reflective coating that has an optical thicknes of a quarter wavelength.

Answer: (A)

0.176 Law of Malus

The Law of Malus states that when a perfect polarizer is placed in a polarized beam
of light, the intensity I, is given by

I = I0 cos2 θ (0.176.1)

where θ is the angle between the light’s plane of polarization and the axis of the
polarizer. A beam of light can be considered to be a uniform mix of plane polarization

©2009 David S. Latchman

cviii GR8677 Exam Solutions
angles and the average of this is
Z 2π
I = I0 cos2 θ
0
1
= I0 (0.176.2)
2
So the maximum fraction of transmitted power through all three polarizers becomes
 3
1 I0
I3 = = (0.176.3)
2 8
Answer: (B)

0.177 Geosynchronous Satellite Orbit

mRω = mR
2
 2
2π
T
FT
We can relate the period or the angluar velocity of a satellite and Newton’s Law of
Gravitation
=
GMm
R2
(0.177.1)
where M is the mass of the Earth, m is the satellite mass and RE is the orbital radius.
From this we can get a relationship between the radius of orbit and its period, which
RA
you may recognize as Kepler’s Law.
R3 ∝ T2 (0.177.2)
We can say
R3E ∝ (80)2 (0.177.3)
R3S ∝ (24 × 60)2 (0.177.4)
(0.177.5)
Dividing eq. (0.177.4) and eq. (0.177.5), gives
D

24 × 60 2
 3 
RS

=
RE 80
RS = 18 RE
3 2 3
(0.177.6)
Answer: (B)

0.178 Hoop Rolling down and Inclined Plane

As the hoop rolls down the inclined plane, its gravitational potential energy is con-
verted to translational kinetic energy and rotational kinetic energy
1 1
Mgh = Mv2 + Iω2 (0.178.1)
2 2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Simple Harmonic Motion cix
Recall that v = ωR, eq. (0.178.1) becomes
1 1 
MgH = MR2 ω2 + MR2 ω2 (0.178.2)
2 2
Solving for ω leaves
! 12
gh
ω= 2 (0.178.3)
R
The angular momentum is
L = Iω (0.178.4)
Substituting eq. (0.178.3) gives us
!1
gh 2
L = MR 2
R

FT
p
= MR gh (0.178.5)
Answer: (A)

0.179 Simple Harmonic Motion

RA
We are told that a particle obeys Hooke’s Law, where
F = −kx (0.179.1)
We can write the equation of motion as
k
mẍ − kx where ω2 =
m
where
 
x = A sin ωt + φ (0.179.2)
D

 
and ẋ = ωA cos ωt + φ (0.179.3)

We are told that

1  
= sin ωt + φ (0.179.4)
2
We can show that √
  3
cos ωt + φ = (0.179.5)
2
Substituting this into eq. (0.179.3) gives
√
3
ẋ = 2π f A ·
√ 2
= 3 πfA (0.179.6)
Amswer: (B)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cx GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.180 Total Energy between Two Charges

We are told three things

1. There is a zero potential energy, and

2. one particle has non-zero speed and hence kinetic energy.

3. No radiation is emitted, so no energy is lost.

The total energy of the system is

E = Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

FT
= 0 + (KE > 0)
>0 (0.180.1)

Applying the three condition, we expect the total energy to be positive and constant.
Answer: (C)
RA
0.181 Maxwell’s Equations and Magnetic Monopoles

You may have heard several things about the ∇·B = 0 equation in Maxwell’s Laws. One
of them is there being no magnetic monopoles or charges. There are some implications
to this. No charge implies that the amount of field lines that enter a Gaussian surface
must be equal to the amount of field lines that leave. So using this principle we know
from the electric form of this law we can get an answer to this question.

Choice A The number of field lines that enter is the same as the number that leaves.
D

So this does not violate the above law.

Choice B Again we see that the number of field lines entering is the same as the
number leaving.

Choice C The same as above

Choice D In this case, we see that the field lines at the edge of the Gaussian Surface
are all leaving; no field lines enter the surface. This is also what we’d expect the
field to look like for a region bounded by a magnetic monopole.

Choice E The field loops in on itself, so the total number of field lines is zero. This fits
with the above law.

Answer: (D)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Gauss’ Law cxi
0.182 Gauss’ Law
To determine an electric field that could exist in a region of space with no charges we
turn to Gauss’ Law.
∇·E=0 (0.182.1)
or rather
∂ ∂ ∂
Ex + E y + Ez = 0 (0.182.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
So we analyze each choice in turn to get our answer.

Choice A
E = 2xyî − xyk̂

FT
∂ ∂
∇·E= 2xy + (−xz)
∂x ∂z
= 2y + x , 0 (0.182.3)

Choice B
E = −xy jˆ + xzk̂
∂ ∂
∇·E= (−xy) + xz
∂y ∂z
RA
= −x + x = 0 (0.182.4)

Choice C
E = xzî + xz jˆ
∂ ∂
∇·E= xz + xz
∂x ∂y
=z+0,0 (0.182.5)
D

Choice D
ˆ
E = xyz(î + j)
∂ ∂
∇·E= xyz + xyz
∂x ∂y
= yz + xz , 0 (0.182.6)

Choice E
E = xyzî
∂
∇·E= xyz
∂x
= yz , 0 (0.182.7)

Answer: (B)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.183 Biot-Savart Law
We can determine the magnetic field produced by our outer wire from the Biot-Savart
Law
µ0 d` × r
dB = (0.183.1)
4π r3
As our radius and differential length vectors are orthogonal, the magnetic field works
out to be
µ0 d`r
dB = I
4π r3
µ0 I rdθ
= ·
4π r2
µ0 I
Z 2π

FT
B= dθ
4πr 0
µ0 I
= (0.183.2)
2b
We know from Faraday’s Law, a changing magnetic flux induces a EMF,
dΦ
E = (0.183.3)
dt
RA
where Φ = BA. The magnetic flux becomes
µ0 I
Φ= · πa2 (0.183.4)
2b
The induced EMF becomes
µ0 π
!
a2 dI
E =
2 b dt
µ0 π
!
a2
= ωI0 sin ωt (0.183.5)
2 b
D

Answer: (B)

0.184 Zeeman Effect and the emission spectrum of atomic

gases
Another knowledge based question best answered by the process of elimination.

Stern-Gerlach Experiemnt The Stern-Gerlach Experiment has nothing to do with

spectral emissions. This experiment, performed by O. Stern and W. Gerlach
in 1922 studies the behavior of a beam atoms being split in two as they pass
through a non-uniform magnetic field.

David S. Latchman ©2009

Spectral Lines in High Density and Low Density Gases cxiii
Stark Effect The Stark Effect deals with the shift in spectral lines in the presence of
electrical fields; not in magnetic fields.

Nuclear Magnetic Moments of atoms Close, the splitting seen in the Stern-Gerlach
Experiment is due to this. Emission spectrum typically deals with electrons and
so we would expect it to deal with electrons on some level.

Emission lines are split in two Closer but still not accurate. There is splitting but in
some cases it may be more than two.

Emission lines are greater or equal than in the absence of the magnetic field This we
know to be true.

The difference in the emission spectrum of a gas in a magnetic field is due to the
Zeeman effect.

FT
Answer: (E)

0.185 Spectral Lines in High Density and Low Density

Gases
RA
We expect the spectral lines to be broader in a high density gas and narrower in a low
density gas ue to the increased colissions between the molecules. Atomic collisions
add another mechanism to transfer energy.
Answer: (C)

0.186 Term Symbols & Spectroscopic Notation

To determine the term symbol for the sodium ground state, we start with the electronic
D

configuration. This is easy as they have given us the number of electrons the element
has thus allowing us to fill sub-shells using the Pauli Exclusion Principle. We get

1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s1 (0.186.1)

We are most interested in the 3s1 sub-shell and can ignore the rest of the filled sub-
shells. As we only have one valence electron then ms = +1/2. Now we can calculate
the total spin quantum number, S. As there is only one unpaired electron,

1
S= (0.186.2)
2
Now we can calculate the total angular momentum quantum number, J = L + S. As
the 3s sub-shell is half filled then
L=0 (0.186.3)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxiv GR8677 Exam Solutions
This gives us
1
J= (0.186.4)
2
and as L = 0 then we use the symbol S. Thus our term equation becomes
2
S 12 (0.186.5)
Answer: (B)

0.187 Photon Interaction Cross Sections for Pb

Check Brehm p. 789
Answer: (B)

0.188 The Ice Pail Experiment

FT
Gauss’ law is equivalent to Coulomb’s Law because Coulomb’s Law is an inverse
square law; testing one is a valid test of the other. Much of our knowledge of the
consequences of the inverse square law came from the study of gravity. Jason Priestly
RA
knew that there is no gravitational field within a spherically symmetrical mass distri-
bution. It was suspected that was the same reason why a charged cork ball inside a
charged metallic container isn’t attracted to the walls of a container.
Answer: (E)

0.189 Equipartition of Energy and Diatomic Molecules

To answer this question, we will turn to the equipartition of energy equation
D

!
f
cv = R (0.189.1)
2

where f is the number of degrees of freedom. In the case of Model I, we see that

Degrees of Freedom Model I Model II

Translational 3 3
Rotational 2 2
Vibrational 0 2
Total 5 7

Table 0.189.1: Specific Heat, cv for a diatomic molecule

David S. Latchman ©2009

Fermion and Boson Pressure cxv
So the specific heats for Models I & II are
5 7
cvI = Nk cvII = Nk
2 2
Now we can go about choosing our answer

Choice A From our above calculations, we see that cvI = 5/2Nk. So this choice is
WRONG.
Choice B Again, our calculations show that the specific heat for Model II is larger than
than of Model I. This is due to the added degrees of freedom (vibrational) that it
possesses. So this choice is WRONG.
C & D They both contradict the other and they both contradict Choice (E).
E This is TRUE. We know that at higher temperatures we have an additional degree

FT
of freedom between our diatomic molecule.

Answer: (E)

0.190 Fermion and Boson Pressure

RA
To answer this question, we must understand the differences between fermions and
bosons. Fermions follow Fermi-Dirac statistics and their behavior is obey the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. Basically, this states that no two fermions may have the same
quantum state. Bosons on the other hand follow Bose-Einstein statistics and several
bosons can occupy the same quantum state.
As the temperature of a gas drops, the particles are going to fill up the available energy
states. In the case of fermions, as no two fermions can occupy the same state, then
these particles will try to occupy all the energy states it can until the highest is filled.
Bosons on the other hand can occupy the same state, so they will all ‘group’ together
for the lowest they can. Classically, we don’t pay attention to this grouping, so based
D

on our analyis, we expect,

PF > PC > PB (0.190.1)
where PB is the boson pressure, PC is the pressure with no quantum effects taking place
and PF to be the fermion pressure.
Answer: (B)

0.191 Wavefunction of Two Identical Particles

We are given the wavefunction of two identical particles,
1 h i
ψ = √ ψα (x1 )ψβ (x2 ) + ψβ (x1 )ψα (x2 ) (0.191.1)
2

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxvi GR8677 Exam Solutions
This is a symmetric function and satisfies the relation

ψαβ (x2 , x1 ) = ψαβ (x1 , x2 ) (0.191.2)

Symmetric functions obey Bose-Einstein statistics and are known as bosons. Upon
examination of our choices, we see that21

electrons fermion

positrons fermion

protons fermion

neutron fermion

FT
deutrons Boson

Incidentally, a anti-symmetric function takes the form,

1 h i
ψ = √ ψα (x1 )ψβ (x2 ) − ψβ (x1 )ψα (x2 ) (0.191.3)
2

and satisfies the relation

RA
ψαβ (x2 , x1 ) = −ψαβ (x1 , x2 ) (0.191.4)
These obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics and are known as fermions.
Answer: (E)

0.192 Energy Eigenstates

We may recognize this wavefunction from studying the particle in an infinite well
D

problem and see this is the n = 2 wavefunction. We know that

En = n2 E0 (0.192.1)

We are given that E2 = 2 eV. So

1
E0 = E2
n2
2
= eV
4
1
= eV (0.192.2)
2
Answer: (C)
21
You could have easily played the ‘one of thes things is not like the other...’ game

David S. Latchman ©2009

Bragg’s Law cxvii
0.193 Bragg’s Law

We recall Bragg’s Law

2d sin θ = nλ (0.193.1)
Plugging in what we know, we determine λ to be

λ = 2(3 Å)(sin 30)

= 2(3 Å)(0.5)
=3Å (0.193.2)

We employ the de Broglie relationship between wavelength and momentum

FT
h
p= (0.193.3)
λ
We get

h
mv =
λ
h
⇒v=
mλ
RA
6.63 × 10−34
= (0.193.4)
(9.11 × 10−31 )(3 × 10( − 10))

We can determine the order of our answer by looking at the relevant indices

− 34 − (−31) − (−10) = 7 (0.193.5)

We see that (D) is close to what we are looking for.

Answer: (D)
D

0.194 Selection Rules for Electronic Transitions

The selection rules for an electric dipole transition are

∆` = ±1 Orbital angular momentum

∆m` = 0, ±1 Magnetic quantum number
∆ms = 0 Secondary spin quantum number,
∆j = 0, ±1 Total angular momentum

We have no selection rules for spin, ∆s, so we can eliminate this choice.
Answer: (D)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxviii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.195 Moving Belt Sander on a Rough Plane
We know the work done on a body by a force is

W =F×x (0.195.1)

We can relate this to the power of the sander; power is the rate at which work is done.
So
dW
P=
dt
dx
= F = Fv (0.195.2)
dt
The power of the sander can be calculated

FT
P = VI (0.195.3)

where V and I are the voltage across and the current through the sander. By equating
the Mechanical Power, eq. (0.195.2) and the Electrical Power, eq. (0.195.3), we can
determine the force that the motor exerts on the belt.

F=
VI
v
RA
120 × 9
=
10
= 108 N (0.195.4)

The sander is motionless, so

F − µR = 0 (0.195.5)
where R is the normal force of the sander pushing against the wood. Thus the coefficient
of friction is
F 108
µ= = = 1.08 (0.195.6)
D

R 100
Answer: (D)

0.196 RL Circuits
When the switch, S, is closed, a magnetic field builds up within the inductor and the
inductor stores energy. The charging of the inductor can be derived from Kirchoff’s
Rules.
dI
E − IR − L = 0 (0.196.1)
dt
and the solution to this is
R1 t
  
I(t) = I0 1 − exp (0.196.2)
L

David S. Latchman ©2009

RL Circuits cxix
where the time constant, τ1 = L/R1 .
We can find the voltage across the resistor, R1 , by multiplying the above by R1 , giving
us
R1 t
  
V(t) = R1 · I0 1 − exp
L
R1 t
  
= E 1 − exp (0.196.3)
L
The potential at A can be found by measuring the voltage across the inductor. Given
that

E − VR1 − VL = 0
∴ VL = E − VR1

FT
R1 t
 
= E exp (0.196.4)
L

This we know to be an exponential decay and (fortunately) limits our choices to either
(A) or (B)22
The story doesn’t end here. If the inductor was not present, the voltage would quickly
drop and level off to zero but with the inductor present, a change in current means a
change in magnetic flux; the inductor opposes this change. We would expect to see a
RA
reversal in the potential at A. Since both (A) and (B) show this flip, we need to think
some more.
The energy stored by the inductor is

1 1 E 2
 
UL = LI02 = L (0.196.5)
2 2 R1

With S opened, the inductor is going to dump its energy across R2 and assuming that
the diode has negligible resistance, all of this energy goes to R2 . Thus
D

!2
1 VR2
U= L (0.196.6)
2 R2

The above two equations are equal, thus

E VR2
=
R1 R2
VR2 = 3E (0.196.7)

We expect the potential at A to be larger when S is opened. Graph (B) fits this choice.
Answer: B
22
If you get stuck beyond this point, you can guess. The odds are now in your favor.

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxx GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.197 Carnot Cycles

The Carnot Cycle is made up of two isothermal transformations, KL and MN, and two
adiabatic transformations, LM and NK. For isothermal transformations, we have

PV = nRT = a constant (0.197.1)

For adiabatic transformations, we have

PV γ = a constant (0.197.2)

where γ = CP /CV .
For the KL transformation, dU = 0.

FT
Q2 = WK→L
Z VL
∴ WK→L = PdV
VK
VK
 
= nRT2 ln (0.197.3)
VL

For the LM transformation,

RA
γ γ
PL VL = PM VM (0.197.4)
For the MN transformation, dU = 0.

Q1 = WM→N
Z VN
∴ WM→N = PdV
VM
VN
 
= nRT1 ln (0.197.5)
VM
D

For the NK transformation,

γ γ
PN VN = PK VK (0.197.6)
Dividing eq. (0.197.4) and eq. (0.197.6), gives
γ γ
PL VL PM VM
γ = γ
PK VK PN VN
VL VM
∴ = (0.197.7)
VK VN

The effeciency of an engine is defined

Q1
η=1− (0.197.8)
Q2

David S. Latchman ©2009

Carnot Cycles cxxi
We get
Q1 −WM→N
η=1− =1−
Q2 W
  K→L
nRT1 ln VM
VN
=1−  
nRT2 ln VK
VL
T1
=1− (0.197.9)
T2
1. We see that
Q1 T1
1− =1−
Q2 T2
Q1 T1
∴ = (0.197.10)

FT
Q2 T2
Thus choice (A) is true.
2. Heat moves from the hot reservoir and is converted to work and heat. Thus
Q2 = Q1 + W (0.197.11)
The entropy change from the hot reservoir
dQ2
S=
RA
(0.197.12)
T
As the hot reservoir looses heat, the entropy decreases. Thus choice (B) is true.
3. For a reversible cycle, there is no net heat flow over the cycle. The change in
entropy is defined by Calusius’s Theorem.
I
dQ
=0 (0.197.13)
T
We see that the entropy of the system remains the same. Thus choice (C) is false.
D

4. The efficieny is defined

W
η= (0.197.14)
Q2
This becomes
Q1
η=1−
Q2
Q2 − Q1
= (0.197.15)
Q2
Thus W = Q2 − Q1 . So choice (D) is true,
5. The effeciency is based on an ideal gas and has no relation to the substance used.
So choice (E) is also true.

Answer: (C)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxxii GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.198 First Order Perturbation Theory
Perturbation Theory is a procedure for obtaining approximate solutions for a perturbed
state by studying the solutions of the unperturbed state. We can, and shouldn’t,
calculate this in the exam.
We can get the first order correction to be ebergy eigenvalue
0
E1n = hψ0n |H |ψ0n i (0.198.1)

From there we can get the first order correction to the wave function
X hψ0 |H0 |ψ0 i
m n
ψ1n = 0 0

(0.198.2)
m,n
En − Em

FT
and can be expressed as X
ψ1n = c(n)
m ψm
0
(0.198.3)
m,n

you may recognize this as a Fourier Series and this will help you knowing that the
perturbing potential is one period of a saw tooth wave. And you may recall that the
Fourier Series of a saw tooth wave form is made up of even harmonics.
Answer: (B)23
RA
0.199 Colliding Discs and the Conservation of Angular
Momentum
As the disk moves, it possessed both angular and linear momentums. We can not
exactly add these two as they, though similar, are quite different beasts. But we can
define a linear angular motion with respect to some origin. As the two discs hit each
other, they fuse. This slows the oncoming disc. We can calculate the linear angular
D

momentum
L=r×p (0.199.1)
where p is the linear momentum and r is the distance from the point P to the center of
disc I. This becomes

Lv0 = MR × v0
= −MRv0 (0.199.2)

It’s negative as the cross product of R and v0 is negative.

The Rotational Angular Momentum is

Lω0 = Iω0 (0.199.3)

23
Griffiths gives a similar problem in his text

David S. Latchman ©2009

Electrical Potential of a Long Thin Rod cxxiii
Adding eq. (0.199.3) and eq. (0.199.2) gives the total angular momentum.

L = Lω0 + Lv0
= Iω0 − MRv0
1 1
= MR2 ω0 − MR2 ω0
2 2
=0

Thus the total angular momentum at the point P is zero.

Answer: (A)

FT
0.200 Electrical Potential of a Long Thin Rod

We have charge uniformly distributed along the glass rod. It’s linear charge density is

Q dQ
λ= = (0.200.1)
` dx

The Electric Potential is defined

RA
q
V(x) = (0.200.2)
4π0 x

We can ‘slice’ our rod into infinitesimal slices and sum them to get the potential of the
rod.
1 λdx
dV = (0.200.3)
4π0 x
We assume that the potential at the end of the rod, x = ` is V = 0 and at some point
away from the rod, x, the potential is V. So
D

V Z x
λ
Z
dx
dV =
0 4π0 ` x
λ x
 
= ln (0.200.4)
4π0 `

Where x = 2`, eq. (0.200.4) becomes

Q 1 2`
 
V= ln
` 4π0 `
Q 1
= ln 2 (0.200.5)
` 4π0

Answer: (D)

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxxiv GR8677 Exam Solutions
0.201 Ground State of a Positronium Atom
Positronium consists of an electron and a positron bound together to form an “exotic”
atom. As the masses of the electron and positron are the same, we must use a reduced-
mass correction factor to determine the enrgy levels of this system.24 . The reduced
mass of the system is
1 1 1
= + (0.201.1)
µ me mp
Thus /mu is
me · mp
µ=
me + mp
me
= (0.201.2)

FT
2
The ground state of the Hydrogen atom, in terms of the reduced mass is
µ
E1 = − E0
me
1
= − E0 (0.201.3)
2
where E0 = 13.6 eV.
RA
Answer: (B)

0.202 The Pinhole Camera

A pinhole camera is simply a camera with no lens and a very small aperature. Light
passes through this hole to produce an inverted image on a screen. For the photography
buffs among you, you know that by varying the size of a camera’s aperature can
D

accomplish various things; making the aperature bigger allows more light to enter and
produces a “brighter” picture while making the aperature smaller produces a sharper
image.
In the case of the pinhole camera, making the pinhole, or aperature, smaller produces
a sharper image because it reduces “image overlap”. Think of a large hole as a set of
tiny pinholes places close to each other. This results in an infinite amount of images
overlapping each other and hence a blurry image. So to produce a sharp image, it
is best to use the smallest pinhole possible, the tradeoff being an image that’s not as
“bright”.
There are limits to the size of our pinhole. We can not say, for example, use an infinitely
small pinhole the produce the sharpest possible image. Beyond some point diffraction
effects take place and will ruin our image.
24
Place cite here

David S. Latchman ©2009

The Pinhole Camera cxxv
Consider a pinhole camera of length, D, with a pinhole of diameter, d. We know how
much a beam of light will be diffracted through this pinhole by25

d sin θ = mλ (0.202.1)

this is the equation for the diffraction of a single slit. As θ is small and we will consider
first order diffraction effects, eq. (0.202.1) becomes

dθ = λ
λ
⇒θ= (0.202.2)
d
The “size” of this spread out image is

y = 2θD

FT
2λD
= (0.202.3)
d
So the ‘blur’ of our resulting image is

B= y−d
2λD
= −d (0.202.4)
d
RA
We can see that we want to reduce y as much as possible. i.e. make it d. So eq. (0.202.4)
becomes
2λD
0= −d
d
2λD
∴ =d
d √
Thus d = 2λD (0.202.5)

So we’d want a pinhole of that size to produce or sharpest image possible. This result
D

is close to the result that Lord Rayleigh used, which worked out to be
√
d = 1.9 Dλ (0.202.6)

Answer: (A)

25
Add image of pinhole camera

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxxvi GR8677 Exam Solutions

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Constants & Important Equations

.1 Constants

Constant
Speed of light in a vacuum
Gravitational Constant
Rest Mass of the electron
Avogadro’s Number
Universal Gas Constant
FT
Symbol

G
c

me
NA
R
Value
2.99 × 108 m/s
6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kg.s2
9.11 × 10−31 kg
6.02 × 1023 mol-1
8.31 J/mol.K
1.38 × 10−23 J/K
RA
Boltzmann’s Constant k
Electron charge e 1.60 × 10−9 C
Permitivitty of Free Space 0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N.m2
Permeability of Free Space µ0 4π × 10−7 T.m/A
Athmospheric Pressure 1 atm 1.0 × 105 M/m2
Bohr Radius a0 0.529 × 10−10 m

Table .1.1: Something

D

.2 Vector Identities

.2.1 Triple Products

A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (.2.1)
A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B) (.2.2)
cxxviii Constants & Important Equations
.2.2 Product Rules

∇ f g = f ∇g + g ∇ f




(.2.3)
∇ (A · B) = A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A) + (A · ∇) B + (B · ∇) A (.2.4)
∇ · f A = f (∇ · A) + A · ∇ f



(.2.5)
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B) (.2.6)
∇ × f A = f (∇ × A) − A × ∇ f



(.2.7)
∇ × (A × B) = (B · ∇) A − (A · ∇) B + A (∇ · B) − B (∇ · A) (.2.8)

.2.3 Second Derivatives

.3 Commutators
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0
∇ × ∇f = 0

FT
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A
(.2.9)
(.2.10)
(.2.11)
RA
.3.1 Lie-algebra Relations

[A, A] = 0 (.3.1)
[A, B] = −[B, A] (.3.2)
[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (.3.3)
D

.3.2 Canonical Commutator

[x, p] = i~ (.3.4)

.3.3 Kronecker Delta Function

(
0 if m , n;
δmn =
1 if m = n;
For a wave function Z
ψm (x)∗ ψn (x)dx = δmn (.3.5)

David S. Latchman ©2009

Linear Algebra cxxix
.4 Linear Algebra

.4.1 Vectors

Vector Addition

The sum of two vectors is another vector

|αi + |βi = |γi (.4.1)

Commutative
|αi + |βi = |βi + |αi (.4.2)
Associative

FT
|αi + |βi + |γi = |αi + |βi + |γi



(.4.3)
Zero Vector
|αi + |0i = |αi (.4.4)
Inverse Vector
|αi + | − αi = |0i (.4.5)
RA
D

©2009 David S. Latchman

cxxx Constants & Important Equations

FT
RA
D

David S. Latchman ©2009

Bibliography

[1] John J. Brehm and William J. Mullin. Introduction to the Structure of Matter, chapter

FT
11-6, pages 567–571. Wiley, first edition, 1989.

[2] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Electrodyanmics, chapter 3.2.1, pages 121–123.

Prentice Hall, third edition, 1999.

[3] Douglas Adams. The restaurant at the end of the universe.

[4] Wikipedia. Spectral line — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009. [Online;
accessed 17-March-2009].
RA
[5] Wikipedia. Term symbol — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008. [Online;
accessed 22-March-2009].

[6] John J. Brehm and William J. Mullin. Introduction to the Structure of Matter, chapter
5-10, pages 283–287. Wiley, first edition, 1989.

[7] John J. Brehm and William J. Mullin. Introduction to the Structure of Matter, chapter
11-1, pages 539–540. Wiley, first edition, 1989.

[8] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 5.1.1, pages 203–205.
D

Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.

[9] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 9.3.3, pages 359–362.
Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.

[10] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 6.1.1, page 249.
Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.

[11] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 6.1.2, pages 251–254.
Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.

[12] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 6.1.2, page 254.
Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.
Index

Amplifiers Digital Circuits

GR8677 Q39, xci GR8677 Q38, xci
Angular Momentum, see Rotational Mo- Doppler Effect, xxii
tion Drag Force

FT
GR8677 Q01, lxxiii
Binding Energy
GR8677 Q41, xcii Elastic Colissions
Bohr Model GR8677 Q05, lxxv
GR8677 Q19, lxxxii Electricity
Hydrogen Model, lv GR8677 Q24, lxxxv
Electron Spin
Celestial Mechanics, xxiv GR8677 Q27, lxxxvi
RA
Circular Orbits, xxv Electronic Configuration
Escape Speed, xxiv GR8677 Q30, lxxxviii
Kepler’s Laws, xxv
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, xxiv Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Orbits, xxv GR8677 Q29, lxxxviii
Potential Energy, xxiv Franck-Hertz Experiment, lxi
Cetripetal Motion GR8677 Q47, xcv
GR8677 Q06, lxxvi
Circular Orbits, see Celestial Mechanics Gauss’ Law
Commutators, cxxviii GR8677 Q10, lxxviii
Gravitation, see Celestial Mechanics
D

Canonical Commutators, cxxviii

Kronecker Delta Function, cxxviii
Hall Effect
Lie-algebra Relations, cxxviii
GR8677 Q50, xcvi
Compton Effect, lviii
Hamiltonian
Compton Wavelength
GR8677 Q35, xc
GR8677 Q45, xciv
Conductivity Interference
GR8677 Q23, lxxxiv GR8677 Q13, lxxix
Counting Statistics, lxxi
GR8677 Q40, xci Kepler’s Laws, see Celestial Mechanics
Current Density Kronecker Delta Function, cxxviii
GR8677 Q09, lxxvii
Laboratory Methods
Dielectrics GR8677 Q40, xci
GR8677 Q03, lxxiv Linear Algebra, cxxix
Index cxxxiii
Vectors, cxxix Rolling Kinetic Energy, see Rotational Mo-
Lorentz Force Law tion
GR8677 Q25, lxxxv Rotational Kinetic Energy, see Rotational
Lorentz Transformation Motion
GR8677 Q22, lxxxiv Rotational Motion, xxii
Angular Momentum, xxiii
Maximum Power Theorem Moment of Inertia, xxii
GR8677 Q64, ciii Parallel Axis Theorem, xxiii
Maxwell’s Laws Rolling Kinetic Energy, xxiii
GR8677 Q11, lxxix Rotational Kinetic Energy, xxii
Mechanics Torque, xxiii
GR8677 Q07, lxxvi
GR8677 Q08, lxxvii Satellite Orbits
GR8677 Q37, xc GR8677 Q02, lxxiv

FT
Moment of Inertia, see Rotational Motion Schrödinger’s Equation
GR8677 Q18, lxxxii
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, see Celestial Space-Time Interval
Mechanics GR8677 Q21, lxxxiii
Nuclear Physics Special Relativity
Radioactive Decay Doppler Shift
GR8677 Q17, lxxxi GR8677 Q12, lxxix
Energy
Oscillatory Motion, xviii
RA
GR8677 Q20, lxxxiii
Coupled Harmonic Oscillators, xx Specific Heat
GR8677 Q43, xcii GR8677 Q14, lxxix
Damped Motion, xix Stefan-Boltzmann’s Equation
Kinetic Energy, xviii GR8677 Q46, xciv
Potential Energy, xix Subject, xliv
Simple Harmonic Motion Equation, xviiiSystem of Particles, xxiv
Small Oscillations, xix
Total Energy, xviii Thin Film Interference
GR8677 Q73, cvii
Parallel Axis Theorem, see Rotational Mo- Torque, see Rotational Motion
D

tion
Particle Physics Vector Identities, cxxvii
Muon Product Rules, cxxviii
GR8677 Q16, lxxxi Second Derivatives, cxxviii
Photoelectric Effect Triple Products, cxxvii
GR8677 Q31, lxxxix Wave Equation
GR8677 Q32, lxxxix GR8677 Q04, lxxiv
GR8677 Q33, lxxxix Wave function
Potential Energy GR8677 Q28, lxxxvii
GR8677 Q34, lxxxix
Principle of Least Action X-Rays
GR8677 Q36, xc GR8677 Q26, lxxxv
Probability
GR8677 Q15, lxxx

©2009 David S. Latchman