Monopoly

Chapter 12

Introduction
Monopoly is the polar opposite of perfect competition. Monopoly is a market structure in which a single firm makes up the entire market.

Introduction
Monopolies exist because of barriers to entry into a market that prevent competition. Barriers to entry include legal barriers, sociological barriers, and natural barriers.

Introduction
Legal barriers, such as patents, prevent others from entering the market until the patent expires. Sociological barriers not everyone has the brains to win a Nobel Prize nor the skill to slam-dunk a basketball.

Introduction
Natural barriers where the firm has economies of scale to produce what others cannot duplicate.

The Key Difference Between a Monopolist and a Perfect Competitor

For a competitive firm, marginal revenue equals price: P = MR For a monopolist it does not. The monopolist must take into account the fact that its production decision will simultaneously set price.

The Key Difference Between a Monopolist and a Perfect Competitor

A competitive firm is too small to affect the price. It does not take into account the effect of its output decision on the price it receives.

The Key Difference Between a Monopolist and a Perfect Competitor

A competitive firm's marginal revenue is the market price. A monopolistic firms marginal revenue is not its price it takes into account that its output decision can affect price.

A Model of Monopoly
How much should the monopolistic firm choose to produce if it wants to maximize profit?

The Monopolists Price and Output Numerically

The first thing to remember is that marginal revenue is the change in total revenue that occurs as a firm changes its output. The point is not to maximize total revenue but to maximize total profit.

The Monopolists Price and Output Numerically

As in perfect competition, profit for the monopolist is maximized at a point where MC = MR.

What is different for a monopolist marginal revenue does not equal price; marginal revenue is below price.

The Monopolists Price and Output Numerically

If a monopolist deviates from the output level at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue, profits will fall.

Profit Maximization for a Monopolist

Output Price TR MR TC MC ATC Profit

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9

0 33 60 81 96 105 108 105 96 81

33 27 21 15 9 3 3 9 15

47 48 50 54 62 78 102 142 196 278

1 2 4 8 16 24 40 56 80

48.00 25.00 18.00 15.50 15.60 17.00 20.29 24.75 30.89

47 15 10 27 34 27 6 37 102 197

The Monopolists Price and Output Graphically

The marginal revenue curve is a graphical measure of the change in revenue that occurs in response to a change in price. It tells us the additional revenue the firm will get by expanding output.

The Monopolists Price and Output Graphically

To determine the profit-maximizing price (where MC = MR), one first finds that output and then extends a vertical line up to the demand curve.

The Monopolists Price and Output Graphically

If MR > MC, the monopolist gains profit by increasing output. If MR < MC, the monopolist gains profit by decreasing output. If MC = MR, the monopolist is maximizing profit.

The Monopolists Price and Output Graphically

The MR = MC condition determines the quantity a monopolist produces. That quantity determines the price the monopolist will charge.

The Monopolists Price and Output Graphically

Price $36 30 24 18 12 6 0 6 12 Monopolist price MC

D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MR

Comparing Monopoly and Perfect Competition

Equilibrium output for the monopolist, like equilibrium output for the competitor in a perfectly competitive market is MC = MR.

Comparing Monopoly and Perfect Competition

Because the monopolists marginal revenue is below its price, its equilibrium output is less than, and price is higher than, for a competitive market.

Comparing Monopoly and Perfect Competition

Price $36 30 24 18 12 6 0 6 12 Monopolist price Competitive price MC

D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MR

Profits and Monopoly

To find a monopolist's profit it is important to follow the proper sequence.

The Proper Sequence to Find a Monopolists Profit

Draw the firm's marginal revenue curve. Determine the output the monopolist will produce by the intersection of the MC and MR curves.

The Proper Sequence to Find a Monopolists Profit

Determine the price the monopolist will charge for that output. Determine the average cost at that level of output.

The Proper Sequence to Find a Monopolists Profit

Determine the monopolist's profit (loss) by subtracting average total cost from average revenue (P) at that level of output and multiply by the chosen output.

A Monopolist Making a Profit

A monopolist can make a profit.

A Monopolist Making a Profit

Price MC

PM Profit CM

A
B

ATC

MR 0 QM

D Quantity

A Monopolist Breaking Even

A monopolist can break even.

A Monopolist Breaking Even

Price MC ATC PM

MR 0 QM

D Quantity

A Monopolist Making a Loss

A monopolist can make a loss.

A Monopolist Making a Loss

Price CM B Loss A MC

ATC

PM

MR 0 QM

D Quantity

The Price-Discriminating Monopolist

Price discrimination is the ability to charge different prices to different customers.

The Price-Discriminating Monopolist

In order to price discriminate, a monopolist must be able to:
Identify groups of customers who have different elasticities of demand; Separate them in some way; and Limit their ability to resell its product between groups.

The Price-Discriminating Monopolist

A price-discriminating monopolist can increase both output and profit. It can charge customers with more inelastic demands a higher price. It can charge customers with more elastic demands a lower price.

Price Discrimination Occurs in the Real World

Movie theaters give senior citizens and child discounts. All airline Super Saver fares include Saturday night stopovers. Automobiles are seldom sold at their sticker price. Theaters have midweek special rates.

Price Discrimination Occurs in the Real World

Retail tire stores run special sales about half the time. Restaurants generally make most of their profit on alcoholic drinks and just break even on food. College-town stores often give students discounts.

The Price-Discriminating Monopolist

Thus, it will produce the same quantity as will a perfectly competitive firm. For perfectly price-discriminating monopolist, P = AR = MR.

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

Why does the economic model see monopoly as bad?
There is no necessary reason why a monopolist must make a profit. If the monopolist is a price discriminator, then its output is closer to the competitive output.

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

If profits are not the primary reason that economists see the monopoly model as bad, what standard should be used?

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

Compare the normal monopolist's equilibrium to the equilibrium of a perfect competitor. Equilibrium in both market structures is determined by the MC = MR condition.

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

But the monopolist's MR is below its price, thus its equilibrium output is different from a competitive market. The welfare loss of a monopolist is represented by the triangles B and D.

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

Price MC PM

C PC

D B
A

QM

MR QC

D Quantity

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

Welfare loss is often called the deadweight loss or welfare loss triangle. It is the geometric representation of the welfare cost in terms of misallocated resources that are caused by monopoly.

The Welfare Loss from Monopoly

The welfare loss of monopoly is not the loss that most people consider. They are often interested in normative losses that the graph does not capture.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Monopolies exist because of some barrier to entry. Barrier to entry a social, political, or economic impediment that prevents firms from entering the market.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

If there were no barriers to entry, profit-maximizing firms would always compete away monopoly profits.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Most economists support free international trade and oppose tariffs as these are barriers to entry.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Three important barriers to entry are natural ability, increasing returns to scale, and government restrictions.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Natural ability:
One firm may be better at producing a good than other firms making it more efficient than those other firms.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Natural ability:
The public views just monopolies as those which accrue to the firm because of the firms ability. Just monopolies are more creative, has more able employees, uses better technology.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Economies of scale:
If significant economies of scale are possible, it is inefficient to have two producers because if each produced half of the output, neither could take advantage of economies of scale.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Economies of scale:
A natural monopoly is an industry in which one firm can produce at a lower cost than can two or more firms.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Economies of scale:
In cases of natural monopoly, technology is such that indivisible set up costs are so large that average total costs fall within the range of potential output.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Economies of scale:
In the natural monopoly situation, not only is there no welfare loss, there can actually be a welfare gain since a single a single firm producing is so much more efficient than several firms producing.

Barriers to Entry and Monopoly

Government restrictions:
Monopolies can be created by government.

Normative Views of Monopoly

The public generally views monopolies the way the Classical economists did they consider them unfair and wrong.

Normative Views of Monopoly

The public does accept patents which are a type of government-created monopoly.
Patent a legal protection of a technical innovation that gives the person holding the patent a monopoly on using that innovation for a specified period of time.

Normative Views of Monopoly

The public does not like the distributional effects of monopoly. They believe that it transfers income from deserving consumers to undeserving monopolists.

Normative Views of Monopoly

It is possible for the well-financed and the well-connected to garner government favors. The public prefers that firms do productive things rather than lobby for government favors.

Government Policy and Monopoly: AIDS Drugs

The patents for AIDS drugs are owned by a small group of pharmaceutical companies. They are in a position to charge a very high price for a drug that costs little to produce.

Government Policy and Monopoly: AIDS Drugs

What, if anything, should the government do?
Force the producer to charge a price equal to its marginal cost. Society would be better off but it would create a significant disincentive for drug companies to do further research on other life-threatening diseases.

Government Policy and Monopoly: AIDS Drugs

Another alternative is for the government to buy the patents.
Payment would come from increased taxes and would be quite expensive. The cost of regulation would drop, but it would raise the question as to which patents the government should buy.

Government Policy and Monopoly: AIDS Drugs

Some African nations have threatened to license production of these drugs to local manufacturers and make the drugs available at cost. U.S. pharmaceutical companies have pressured the U.S. to cut off foreign aid if they do so.

Monopoly
End of Chapter 12