Photovoltaic Systems
ENR 320
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Photovoltaic Systems - Outline
Principle of operation
The solar resource PSH & Orientation System overview, configurations & components Design problem: system sizing Installation issues
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PV Systems What are they?
PV module
DC - Load
Photo=light, volt electricity Direct conversion : sunlight to electricity DC power output. Solid state semiconductor device; solar panels
Types of Solar Panel Works
Semiconductor made of Si or GaAs, CIGS and CdTe Mostly Si- based 90% are mono & multi-cystalline Si, panels
multi-crystalline Si
Amorphous-Si
mono-crystalline Si
Photovoltaic panel make up & Specs
Made-up of multiple cells p-n junction with photovoltaic effect
Panel Specification
Model Power (Wp) Open Circuit Voltage (V) Short Circuit Current (A) Maximum Power Voltage (V) Maximum Power Current (A) Dimensions SUN-A-210-FA3 210 Watts
22.80 Voc
12.11 Isc 18.30 Vmp 11.48 Imp Length X Width
Photovoltaic panel Operation
Each cell = p-n junction
Requires minimum energy band limited. Extra energy causes heat. Heat reduces efficiency: atom vibration.
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Current-voltage curve
Varying power output
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Effect of sunlight intensity & temperature
Temperatures above 25 are bad for panels!
The Sun as a Resource
Standard measure of resource = PSH
Perfect/Peak Sun Hours (PSH): the number of hours of a perfectly sunny day with no clouds. (sometimes equivalent sun hours -ESH) A PSH is equivalent to having 1 kW/m2 (watts per meter squared) of sun for one continuous hour. PSH is found by adding up all the amount of sun received for every hour of the day and then dividing the total by 1kW/m2.
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Peak Sun Hours
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PSH = area under the red curve
Calculating Peak Sun Hours
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World map of PSH
12 SOURCE: www.campingworld.com
PV panel : Orientation
Tilted towards the equator at an angle approximately equal to the latitude of the location
Optimize for winter: L + 15o Optimize for Summer L - 15o
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PV system: Configurations
PV Array PV Array Inverter
DC - Load
1. Direct coupled DC system
Utility Grid
2. Grid connected system
PV Array
Charge Controller Storage Batteries
Inverter
AC - Load
Hybrid system: AC with backup battery and generator
Aux. Generator
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PV system: Configuration
Direct coupled DC system
PV Array
DC - Load
Source: electrical-engineering-portal.com
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PV system: Configuration
Grid connected system
PV Array
Inverter
Utility Grid
Source: ecofriend.com
Stringent power quality requirements on the inverter
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PV system: Configuration
Hybrid system: AC with backup battery and generator
PV Array Charge Controller Storage Batteries Inverter AC - Load
Aux. Generator
Source: EXMORK
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Stringent power quality requirements on the inverter
PV system: Components
Solar Panel - Converts sunlight to electricity.
Charge Controller/regulator - Manages the flow of electricity between the solar panel battery and load. Batteries - Store electricity. Inverter - Converts DC power from the solar panel and battery to AC power. Load - Application for electricity, e.g. lights, LED light, computer, radio. Wires - Connect the other various components together.
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Charge Controller: functions and specifications
Its central: The wiring from the solar panels, the batteries, and all of the loads goes through the charge controller Manages electricity flow from panels, into and out of the batteries, and to the loads. It can:
Protects the battery from overcharging, by controlling how the PV panel charges the battery. Protects the battery from over discharge: disconnects the loads when the battery voltage gets too low. Gives information on the state of change of the charge controller.
Important specs: Voltage & Max. Current
Ratings Rate Voltage 12V-48V Max. Current 100A 19
Charge controller: examples
State of Charge LED Connection sockets 20
Wiring
The wiring is what carries the electricity from the panels through the charge controller to the batteries and from the batteries through the charge controller out to the loads. if the wiring is not sized and installed correctly, the electricity will not flow properly to the loads.
Size Matters!
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Wiring: Voltage drop
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Wiring: Loses vs. Size
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Wiring: Sizing problem
Example: Which wire size should be used?
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Wiring: Sizing problem
Using 1.5mm2 copper wire, drops 15.02 v @ 100 meters. (so 8m drops: 0.08 * 15 = 1.2 V). Twice as much! A 2.5 mm2 wire, drops: 0.08 * 9.46 = 0.8V. Okish?
A 4 mm2 wire, drops: 0.08 * 6 V = 0.48V. < 0.6 volts. Good!
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Batteries: Specs
Provide storage Lead-acid = most common Rated in Amp Hours (Ah) Self discharge rate(% per month) Life cycle for a given Depth of Discharge (above 50% recommended). 5-7 years life time
Lead-acid battery (usually 12V)
Efficiency 83-90
Self discharge rate 3-10% per month 26
PV systems use deep-cycle batteries, Car batteries not recommended!
Batteries :State of Charge
Can be described by measuring the voltage with a digital multi meter (DMM). The voltage measurements must be made when
Battery is disconnected from the charge controller. Battery has been at rest for 30 minutes.
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Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual
Batteries: Role of the charge controller
Critical issues:
Charging : follows a charging cycle Discharging: beyond 80% reduces life.
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SOURCE: Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Inverters: About
Converts DC to AC 3 types of Inverters: Square wave inverters, modified (quasi) square wave inverters and sine wave inverters. Issues: Cost & power quality Harmonics content (e.g. interference on computer monitors / TV, slower heating on microwave). Some dont work all together.
29 Increasing power quality & cost
Inverters: Pictures
Source: flexcell Source: flexcell
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Inverters: Specification
Important Specs: Efficiency: varies with load (85% - 90% ). Power rating: Higher than max. load. Recommended to (20-30% higher than load)
Source: solar-energy-at-home.com
So an AC system would need a larger panel and battery than a DC system. Grid-integrated systems need: low harmonic distortion levels, low noise, Switch-off upon grid failure.
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Designing a PV System
Client says: Design a PV system for my granny in rural Limpopo. She needs two 60W lighting bulbs in the evening, a 230W iron on every morning. Do I need charge controller? What I need an Inverter? How big should my solar panel be? Battery?
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Designing a PV System: General Procedure
0. What is the nominal voltage of the system? 1. Determine load daily energy consumption (Wh to Ah) 2. Consider system losses 3. Size panel, considering solar resource 4. Size battery, considering days without sun 5. Size inverter & charge controller 6. Install remember the wire size
Usually 12 V for cheap small system or 24 V for larger application!
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Step 1: Load-Total Daily Consumption
Calculate Total Daily Consumption in Watt-Hours: find total load to be powered by the PV System.
For how long will each item be used?
34 Thus, load is: 236Wh/12V = 19.7Ah, for a 12Volts system
Step 2: Considering system
efficiency
Consider efficiency of the PV System: The efficiency is not 100%, we need to size the panels and the batteries large enough to account for the losses, and still have enough power left over for the loads
PV Array
Charge Controller Storage Batteries Inverter AC - Load
Aux. Generator
Recall: The inverter is at least about 85% efficient. Thus for a 236Wh AC load on a 12V system, the load is 236Wh/(0.85*12V) = 23.1Ah higher than 19.7Ah for DC
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Step 2 : Wire efficiency
Wiring Efficiency: We wanted to keep the voltage drop to 5% or less. Properly designed wiring may have a combined efficiency of 97% or 0.97
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Step 2: Panel efficiency loss due to Temperature
Accounting for non-standard temperature: Solar panels function the best at 25 C , For every degree that the solar panel temperature is above 25 C the solar panel output 0.5% less.
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Step 2: Panel efficiency loss due to Temperature
Formula: Solar Panel Temp = Air Temperature C + 15 C Efficiency drop = (Solar Panel Temp.)* 0.5 Example: If the Air Temperature = 30 C, then the temperature of solar panel is 30 C + 15 C = 45 C . 45 C-25 C=20 C (this is the amount that the solar panel is above the optimal temperature) . Efficiency is 20 C * 0.5% per degree = 10% less, so the panel output is 90% at 30 C
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Step 2: System all losses - summary
Inefficiencies/losses are due to:
Inverter Charge controller functions Wiring losses Temperature of the panel
Account for losses by:
Consider inverter efficiency for AC load @ 85% Account for losses by adding 20% to the load.
System load(Ah) =(AC load/0.85 + DC load)*1.2
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Step 3: Size panel, considering solar resource
3.1 Calculate current requirement. 3.2 Find the optimal optimum module arrangement.
Series
Parallel & series
Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual
Parallel
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Step 3: size panel, considering solar resource
3.1 Calculate current requirement. 3.2 Find the optimal optimum module arrangement. Consider a 12v DC system with 45.6Ah load, in Pretoria (5 PSH)
Model Shell SM50-H 50 Watts 19.80 Voc 3.40 Isc 15.9 Vmp
[3.1.] Current = 45.6Ah/5h = 9.12 A
Power (W) Open Circuit Voltage (V) Short Circuit Current (A) Maximum Power Voltage (V) Maximum Power Current (A)
[3.2.] # Panels = 9.12 A/3.15A = 2.9 2.9 (rounded up) = 3 panels
15.9V panel output enough for 12V 9.12A requires 3 panels in parallel
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3.15 Imp
Step 4: Size battery, considering days without sun
Rule of thumb: - efficiency of 85% - assume 3 days without sunshine - 50% max. discharge
For a load of 230 Amp-hours. Then battery size is:
45.6 Amp-hrs / .85 for efficiency = 53.6 Amp-hrs
Considering dark days. 53.6 Amp-hrs needed per day x 3
days with no sun = 161 Amp-hrs
Consider max. discharge:
161 x 2 = 322 Amp-hrs
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Step 5: Charge controller sizing
Charge Controller: Max Current & Voltage rating. Voltage rating = Nominal system voltage. [12V] Max. Current > Short-circuit current *(# parallel panels) [>10.2A]
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Step 5: Inverter sizing
Inverter: Efficiency & power rating. Efficiency = (As high as possible.) safely assume 85% Power rating =
(for grid connected systems: no general rule among country guidelines, location dependent) 70%-90% OR 80%-110% of solar array rating
Stand alone systems: Definitely higher than the AC load!
so about 25% higher than load you wish to run simultaneously For a 120kWh AC load, use 150kWh inverter!
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Designing a PV System: Summary
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine load daily energy consumption (Wh to Ah) Consider system losses Size panel, considering solar resource Size battery, considering days without sun Size inverter & charge controller
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Installation: Panel Orientation
The panel should mounted on an angle approximately equal to the latitude of the area, and pointing to the equator. If you are in the southern hemisphere, aim the panel to the north, and if you are in the northern hemisphere, aim the panel to the south. If you are very close to the equator, then the latitude is close to 0 degrees. In these areas, the optimum angle for maximum power might be flat, but it is still good to tilt the panel 5 or 10 degrees to let the rain help to keep the panel free of dust and dirt.
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Installation: Avoid shading
Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual
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Installation: mounting
The panel must be installed on sturdy mountings so its orientation will stay as originally designed, and so it will not be subject to being knocked.
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Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual
Installation: Charge controller
The cabling from the Panel to the Controller should be sized large enough, and kept as short as possible, and located where it will not be a hazard or be pulled down.
Controller needs to be mounted in a location where there is not a lot of activity, to avoid the possibility of being knocked into by carried items.
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Installation: Battery
battery needs to be close to the controller to limit the length of the wire, and reduce the losses in this cable.
It should be in a non-metallic battery box (wood or plastic) vented to the air, and covered so nothing metal can be placed on top of the battery.
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Battery Safety Issues: Chemicals - The acid in the battery is bad for people and for the environment Gas - Batteries vent a gas that be extremely flammable Electrocution- Batteries have a lot of electricity and can easily electrocute people
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Installation: Wiring
Wiring should be neat, and fastened securely in all locations.
This makes checking for trouble much easier, and avoids problems of things being hung on the wiring or cutting into the wiring.
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Wiring: termination at the battery
Terminations: all wire connections need to be clean and tight
Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual
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Installation: Lighting
First of all, try to install a separate light switch for every light. This way if only one light is needed, the others can remain off.
It is good to install all of the light switches at the controller location, because this reduces the number of field terminations and connections, and points of potential failure. Then, all of the cables are direct runs from the controller to the lights.
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Installation: Load Connections
All wiring to loads must be connected through the charge controller.
No wires should be terminated on the battery except for the wires going to the charge controller. If loads are connected directly to the battery, then these loads are not disconnected when the charge controller decides to turn the loads off to protect the battery, and the battery will fail prematurely.
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Photovoltaic systems
Principle of operation The sun resource PSH & Orientation System overview, configurations & components Design problem: system sizing Installation issues
The End
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