Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

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 Fundamentals of
Instrumentation
and Measurement

Edited by
Dominique Placko
First published in France in 2000 by Hermès Science Publications in two volumes entitled
“Mesure et Instrumentation”
Published in Great Britain and the United States in 2007 by ISTE Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may
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ISTE Ltd ISTE USA
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UK USA

www.iste.co.uk

© ISTE Ltd, 2007

© HERMES Science Europe Ltd, 2000

The rights of Dominique Placko to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted
by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

[Mesure et instrumentation. English]

Fundamentals of instrumentation and measurement/edited by Dominique Placko.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-905209-39-2
1. Mensuration. 2. Engineering instruments. 3. Scientific apparatus and instruments.
4. Detectors. I. Placko, Dominique.
T50.M394 2006
620'.0044--dc22
2006020964

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 13: 978-1-905209-39-2

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire.
 Table of Contents

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Chapter 1. Measurement Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Mustapha NADI
1.1. General introduction and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. The historical aspects of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Terminology: measurement, instrumentation and metrology. . . . . . . 4
1.4. MIM interactions: measurement-instrumentation-metrology. . . . . . . 4
1.5. Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6. Is a classification of instruments possible? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1. Classification of instruments used in cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7. Instrument modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.1. Model of a measurement instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.2. Load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.3. Estimating load effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.4. Effort and flow variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.5. Features and operating points of a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7.6. Generalized impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.7. Determining the load effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.8. Measurement with a car battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7.9. Determining impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.10. Generalized admittance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8. Characteristics of an instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.1. Components of static transfer functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.2. Dynamic characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.3. Instrument performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.4. Combining transfer functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9. Implementing measurement acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9.1. Principles and methodology of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
vi Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1.9.2. Field measurement constraints: instrumentation on the road . . . . 26

1.10. Analyzing measurements obtained by an instrument. . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.1. Error reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.10.2. Base definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11. Partial conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.12. Electronic instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.13. Electronic instrumentation functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.13.1. Programmable instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.13.2. Example of an electronic instrument: how a piezoelectric
sensor detects rattle in a combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.14. The role of instrumentation in quality control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.15. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.16. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.17. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 2. General Principles of Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

François LEPOUTRE
2.1. General points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.1. Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.2. Secondary definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2. Metrological characteristics of sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.1. Systematic errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.2. Random uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.3. Analyzing random errors and uncertainties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.3.1. Evaluating random uncertainties. Standard deviations. Variances 45
2.2.3.2. Decisions about random uncertainties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.3.3. Reliability, accuracy, precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3. Sensor calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.1. Simple calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.2. Multiple calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.3. Linking international measurement systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4. Band pass and response time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.1. Harmonic response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.2. Response time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5. Passive sensor conditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.1. The effect of polarization instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.2. Effects of influence variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5.3. Conditioners of complex impedance sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6. Conditioners for active sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.1. Direct reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6.2. Using operational amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
 Table of Contents vii

Chapter 3. Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and

Mechanical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
François LEPOUTRE
3.1. Optical sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1. Energetic flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.2. Luminous flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.3. The relative luminous efficiency curve V( ) of the human eye . . . 73
3.1.4. The black body: a reference for optical sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.4.1. Black body radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1.4.2. Realization of black bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1.5. Radiation exchanges between a source and a detector . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.6. Definitions relating to optical sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.6.1. Darkness currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.6.2. Spectral and total sensitivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.6.3. Sources of fundamental noise sources in optical sensors. . . . . 82
3.1.6.4. Specific detectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.7. Semiconductors: the bases of optical sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.7.1. Molecular and crystalline bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.7.2. Band structures in solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1.8. Current expression in a material containing free charges . . . . . . 91
3.1.9. Photoconductor cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.1.10. P-N junction and photodiodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.1.10.1. Non-polarized junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.1.10.2. P-N junction with direct bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.1.10.3. P-N junction in reverse bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.1.10.4. Diode equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1.10.5. Illuminated P-N junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.10.6. Principle of photodiode fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.10.7. Photodiode equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1.10.8. Electrical schema for a diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.2. Force and deformation sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.2.1. Resistive gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.2.2. Piezoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.2.2.1. Electrostriction, piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity . . . . . . . 111
3.2.2.2. The case of quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2.2.3. Constraint tensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.2.2.4. Other piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2.2.5. Construction of piezoelectric sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.2.2.6. Using piezoelectric sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.3. Thermal sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.3.1. Concepts related to temperature and thermometry . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.3.2. Thermodynamic temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
viii Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.3.3. Temperature scales currently in use and widely used

measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.4. Heat transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3.4.1. Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3.4.2. Convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.3.4.3. Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.3.4.4. Contact temperature measurement of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.3.5. Contact thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.5.1. Resistive thermometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.5.2. The Seebeck effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.3.5.3. The Peltier effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.3.5.4. The Thomson effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.3.5.5. The Seebeck electromotive force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.3.6. Features and uses of thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Chapter 4. Analog Processing Associated with Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Eduardo SANTANDER and Bernard JOURNET
4.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2. The problem of electronic noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2.1. The origin of electronic noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2.2. Noise in an electronic chain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.2.3. Signal-to-noise ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3. Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.1. Operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.1.1. Feedback and counter-feedback in currents and tensions . . . . 148
4.3.1.2. Principle features of operational amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.2. Instrumentation amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.3. Isolation amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.3.4. Logarithmic amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.3.5. Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Chapter 5. Analog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Paul BILDSTEIN
5.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2. Technological constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.3. Methods of analog filter calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.3.1. Attenuation functions of standard low pass prototype filters . . . . 172
5.3.2. Transfer functions of common prototype low pass filters . . . . . . 174
5.3.3 Transfer functions of derived filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.3.4. Filter synthesis carried out from the transfer function . . . . . . . . 175
 Table of Contents ix

5.4. Passive filter using inductors and capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

5.4.1. Sensitivity; Orchard’s theorem and argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.4.2. Low pass ladder filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.4.2.1. Structures of basic low pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.4.2.2. The Darlington analytic synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.4.2.3. Examples of synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.4.2.4. Direct digital synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.4.3. L-C filters derived from a pass band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.4.4. Conversions of L-C filters; optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.5. Active filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.5.1. Second order or biquadratic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.5.2. Biquadratic cells with one operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.5.3. Universal biquadratic cells with three or four amplifiers. . . . . . . 195
5.5.4. Elevated order active filters (elevated by putting biquadratic
cells in cascade). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.5.5. Simulating an L-C filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.6. Switched capacitor filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.6.1. Integrators without sensitivity to stray capacitances . . . . . . . . . 205
5.6.2. Analysis of switched capacitor integrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.6.3. Synthesis of switched capacitor filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.6.4. Operational simulation of an L-C filter (leapfrog simulation). . . . 208
5.6.5. Switched capacitor biquadratic cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Chapter 6. Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems . . . . . . . 215

Dominique MILLER
6.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.2. Electronic devices for signal sampling and quantification . . . . . . . . 216
6.2.1. Nyquist sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.2.2. Quantification noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.2.3. Over-sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.2.3.1. Acquisition over-sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.2.3.2. Over-sampling and reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.2.4. Under-sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.3. Analog-to-digital converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.3.1. Features of SINAD and ENOB converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.3.2. - converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6.4. Real-time digital analysis by a specialized processor . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.4.1. Fixed point and floating point analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.4.1.1. Fixed point notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.4.1.2. Floating point notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.4.1.3. Comparison between the two notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
x Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

6.4.2. General structure of a DSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

6.4.2.1. Multiplication/accumulation structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.4.2.2. Time lag structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.4.2.3. Reframing structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.4.2.4. Resource parallelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.4.3. Using standard filtering algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.4.3.1. General structure of a real-time filtering program. . . . . . . . . 256
6.4.3.2. The FIR filter and simple convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.4.3.3. IIR filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Chapter 7. The Contribution of Microtechnologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

François BAILLIEU and Olivier VANCAUWENBERGHE
7.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7.1.1. The vehicle: a system of complex, interdependent parts . . . . . . . 267
7.1.2. Microtechnologies and microsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.1.3. Appropriate architectures for electronic microsystems . . . . . . . . 269
7.1.4. Which examples should be chosen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.2. Microtechnologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.2.1. Technologies derived from microelectronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.2.1.1. Si substrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.2.1.2. Si epitaxy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.2.1.3. Si thermal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.2.1.4. Photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.2.1.5. Polycrystalline silicon layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.2.1.6. Etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.2.1.7. Doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.2.1.8. Deposit of thin metallic and dielectric layers. . . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.2.2. Technologies specific to microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2.2.1. Double face photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2.2.2. Volume micromachining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2.2.3. Surface micromachining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.2.2.4. Micromaching by deep anisotropic dry etching . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.2.2.5. Heterogenous assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.2.3. Beyond silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.3. Electronic architectures and the effects of miniaturization . . . . . . . . 289
7.3.1. Overall trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.3.2. Conditioning electronics for capacitive cells that are sensitive to absolute
pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.3.2.1. Measurement principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.3.2.2. The analog version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
 Table of Contents xi

7.3.2.3. Basic first order - modulator with a one-bit quantifier . . . . 297

7.3.3. Electronic conditioning for piezoresistive cells sensitive
to differential pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.3.4. Electronic conditioning for cells sensitive to acceleration . . . . . . 310
7.3.4.1. Direct applications of first-order - modulators to
1 bit quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.3.4.2. Producing an accelerometer in true open loop by
eliminating the effects of electrostatic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.3.4.3. Servo-control of an accelerometer using balanced
mechanical forces through electrostatic forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.3.5. Energy sources in microsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Chapter 8. Instruments and Measurement Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Bernard JOURNET and Stéphane POUJOULY
8.1. Measurement devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.1.1. Multimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.1.1.1. Measurement principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.1.1.2. Input resistance influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.1.1.3. Intensity measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.1.1.4. Resistance measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.1.1.5. Two types of multimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.1.1.6. Measurement accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.1.2. Frequency meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.1.3. Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.3.2. Input impedance and measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.1.3.3. Measurements done by an oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.1.4. Spectrum analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.1.4.1. Sweeping analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.1.4.2. FFT analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.1.4.3. Principles of possible measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.1.5. Network analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.1.5.1. S parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.1.5.2. Measuring S parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.1.6. Impedance analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.1.6.1. Method using a self-equilibrated bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.1.6.2. RF 1-V method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.1.6.3. Measurement with a network analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.1.7. Synchronous detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
8.2. Measurement chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xii Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

8.2.2. Communication buses PC/instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

8.2.2.1. The parallel bus IEEE488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.2.2.2. Serial buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.2.3. Internal acquisition cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.2.3.1. Description of inputs/outputs and associated conditioning . . . 355
8.2.3.2. Description of PC buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.2.4. External acquisition cards: the VXI system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
8.2.4.1. Functions of the VXI bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
8.2.4.2. Description of the VXI bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
8.3. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Chapter 9. Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor

and its Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Michel LECOLLINET
9.1. Modeling a sensor’s interactions with its environment . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.1.1. Physical description of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.1.2. Phenomenological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9.1.3. Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9.2. Researching the parameters of a given model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.2.1. The least squares method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.2.2. Application to estimate a central value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.2.3. Introduction to weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.3. Determining regression line coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.1. A proportional relation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.2. Affine relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.3.3. Weighting application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.3.3.1. Calculation hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.3.3.2. Weighting and proportional relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.3.3.3. Weighting and affine relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.3.4. The least measured-squares line: when two measured
variables contain uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
9.4. Example of a polynomial relation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.4.1. A simple example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.4.2. An example using weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9.4.3. Examples with correlated variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
9.5. A simple example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9.5.1. Linearizing the function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9.5.2. Numerical search for the minimum of the function of
the sum of the squared gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.6. Examples of multivariable models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.7. Dealing with constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.7.1. Presentation of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
 Table of Contents xiii

9.7.2. Using Lagrange multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

9.8. Optimizing the search for a polynomial model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.8.1. System resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.8.2. Constructing orthoganal polynomials using Forsythe’s method . . 410
9.8.3. Finding the optimum degree of a smoothing polynomial . . . . . . 411
9.9. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Chapter 10. Representation and Analysis of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Frédéric TRUCHETET, Cécile DURIEU and Denis PRÉMEL
10.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
10.2. Analog processing chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
10.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
10.2.2. Some definitions and representations of analog signals. . . . . . . 416
10.2.2.1. Deterministic signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
10.2.2.2. Random signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.3. Digital processing chain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.3.2. Sampling and quantization of signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.2.1. The Fourier transform and sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.2.2. Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.4. Linear digital filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.4.1. The z transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.4.2 Filtering applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
10.4.3. Synthesis of IIR filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
10.4.3.1. Methods using an analog reference filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
10.4.3.2. Methods of synthesis by optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.5. Examples of digital processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
10.5.1. Matched filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
10.5.2. Optimum filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
10.5.2.1. Wiener filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
10.5.2.2. Matched filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
10.5.2.3. Kalman filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
10.6. Frequency, time, time-frequency and wavelet analyses . . . . . . . . . 441
10.6.1. Frequency analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.6.1.1. Continuous transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.6.1.2. Discrete Fourier transform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
10.6.1.3. Algorithm of the fast Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
10.6.2. Sliding window or short-term Fourier transform. . . . . . . . . . . 447
10.6.2.1. Continuous sliding window Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . 447
10.6.2.2. Discrete sliding window Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.6.3. Wavelet transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.6.3.1. Continuous wavelet transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
xiv Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.6.3.2. Discrete wavelet transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

10.6.4. Bilinear transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
10.6.4.1. The spectogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
10.6.4.2. The scalogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.6.4.3. The Wigner-Ville transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.6.4.4. The pseudo-Wigner-Ville transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.7. A specific instance of multidimensional signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

Chapter 11. Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion . . . . . . . . . . 463

Patrice AKNIN and Thierry MAURIN
11.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
11.2. Representation space: parametrization and selection. . . . . . . . . . . 465
11.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
11.2.2. Signal parametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
11.2.3. Principle component analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
11.2.4. Discriminate factorial analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.2.5. Selection by orthogonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
11.3. Signal classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
11.3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
11.3.2. Bayesian classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
11.3.2.1. Optimum Bayes classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
11.3.2.2. Parametric Bayesian classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.3.2.3. Method of the k-nearest neighbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.3.2.4. Parzen nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
11.3.3. Decision trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.3.4. Neural networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
11.3.4.1. Basic neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
11.3.4.2. Mulilayered perceptrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.3.4.3. Radial base function networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
11.3.4.4. Neural networks and classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
11.4. Data fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
11.4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
11.4.1.1. Modelizing imperfections and performances . . . . . . . . . . . 490
11.4.1.2. Different fusion techniques and levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
11.4.2. The standard probabilistic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
11.4.2.1. Modelization, decision and hypothesis choice . . . . . . . . . . 492
11.4.2.2. Multisensor Mayesian fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
11.4.3. A non-standard probabilistic method: the theory of evidence . . . 495
11.4.3.1. Mass sets of a source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
11.4.3.2. Example of mass set generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
11.4.3.3. Credibility and plausibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
 Table of Contents xv

11.4.3.4. Fusion of mass sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

11.4.3.5. Decision rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
11.4.3.6. Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
11.4.4. Non-probabilistic method: the theory of possibilities . . . . . . . . 501
11.4.4.1. Operations on ownership functions and possibility
distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
11.4.4.2. Possibilistic multisensor fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
11.4.4.3. Diagnostics and fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
11.4.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
11.5. General conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
11.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

Chapter 12. Intelligent Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

Michel ROBERT
12.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
12.2. Users’ needs and technological benefits of sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . 510
12.2.1. A short history of smart sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
12.2.2. Smart or intelligent? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
12.2.3. Architecture of an intelligent system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
12.3. Processing and performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
12.3.1. Improving performances with sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
12.3.2. Reliability and availability of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
12.4. Intelligent distance sensors in cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
12.5. Fieldbus networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.6. Towards a system approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
12.7. Perspectives and conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
12.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
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 Introduction

Instrumentation:
Where Knowledge and Reality Meet

Instrumentation comprises scientific activities and technologies that are related

to measurement. It is a link between physical, chemical and biological phenomena
and their perception by humans. Constantly evolving, instrumentation changes how
we live and plays a major role in industrial and life sciences; it is also indispensable
to the fundamental sciences. In order to be credible, all new theories must undergo a
series of experimental validations, of which instrumentation is the cornerstone.

Is curiosity a distinguishing human trait? Certainly, this characteristic leads us to

question, to understand, to explain, and finally to “know”. The more we explore, the
broader our range of investigation becomes. Since the 18th century, scientific and
technical knowledge have undergone an exponential expansion, an explosive growth
of combined learning, but this kind of growth leaves us with unanswered questions.
In this context, instrumentation serves to stimulate scientific knowledge in the
junction between theory and experimental practice.

Even before humanity developed a body of scientific knowledge, signs of

technological progress had appeared in ancient civilizations. By 5,000 BC, humans
had fashioned stone tools, and later began working in metal around 3,800 BC.
Ancient Greeks, such as the philosopher Aristotle, who lived in the 4th century BC,
were probably among the first thinkers to put forward logical explanations for
observable natural phenomena. Democritus, a contemporary of Aristotle, already
thought of matter as being formed of miniscule, indivisible particles. However, the

Introduction written by Dominique PLACKO.

xviii Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

instrument of measurement most important to the Greeks was the gnomon, or needle
of a sundial. The gnomon helped the Greek mathematician Euclid, living in the 3rd
century BC, to measure the earth’s radius by simultaneously observing the shadow
cast by the instrument on two points of the same parallel. After this discovery,
developments in mathematics, numerical theory and geometry followed, with
Euclid’s ideas dominating the world of science up until the Renaissance. From the
16th century onwards, Galileo, Newton, and Descartes brought forward new
approaches that were truly objective, which meant that all new scientific theories
had to be verified by observation and experiment. It was in this era that scientific
instruments began to be widely developed and used.

The example we will discuss here will show, without forgetting Euclid’s
contribution as cited above, how instrumentation helped to join knowledge and
reality. In the 18th century, both maritime navigation security and the possibility of
complete world exploration were limited by current imprecision in measuring the
coordinates of a ship traveling anywhere on Earth. The problem of calculating
latitude already had been resolved some time before, thanks to fairly simple
geometric measurements and calculations. Determining longitude presented more
problems. As soon as a relation was established between the idea of time and space,
scientists, especially astronomers, proposed using the movement of the stars as a
cosmic clock: one example was the rotation of Saturn’s satellites, discovered by the
French astronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini in 1669. However, developing this idea
further proved difficult and complicated. Determining longitude by relying on a
measurement of time difference in relation to a given location required a precise
measurement of time that was impossible to attain with the tools then available. To
give an idea of the order of magnitude, let us recall that at the Equator, a nautical
mile is defined as the length of a terrestrial curve intercepting an angle of a minute.
The time zone being equivalent to 15 degrees, the lapse of time of a minute equals
15 minutes of curve or 15 nautical miles. Thus a nautical mile is equal to 4 seconds.

The problem was resolved in 1759 by the English clockmaker John Harrison,
who invented a remarkable time-measuring instrument, a sea clock or chronometer
that was only 5 seconds off after 6 weeks at sea, the equivalent of just 1.25 nautical
miles. This revolutionary clock marked an important step in the search for precision
begun in 1581 with Galileo’s discovery of the properties of regularity in a swaying
pendulum, a principle taken up and developed further in 1657 by the Dutch
physician Christiaan Huygens, inventor of the pendulum clock. John Harrison’s
invention produced a number of other technological innovations such as ball
bearings, which reduced friction that caused imprecision and errors. His
chronometer stimulated progress in a number of other fields, among them
cartography, leading to clearer, more geographically accurate maps. Today the
Global Positioning System (GPS) stills depends on time measurement, but with a
 Introduction xix

margin of error of less than several centimeters, thanks to atomic clocks with a
margin of error that never exceeds that of a second every 3 million years!

These kinds of remarkable discoveries became more frequent over time in all
scientific and technological fields, often resulting in new units of measurement
named after their inventors. Instead of the inexact and often anthropomorphic
systems then in use, it became necessary to create a coherent system of measurement
that could be verified by specific instruments and methods from which reproducible
and universal results could be obtained. An example of one older unit of
measurement was the “rope of 13 knots” used by European cathedral builders to
specify angles of 30, 60 and 90 degrees. Other measurements long in use such as the
foot and the inch obviously could not meet the criterion of reproducibility but did
allow for the emergence of standards and the development of somewhat more
regular measurements. The usage of these often varied from region to region,
becoming more widespread over time. The ell, for example, differed not only
according to place but also according to usage. The first tentative step toward a
coherent system was clearly the British Imperial System, adopted in 1824 by Great
Britain and its colonies. The SI, an abbreviation for the International System of
Measurements today in use throughout much of the world, dates from 1960 and
allows scientists to join all measurements in use to a group of specific and carefully
chosen basic measurements, thus giving birth to a new field of science that could not
exist without modern measurement: metrology.

As the development of the metrology shows, access to information, facts and

measurements, all crucial to the interaction between knowledge and reality, also
serve to stimulate technological innovation. Making use of the latest technology in
the fields of sensors, measurement, communications, signal processing and
information, modern instrumentation plays an unprecedented role in progress and
science. An interdisciplinary field, instrumentation is itself present in almost all
scientific disciplines, including the fundamental sciences, engineering science,
medicine, economic and social sciences, promoting exchange of ideas and data
between different scientific communities and researchers. The particle accelerator
ring developed by CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, is
perhaps the newest instrument of measurement. With numerous subsets of specific
measurements, this impressive instrument allows scientists to explore infinitely
small things by studying and discovering new types of particles. As well,
astrophysicists have attempted to validate certain elements of the big bang theory by
more and more refined observations of the universe, making use of a vast array of
extremely sophisticated technologies, among them the Hubble space telescope.

Resolving instrumentation issues frequently involves a very broad spectrum of

theoretical abilities, as well as mastery of experimental techniques. This means that
research teams in business and university laboratories, on the individual level, must
xx Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

have scientists who can invest time in multi-disciplinary research; the teams
themselves must also serve as conduits between research teams belonging to
complimentary disciplines. This form of interdisciplinary activity, in which research
teams are able to imagine and work out applications of their work beyond their own
fields, is an extremely attractive challenge. But will this necessarily lead to
innovative concepts – and if so, according to which scientific principles?

The reality is that of the vast range of solutions widely available to resolve any
problem of measurement, very few are actually suitable. The emergence of an
innovative and optimum system often appears as the result of an ingenious
combination of a group of methods and technologies drawing on diverse disciplines.
This approach does not necessarily mean a major development has occurred in each
of the involved fields; it does, however, require in-depth knowledge of these fields.
The innovation resulting from this mastery is not less rich, open and dynamic in
terms of scientific, technological and economic terms, resulting as it does from
interdisciplinary exchange.

The objective of this work on measurement and instrumentation is to present and

analyze all the issues inherent in conceiving and developing measurement, from the
source of a signal (sensor) to conveying quantitative or qualitative information to a
user or a system. Le Colloque Interdisciplinaire en Instrumentation or
Interdisciplinary Conference on Instrumentation held in November 1998 in Cachan,
France gives a general survey of the range of this field (see C2I’98). This book
cannot claim to be exhaustive. However, throughout the chapters, we give examples of
our main theme – the idea of a system that brings together technologies, methods and
complex components relating to theoretical, experimental, and scientific skills. All of
these draw on the essence of instrumentation.

To give a well-known example of this theme, we look at the car, an object that
has paradoxically retained the same function over decades even as it has never
stopped changing and evolving. We are all aware of how new technologies,
especially in the fields of micro-electronics and industrial computer science, have
changed cars. We notice the continual appearance of new scientific concepts whose
names and acronyms (such as the Antilock Braking System (ABS), the Enhanced
Traction System (ETS) and controller area network (CAN) operating system)
become familiar through widespread publicity and advertising of vehicles. In fact,
the car as a symbol has become more interesting and inspiring than functions such as
airbags or digital motor control which often make use of new, though hidden,
technologies. These technologies usually develop within widely varying constraints
such as safety, reliability, ease with which problems can be diagnosed and repairs
can be made, and cost. Such technologies also are affected by marketing factors like
style and comfort. The car is thus an illustration of an impressive technological
 Introduction xxi

expansion that has taken place within the parameters of science and within the
parameters of socio-economics.

This book has been written for technicians, industrial engineers, undergraduate
students in the fields of electronics, electrical engineering, automation, and more
generally those in disciplines related to engineering science who require in-depth
knowledge of how systems of measurement are developed and applied. The chapters
follow a fairly linear progression. However, our text falls into two complementary
but somewhat different halves.

The first half of the book discusses fundamental ideas and issues of measurement
and presents a range of physical phenomena that allow us to obtain measurable sizes
and develop methods of pretreatment of signals. In these early chapters, our
discussion of instrumentation focuses mainly on components. The second half of the
book concentrates instead on the aspect of systems by looking at how data are
processed and used. These two different emphases are linked in Chapter 6, which
presents the carrying out of integrated functions, showing how microtechnologies
have shown great promise in the fields of sensors and instrumentation.

Using the example of the car, the first chapter defines the links between
instrumentation, measurement and metrology, explaining how units and tools of
measurement are developed. Chapter 2 presents the general principles of sensors,
while Chapter 3 gives a detailed description of the general principles of optical,
thermal and mechanical sensors, and how these may be used in developing
measuring tools and sensors. Chapters 4 to 6 discuss a range of methods and
technologies that allow for a complete measuring process, from the conception of an
electronic conditioning of signals, passage through discrete time, data conversion
and quantification, filtering and numerical pretreatment.

Chapter 7 progresses from the idea of components to that of systems,

concentrating on somewhat more technical aspects by discussing instrumentation in
terms of microsystems, accelerometers, and pressure sensors. Chapters 8 to 11
present information on how systems and measurement networks are created, how
models of interaction between sensors and their environment are developed, as well
as ideas concerning representational space, diagnostic methods and merging of data.
Chapter 12 summarizes the previous chapters and discusses the idea of intelligent
systems and sensors, to which signal processing imparts valuable qualities of
rapidity, reliability and self-diagnosis, available to us thanks only to the
miniaturization of complex mechanisms that integrate a number of complex
functions. We have chosen several examples from a specific field: the production of
cars.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

Measurement Instrumentation

The purpose of this chapter is to review the essential definitions and

characteristics of measurement. We discuss measurement systems and the roles and
classifications of instruments in a comprehensive and descriptive way, with more
detailed discussions to follow later in the book. Throughout this book, we use the
example of the car to illustrate the importance and relevance of instrumentation.

1.1. General introduction and definitions

Whether exploring Mars, measuring the brain’s electrical signals for diagnostic
purposes or setting up robots on an assembly line, measurement is everywhere. In all
human activities, the idea of measurement establishes a relationship between a
natural or artificial phenomenon and a group of symbols, usually numbers, in order
to create the most reliable representation possible. This representation is classified
according to an “orderly” scale of values.

Measurement is the basis of scientific and industrial research. It allows us to

understand the phenomena we observe in our environment by means of
experimental deduction and verification [ROM 89]; [HEW 90]; [PRI 95] and helps
us keep records of the results of these observations. Established models and
scientific laws are available for all of us, doing away with the need to begin each
experiment with the most basic observations. This is why perpetuating knowledge is
so important in the long term.

Chapter written by Mustapha NADI.

2 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In the short term, this perpetuation guarantees the quality of products and
commercial trade by connecting them to legal standards. Achieved through
instrumentation, measurement is thus the basis of progress in many forms of
knowledge, as well as being essential to production and trade. In the world of
science, it allows us to make discoveries and confirm them. In terms of technology,
instrumentation helps us control, improve and develop production, and in the world
of economics, it makes commercial exchange possible, helping us assign value to
objects and transactions.

Measurement therefore brings together knowledge and technological progress.

Universal and essential to many disciplines [PRI 95], it is, in fact, fundamental to
most human activity. This universality explains the recent interest among some
researchers in improving the forms of knowledge related to instrumentation [FIN
82].

1.2. The historical aspects of measurement

We can look at the evolution of measurement by focusing on invented

instruments or by using the instruments themselves. In this section, we will list the
steps of progress in measurement, which we define somewhat arbitrarily, according
to human needs as these emerged throughout history:
– the need to master the environment (dimensional and geographical aspects);
– the need to master means of production (mechanical and thermal aspects);
– the need to create an economy (money and trade);
– the need to master and control energy (electrical, thermal, mechanical, and
hydraulic aspects);
– the need to master information (electronic and optoelectronic aspects).

In addition to these is the mastery of knowledge which has existed throughout

history and is intimately connected:
– measurement of time;
– measurement of physical phenomena;
– measurement of chemical and biological phenomena.

Let us look at several examples from history regarding the measurement of time.
The priest-astronomers of ancient Egypt were close observers of natural phenomena,
especially the sky. Simply by observing the natural effects of solstices (including the
floodings and harvests around the Nile coinciding with the rising of the star Sirius)
they were able to invent a 365-day calendar. Their observations also enabled them to
 Measurement Instrumentation 3

develop a system of measurement based on a daily recording, made between

summer solstices, of the shadows cast by a stick placed vertically in the ground. By
about the year 2,500 BC, Egypt had three calendars: a civil calendar of 365 days, an
equivalent lunar calendar, as well as one based on the earlier lunar year based on the
heliacal rising of Sirius. Such progress was made by the Egyptian priest-astronomers
that around the year 1,450 BC, during the reign of Thutmose III, they were able to
measure days and hours, again only through observation. As can be seen on wall
paintings of star clocks in tombs of that era, ancient Egyptians knew that the day
consisted of 12 hours, compensating for the 12 dark hours of night. Their sundials –
or, more accurately, “shadow clocks” – were very simple ancestors of the gnomons
later used by the Greeks. These consisted of a rectilinear piece of wood in five
sections, with a horizontal piece at one end. Through careful observations and
corrections, the Egyptians of that era came very close to achieving our present level
of knowledge of the duration and number of days in a year.

Throughout history, these kinds of advances in measurement have come about

for specific motives. Economic motives drove the development of cartography and
the growth of trade; militaristic motives spurred the creation of new armaments,
with everything from cannon powder to the radiation levels emitted by nuclear
weapons needing to be measured; strategic and expansionist motives prompted the
need to control maritime routes and colonial territories; religious motives created a
need to restrain and monopolize certain kinds of knowledge. Nowadays, these
motives have developed with the disappearance of certain needs being replaced by
new ones. An instance of this is how the need for sophisticated, three-dimensional
maps of Earth that have become possible through the technology used by American
space shuttles, has supplanted older colonial expansionist motives that gave birth to
scientific bodies such as the Bureau des longitudes in France.

History is full of examples of the development of measurement to such an extent

that no progress can be described or reported without a measurement being a result
of completed experiences for the validation of theories [RON 82] [JAC 90], whether
these are scientific, economic, technical, expansionist or even religious. Usually, the
instrument used for such validation already exists but is used in a somewhat
different way or is adapted for the new use. Instruments developed for a specific
measurement are more rare. Religious motives have often brought about new ways
and tools of measurement, especially in antiquity. As discussed above, ancient
Egyptians used the sky to develop their calendar of 365 days and to measure days
and hours. In our own time, some physicists confronting the mystery of particles and
the Big Bang theory have turned to a spiritual explanation of these phenomena
[HAW 89].
4 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1.3. Terminology: measurement, instrumentation and metrology

The expression of measurement needs or tests are an everyday occurrence in

science and industry [MAS 90]; [COM 92]. All existing tools that help us carry out
measurement are part of instrumentation. Rules for using and guaranteeing
measurement created metrology. It is important to point out that definitions1 of these
related terms are sometimes confused, as with “measure” and “metrology”.

The word measurement has many meanings. The International Vocabulary of

Basic and General Terms in Metrology (VIM), using International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) norms, has defined measurement as “a set of operations
having the object of determining the value of a quantity”.

In other words, a measurement is the evaluation of a quantity made after

comparing it to a quantity of the same type which we use as a unit. The concept of a
measurable quantity goes beyond measurement. The VIM defines this as “an
attribute of a phenomenon, body or substance, which can be distinguished
qualitatively and determined quantitatively”.

Metrology, the science and “grammar” of measurement is defined as “the field of

knowledge concerned with measurement”.

It guarantees the meaning and validity of measurement by strict accordance to

established units [LAF 89]; [HIM 98]. These units are standardized on national and
international levels [GIA 89]. Metrology plays a role in international agreements
joining national systems of measurement to those used in other countries, making
conversion between systems possible. Standardized measurement units mean that
scientific and economic figures can be understood, reproduced, and converted with a
high degree of certitude. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures based
in France is one example of an international authority in charge of establishing
international metrological rules.

1.4. MIM interactions: measurement-instrumentation-metrology

Knowledge fields have always grown according to measurement systems.

“Experience” and “theory” interact and link together the “real world” and the
“mathematical world” [DRA 83]. These interactions lead to overall progress in

1 All definitions found in the text in italics come from the International Vocabulary of Basic
and General Terms in Metrology.
 Measurement Instrumentation 5

scientific knowledge, with attendant technological advances that in turn benefit

many disciplines (see Figure 1.1).

In scientific research, interactions between experiments and theories are

permanent. Therefore, establishing a comparative relation between a quantity to be
evaluated and a reference quantity or standard by means of an instrument of
measurement is an interaction between instrumentation and metrology that
guarantees the reliability of obtained results. Both the concept of measurement and
the means used to obtain it, whether metrologic or instrumental, are part of
interdependent evolutions. Technological advances develop and contribute to
progress in the three fields defined above: measurement, instrumentation and
metrology [RON 88]; [TUR 90].

Measurement

Quantified Phenomena
prediction modeling

Quantification Phenomena
by measurement observations

Universal
constants Advances in
knowledge

International Standards Technological

Organization (ISO) advances

Metrology Instrumentation
Standards of Standards
measurement

Figure 1.1. The MIM triangle: evolutions and permanent interactions

of measurement, instrumentation, and metrology

1.5. Instrumentation

The term instrumentation refers to a group of permanent systems which help us

measure objects and maintain retroactive control of a process. In this sense,
6 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

instruments and systems of measurement constitute the “tools” of measurement and

metrology.

For our purposes, the following terms can be singled out:

– measurement systems: these are instruments used to establish the size of objects
being scientifically tested. This kind of situation occurs in scientific experiments and
industrial test trials to acquire information and data concerning the tested object. This
data can be processed in real time or in batch mode (see Chapter 7);
– control systems: in addition to measuring objects, these instruments are also
used to exert control over the feedback process. Figure 1.2 shows the conventional
diagram of a measurement and control system.

Measurement object
under feedback control

M(t) T(t) S(t)

X(t) Direct measurement chain

B(t)
Return chain

Measurement and control system

Figure 1.2. Control and measurement system

The measurable quantity to be measured X(t) is transmitted by a signal M(t) at

the input of the measurement chain. This, which is characterized by a transfer
function T(t), creates an exit signal S(t) in the form of X(t). This can be completed
by a feedback loop with a transfer function B that carries out the parameter control
of the object being investigated according to preset or autoadaptive instructions. To
simplify our explanation, we interchangeably use the terms measurement systems,
instrumentation, and instruments. Physically, all measurement chains are based on a
measuring transducer, which we define as “a measurement device which provides
an output quantity having a given relationship to the input quantity”.
 Measurement Instrumentation 7

When an exit signal of a transducer is electric, we speak of a sensor, defined as

“the element of a measuring instrument or a measuring chain to which a measurand
is directly applied”.

The requirements of making correct and sophisticated measurements have meant

that sensors have been increasingly used for this purpose. As instruments of
management made electronically, sensors are capable of combining series of
measurement results in a single indicator. This intelligence can be numerical; a data
acquisition system connected to a computer directs the calculations and displays the
measurements. As well, this intelligence can be integrated into a measuring sensor
head in the form of microelectronic components that carry information to a compact
and portable sensor with the capability of processing information in real-time.
Research on sensors and their development is a rapidly expanding field; a fuller
discussion follows in Chapter 6. In the next pages of this chapter, we will present
other elements of the measurement chain, going into more detail later in the text.

1.6. Is a classification of instruments possible?

Does a taxonomy of instruments exist [WHI 87]? To the best of our knowledge,
a universal classification of instruments has not yet been proposed.2 The difficulties
of even proposing such a classification are obvious, given that such an attempt
would come up against problems of criteria choice. Would criteria have to be chosen
according to the technologies being used or application fields?3

One approach would involve deciding on detailed utilization of a given

approach, and thus criteria, allowing for a functional reading in terms of the research
objectives. Starting from a given application field, we would index all required
instruments in the most detailed way possible in terms of measuring function and
nature, the dimensions of the instruments being used, and the sensors being used, to
cite some elements of the process. Another approach would concentrate on different
application fields, such as pressure measurement in agriculture, in medicine and in
industry, to name several examples. Table 1.1 is an example of this kind of
classification. It is far from exhaustive but shows some possible criteria.

2 Two excellent books [ASC 87]; [FRA 96] and an article [WHI 87] all dealing with sensors
are exceptions.
3 For the definition of this term, see section 1.7.1.
8 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Obviously, depending on the application field being used, it is generally difficult

to carry out and validate reliable measurements. For example, the problems involved
in measuring the pressure level of a submarine and of a machine tool are not the
same. The constraints, consequences and precision demands are not comparable;
neither are the environmental conditions.

However, other classification criteria are possible. Tables 1.4 and 1.5 (see also
Appendix 1) give further examples of classification criteria in terms of the nature of
the physical stimulus used and the physical quantity being measured.

Example of size to be measured Application field

Fluid pressure Industry

Sugar level in a fruit Agriculture

Blood glucose level Biology

Beam resistance Civil engineering

Stock, currency exchange Marketing, commerce, finance

Oilfield flow, power station output Energy

Epidemiological monitoring, ECG signals, Health, medicine

home health care monitoring

Radar detection and surveillance Military

Life span of an elementary particle Scientific measurement

Flight speed, length of flight, altitude Transportation

Battery fluid level Automobile

Heavy metal level in wastewater Environment

Atmospheric pressure, hygrometry level Metrology

Presence detection Home automation

Software performance, fiber optic flow, Telecommunications

channel pass bands

Undersea pressure and depth Marine industry

Distance, speed, transmission time Space

Table 1.1. Examples of instrument classification criteria and related application fields
 Measurement Instrumentation 9

1.6.1. Classification of instruments used in cars

The concept of the systems approach [ROS 75] is generally used in industrial
design. Looking at the example of the car, it is possible to use this comprehensive
approach to create a subset of instruments in this field. For purposes of brevity, we
can say that the instruments necessary for a vehicle are centered around the driver
and his or her needs [EST 95]. Driving a vehicle through traffic involves
cooperation – and a certain amount of tactical skill. Planning the details of even a
short car trip involves planning an itinerary, departure time and other details, all
requiring strategic skill. Moreover, learning how to drive a car and ensuring its
optimal and safe performance involves operational skills. A useful definition of
instruments in this context would involve a classification by groups of functions,
one flexible enough to accommodate technological changes and cost reduction.

A car or automotive vehicle is above all a group of interacting systems. The

starting point of today’s car designers is the idea that all components and modules
must be planned, put together, and manufactured as integral parts of the same
system. We can imagine the possible range of interactions within systems, a few
being the smart sensor that activates an airbag and the data acquisition program that
ensures a driver’s safety. To further illustrate such interactions, we provide a list of
some of the systems classes of a car in Table 1.2. This presentation follows the logic
used in planning and production from an economic point of view.

Passenger
Temperature String system
Chassis functions compartment and
function functions
safety functions

Temperature Chassis control Steering systems Inflatable airbags

control functions systems
Supporting Passenger
Heating, Active suspension columns and shafts compartment
ventilation, and air systems amenities
Steering shaft
conditioning
Chassis modules and systems Door control
controls
systems modules
Optimization,
Motor cooling
Brake systems. performance and Electronic control
systems
fuel consumption systems
Brake suspension
Motor cooling systems
components
controls

Table 1.2a. Examples of classification in car instrumentation fields

10 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Transmission and Power and

Electronic functions
wiring functions combustion functions

Electronic antilock brakes Electric and electronic Valve command

(ABS) generators Monitoring system
Electronic inflatable airbag Connection system Air and gasoline
unit (wiring) monitoring
Antenna systems Electronic fittings Exhaust system
Electronic passenger safety Advanced data Sensors and thermostats
systems transmission
Lighting
Audio components and Fiber optic lighting
systems systems Fuel supply and emission
control
Electronic engine monitoring Lighting wiring
Energy storage and
Windshield projection Sensors conversion
system Commutators and switches Advanced propulsion
Collision protection systems Modular side panels systems
Electronic dashboard (speed,
gasoline levels, etc.)
Integrated circuits
Mechanical,
electromagnetic, and
electronic air conditioning
regulators
Energy sensors and controls
Electronic steering and
suspension
VAN network

Table 1.2b. Examples of automotive instrumentation classifications

1.7. Instrument modeling

From simple sensors and their conditioners to computer data acquisition systems,
instruments must furnish reliable and accurate measurements. We can attempt to
formalize data acquisition chains by using a global model to design an instrumental
system to define different components and measures in use. Modeling an instrument
of measurement depends on quantifiable and qualifiable knowledge of parameters –
but these parameters cannot always be controlled. We can, however, attempt to
 Measurement Instrumentation 11

estimate these parameters quantitatively and qualitatively in order to evaluate their

influence on acquisition and the representation of their real value.

1.7.1. Model of a measurement instrument

An instrument of measurement may be described in terms of input and output,

according to the functional design of Figure 1.3 [NAC 90]; [PAR 87]. Input and
output quantities allow for overall formalization in any measurement system. The
sizes for which the system has been conceived are called the measurands, defined as
“quantities subjected to measurement”.

The output phase of a measurement system delivers an “image” value S(t) of the
characteristic being measured. Ideally, this value would be a faithful representation
of the quantity to be determined, with the input and output linked by a characteristic
transfer function of the measurement system or instrument.

In reality, however, we must add to the measurand M(t) additional quantities

called influence quantities, defined as “quantities which are not the subject of
measurement but which influence the value of the measurand or the indication of a
measuring instrument”.

So, we can distinguish between:

– interfering quantities i(t) to which the system is unintentionally sensitive. The
instrument takes their effects as disturbance that is taken into account as a
supplementary transfer function that modifies output additively;
– modifying quantities m(t) that are all quantities capable of reacting on partial
transfer functions when a temporary or permanent change in the structure of the
instrument occurs.

These definitions identify the difference between real value M(t) and measured
value S(t). Metrology is a method used to rigorously analyze these differences. The
role of the user is then to critically analyze the results using a thorough knowledge,
by quantifying or qualifying influence quantities so as to estimate any possible
errors they may cause [HOF 83]; [NEU 89].

In concrete terms, these errors manifest physically by an unwanted

supplementary information transfer, which we will describe in the following
sections.
12 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

M(t) transfer variation of Tm

function due to m(t)
2
measurand Tm Tm
S(t)
m(t)
modifiable
variable
transfer function variation of Ti
i(t) applied to i(t) due to m(t)
Ti 2
interfering Ti
variable

Figure 1.3. Modeling of a measurement system

1.7.2. Load effects

Any measurement operation requires connection (in situ invasive, semi-invasive

or contact measurement) or measurement of an object using an instrument without
contact. This linking of an instrument to an object or site of investigation means that
a transfer of energy and/or information termed “a load effect” takes place [PAR 87,
NACH 90]. This transfer directly affects the measured value.

An example of this is shown by the insertion of a measuring probe into a

solenoid which interferes with the electrical field, leading to a difference between
the “true” value (the field by itself) and the value to be measured (the field disturbed
by the probe).

We can, in certain cases, estimate and deduce errors that occur between
measuring systems and the object to be measured. The measurand can then be
achieved but may not be completely accurate; in such cases we must ensure that
appropriate metrological procedures are followed. In other cases, measurement
cannot be carried out, and being aware of this will help us find another solution to
determining a quantity of interest.

1.7.3. Estimating load effects

If X(t) is the “true” value of the quantity to be measured when the object of
measurement is not related to the measurement device, then M(t) stands for the
 Measurement Instrumentation 13

value of the quantity after measurement. The information conveyed from the object
to be measured to the instrument of measurement represents an image of a
measurand X(t) upon which we superimpose information intrinsic to the energy of
the connection, expressed as X*(t). This energy transfer is a characteristic of
measurement and means that the measured object delivers not only quantity M(t) to
the instrument of measurement but also a second quantity M*(t) (see Figure 1.4).

M
Measurand effort Measurement
X
variable
M* load effect
X* flow
variable

instrument
object to be
or
measured
measurement system
Figure 1.4. Load effect from contact of the object to be measured
with a measurement system

This load effect can be described in terms of energy, a concept fundamental to all
elements of all physical interactions, no matter what the quantity may be. In
engineering sciences, we describe these interactions in terms of pairs of
complementary variables whose product is equal to the power. We will further
discuss the definition and role of these pairs.

1.7.4. Effort and flow variables

The pair of variables associated with energy transfers is characteristic of all

measurement operations. In a measurement system, one of its features is an “effort
variable” M(t) linked to a “flow variable” M*(t). The result of these two variables to
the dimension of a power:

P = M(t).M*(t)

and its temporal integral:

W = ∫M(t).M*(t).dt

that of energy.
14 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

From the point of view of physics, one of these two variables is extensive: the
flow variable, for example, current, speed, density flow or angular speed. The other
is intensive and is a potential or effort variable: for example, tension, force or
pressure. Sources of flow variables (current or speed) operate in constant flow and
have infinite impedance. Information transfer follows the pair of complementary
variables producing power or the “energy flow” that comes from interaction between
the variables. In all pairs of variables found in classical physics such as electricity,
mechanics, hydraulics and optics, we can define a size as equal to a power or form
of energy:

P = intensive variable × extensive variable

Certain pairs of variables are already familiar to us:

– power = tension × current;
– energy = force × displacement;
– power = pressure × flow.

Less common examples are:

– energy = load × tension;
– power = absolute temperature × entropy.

The energy used by a measurement system may be finite and is therefore an

energy transfer system (the balance carried by a mass) or it may be indeterminate
and thus is a power transfer system; this is the case with voltmeters and wattmeters.
The first is an energy transfer system; the second, an example of a power transfer
system.

1.7.5. Features and operating points of a system

In both linear and non-linear examples, the course taken by a flow variable or
effort variable expresses the energetic limits of the system and determines an
optimal operating point.
 Measurement Instrumentation 15

operating limits
effort source
X
max

operating limits
charge feature

flow source
R

X* X*
max

Figure 1.5. Operating limits in an example of a linear load

In general, a loaded source cannot operate when simultaneously emitting a flow

variable and a maximum effort (see Figure 1.5). For example, a battery cannot both
supply a maximum current and a different maximal potential to a charge.

Both the source feature and the load feature share one or several points of
intersection (see Figures 1.6 and 1.7). These are operating points, determining the
variable values and the load that permits their connection. From an energetic point
of view, two conditions must be met:
– the continuity of shared flow variables;
– the continuity of shared effort variables.
16 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Effort variable
M

Source Flow variable M*

Loads

Figure 1.6. A source feature intersecting with different loads:

all the operating points (1, 2 and 3) are stable

These conditions characterize operating points that are stable (see Figure 1.6) if
the source and load features are simple (that is, linear, quadratic, logarithmic and so
on) or unstable (see Figure 1.7) if the features are complex (curved, convex).

1.7.6. Generalized impedance

Determining the load effect (see Figure 1.4) makes use of the concepts of
impedance and generalized admittance. In non-linear cases, the derivative in relation
to the flow variable can be used but we will not discuss these cases here. We define
the concept of impedance as a relation between intervening quantities in a power
exchange. It is a specific transfer function of the system. The relation of the
derivatives intersecting the associated variables is the determining factor:

Z = d(Effort variable)/d(Flow variable)

 Measurement Instrumentation 17

effort variable
M

Source flow variable M*

Load
Figure 1.7. Intersections of a source feature with a load.
Operating points (1, 2 and 3) are unstable

We use this concept in cases when the measurand is an effort variable. Going
beyond equations that fit the model given in Figure 1.4, we here define two forms of
generalized impedance that apply to cases of a power transfer system and an energy
transfer. These are generalized resistance and generalized rigidity4 shown in Table 1.3.

Energy transfer
Power transfer X(t).X*(t)
∫ X(t).X*(t)dt
Generalized
Input Associated Associated Generalized impedance
impedance
variable variable variable Z = Var.Ext/∫Var.Int dt
Z = Var.Ext/Var.Int
Stress
Flow variable Generalized resistance Flow variable Generalized rigidity
variable
X*(t) R = X/X*(t) X*(t) S = X/∫X*(t)dt
X(t)
Electrical
Tension U U/I Electrical charge
current U/∫Qdt
[V] [Ω] Q [C]
I [A]
Force f Speed f/v Displacement d
f/∫d dt
[N] v [m/s] [N/ms-1] [m]
Pressure P Flow volume P/D volume
P/∫D dt
[N/m2] D [m3/s] [Nm/rad/s] V [m3]
Table 1.3. Examples of interactions between effort variables, flow variables and
corresponding generalized impedances in the case of the measuring object (X,X*)

4 The terms resistance and rigidity come from electronics and mechanics terminologies.
18 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1.7.7. Determining the load effect

We can formulate two possibilities for a measurement system when the

measurand is an effort variable:
– if the system is a power transfer {P = M(t).M*(t)}, the generalized impedances
reduced to a generalized resistance R = M/M*(t) and the equation linking the
measurement system and the object of measurement is:

M(t) = X(t)-R.X*(t)

– if the system is an energy transfer {W = ∫M(t).M*(t)dt}, the generalized

impedance is reduced to a generalized rigidity S = M/ ∫M*(t)dt and the equation
linking the measurement system to the measured object is:

M(t) = X(t)-S. ∫X*(t)dt

This gives us four possible cases according to which we consider that the
quantity to be measured X(t) can be an effort variable or a flow variable. When the
measurement system is connected then X*(t) ≠ 0; if it is not, then X*(t) = 0.
Generally, X(t) depends on X*(t) and the relation between them differs according to
whether they are viewed as the object to be measured or the measurement
instrument. This is most simply and most often expressed as a linear relation.

To estimate the load effect, we write the equation linking the exact value X(t)
and M(t) as:

X(t) = M(t) (1 + R/Rm)

or X(t) = M(t) (1 + S/Sm)

where R and Rm are the generalized resistances respectively of the measured object
and of the measurement system, with S and Sm being both the generalized rigidity
of the measured object and the measurement system, respectively.

If we want M(t) to tend towards X(t), then we have (Rm>>R) or (Sm>>S).

 Measurement Instrumentation 19

1.7.8. Measurement with a car battery

If we want to describe how the battery of a vehicle functions, we pay special

attention to measuring its tension limits. Even in simple cases, this helps us describe
certain aspects presented later in this chapter and, in particular, evaluate the load
effect introduced by linking the measured object with the measurement system.

Modeling as a Thévenin source presents the measured object as made up of an

electromotive force E (the measurand) and an internal resistance Rg. The voltmeter
Rv is a measurement system or device allowing access to the measurand E. We
model these according to Figure 1.7.

Analysis of the load effect: the pair of linked variables is made up of an effort
variable X(t) that is the tension limit of the battery u(t) and an accompanying flow
variable X*(t) that is the current i(t). The resulting measurement, made by a
voltmeter, would ideally be M(t) = E.

If we express the given equations by the object of measurement, we derive:

u(t) = E – Rg . i(t)

X*(t) = i(t) = M*(t)

Rg M(t) = S(t)

E X(t) = u(t) Rv V

Measured object: System of measurement:

Car battery Voltmeter

Figure 1.8. Contact of an instrument with a measured object and associated variables

The measurement system’s tension limit (here the system is a voltmeter) is

expressed by M(t) = S(t) = Rv i(t) where i(t) is the shared flow variable for the
instrument and the measured object: M*(t) = i(t) = M(t). From these we derive:

E = u(t)(1 + Rg/Rv)
20 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The load effect is thus represented by the term (Rg/Rv). If we want u(t) to be
equal to E, voltmeter resistance must show high resistance to the internal resistance
of the battery; this is in fact the usual result.

The load effect is thus intrinsic to all measurement operations and as such is
inevitable. We might want to think that the load effect is unimportant in view of the
fact that it is responsible for easily tolerated errors. However, this is not always the
case, and practical solutions (such as experimental precautions) and theoretical
solutions (data treatment) are necessary to properly understand and analyze results.

1.7.9. Determining impedances

We deduce impedances independently, then combine them according to the usual

rules for combining functions (as for series and parallels). The problem is in
determining the partial impedances of every source in the involved subsystem. In
linear examples, we determine the transfer function between the effort variable and
the flow variable at the point under study.

1.7.10. Generalized admittance

Generalized admittance is, in electricity to cite one instance, the inverse of

impedance. The definitions given above help us infer cases of generalized
admittance. We will use this concept in cases of a measurand being a flow variable,
just as in electronics where we usually apply the concept to parallel circuits.

1.8. Characteristics of an instrument

To determine the design or choice of an instrument, we must consider the

following three aspects:
– how we wish to use the instrument and for which purposes;
– whether it is an isolated system or connected to other systems;
– the features of the measurand and ease of accessibility.
 Measurement Instrumentation 21

Linearity

Hysteresis

Static Resolution
characteristics
Drift

Instrument
Time constants

Frequencies

Dynamic Transitory response

characteristics
Frequency response

Figure 1.9. Principal characteristics of an instrument

Responses are conditioned and numerous. We define the response of an isolated

instrument by its static and dynamic characteristics (see Figure 1.9). These are a
good starting point from which we may put into play a strategy for developing a
measurement chain. These characteristics must be present in each part of the chain
(especially in the transducer) in order to be certain of all characteristics of the
system. The load effect produced by different connections along the chain can
present problems. Certain provisional solutions, such as the use of impedances or
adjusting of the linked parts can help, but usually we must compensate for the
introduced errors through quantification or consider these errors in data analyses.
The performance of each element is expressed as a transfer characteristic, which is
often a complex data collection linking the output parameters of a system to its input
parameters. This allows us to predict how a measurement system will perform by
correctly combining the transfer characteristics of each of its elements. This
operation will be efficient if all the transfer characteristics are expressed according
to the same rules.

1.8.1. Components of static transfer functions

Static transfer function characteristics are usually expressed in terms of

parameter groups; we give some of these principles in Table 1.6. The relative
22 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

importance of these parameters depends on the metrological situation. Some of these

parameters have several different names, according to the manufacturer. The units in
which they are given tell us which parameters are in use.

Static calibration summarizes measurement system performances when all the

input variables are maintained constant, excepting one which is varied by step by
step. Output variables are collected according to steady-state functioning. These
static transfer characteristics only make sense if static calibration conditions are
established. In particular, variable values must remain constant, clear and exact.

1.8.2. Dynamic characteristics

Transfer characteristics do not easily combine when expressed in the form of

transfer characteristics. One way of viewing an instrument is to see it as a black box
with a known relation between the input (excitation) and the output (measured
signal). This relationship is a transfer function S = f (s). It can be linear (S = a + ks)
or non-linear (logarithmic, exponential, or polynomial). Often the gradient b is
designated as sensitivity. In non-linear cases, sensitivity is not constant but is a
variable that may be expressed at any point as xo by k = d(S in xo)/ds

1.8.3. Instrument performance

As we know the static and dynamic transfer characteristics of all the elements of
a system, we can then combine them to obtain a description of the entire system,
inferring these characteristics from the partial characteristics of various components
described by their transfer functions.

There is no absolute rule for combining static parameters; each case requires
different procedures. Often, contributions of most parameters may be negligible
except those corresponding to a specific element. For dynamic characteristics, we
use transfer functions.

1.8.4. Combining transfer functions

Combining transfer functions of constituent elements presupposes:

– an absence of initial conditions for all the elements;
– an absence of a load effect of one element on another.
 Measurement Instrumentation 23

We can deduce conditions that existed prior to the combining of transfer

functions. Actually, the output signal of the transfer function of an isolated element
has neither power nor energy. In view of this limitation, the following rules provide
ways of verifying the transfer function of an entire system:
– the transfer function of n elements in a series must be equal to the product of
the transfer functions of each element;
– the transfer function in Laplace notation of a feedback loop (see Figure 1.2) is
expressed by:

/
T’(p) = T(p) (1 + B T(p))

1.9. Implementing measurement acquisition

In a specific situation, choosing an appropriate measuring procedure requires

adequate knowledge of measurement methods and implementing them with the
means available. The ultimate functioning limit of a measurement system always
depends on the level of noise present. Experimental research is based on the
working-out of planning methods for experiments. However, most bench scientists
avoid the preliminary planning stage. Rather than finding an appropriate method that
would guarantee the best data with a minimum of measurement, they accumulate
results as quickly as possible. Choosing the right strategy is essential for economic
reasons; it saves time and money. In addition, it guarantees measurement reliability.
The right strategy is important not only before beginning an experiment, but during
each stage of it; the analyses carried out during experiments may lead to changes in
strategies [BOI 89].

The planning of an instrumentation chain may differ according to the application

field. Many books discuss the main principles for the working-out of an
instrumentation plan, depending on research objectives or the desired outcome.
Certain principles useful to planning research experiments are important to
instrumentation: measured factors, positioning of sensors, measurement frequency
and data analysis [CER 90]. Selecting from these principles depends on several
types of constraints, including minimization of measurement error; sensor size,
reliability of some sensors, minimization of measurement noise and field constraints.

1.9.1. Principles and methodology of measurement

In recent years, there has been much progress in improving techniques of

measurement, instrumentation and data analysis [PRI 95]. Before going on to
24 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

describe the necessary elements for building the correct instrumental chain for a
given situation, we will discuss ways to approach measurement and the
methodology of measurement.

Many different situations may present themselves during a measurement

operation. With the goal of measuring quantity, ascertaining this quantity begins
with designing, choosing, defining and implementing:
– a measurement principle that serves as a scientific base for a measurement
method;
– a measurement method or a group of theoretical and practical operations
usually implemented during measurement according to a procedure;
– an operating mode of measurement or a precise series of theoretical and
practical operations implemented during measurement according to a procedure;
– a measurement process or the sum of data, equipment and operations relating
to a given measurement.

A fundamental method of measurement. We define this as “a method of

measurement by which the value of a measurand is determined by measurement of
the base quantities”. All implemented measurement system strategies begin with the
accessibility or lack of accessibility of a variable, as well as from the physical
principles determining variable acquisition. Concerning variable acquisition, three
results are possible:
– accessible real parameters: these include the temperature of an oven, a current
going through an element (resistance), or a person’s height;
– inaccessible real parameters: some of these are dielectric permittivity and
conductivity of the brain, the pH factor of Jupiter’s subsoil, real time thermal
cartography of a plane taking off, and a person’s age;
– inaccessible unreal parameters: some of these include negative time, ECG
readings, temperatures below absolute zero and negative frequencies.

In practice, we can define two classes of measurement:

– direct methods of measurement: with these methods, we directly obtain the
value of measured variable rather than measuring other, functionally related
variables;
– indirect methods of measurement: with these methods, the value of a measured
variable is obtained by measuring other, functionally related variables.
 Measurement Instrumentation 25

From these two classes, we deduce three measurement principles, one direct, two
indirect:
– the principle of direct measurement: here, the measured object serves as an
energy vector, carrying information to the measuring system;
– comparison method of measurement: in this indirect system, energy is carried
by an external auxiliary system;
– substitution method of measurement: this system has conditions of the two
above systems.

The description of all the stages and operations leading to quantitative

measurement and its analysis make up the methodology of measurement [BOIS 89].
We base method choice on constraint definitions and objectives according to
whether or not an appropriate model exists or the measurement principle (defined or
set).

All strategies devised to implement an instrumental chain depend on the range of

knowledge, instruments and operations used during the measurement process. How
these strategies are defined and implemented depends on many factors, among them
the “physical” conditions of the measurement, field constraints, economic
constraints, measurement objectives (direct or feedback acquisition) and the
operator’s level of competence.

This diversity of situations (including methods, means, models, operating

modes) means that instrumentation requires a rigorous analysis at each step of the
process in order to determine a strategy for the measurement, leading to the best
model for the given situation.

When such a model exists, several situations are possible:

– a well-proven body of experimental data validated by mathematical analysis
permits the development of a sufficiently representative model of the phenomenon
being studied. If this model is robust (representative), we use it according to
intermediary verifications; critical analyses then confirm the results;
– if the model is not robust and therefore is perfectible, it is the result of an
analysis of prior results. In this case, however, we cannot be certain that it is a
reliable representation of the measurand. Its use will be limited and we should not
extrapolate beyond the reliability limits of this kind of model. In such cases,
measurements must be carried out with rigorous care, leading to a confirmation, an
improvement or an extension of the model being used.
26 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

If no model exists, the need for rigor remains, with the operator experimenting
until finding, identifying and naming a model. Measurement results can lead to
finding a preliminary model that can be improved later by successive approaches.

1.9.2. Field measurement constraints: instrumentation on the road

This section will analyze a measurement situation, again using the example of
the car. Suppose we want to measure the axle load of heavy trucks and similar
vehicles and lighter cars. Using a measurement instrument involves the following
field constraints that may effect measurement acquisition:
– road sensors that must set up and not be interrupted;
– climatic conditions such as ice or heat, among others;
– pressure resistance and other mechanical constraints;
– influence quantities that may be hard to control, such as variations in the main
sensors due to the heat of the road, for example.

There are other constraints on transmitting and analyzing measurement not

mentioned above. A Danish firm has developed a measurement tool that reliably
measures different axle loads as well as the number of axles. Two rows of sensors
are mounted in each lane across the road. Since the distance between the two rows
of sensors and the time lapse between the obtained signals is known, it is easy to
determine the speed and, therefore, the distance between the axles, as well as the
type of vehicle. This system takes into account field constraints in order to choose
which sensors (these are made of quartz) to use.

This study, carried out on a highway under the control of the Danish National
Road Association (DNRA), has shown conclusively reliable results. With older
systems, the sensitivity of sensors to lateral pressure resulted in a “phantom” axle
count, resulting in an overestimation of the number of vehicles. This example shows
the role of technology and its influence in defining and implementing a
measurement system.

1.10. Analyzing measurements obtained by an instrument

How we analyze data depends on the range of principles used in measurement.

Implementing any measurement chain requires a quantified or estimated definition
of any errors that may occur; in this way, precautions in using materials and
software can reduce errors, leading to the closest probable value of the measurand
[PRI 89].
 Measurement Instrumentation 27

1.10.1. Error reduction

There are two main approaches to error reduction. These are experimental
solutions, such as the use of impedance matching and noise reduction, and statistical
solutions or signal analyses such as error calculation, data analysis, spectral analysis
and others.

Experimental solutions are physical in nature and are closely related to influence
variables and load effects. They are implemented in design before measurement
occurs. Statistical solutions are mathematical in nature. They are part of the analysis
and correction of results and are carried out after measurement has taken place, since
a measurement must be made before it can be corrected. In the section that follows,
we discuss different bases for data analysis and their definitions.

1.10.2. Base definitions

Once a measurement has been carried out, we obtain a result of the

measurement, which we define as “the value of a measurand obtained by
measurement”.

This is the uncorrected result, or “the result of a measurement before correction

for assumed systematic errors” which is necessary to obtain the corrected result.
The corrected result is “the result of a measurement obtained after having made
corrections to the uncorrected result in order to take account of assumed systematic
errors”.

Correction of measurement results mostly depend on resolving errors. One kind

of error is an absolute error of measurement, defined as “the result of a measurand
minus the (conventional) true value of the measurand”.

A systematic error is “the component of the error of measurement which, in the

course of a number of measurements of the same measurand, remains constant or
varies in a predictable way”.

Understanding these different types of errors helps us make a correction. This is

“the value which, added algebraically to the uncorrected result of a measurement,
compensates for an assumed systematic error”. We deduce from this the accuracy of
measurement, or “the closeness of agreement between the result of a measurement
and the (conventional) true value of the measurand” and the experimental standard
deviation, defined as for a series of n measurements of the same measurand, the
parameter s characterizing the dispersion of the results given by the formula:
28 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

n
∑ ( xi − x )2
σ = i −1
n −1

xi being the result of the ith measurement and x being the arithmetic mean of the n
results considered.

Description of results

Displaying results in an equation must take into account measurement

uncertainty. This is “an assessment characterizing the range of values in which is
found the true value of a measured variable”.

These definitions help us display the results:

X = Xo [S.I. unit] + ∆ X [S.I.unit] (probability %)

To be rigorous, a measurement result must contain the most probable value. The
uncertainty range will include this probable value and the probability associated
with both this uncertainty range and the unit being used.

1.11. Partial conclusion

No matter which measurement method we use, there is always an energy transfer

between the measured object, the measurement instrument, the influence variables,
and physical disruptions such as connections and electromagnetism. This means that
measurement systems must be validated by estimating disruptions that occur from
contact of the measured object with the measurement instrument. This allows for
corrections of introduced errors.

1.12. Electronic instrumentation

The above definitions are applicable to all fields such as mechanics, hydraulics
and biology. However, in this chapter, and in the rest of this book, we will discuss
only measurement chains based on electronic technologies. In scientific
measurement and industrial measurement, the observation, interpretation and control
are increasingly carried out by electronic instrumentation. The very important
development of microcomputers has meant that a range of separate devices
dedicated to one or several functions became part of the instrumentation process. A
few of these are the voltmeter, the frequency meter and the oscilloscope. This
 Measurement Instrumentation 29

development has also led to the creation of multi-component, interconnected

systems that can be controlled and upgraded, with parameters that can be
customized – all by a computer [NAD 98].

We measure a signal to gain information. A signal is a physical variable with

characteristics which vary in level or in time. Computer-driven interpretation
requires that a sensor convert the signal by means of electric signal tension or an
amplified current. With signals, we must find out what information it contains and in
which form it is being transmitted. This information is taken by an instrument whose
function is determined by the characteristics of the signal and the type of
information it carries.

The normalization of measurement systems is based on the definition of electric

signal classes. Since the variable to be measured is converted into the form of an
electric signal, we must identify the nature of the signal. For this reason, the
analyzed signal becomes an essential criterion in the implementation of method and
acquisition systems (see Figure 1.11). There are numerical signals (carried by pulses
and pulse paths) and analog signals that may be continuous, temporal or frequential.
We deduce information from one of the following parameters: logical state, cadence,
level, form, or frequency.

Below we present a simple classification, based on the type of fundamental

signal information.

Analog signals
Continuous signals are static or vary slowly. With these signals, the level or
amplification of the signal at any instant constitutes the information. While sensors
(such as the thermocouple) may be used for measurement of these signals, an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts the signal into digital data. The
precision, resolution, reliable pass band, and good synchronization of the ADC
ensure parameters essential to continuous analog signal acquisition.

There are many kinds of temporal signals, such as ECG waves and temperature.
Here, information is carried in the form of waves (amplitude and variation in time).
Temporal signal acquisition means using the largest pass band possible and a precise
time base (to avoid sampling problems), ensuring transfer speed, as well as
beginning and ending the measurement sequence correctly.

Frequential domain signals contain information in signal frequency variations.

Analyzing this type of signal involves converting the measurement into frequential
data. Increasingly, specialized processors carry out this analysis, which includes
Fourier’s analysis functions.
30 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Signals

Input/output cards
Acquisition RS 232
and control IEEE 488
VXI
Data analysis
Signal analysis
Analysis Numerical filter
Statistics
Mathematical analysis
Introduction Scrolling graphs
Graphs
Databases
Histograms
Graphic interface

Figure 1.10. The signal is a definition criterion of an instrumentation procedure

Digital signals
Binary signals and pulse trains: to carry out accurate measurements of numerical
signals, an instrument must generate binary signals (an example is the start-stop
mechanism of machines) and pulse trains (as with sequencing clocks and
synchronization). These measurements are carried out by means of a counting
function.

These classes of signals are not mutually exclusive. A signal can contain more
than one type of information. This is especially true with transient and permanent
states of second order oscillatory systems that transmit signals through microwave
lines. Instruments to measure these signals range from the simple (logic-state
detectors for TOR signals) to the complex (frequency analyzers for spectrum
analyses).

1.13. Electronic instrumentation functionality

A simple classification of electronic instrumentation includes:

– sensors associated with electronic conditioning. Groups of these make up an
autonomous instrument. This kind of instrument gives a directly usable
measurement; they can also be combined with other groups containing several more
 Measurement Instrumentation 31

sensors. This means a pressure sensor can act as a surveillance device that gives
instructions to an actuator; it can also be part of a network of several sensors
supervised by a main microcomputer;
– instruments configured around a microcontroller. Another important field of
electronic instrumentation includes measurement and control chains configured
around an intelligent circuit. This pertains to many systems dedicated to a specific
application characterized by reduced size, autonomy and reduced cost. In everyday
living, this type of instrument plays a role in machines such as cars and household
appliances, mostly because of their low cost, portability or small size;
– programmable electronic instruments. These are groups of instruments that
have been configured to carry out customized functions according to the operator’s
needs. They are directed by computer instrumentation software.

The three types of instrumentation listed above depend on electronic

measurement chains. There are two main classes of these: analog acquisition chains
and digital acquisition chains. Usually, an analog chain can be represented by a
functional block design which we show in Figure 1.11.

Sensor Signal
1 conditioner
M U L I T P L E X E R

Sampler-
Sensor Signal
blocker Systems
2 conditioner
management
NAC and data
acquisition

Sensor Signal
n conditioner

Figure 1.11. An analog measurement chain

Digital chains correspond to systems configured around a microprocessor or

around programmable instruments [TRA 92]. We mention here the use of the
32 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

general functions of such chains in architecture; in later chapters, especially in

Chapters 7 and 8, we will discuss digital chains in more detail.

1.13.1. Programmable instrumentation

Many measurement systems currently in use are based on programmable

microelectronic instruments that are configured around a microcomputer. This type
of modern instrumentation uses four combinable approaches, described in Figure
1.12 [STE 93].

The growth of these systems since the end of the 1980s has occurred because
instrument manufacturers, using SCPI norms, have developed standards to ensure
product quality, and because personal computers have improved and become more
economical.

Computer

Software

I/O cards GPIB VXI RS 232

instruments instruments instruments

Signal
conditioner

Stimulus Process Temperature

Control or Pressure
Tension unit under test Tension
Current Current
Level Periodic wave

Figure 1.12. Programmable instrumentation

Modern instrumentation uses four methodologies to carry out signal acquisition.

These are input/output cards, parallel type interfaces (IEEE488), series type
interfaces (norm RS 232), interfaces using norm VXI (Versa Module Eurocard
Extended to Instruments) and their derivatives. Depending on which methodology is
chosen, signals are converted to data according to a normalized and programmable
format of ASCII, binary or SCPI. Data are then analyzed and recorded. This data
 Measurement Instrumentation 33

processing treatment is important to correct instrumentation. “Virtual” instruments

have become possible due to increasingly user-friendly software that aids in
developing measurement chains; in addition, such software has meant there are more
complex situations requiring analysis. The aesthetic aspect of screens and contours
of computers is secondary to the need for careful analyses of results.

1.13.2. Example of an electronic instrument: how a piezoelectric sensor detects

rattle in an internal combustion engine

The growing use of electronics in the automotive industry has given rise to the
need for operational monotension amplifiers that can function with a supply tension
of +5 V. The example given here has been taken from an application note published
by Texas Instruments. In this note, a piezoelectric pressure sensor interfaces with a
circuit integrated with operational amplifiers to detect rattling in an internal
combustion engine.

The piezoelectric sensor operating in alternating current. Its electric model

consists of an electromotive source in series with a capacitor. It operates in two
modes: in one the sensor produces an alternating tension, and in the other, the sensor
produces a charge.

The conditioner is an interface circuit made of two operational monotension

amplifiers. The first amplifier delivers an amplification signal (gain 5) in broadband
(530 Hz to 28 Hz); the second is configurated in a pass band filter.

Limiting load effects: in order to limit the load effect between the sensor and the
conditioner, a resistor with a high level of power is inserted between the two
devices. The resistor ensures that polarization currents flow from the sensor. The
operational amplifier must have a high driving point impedance to be adapted to the
sensor and very weak polarization currents. These steps require a very precise signal
conditioning.
34 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

5V
C4
Rp
V1 1kΩ
+ R5
R3

C A1
- +

220nF C1 C3 A2
R
C2 R1 -
V
R4

1MΩ R2

C2

Piezoelectric sensor Charge effect limitation Signal amplification Pass band filter
charge: q = V.C Gain = 5 Bandpass: 2. 89 kHz
= 21 pC/g C = 300 pF
Band pass: Central frequency = 6.8 kHz
Vi = 24 mV/g R = 1 MΩ
530 Hz – 28 kHz
V = 35 mV/g
C = 600 pF

Figure 1.13. Example of an electronic instrument in a car

Functioning principles (see Figure 1.13): when rattling begins, the sensor
produces a series of signals with a frequency that does not occur when the motor is
functioning properly. An operational amplifier (OA) amplifies these signals. The
frequency of the rattling varies according to the size of the cylinders and block
cinder material. A broadband sensor and a very flexible operational amplifier must
be used to be adaptable to all vehicles. Most sensors have band pass of several tens
of kHz, meaning that one type of sensor is suitable for many applications.

1.14. The role of instrumentation in quality control

Throughout the world, the label “ISO 9000” has become a point of reference for
companies wishing to maintain, guarantee and record the quality of their products
through quality control [DEA 91]; [HOF 83]. These businesses need measurement
instruments and standardized tests based on national norms.

Both the manufacturer of products to be standardized and certified and the client,
who may have access to a laboratory with standardization capabilities, must conform
to certain norms, depending on the quantities involved.
 Measurement Instrumentation 35

Overall, instrumentation and measurement play a crucial role in commercial

quality control. There are instruments ensuring product traceability at every step of
the production process. Traceability is “the property of a measurement whereby it
can be related to appropriate standards, generally international or national standards,
through an unbroken chain of comparisons”.

National institute
Legal document
national laboratory

National standardization service

(accredited laboratory)
National certificate
of standardization
Supplier’s Supplier’s
production control standardization service
Client’s standardization
Supplier’s laboratory
certificate of In-house certificate of
standards standardization
Instrumentation and control

Figure 1.14. Role of instrumentation in quality control

To give an example, the sensors installed on a line can be calibrated with the
supplier, but some must be calibrated in situ. Measurement is thus a key element in
quality assurance. Figure 1.14 illustrates the positions occupied by the different
levels of instruments of measurement and control in quality assessment processes in
organizations.

1.15. Conclusion

The objective of this first chapter has been to introduce, through a

comprehensive review, many of the issues involved in carrying out implementation.
As well as the definitions given throughout, we have looked at how measurement, in
all its diverse aspects, is a multidisciplinary science, drawing on mathematics,
technology, and physics – all necessary to design and careful implementation.
36 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1.16. Appendix

Transduction type
Physical Chemical Biological
Elastomagnetic Electrochemical process Test effect on an organism
Electromagnetic Spectroscopy Spectroscopy
Magnetoelectric Physicochemical transformation Biophysical transformation
Photoelastic Chemical transformation Biochemical transformation
Photoelectric Photochemical transformation
Photomagnetic
Thermoelastic
Thermoelectric
Thermomagnetic
Thermooptic
Table 1.4. Examples of possible instrument classification according to transduction type

Excitation Operating physical variables

Acoustic Amplitude, phase
Spectrum
Wave speed
Chemical Components (concentration, states, etc.)
Biological Biomass (concentration, states, etc.)
Electrical Charge, current
Potential, potential difference
Electric field (amplitude, phase,
polarization, spectrum)
Conductivity, permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic field (amplitude, phase,
polarization, spectrum)
Magnetic flow, permeability
Optic Wave: amplitude, phase, polarization,
spectrum
Speed, wave length
Thermal Temperature, thermal flow
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Mechanical Position (linear, angular)
Speed, acceleration
Force, pressure
Constraints, density mass
Time
Flow speed
Form, hardness, orientation
Viscosity
Radiation Nature or type
Energy
Intensity

Table 1.5. Examples of possible classifications according to excitation type

 Measurement Instrumentation 37

Characteristics Definitions
Zero offset Zero offset is true relation of the zero output variable with
the value of the measurand.
Drift Temporal variations in system characteristics.
Dynamic Admissible intervals of variation for input variables (in
decibels).
Hysteresis Maximum difference in output values, when the input
variable is reached from minimum, then maximum
admissible in algebraic value.
Linearity Degree of concordance between the static state diagram and
a straight line used as reference. (A straight line of the
fewest squares calculated on calibration points, the line
joining the farthest points throughout the measurement.)
Relaxation Time lag between the cause and effect of a physical
phenomenon, given in the form of a time constant.
Repeatability Margin of fluctuation in output variable when the same input
variable is applied several times under the same conditions.
Resolution Smallest increase in the input variable leading to a change in
the output variable.
Sensitivity Ratio of change in output variables to the corresponding
change in input variables.
Threshold Threshold resolution is the smallest change of the input
variable relative to zero value.
Response time For a measurable excitation, this is the time required for an
immediate value and a final value to be lower than a
specified value (1%, for example).

Table 1.6. Static characteristics

1.17. Bibliography

[ASC 87] ASCH G. et al., Les capteurs en instrumentation industrielle, Dunod, 1991.
[ATK 87] ATKINSON J.K., “Communication protocols in instrumentation”, J. Phys Sci.
Instr., 20, p. 484-491, 1987.
[BOI 89] BOISSEAU J.F., Méthodologie de la mesure, Techniques de l’Ingénieur, Mesures et
contrôle, R140, 1989.
[CER 90] CERR M. et al., Instrumentation Industrielle, Techniques et Documentation,
Lavoisier, 1990.
38 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[COM 92] COMMIOT D., “Les miracles de la mesure”, Usine nouvelle, 2373, p. 10-14,
1992.
[DEA 91] DEAN, “Measurement, quality and trade”, Meas. Sci. Technol., 2, 403-404, 1991.
[DRA 83] DRAHEIM H., “Measurement as Science and Technology”, Measurement, 1,
p. 68-74, 1983.
[EST 95] ESTEVE D., COUSTRE A., GARAJEDAGUI M., L’intégration des systèmes
électroniques dans l’automobile du XXI siècle, ouvrage collectif, CEPADUES Editions,
1995.
[FIN 82] FINKELSTEIN L., “Theory and Philosophy of measurement”, in Handbook of
Measurement Science, Wiley Interscience Publications, 1982.
[FRA 96] FRADEN J., Handbook of Modern Sensors, 2nd Edition, Collection Engineering/
electronics, Springer-Verlag, 1996.
[GIA 89] GIACOMO P., Etalons métrologiques fondamentaux, Techniques de l’Ingénieur,
Mesures et contrôle, R50, p. 1-16, 1989.
[HEW 90] HELLWIG H., “The Importance of Measurement in Technology-Based
Competition”, IEEE Trans. on Instr. and Meas., 39/5, p. 685-688, 1990.
[HIM 98] HIMBERT M., “La métrologie: un langage universel pour la science et la
technologie”, in Récents progrès en génie des procédés, vol. 12, Lavoisier Tech & Doc,
Paris, 1998.
[HOF 83] HOFMANN D., “Modeling of errors in measurement”, Measurement, 1, 3,
p. 125-128, 1983.
[JAC 90] JACOMY B., Une Histoire des Techniques, Collection Points, Editions du Seuil,
1990.
[LAF 89] LAFAYE P., Unités de mesure, Techniques de l’Ingénieur, Mesures et contrôle,
R23, 1-13, 1989.
[MAS 90] MASI C.G., “So, You Want to Measure Submicron Dimensions”, Test & Meas.
World, p. 59-68, 1990.
[NAC 90] NACHTIGAL C.L., Instrumentation and Control, Wiley Interscience Publications,
1990.
[NAD 98] NADI M., “Rôle et évolution des systèmes de mesure électroniques”, in Récents
progrès en Génie des procédés, vol. 12, Lavoisier Tech & Doc, Paris, 1998.
[NAD 99] NADI M., “La mesure et l’instrumentation dans la recherche scientifique et dans
l’industrie”, Revue de l’électricité et de l’électronique, no. 3, p. 38-42, March 1999.
[NEU 89] NEUILLY M., Incertitudes de mesure et tolérances, Techniques de l’Ingénieur,
Mesures et contrôle, R280, 1-21, 1989.
[PAR 87] PARATTE P.A., ROBERT P., Traité d’électronique et d’électricité, Systèmes de
Mesure, Dunod, 1987.
 Measurement Instrumentation 39

[PRI 89] PRIEL M., Incertitudes de mesure et tolérances, Techniques de l’Ingénieur, Mesures
et contrôle, R285, 1-11, 1989.
[PRI 95] PRIEUR G., NADI M. et al., La mesure et l'instrumentation, collection Mesures
Physiques, Masson, Paris, 1995.
[ROM 89] ROMANI L., Structure des grandeurs physiques, Blanchard Ed., Paris, 1989.
[RON 88] RONAN C., Histoire Mondiale des Sciences, Collection Points, Editions du Seuil,
1988.
[ROS 75] DE ROSNAY J., Le Macroscope, Collection Points, Editions du Seuil, 1975.
[STE 93] STENKON N., “Le standard VXI, un concept d’instrumentation électronique
programmable”, Industronique, 5, p. 54-56, 1993.
[TRA 91] TRAN TIEN LANG, Systèmes de mesures informatisés, Masson, 1991.
[TRA 92] TRAN TIEN LANG, Electronique des systèmes de mesures, collection Mesures
Physiques, Masson, 1992.
[TUR 90] TURGEL R.S., Instrumentation Everywhere, Feb. 1990, Vol. 39, no. 1, p. 1, 1990.
[WHI 87] WHITE R.M., “A sensor classification scheme”, IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelec.
Freq. Contr. Vol. UFFC-34, no. 2, p. 124-126, March 1987.
[WHI 93] WHITE R.M., “Competitive measures”, IEEE Spectrum, 30, no. 4, p. 29-33, 1993.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 2

General Principles of Sensors

Sensors are the first components of a measurement chain. They convert the
physical and chemical variables of a process or an installation into electrical signals
that almost always begin as analogical signals. This conversion must also mirror as
closely as possible the involved variables. Only a thorough knowledge of sensor
responses guarantees success; sometimes sensors produce faulty signals due to
interference, the conditions of use, or often because of the processes themselves.

We begin this chapter by discussing some of the basic principles of sensors and
how they work [NOR 99]. These principles are based on calibration, evaluation of
uncertainties, calculation of response time, and conditioning. Our aim is to provide
the reader with a fairly general guide. Some relevant equations and formulae, as well
as many issues relating to instrumentation and signal analysis, will be discussed in
later chapters.

2.1. General points

2.1.1. Basic definitions

The quantity to be measured being the measurand, which we call m, the sensor
must convert m into an electrical variable called s.

Chapter written by François LEPOUTRE.

42 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The measurement s can be an impedance, an electrical charge, a current, or a

difference of potential. The relation that joins s to m can be called s = F(m) and
depends on:
– the physical law determining the sensor;
– the structure and purpose of the sensor;
– the sensor’s environment.

The expression F(m) is established by calibration. By using a standard or unit of

measurement, we discover for these values of m (m1, m2…mi…) electrical signals
sent by the sensor (s1, s2… si…) and we trace the curve s(m), called the sensor
calibration curve (see Figure 2.1).

To use a sensor, we read the value of an electrical signal s when an unknown

measurand m is applied. The calibration curve helps us to deduce m.

Figure 2.1. Calibrating and reading a sensor

We call sensitivity S the derivative dA/dm = F´(m). In order to make sensitivity

independent of the value m, the sensor must be linear:

s = S m + s0 [2.1]

where s0 is the value of the signal s when m = 0. Finally we have:

F’(m) = constant = S

Of course, we can always define a range of values in which S is constant: that is,
when the sensor is linear.
 General Principles of Sensors 43

2.1.2. Secondary definitions

It is important in what follows to remember some frequently used definitions

given here that pertain to sensors in general:
– active and passive sensors and conditioners: the delivered electrical signals of
passive sensors are impedance variations because these sensors require an electrical
energy source in order to read s. Passive sensors are part of a circuit called the
conditioner. All other sensors are active;
– measurement chains: in general, the signal cannot be used directly. We call a
measurement chain the range of circuits or devices that amplify, adapt, convert,
linearize or digitalize a signal before output readings;
– test specimen: especially in mechanics, converting m into s is not a direct
process. For example, measuring a force means applying it to a deformable solid
monitored by a deforming sensor. This deformable solid usually consists of all
bodies found between the sensor and the measurand. These are called the test
specimen;
– calibration: we distinguish between calibration carried out on the sensor itself
and the global calibration carried out on all the test specimens, the sensor, the
conditioner and the measurement chain;
– influence variables: the function F(m) often depends on physical variables in
the environment, such as temperature or humidity. These variables are called
influence variables;
– drift of sensor and response time: sometimes we find a specific instance of an
influence variable that plays a role in measurement in one of two ways. It may cause
long-term drifts that modify F(m). This influences the drift of a sensor.
Alternatively, the influence variable may modify the sensor’s capacity to respond to
measurement variations in time. This variable affects response time;
– band passes: when the sensor measures a measurand whose temporal
dependence is sinusoidal, the sensor’s sensitivity depends on the frequency of the
measurand. The frequency range in which the sensor shows a constant sensitivity is
called the band pass. Response time and the band pass are closely related.

2.2. Metrological characteristics of sensors

In this section we will not present methods measuring uncertainty. Here, we only
discuss some general ideas to guide the reader through later chapters where
uncertainty evaluation will be discussed on more detail, particularly in Chapter 10.
Measurement uncertainty is the difference between the true value of the measurand
and the measurement carried out by the sensor. The only known measurands are the
standards with values that have been determined by convention. It is important to
44 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

distinguish between systematic errors and random uncertainties: they occur for
different reasons and have very different consequences for measurement.

2.2.1. Systematic errors

Systematic errors are always due to faulty sensor knowledge or utilization. This
kind of error is detected by comparing the mean values of the same measurand,
given by two different sensors. The most frequent causes of systematic errors are:
– incorrect or non-existent calibration due to an aging or altered sensor;
– incorrect usage: some examples include failure to reach steady state, a defect
or error of one of the conditioner parts, or a modification of the measurand by the
sensor itself;
– inadequate data processing: examples are error in linearization in the
measurement chain or amplifier saturation in the measurement chain.

Obviously, detecting systematic errors leads to their elimination.

2.2.2. Random uncertainties

We can know the cause of random uncertainties without being able to anticipate
the measurement value. Their evaluation is always statistical. They are due to the
presence of signals or interference; the amplitude of these is random and they are
called, rather vaguely, “noise”. To cite a few examples:
– fluctuating supply sources in the measurement chain or in the conditioner
(such as fluctuation of the electromotive force in a bridge);
– electromagnetic signals produced in an environment and picked up by a sensor
element, conditioner or measurement chain;
– thermal fluctuation, including thermal turbulence of current carriers;
– fluctuation in influence variables, etc.

There are many other causes of random uncertainties, such as reading errors,
defects in sensor mobility and hysteresis. Unlike systematic errors, random errors
can never be completely avoided. We can, however, reduce them by using protection
methods, such as electrical regulations, temperature stabilization, mechanical
isolation and electromagnetic shields. In addition, filtering, synchronous detection
and signal processing can reduce random uncertainties, which must always be
evaluated carefully.
 General Principles of Sensors 45

2.2.3. Analyzing random errors and uncertainties

Because, by definition, random errors cannot be anticipated, they become part of

statistics and as such are labeled “uncertainties”. Because of this vagueness,
statistics can prove a very useful tool. The British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
once said to Queen Victoria: “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and
statistics.” This witticism demonstrates why governments, for example, like using
statistics. Statistics cannot anticipate a specific occurrence, such as a measurement
result, but only give the probability of one value among many occurring. Statistics
represent a crowd and not an individual; a forest, not a tree. That is why, Disraeli
might have added, governments use statistics to direct and support as many actions
as possible, without necessarily having to address or even be aware of specific
problems. In the case of measurement, two statistical problems must be analyzed
[DIE 92]:
– the evaluation of uncertainties;
– deciding how to analyze and treat these uncertainties.

2.2.3.1. Evaluating random uncertainties. Standard deviations. Variances

Suppose we make n measures s1… si… sn of the same mesurand m. We call the
mean value of s the quantity S so that:

n
∑ si
i =l
s= [2.2]
n

The mean value of the difference si − s is used to statistically analyze the random
measurement of m. The variance v and the standard deviation σ must be introduced:

n
∑ ( si - s )2
i =l
v= [2.3]
n -1

Σ( si − s )2 ( )
n ⎡⎢ s 2 − ( s ) ⎤⎥
⎣
2
⎦
σ= = [2.4]
n −1 n −1

Suppose that the result of 10 temperature measurements are (in °C): 60.1; 60.6;
59.8; 58.7; 60.5; 59.9; 60.0; 61.2; 60.2; 60.2.
46 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

First of all, we present the results with one number after the decimal point. This
shows that the uncertainty of these measurements is at best 0.1°C. We also find that
the mean temperature is 60.11°C, and that the standard deviation σ equals 0.63°C.
The mean value of 60.11°C does not mean that it is close to the true value of the
measurand. A systematic error, perhaps in the form of defective measurement
standards, could have produced it, possibly through a deviation of 1°C on all the
values and therefore on the mean value. However, if only the systematic error is
large in relation to the random uncertainty and the sensor is non-linear, the deviation
type does not change after correcting the systematic error. The list of ten values will
not be reproduced if we undertake another measurement, but this second list will
still have something in common with the first. Looking again at the first list, we see
that deviations between 0°C and 0.2°C occur seven times. There is one value that
deviates more than 1°C from the mean value. Therefore, we can classify the
obtained values by their occurrence probabilities. After many measurements have
been carried out on the same measurand, if the uncertainty is truly random, we can
demonstrate that this occurrence probability is a law called the Gaussian
distribution. It expresses, according to the mean value and the deviation type, the
probability density of finding the value s of a measurement. With the Gaussian
distribution, the basic probability of finding the range of s through ds is given as dp
= p(s) ds (where p(s) is called probability density) is given as:

1 (s − s )2
dp = p (s) = e− ds [2.5]
2π σ 2σ 2

The probability of finding any value for s clearly is equal to 1:

+∞ 1 (s − s )2
∫−∞
2π σ
e−
2σ 2
ds = 1 [2.6]

σ.P(σ)

0.4

s-s

-3σ -σ σ 3σ

Figure 2.2. Representation of deviation type by the Gaussian probability density

 General Principles of Sensors 47

s +3σ
For s − s = ±3σ , the integral of ∫s −3σ P ( s )ds ≥ 0.99 which means more than
99% of all measurements lead to a value of s expressed as (s – s ) ≤ 3σ.

We return to our series of ten temperature measurements with an average reading

of 60.11° and a deviation type of 0.63°C. With a second series of ten measurements,
we have: 59.5; 60.2; 60.6; 60.1; 59.6; 58.9; 60.9; 59.2; 60.1; 60.3. The mean value is
59.94°C and the deviation type is 0.62°C. These two values are slightly different
from those of the first series; but if instead of taking ten measurements, we had
taken an infinite series, we would have obtained the mean theoretical value of µ. We
can see that as n becomes larger the closer s is to µ. But the meaning of “close” is
still not clear. To be more precise, we introduce ∆µ as a confidence interval. For
example, we can demonstrate that the probability of finding µ in the interval
1.65 σ
[ s − ∆µ, s + ∆µ ] with ∆µ = ( s having been calculated for the n
n
measurements) is 90%. With our first series, we had ∆µ = 0.33°C and with our
second series ∆µ = 0.32°C. We obtain for the first series of measurements a
confidence interval of 90%, close to:

59.78 ≤ T ≤ 60.44

and for the second series

59.63 ≤ T ≤ 60.26

Of course, we can define other confidence intervals in choosing probability

values of finding µ different from 90%.

2.2.3.2. Decisions about random uncertainties

Sometimes, when carrying out a series of measurements on the same measurand,
a result may occur that deviates significantly from the mean value obtained through
prior measurements. In such a case, it is hard to know if this measurement was
produced by a rare but important increase in the random uncertainty or by an
unforeseen phenomenon that has causally modified the measurand. We must then
decide if, in fact, the measurand has been modified.

In this instance, we use statistical results to make our decision. For example,
Chauvenet’s criteria specifies that a non-random phenomenon has modified the
measurand if the probability of obtaining the measurand, calculated with the help of
the Gaussian distribution, is less than 1/2 n, with n being the number of
48 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

measurements made up to the point when the anomaly appeared. We can tabulate
the results of this criterion by giving the deviation limit dmax to the mean value;
beyond this the criterion applies (see Table 2.1).

A way to use this criterion is to look at the threshold settings of an alarm system.
Suppose that a presence detection has an analogical output of 0 V without any
environmental interference. We can carry out 500 measurements and find a
deviation type of 265 mV. If one measurement has a value superior to
265 × 3.29 = 872 mV, something has modified the measurand – there has been some
interference. We must then set the threshold of the system to the value of 872 mV,
or set a rule: V < 872 mV = no interference, V > 872 mV = interference.

Number of measurements dmax/j

10 1.96

25 2.33

50 2.57

100 2.81

500 3.29

1,000 3.48

Table 2.1. Chauvenet’s criteria for a Gaussian distribution. Deviation from the mean value
beyond which the engineer must consider if a measurand has been modified

2.2.3.3. Reliability, accuracy, precision

These three properties characterize sensor and sensor calibration. A sensor is
reliable if its deviation type is weak, accurate if it has no systematic errors, and
precise if it is both reliable and accurate. Figure 2.3 shows the derivative of the
probability density in the four possible instances [ASC 91].
 General Principles of Sensors 49

a)
­ m m
b)
­ m m

d)
c)
­ m m
­ m m

Figure 2.3. Reliability, accuracy, and precision. The dotted lines indicate the
true value (µ). In a) the sensor is neither accurate nor reliable; in b) the sensor
is reliable but not accurate; in c) the sensor is accurate but not reliable;
in d) the sensor is accurate and reliable (from G. Asch [ASC 91])

2.3. Sensor calibration

Calibration is an operation that establishes the relation between the measurand

and the electrical output variable. This relation depends not only on the measurand
but also on influence variables. Where there are no influence variables, simple
calibration is used. Multiple calibration is necessary with influence variables.

2.3.1. Simple calibration

There are two possible methods of simple calibration. These are:

– direct calibration: the measurand values come from standards or reference
objects through which we know the measurand, with a given uncertainty;
– comparison calibration: with this method, we compare the measurements of
the sensor to be calibrated with measurements made by another sensor that already
has been calibrated and is being used as the reference. This means that its calibration
is linked to standards and that the corresponding uncertainty is known.
50 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

2.3.2. Multiple calibration

The existence of influence variables that may vary throughout measurement

means we must set calibration parameters for different values of these variables.
This is multiple calibration. Several specific situations that require multiple
calibration should be mentioned:
– for sensors that show hysteresis, calibration must be carried out in a series of
specific steps of measurand values;
– for sensors with dynamic variables, we determine the response as a function of
frequency;
– in certain cases, especially for many mechanical and thermal sensors, when the
manufacturer has not given instructions for usage, calibration is often carried out on-
site and after installation. For instance, in this way, an accelerometer can be
calibrated after being attached to the structure to be measured, even if the
manufacturer has specified a different procedure in the calibration certificate.

2.3.3. Linking international measurement systems

All industrialized countries have sets of standards. This means they have
laboratories organized for specific purposes, established over time, that link
measurements to basic standards [ASC 91]. Standards and transfer instruments
assure traceability and successive stages from laboratories to industry. In France, for
example, the National Bureau of Metrology is in charge of insuring traceability
according to national standards. Throughout this linking process, successive
operations are carried out within a standardization process that not only joins
measurements to measurands but defines uncertainty levels in sensor measurements.
As far as the legal aspect of some of these operations is concerned, it is important to
remember that processes certified by ISO 9000 standards also require the
traceability of all functioning sensors.

2.4. Band pass and response time

2.4.1. Harmonic response

The response of a sensor to a measurand that varies sinusoidally over time is

particularly important: from it we deduce the response to all measurand variations in
time. This is the sensor’s transitory response. If we call S( ) the sensor sensitivity
exposed to a sinusoidal measurand at pulsation , the response of a temporal pulse is
given by its Fourier transform:
 General Principles of Sensors 51

1 ∞ jω t
h (t ) = ∫ S ( ω )e dω [2.7]
2π 0

Lack of knowledge about this response can lead to systematic errors, even when
carrying out stationary measurements.

When using sensors, the idea of band pass can be introduced through a discussion
of distortion phenomena observed during measurement. If the measurand has a
periodic temporal evolution described by Figure 2.4 that can be represented by:

m(t) = m0 + Σ mi cos(ωit + θi) [2.8]

i

By introducing the concept of static sensitivity S0 and dynamic S( i), the

delivered electrical signal s(t) can be expressed as:

s(t) = So m0 + Σ S(ωi) mi cos(ωit + ψi) [2.9]

i

m (t) s(t)

t t

Figure 2.4. Example of distortion with low band pass filtering

If the values S( 1) are different, or if i is related in some way to θi, a signal s(t)
is obtained with a frequency content that changes in relation to the frequency
content of the measurand. In such cases, we say the signal has undergone a
distortion or that the system is dynamically non-linear.

The band pass is the frequency interval with a value of S( ) that is constant and
in which i differs from θi by a constant additive that can be written as ik, with k
independent of i. Such systems are dynamically non-linear.

Generally, a sensor order is the order of the differential equation that governs its
dynamic sensitivity. The simplest example is that in which an equation linking s to
m in dynamic state is a first order differential equation:

A ds/dt + Bs = m(t) [2.10]

52 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In this instance A and B are time-independent. When we call s1 and m1 the

periodic parts of s and m and write the cut-off frequency fc = B/2ヾA, the sensitivity
s and the phase of the sensor as a function of frequency f is written as:

m1 1
s = [2.11]
B ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞2 ⎤
⎢1 + ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎥⎦

ψ = – arctg ⎛⎜ f ⎞⎟ [2.12]
⎝ fc ⎠

The amplitude response is often given in the form of attenuations in decibels

(dB) as δ = 20 1og 10(s( )/s0). Figure 2.5 shows the general response slope of these
first-order sensors with a cut-off frequency above fc is 20 dB per decade.

δ(dB)

-3

-20

0.1 1 10 f/fc

Figure 2.5. Dynamic sensitivity of a first-order sensor

ψ(degree)

0°
-5°

-45°

-85°
f/fc
-90°
0.1 1 10

Figure 2.6. Phase lag of a first-order sensor

 General Principles of Sensors 53

An example of a first-order sensor, analyzed in more detail in section 3.1, is the

photodiode. The photodiode works through the generation of electron-hole pairs
“freed” from crystal-like bonding structures by the energy of absorbed photons. This
sensor is a current source, often proportional to the absorbed luminous flux f. No
matter which utilization circuit is employed, the electrical signal delivered by the
sensor can be given as the potential VL at the limits of the charge resistance RL. The
differential equation of the sensor can be deduced from the equivalent diagram in
Figure 2.7, where CL is the diode capacity and RL is a resistance, taking into account
the charge resistance and the internal resistance of the photodiode.

I=kΦ CL RL VL

IC IL

Figure 2.7. Equivalent design of a photodiode

From this basic design, we can easily deduce:

dVL VL
I = IC + I L = CL + = kφ [2.13]
dt RL

and also:

CL dVL 1
φ= + VL [2.14]
k dt kRL

This is a first-order sensor equation. The cut-off frequency expressed by

1
fC = directly depends on charge resistance, and not only on the sensor.
2πRL CL
This situation is actually very general. The response time of the sensors, whatever
their order, is always influenced by the measurement chain (see Figure 2.8).
54 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We can also establish that the sensitivity S0 is equal to kRL, which means the
product (gain × band pass) is constant. Again, this result is quite general. We see
that usually large band pass and strong gains do not exist together in most sensor
measurement chains.

When the measurand is a mechanical variable [HAN 99], we often find second-
order sensors. With these sensors, the equation joining the measure s to the
measurand m is of this type:

d 2s ds
A +B +C = m [2.15]
2 dt
dt

where A, B and C are independent time constants. We introduce the cut-off

frequency f0 and the damping factor as:

1 C
f0 = [2.16]
2π A

and

B
ξ= [2.17]
2 CA

fc/Hz

107

105

103

R/Ω

103 105 107

Figure 2.8. Example of variation in a photodiode band pass

according to the charge resistance
 General Principles of Sensors 55

Resolving this equation leads to responses in amplitude and phase, equal

respectively to:

s 1
=
m1 2
⎛ ⎛ f ⎞2 ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
2
[2.18]
C ⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ + 4ξ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ fo ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ fo ⎠
⎝ ⎠

and

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
−2ξ
Ψ = arctg ⎢ ⎥ [2.19]
⎢ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎥⎥
2
⎢ fo ⎜1 − ⎜ f ⎟ ⎟
⎢ f ⎜ ⎝ fo ⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎝

Dynamic sensitivity can show a resonance with weak damping and damping
beyond the frequency fo equals 40 dB per decade. The phase lags are doubled
compared to those of first-order sensors.

ξ<√2
⏐s/m1⏐

critical damping
1 ξ=√2

10-1 ξ>√2

10- 2
slope -2

f/f0

10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103

resonance

Figure 2.9. Amplitude response of a second-order sensor

56 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

phase ξ (d°)

0°

ξ>√2

ξ<√2
-90°

ξ=√2

-180°

f/f0
10-2 10-1 1 10 102

Figure 2.10. Phase of a second-order sensor

2.4.2. Response time

The response time of sensors can also be deduced from the differential equations
presented above. For a first-order sensor, if m = 0 for t < 0 and m = m0 for t > 0, we
get the solution:

A
s = so (1 − e −t / τ ) with τ =
B [2.20]

and

m0
s0 =
B [2.21]

1
Here is sometimes called static sensitivity.
B
 General Principles of Sensors 57

s0 = m0/B

0.9 s0

τ 2τ 3τ t

Figure 2.11. First-order sensor response

In order to reach 90% of the sensitivity s0 of the steady state, t = 3k must be

achieved. If the measurand is of the type m0 = 0 at t < 0 and m = m0 (constant) for t >
0, a second-order sensor gives a response that is highly dependent on damping (see
Figure 2.12). These transient solutions follow from this:
– if ξ>1/ 2 ,

s = k1e − r1t + k 2 e − r2 t [2.22]

with: r1,2 = −ξ ωo ± ωo 2 (ξ2 − 1)

– if ξ<1/ 2 ,

1−ξ 2 t 1−ξ 2t
s = k1e −ξωot e jωo + k2 e−ξωot e− jωot [2.23]

– if ξ=1/ 2 ,

s = k1 (1 + ωo t )e −ω o t [2.24]
58 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

ds
If we take as initial conditions s = 0 and = 0 with t = 0 , we get the following
complete solutions: dt

mo ⎡ exp(−ξω t ) ⎤
ξ < 1/ 2 ⇒ s (t ) = ⎢1 − o
sin ⎡( 1-ξ 2 )ωo t + ψ ⎤ ⎥
C ⎢ ⎣ ⎦⎥
⎣ 1−ξ 2 ⎦

with Ψ = arc sin 1 − ξ2

mo
ξ = 1/ 2 ⇒ s (t ) = [1 − (1 + ωot ) exp − ωot ]
C

⎡ +ξ + ξ2 − 1
exp ⎡ −ξ + ξ 2 − 1 ⎤ ωo t
mo
ξ > 1/ 2 ⇒ s (t ) = ⎢−
C ⎢ 2 ξ −1
2 ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ [2.25]
⎣

+ξ − ξ2 − 1 ⎤
exp ⎡ −ξ − ξ2 − 1 ⎤ ωo t ⎥
2 ξ2 − 1 ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎦

s (t)

2m 0 /C

ξ= 0

m 0 /C ξ= 0.2

ξ= 1/ √2

ξ= 10
0

2π ω0t

Figure 2.12. Temporal response of a second-order sensor

Second-order sensors are usually built with a damping = 0.6 (see Figure 2.12).
With this the steady state m0/C to almost 10% is reached for a period equal to
 General Principles of Sensors 59

2.4/ 0. This value must be taken into account to be certain that the sensor conforms
to the calibrations set by the manufacturer.

2.5. Passive sensor conditioners

Passive sensors convert the measurand into an impedance variable. They must
always be used with a circuit that has a source current or tension and, generally,
several additional impedances. The circuit is called the conditioner. There are two
main groups of impedance conditioners [BAU 61]. In the first group, the sensor’s
impedance variation is converted by a variation of potential difference. In the second
group, the impedance variation is used to modify an oscillator frequency. In this
case, the sensor reading is actually a frequency measurement. Here we will only
discuss the first group.

2.5.1. The effect of polarization instabilities

When a sensor’s impedance variation is converted into a tension variation, the

measured tension depends on the impedance of the sensor and the different
conditioner elements that can be effected by influence variables and disturbances.
Choosing the right conditioner can be critical for the signal to noise ratio [ANS 82].
With the simplest possible conditioner, which is often called potentiometric
conditioner (see Figure 2.13), the signal Vm:

Zc
Vm = e [2.26]
Zc + Z K

is proportional to the impedance of sensor Zc, which makes it very sensitive to

disturbances that could introduce random variations. If we take a source instability
equal to ∆e, the result is a variation of the measurement, expressed by:

ZCO + ∆ZC ZCO

∆Vm = ∆e # ∆e [2.27]
Z K + ZCO + ∆ZC Z K + ZCO

This result can be found in the case of a simple polarization by a source current
as well.
60 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Zk
Zc
I vm
e

Ζc vm

Figure 2.13. Potentiometric conditioner with voltage or current sources

On the other hand, bridge conditioners help eliminate the noise very efficiently
(see Figure 2.14).

C
Z1 Z3

Vm
e A B

Zc
Z4
D

Figure 2.14. Impedance bridge in which Zc=Zc0+∆Zc is the sensor

It is easy to show that the tension Vm appearing with the measurand is increased
by ∆Vm when e changes to e + ∆e following:

⎡ ZCO + ∆ZC ZCO ⎤ Z1∆ZC

∆Vm = ∆e ⎢ − ⎥ = ∆e [2.28]
⎣ 1
Z + Z CO + ∆Z C Z CO + Z1⎦ ( Z1 + Z CO ∆ZC )( Z CO + Z1 )
+

or:

Z1∆ZC
∆Vm # ∆e [2.29]
( Z K + Z1 )2
 General Principles of Sensors 61

For the same polarization instability, the noise generated by the measurement in
the case of a bridge and a potentiometer are in the relation:

∆Vm bridge ∆ZC

= [2.30]
∆Vm potentiometer ZCO + Z1

that is, in the variation order relative to the impedance. For measurements in which
impedance varies from the order of % to around Zco, the bridge is 100 times less
sensitive to random variations of e than with potentiometric conditioners or the
direct polarization by current source.

2.5.2. Effects of influence variables

It is important to remember that minimization influence variables follow a

general rule that allows for optimalization of conditioners. Suppose the
measurement tension delivered by the conditioner depends on impedances, which
we assume are all resistive, is written as:

Vm = f ( RK Rc ) [2.31]

We take g as the influence variable that modifies all the conditioner’s

resistances. A variation dg of the influence variable produces a variation dVm of the
measurement tension:

⎡ ∂Vm ∂Rk ∂Vm ∂RC ⎤

dVm = ⎢ ∑ + ⎥ dg [2.32]
⎣ K ∂Rk ∂g ∂RC ∂g ⎦

If we get dVm= 0, we have:

∂Vm ∂RK ∂Vm ∂RC

∑ . + =0 [2.33]
K ∂Rk ∂g ∂RC ∂g

For example, in the case of a potentiometric conditioner (or when one of the
assembly resistances is sensitive to the influence variable g) and when the
62 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

sensitivities to g of the two resistances Rc and Rk are the same, the condition dVm = 0
is equivalent to:

∂Vm ∂V
=− m [2.34]
∂Rk ∂RC

In the case of a potentiometric conditioner, we get:

∂Vm Rk
= [2.35]
∂Rc ( R + R )2
c k

and:

∂Vm − Rc
= [2.36]
∂Rk ( R + R )2
c k

Once again, this equals Rc and Rk (see Figure 2.15).

influence of g

Rk
e

influence of g Rc
Vm

Figure 2.15. Elimination of the influence of the g variable

in a potentiometric conditioner

With resistive bridges (see Figure 2.14), we see that sensitivity to influence
variables is also minimal when:

R1 = RCO = R3 = R4 [2.37]

These results also apply to complex impedance bridges.

 General Principles of Sensors 63

2.5.3. Conditioners of complex impedance sensors

Conditioners of passive sensors with complex impedances are made with

different bridges, for instance, Nernst’s bridge for capacitive sensors (see Figure
2.16) and Maxwell’s bridge (see Figure 2.17) for inductive sensors.

Nernst’s bridge is used for sensors with an impedance that can be represented by
an impedance Zc:

Rc
Z c= [2.38]
1 + jRc C ω

For the value m0 of the measurand we adjust the following impedances of the
bridge:

Re = Rc = Rc0 [2.39]

and

Ce = Cc = Cc 0 [2.40]

So, Vm0 = 0. If Zc changes from Zc0 to Zc0 + ∆Zc, we get:

e ∆Z
Vm ≈ . c [2.41]
4 Zc0

Rc R
Cc
Vm
e

C c0
R

Rc0

Figure 2.16. Bridge conditioner for a capacitive sensor

64 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Re
R

Ce
Vm e

Lc

Rc
R

Figure 2.17. Bridge conditioner for an inductive sensor

For an inductive sensor, the impedance Zc is given as:

Zc = R c + jLc [2.42]

When the measurand equals m0, the bridge changes to:

R2
Rc 0 = [2.43]
Re

and:

Lc0 = R 2 .Ce [2.44]

so we then get:

R.∆Z c
Vm ≈ e. [2.45]
( R + Z c 0 )2

2.6. Conditioners for active sensors

2.6.1. Direct reading

Direct readings of active sensors are rarely satisfactory, whether or not these
sensors are equivalent to tension, currents or charge sources. This is because this
kind of reading presupposes a correction that is not always easy to evaluate.
 General Principles of Sensors 65

When electrical information delivered by active sensors appears in the form of a

tension source (ec) in series with an impedance Zc, the electrical signal can be read to
the impedance limits of Zi and we get (see Figure 2.18):

Zi
Vm = ec [2.46]
Zi + Z c

Zc

Zi Vm

ec

Figure 2.18. Equivalence to a tension source

For the measurement to be as close as possible to the tension delivered by the

sensor, we must have vm ≈ ec, and this implies that zi >> zc , but this leads to a
reduction of the band pass (see section 2.5.1).

The sensor can also appear in a form equivalent to a current source (ic) in parallel
with an impedance Zc. The electrical signal Vm is then given as in Figure 2.19.

im

ic Zc
Vm

Figure 2.19. Equivalence to a current source

66 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Zc
vm = Zi im with im = ic [2.47]
Zi + Z c

For im to approximate ic, we need:

Z i << Z c [2.48]

but in this instance, the signal will be very weak.

Lastly, with sensors that are also charge sources, it is clear that a simple
measurement by the difference potential to the resistance limits affects the signal,
since the measurement discharges the sensor.

2.6.2. Using operational amplifiers

Here we will not discuss in any detail the many schema used for signal
processing of active sensors that resolve the problems presented in this section (see
the following chapters for a more detailed presentation of these). Instead, we explain
the three basic assemblies that correspond to the three types of equivalencies found
in active sensors. These are basic to using operational amplifiers [FRA 93].

First of all, let us suppose that the sensor is equivalent to a tension source ec in
series with an impedance Zc. With the assembly shown in Figure 2.20, we can easily
see that, if we are close to the operational ideal for the amplifier, we get:

⎛ R ⎞
Vs = ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟ Ve = GVe [2.49]
⎝ R1 ⎠

R2

-
+
Zc
R1 v RL vs
e
ec

Figure 2.20. Assembly type for a sensor equivalent to a tension source

 General Principles of Sensors 67

We can see that the sensor does not produce any current (i+ = i- = 0 in an ideal
amplifier) which means that it is connected to infinite impedance. The non-influence
condition of the sensor’s internal impedance Zc is fulfilled when:
– Vs, as output, is independent of the current transmitted in the charge RL. The
tension Vs transmitted by the amplifier acts as a tension source of a zero internal
impedance;
– the choice of R1 and R2 help regulate the desired gain G.

Remembering that choosing a gain is related to choosing a cut-off frequency, the

product (G. c) is a constant dependent on the type of operational amplifier chosen:

µo
Gωc = [2.50]
τo

where µ0 is the open circuit gain and k0 is the response time of the operational
amplifier.

Suppose now that the sensor is equivalent to a current source placed in parallel
with a resistance Rc. We can then use the assembly seen in Figure 2.21.

ic

E - S
ε
+
ic Rc Ve
RL Vs

M
Figure 2.21. Assembly type for a sensor equivalent to a current source

Since the input of an ideal amplifier would not transmit current, and since input
differential tension is zero i ≈ 0, the potential difference between E and M is zero
68 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

and no current circulates in the resistance Rc of the sensor. The output tension VS is
expressed as:

VS = −Ric [2.51]

As with amplifier tension, we will give a few basic descriptions of how basic
assembly works:
– the value chosen for the feedback resistance R does not influence a sensor
equivalent to a current source;
– input resistance is zero because source limits are maintained at the same
potential to the input of an ideal amplifier;
– output provides a source of tension whose resistance is zero (VS is independent
of the charge resistance placed at output).

In the case of a sensor equal to a charge generator, it is often best to use a

charge-tension convertor to short-circuit electrodes (see Chapter 3 for more detail).
The most basic assembly is shown in Figure 2.22.

RR CR

CS
dq ve -
RS +
dt
vs

Figure 2.22. Assembly type for a sensor equal to a charge source

Because no current can come through amplifier inputs, all charge variations
within the sensor’s limits are found within the limits of CR. Here we get:

Q
VS = − [2.52]
CR
 General Principles of Sensors 69

In reality we often have to take into account the resistance to leakage of capacity
CR (RR in parallel with CR) especially always with low frequencies. It is easy to
show that VS becomes:

Q jωRR C R
VS = − . [2.53]
CR 1 + jωRR CR

This is the expression of a high pass filter that shows a converter of this type
does function properly at low frequencies and cannot transmit current.

2.7. Bibliography

[AFN] AFNOR, NF X07001 norm.

[ANS 82] Standard, Temperature measurement, ISA/ANSI standard MC 96, International
Society for measurement and control, 1982.
[ASC 91] ASCH G. et al., Capteurs en instrumentation industrielle, Dunod, 1991.
[BAU 61] BAURAND J., Mesures électriques, Masson, 1961.
[DIE 92] DIECK R.H., Measurements uncertainty, ISA, Research Triangle Park, 1992.
[FRA 93] FRADEN J., AIP handbook of modern sensors, AIP Press, 1993.
[HAN 99] Measurement, instrumentation and sensors handbook, CRC Handbook, Springer,
IEEE Press (1999).
[NOR 99] NORTON H.N., Handbook of transducers, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1999.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 3

Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal

and Mechanical Sensors

There are now so many sensors available [NOR 89] that it would be impossible
to discuss the principles of all of them in a single chapter. We have therefore limited
ourselves to three classes of measurands: optical, thermal and mechanical. However,
even with this restriction, we still must limit our scope, and will only present the
most frequently used laws for these types of physical sensors.

3.1. Optical sensors

One important class of sensors detects electromagnetic beams. Within this group,
we will restrict our discussion to those optic sensors that are sensitive only to beams
with wavelengths of 10 nm – 1 mm, that is, frequencies of between 1016 and 1011 Hz.
In the specific case of light sensors, for reasons relating to the sensitivity of the
human eye, it is necessary to introduce specific concepts when discussing visibility
(0.4 µm to 0.8 µm). After a brief recapitulation of the variables that act as
measurands for optical sensors, we will define the reference light source used in
making calibrations. We will then discuss the principles of sensors that are used in
constructing semiconductors.

Chapter written by François LEPOUTRE.

72 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.1.1. Energetic flux

An electromagnetic beam transmits energy. One way to see this is to place a

thermometer with a darkened reservoir in an electromagnetic beam and check that
the temperature increases. We know that the flux of Poynting’s vector, P = E ∧ H
the vectorial product of electrical and magnetic fields, across a surface S
surrounding a closed volume V, is equal to the quantity of electromagnetic energy
W that comes from V by the surface S and by unity of time. This flux can be
expressed by means of the divergence of P and the local electromagnetic energy
density, as we see in Figure 3.1:

∫∫ P dS = ∫∫∫ divP.dV = ∫∫∫

s v
⎡∂
⎢ ∂t
⎣
( εE 2 / 2) + ∂∂t ( µ H 2 / 2)⎥⎦⎤ dV [3.1]
v

S
Figure 3.1. Flux coming from a volume V across a surface S

In the specific case of a plane wave, it is known that H = E/µv where v is the
speed of the wave in the middle of the index n (v = c/n with c the light speed in
traveling in a vacuum). The flux is reduced to:

∫∫ P dS = ∫∫∫ divP.dV = ∫∫∫ ∂t ( εE ) dV

∂ 2
[3.2]
s v
v

From this we can deduce that the energetic flux is proportional to the square of
the amplitude of the electric field. This relation is very commonly used by all
sensors sensitive to energy and therefore to the square of the field, that is to say that
any phase information is lost. The phase can only be retrieved by interference
phenomena such as holography or speckle.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 73

3.1.2. Luminous flux

In optical sensors with at least one capacity of visual sensitivity, measurands can
be either energetic or luminous variables. Energetic variables are measurements that
are completely independent of the sensitivity of the human eye. With luminous
variables, on the other hand, the effect of the eye is taken into account as a variable
according to the radiation wavelengths. It is important to remember that when
choosing between these two measurands, the practical application is very important.
For example, when studying photomulitplicator sensors, within the framework of
spectroscopy, it becomes clear that energetic variables are the only measurands we
need to take into account. However, if we want to measure the flux coming into a
camera producing images for the human eye, luminous variables are indispensable.
As well, measuring the light in a room or road can only be expressed in units of
luminous flux.

We have seen how energetic flux is directly related to the square of the
electromagnetic field. Luminous flux is defined with respect to retina sensations.
This kind of flux is a measurand, that is, a measurable variable, because we can
define the equality of these two fluxes (the same sensation produced by two adjacent
zones of the same shield) and the sum of several fluxes that superimpose their action
on the eye. These measurements can also be made with a photoelectric cell with a
spectral sensitivity set as close as possible to that of the human eye. No matter which
methods are used, the measurements must be carried out with monochromatic
waves, which means that the measurements must be taken in the brief interval d
around the wavelength of the measurement. These are spectral variables.

3.1.3. The relative luminous efficiency curve V( ) of the human eye

“Normal” human eyesight is not the same for everyone across the spectrum of
visual experience or for a single visual sensation. Even for one person, this sensation
varies according to psychological and physical factors. Therefore, we define
luminous efficiency of the eye by citing a large-scale statistical study carried out on
people with “normal” eyesight. The results of this study have led to a definition of
the average eye. The sensations of this standard eye, which we call the luminous
flux F , are at each wavelength proportional to the received spectral energetic flux
f . The proportionality factor k of course depends on . If this average eye receives
the spectral energetic fluxes f and f ’ (to and ’) so that the luminous spectral
fluxes Fλ and Fλ’ are equal, we express them as:

Fλ K φ
= λ λ =1 [3.3]
Fλ ' K λ 'φλ '
74 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The experiment shows that K is at its maximum at a wavelength = 0.555 µm.

With Km = K0.555 we can define the relative luminous efficiency V given in Figure
3.2 with:

Kλ
Vλ = ≤1 [3.4]
Km

Using this definition, the luminous flux F is given in the form:

F =Km V f [3.5]

The numeric value attributed to Km leads to defining the relation between the
unities of energetic flux and luminous flux. The unity of energetic flux, called the
lumen (lm), has been set since 1979 as Km = 680 lm.W-1.

Three other variables are important for optical sensors. These are intensity,
luminance and illumination. Of these, intensity is certainly the most well known
because it is the most frequently used. Its origin resides in the fact that most
luminous sources transmit fluxes that depend not only on surface points but also on
the emission angle in a normal relation to the surface. For this reason, it is necessary
to evaluate the elemental flux transmitted by an element dS of the surface around the
point 0 in a small solid angle d around a given direction x. This leads to the
definition of transmitted intensity in this direction (see Figure 3.3). The unity of
energetic intensity df/d is clearly the W.sr-1 and that of the luminous intensity is
dF/d is the candela or lm.sr-1.

Vλ
λ Vλ
1 400 410-4
450 0.038
500 0.323
555 1
600 0.63
650 0.107
700 410-3
750
10-4
0
400 500 700 nm
600 µm
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Figure 3.2. Luminous efficiency curve of a normal eye

 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 75

Now, if we are within the range of a sensor transmitting waves in the direction x
(see Figure 3.3), we see that the visible transmission surface is no longer dS but d ,
which is the projection of dS on the plane usual to 0x. As long as dS stays small, the
luminous flux perceived in this direction is proportional to d . We then introduce
the luminance L as:

dI dI
L= = [3.6]
dΣ dS cos θ

dΣ
→
n
θ

0 x
dS dΩ

Figure 3.3. Definition of intensity

For many sources, luminance L is independent of the transmission angle . These

are called Lambertian sources. The flux df transmitted by the source of luminance
L in the solid angle d and the direction is written as:

d2f = dId = LdS cos d

L is expressed as Wm-2sr-1 or for the luminous variable as cd.m-2.

Let us look at the flux d2f transmitted by the surface dS in the direction of a
sensor, delimiting the solid angle d by the surface dS´ of the sensor.

Figure 3.4. Definition of the geometric area

76 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The solid angle d can be easily expressed according to dS´ and ´:

dS' cos θ'

dΩ = [3.7]
( 00' )2

and d2f can be written:

LdS cos θdS' cos θ '

d 2φ = [3.8]
( 00' )2

dS cos θ
where is the solid angle d ’ by which the sensor observes the source. We
( 00' )2
then get:

d2φ = LdS´ cos ´d ´ [3.9]

The quantity dS cos d = dS’ cos ’ d ’ is called the geometric area (see Figure
3.4). This quantity is conserved in stigmatic (that is, having to do with images)
optical systems.

For most sensors, and especially optical sensors, the important measurand is the
flux received by the unity surface called E:

d 2φ
E= [3.10]
dS'

It is expressed as W.m-2 or lm.m-2, also called lux.

3.1.4. The black body: a reference for optical sensors

Now that we have some knowledge of measurands, the next step is learning to
calibrate optical sensors. To do this, we must be able to produce energetic and
luminous fluxes whose properties are both completely known and reproducible. This
can only be achieved through thermal radiation of black bodies. How these black
bodies react depends on the temperature of the body and the universal constants.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 77

3.1.4.1. Black body radiation

Maxwell’s
f equations show that a continuous electrical currentfcreates a magnetic
field H . If this current
f varies over time, this magnetic field H itself creates an
electrical induction D that also varies
f over
f time. Thus, a current varying over time
generates an electromagnetic wave ( D , H ). In other words, for a current that varies
over time, the electrical charges must vibrate around their position of equilibrium
f f (a
harmonic oscillator). These charges then accelerate, producing the couple ( D , H ).
In solid bodies, these vibrations can take many values. Because a harmonic
oscillator only can take energies equal to p.hv with p integer and v the oscillator
frequency [YAR 85], Planck shows that the spectral luminance L of a solid, with
the absolute temperature T, is expressed by:

⎡ ⎤
Lλ = ε λ ⎢ ⎥ = ε L0 ( T )
C1
( )
λ λ [3.11]
⎢ 5 c2 / λT ⎥
λ e −1 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦

where , the transmissivity of the solid, depends on and is characteristic of the

body (or sometimes only of its surface). L0λ (T ) is the specific luminance of the
black body that is only a function of the temperature of the body. This is Planck’s
law. The constants C1 and C2 are expressed by:

C1 = 1.19 10−16 W.m −2 sr −1 = 1.19 10−8W.µ m −2 sr −1

hc
C2 = = 1.438 10−2 m.K = 1.438 104 µ m.K [3.12]
k

This function L0λ ( T ) is maximum for a wavelength λ M obeying the relation

( λ M in µm and T in K):

2,898
M = [3.13]
T

The spectral luminance of the black body, shown in Figure 3.5 for three adjacent
temperatures of the surrounding ambient, shows that the total luminance (integrated
with the variant of 0 to +∞) is a rapidly growing function of the temperature. We get:

∞ σT 4 σ
L° =
∫0 L°λ d =
π
with
π
= 1.8 10-8W/m2 K 4 [3.14]
78 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Lλ
ª 200°C

≈ 100°C

ª 0°C
λ (µm)
6.1 7.8 10.6

Figure 3.5. Spectral luminance of black body

We note here that by explaining how energetic exchanges between matter and
light occur in the form of photons, the discovery of the black body law marked the
beginning of quantum physics.

3.1.4.2. Realization of black bodies

In the expression L , the term i is independent of temperature and, in fact, is
solely dependent on the radiation properties of the surface. Kirchhoff has shown that
transmissivity is equal to absorptivity (i = g ). However, the conservation of
energy at the interface between the two environments allows us to write a relation
between g and the transmission coefficients k and the reflection . We get:

g +k + =1 [3.15]

To analyze the black body, the first idea is to look at opaque materials. An
opaque object does not transmit energy at any wavelength and for all incidences
(k = 0), which means it is a black body (i = 1) if it does not reflect energy for all
wavelengths and incidences ( = 0). To see how this works, we will look at opaque
materials.

Dielectrics are not helpful to realize black bodies because their behavior largely
depends on the wavelength. For example, white paper has very weak remote infrared
reflectance, which makes it close to being a black body beyond 6 µm (an
transmissivity of the order of 0.92). Unfortunately, it becomes a much stronger
reflector in the visible, with almost no emissions at all.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 79

In the case of metals, k = 0 at any , but we know that the reflection factor,
independent of incidence except when it becomes low-angled, is expressed by:

4n
ρλ = [3.16]
(1 + n )2

where the index is high for a metal. The transmissivity is written as:

4n
ε λ = 1− ρλ = [3.17]
(1 + n )2

and t is always weak.

Figure 3.6 shows that the use of opaque metallic bodies or dielectric bodies does
not give the transmissivity of black bodies.

0 0°

-45° 45° -45° 45°

90° -90° 90°

1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
A B
Figure 3.6. Transmissivity indicators of dielectric and metal bodies to a given wavelength

Given these findings, it becomes necessary to look at transparent bodies and treat
them as opaque artefacts. The transmission coefficient k is written as:

k = exp( − x) [3.18]

where is the extinction coefficient and x is the distance light traveled in the
material. If we choose a dielectric with the weak reflection coefficient, we get:

i = 1 − k = 1 − exp( − x) [3.19]
80 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This shows that augmenting x increases transmissivity. This can be done by

creating an optical diffusion inside the material. The path traveled by the light
becomes much longer than the simple thickness x; this increases transmissivity
[HOD 71].

Now suppose we create a cavity whose interior is covered with diffusing

dielectric material, with an transmissivity i necessarily inferior to 1. This cavity is
closed everywhere except for a small opening. Each element of the internal surface
dS transmits practically nothing in the direction of this opening and even this
emission reaches other internal elements. The emission of the surface dS of the
internal wall is written:

φemitted = dS ε σT 4 [3.20]

where T is the supposed uniform temperature of the cavity. This surface dS also
receives, from another element of the surface dS of the cavity, a flux i jT4 dS, with
one part shown as:

φreflected = (1 − ε ) ε dS σT 4 [3.21]

When we consider only dS, the radiative flux that comes from this term is:

φ = ε (1 − ε ) dS σT 4 + ε dS σT 4 = ε ( 2 − ε ) σT 4 dS [3.22]

Thus, we have a large transmissivity i (2-i) that, for i = 0.9, already improves
transmittance by 10%. Taking into account successive n reflections, we see that
transmissivity becomes 1-(1-i)n+1. Beyond three reflections, noticeable
transmissivity is nearly that of the black body, having become independent of the
wall transmissivity; that is, of its nature.

In addition, a black body means the internal wall temperature will be uniform.
This is realized with walls of excellent thermal conductivity (for instance, with
copper), and in perfect thermal isolation from the exterior. The exact form of the
internal cavity depends on the temperature at which the black body functions. For
example, when a circulating liquid assures temperature uniformity, the cavity
appears in the form of tubes that appear much longer than they do wide. Interior
copper walls can be covered with a strongly diffusing dielectric (with layered
painting, for example), to assure a transmissivity almost isotropic to the cavity’s
interior.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 81

3.1.5. Radiation exchanges between a source and a detector

Radiation detectors are sensitive to the sum total of received radiative fluxes, that
is, to the difference between entering fluxes and exiting fluxes. This leads to a
measured variable which differs from the desired variable. Let us look at the
example given in Figure 3.7, in which a light sensor is used to measure the
transmitted flux by the object facing it. We call i the object’s transmissivity, is the
detector’s transmissivity and φbo the flux transmitted by the object to be measured.
When the detector receives φbo, part of φbr, the reflected flux is expressed as:

φbr = (1 − ε S ) φbo [3.23]

Furthermore, the detector itself transmits φso and a part φsr that comes back to it
after reflection on the object. The state of received and measured flux f is given as:

Φ = φbo − φbr − φSo − φSr [3.24]

We can express this, by calling S the facing surfaces, as:

( )
Φ = ⎡εσ T 4 − ε (1 − ε S ) σ T 4 − ε S σ TS4 + ε S (1 − ε ) σ TS 4 ⎤ S = σεε S T 4 − TS4 S [3.25]
⎣ ⎦

We see that the measured flux f depends on the detector’s temperature Ts and
on its transmissivity is. To find the flux φbo, that is, the measurand, the
transmissivity is must be very close to 1 and that Ts << T. With light sensors, this
condition is often not met. Not taking this fact into account can sometimes lead to
significant systematic errors.

Object Sensor
Φ
Φbo

output
T Φ br TS

ΦSr

Φ So
ε εS

Figure 3.7. Measured flux and measurand

82 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.1.6. Definitions relating to optical sensors

The measurement (output variable) of optical sensors is usually a current. We

define sensor performance by looking at variations in currents according to different
parameters. Manufacturers of sensors give performance specifications through
variables such as darkness currents, spectral sensitivity and specific detectivity,
which we will discuss in the following sections. It is important to understand these
variables because they are essential guides for anyone using a sensor, giving
relevant criteria in the areas of sensitivity, detection limits in power at each
wavelength, band pass and noise level, to name a few.

3.1.6.1. Darkness currents

In the absence of any luminous flux, optical sensors almost always transmit a
current called the darkness current I0. This current is the result of the effects of noise
related to influence variables, especially temperature, which create current carriers.
The obscurity current fluctuates around its mean value, creating a fundamental noise
that limits the detectable minimum amplitude of the luminous flux. For example,
with photodiodes, most manufacturers indicate an ultimate detectivity whose value
is related only to the value of the darkness current.

3.1.6.2. Spectral and total sensitivities

When the sensor receives a flux f, it delivers a current I that is the sum of the
∂I ∂Ip
darkness current I0 and the light current Ip, I = I0 + Ip. The sensitivity S = =
∂Φ ∂Φ
depends only on the light current. The spectral sensitivity is expressed with a
∂Ipλ
monochromatic flux through the wavelength by Sλ = . The total sensitivity
∂Φλ
St is defined for a flux whose distribution in wavelength is known. For instance, for
a radiation whose limits in are 1 and 2, we get:

λ2 ⎛ d φ (λ ) ⎞
St =
∫λ
1
S (λ ) ⎜
⎝ dλ ⎠
⎟ dλ
[3.26]
λ2 ⎛ d φ (λ ) ⎞
∫ ⎜
λ1 ⎝ d λ ⎠
⎟ dλ

3.1.6.3. Sources of fundamental noise in optical sensors

In addition to the sensor signal related to the measurement, there are always
some random signals that come from sources internal or external to the sensor.
These random signals perturb the measurement.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 83

signal
measurand
t t
Sensor
m(t)

external noise s(t)

b(t)
t

Figure 3.8. External noise

We say that b(t) is of external origin when it has an origin coming from the near
environment (see Figure 3.8). It is then captured, either directly (an example is
radiation interference in the detector band) or indirectly by the entire electric circuit,
as with antennae. It is always possible to reduce noise of an external origin by
placing the sensor in interference-free areas, by putting them in Faraday cages or
shields, and by limiting the sensor’s interference sensitivity. When these external
noises are eliminated, we see that considerable noise levels still remain. These kinds
of noise, called ultimate or fundamental, have their source in the corpuscular nature
of electrical currents [BAU 61]. Every free charge is stimulated by random
movements, resulting in an output current variation around a mean value. The
following list gives two sources of these kinds of fundamental noises:
– thermal or Johnson’s noise is the product of the collisions of the carriers with
the lattice structure. The greater the number of these collisions, the more the mean
quadratic current increases. It appears in the passive component and grows with
their resistance. Related to thermal agitation, thermal noise increases with higher
temperatures. The equivalent schema of this kind of noise is given in Figure 3.9
where f is the band pass of the sensor and of the sensor’s electronic system where
KT ∆f
we get e1 = 2 RKT ∆f or I1 = 2 ;
R
– shot noise or Schottky noise characterizes the discrete nature of the current and
obeys Poisson’s law, which, unlike the case with Johnson’s noise, is present when
there are few carriers – that is, in charge-free zones. Shot noise appears in junctions
or in a vacuum. The mean quadratic current of this kind of noise is expressed by:

I S2 = 2q I ∆f [3.27]
84 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

eI or II R

Figure 3.9. Equivalent schemata for Johnson’s noise

When the current delivered by the sensor is the sum of light and obscurity
currents, (I = I0 + IL), the smallest Schottky quadratic current is:

I S2 = 2q I ο ∆f [3.28]

These first noise sources that do not usually depend on frequency are called
“white” noises. The other sources of noise are dependent on frequency. They
decrease very quickly with lowered frequencies and are often described as 1/f noise
(which is a very rough approximation) or “pink” noise. Pink noises are products of
material defects and random recombinations of carriers on the irregularities of the
crystalline lattice structures.

For all random uncertainties, the mean quadratic noise currents have to be added
to give the total quadratic noise current I b2 and we call iB the spectral noise current
(i.e. in a band pass of 1 Hz):

I b2
iB = ( A/ Hz ) [3.29]
∆f

3.1.6.4. Specific detectivity

The Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) is the energetic flux that produces, as sensor
output, a photocurrent equal to the spectral current of noise iB to the wavelength :

i
NEP = B (in W Hz -1/2 ) [3.30]
Sλ
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 85

where S is the spectral sensitivity of the sensor (in A.W-1). Some manufacturers
sometimes use detectivity D (the reverse of NEP), but because iB is generally
proportional to the root of the sensitive surface A of the sensor, the specific
detectivity D* is more often used and is expressed as:

A
D* = (in W -1cm Hz1/2 ) = D A [3.31]
NEP

For example, for a photodiode we find S = 0.6 µA/µW, A = 1 mm2, Io = 150 pA,
D* = 81012 cm Hz1/2 W-1. From this we can deduce the mean quadratic value of the
total spectral noise current:

2
⎛ A Sλ ⎞
ib2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 56 10-30 A 2 Hz −1 [3.32]
⎜ D* ⎟
⎝ ⎠

We can also obtain the mean quadratic value of the spectral current of Schottky’s
noise as I S2 = 2q I o = 4,810–30 A2Hz–1/2. From this formula we see that Schottky’s
noise is predominant in this photodiode. Apart from this kind of calculation, the user
can verify that the assembly is not adding too many complementary noise sources to
the already existing fundamental noise; in other words, he can check that the
assembly is not compromising the performance of the light sensor.

3.1.7. Semiconductors: the bases of optical sensors

3.1.7.1. Molecular and crystalline bands

When bringing together two atoms, crossing barriers of potential sometimes
produces an aggregate that is the seed of the molecule or crystal. These aggregates,
obeying the laws of electrons farthest from the core, are able to retain some of their
energy. In addition, this new grouping tends to impart a greater electronic stability to
the final state. There are five types of interatomic bands. These are ionic, covalent,
metallic, Van der Waals and hydrogen. Some of these bands set electrons free to
move in the lattice, producing electrical conductors. The covalent band fixes
peripheral electrons to the crystalline mesh so that a covalent lattice does not
conduct electricity. It produces insulators and semiconductors (valence states).

We know that the simple elements of the periodic table, peripheral electrons
remain stable when the peripheral electronic strata called s (two electrons) and p
(four electrons) are saturated. This means that the 2 + 6 electronic peripheral states
86 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

of the element must be occupied. This result is only obtained with rare gases (He,
Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Ra). All other elements tend to group together, that is, they join
with the peripheral electrons so that the strata s and p are complete, like those of the
rare gases (eight electrons s and p). For example, with carbon (C, atomic number
Z = 6), there are only four peripheral electrons s and p. Four electrons are lacking
that are necessary to attain a chemical stability identical to neon (Z = 10). Carbon
thus tends to combine with the atoms which are capable of “lending” it four
electrons. This can occur through covalent band.

Atom H, which has only one electron, therefore tends to gain a second and forms
H2 to attain the stability of He. The molecule CH4 acquires the requisite structure in
bringing the electron of each atom H to the central atom C. C itself takes each of its
four peripheral electrons from H atoms placed around itself (see Figure 3.10).

As a result of the formation of this kind of covalent molecule, the energy levels
of the electrons reorganize themselves: we speak of orbital states or molecular
states.

In other cases, the grouping reaching chemical stability will release many atoms
that regroup in the form of a solid. This happens with silicon when a monocrystal is
created in a solution. Silicon (Z = 14) contains 14 electrons, of which four are
valence electrons s and p (this situation is analogous to that of carbon). Silicon tends
to group with atoms that give it the four electrons s and p it lacks to achieve valence
saturation (argon stability). In preparing a monocrystal, the atoms of Si group
together in a diamond configuration (the crystal of C of the face-centered cubic type)
as shown in Figure 3.11. We notice that this structure has the same tetraedic
arrangement of CH4, but in the monocrystal, this basic figure is reproduced to
infinity (in practice, just to the surface where, in fact, chemical stability is no longer
a given).

H
H H

Figure 3.10. Covalent bands of CH4

 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 87

Cubic crystalization system,

with centered faces allowing
each atom in the space to be
surrounded by four
identical atoms

Figure 3.11. Silicon crystal

3.1.7.2. Band structures in solids

Each electron pair found in an orbital shares two neighboring atoms Si (called
sp3 with reference to states s and p of the isolated atom it comes from). The crystal
structure is fixed by these bands (called j) which correspond to the strongly negative
energies (they are called strong because a great deal of energy is necessary to break
them.) For this process to occur, the distance between the atoms of Si must be very
weak (2.34 Å).

The Schrodinger equation that regulates the states of the isolated atom Si is itself
modified and the eigenstates of this equation become more numerous than for the
isolated atom (Z times the number of atoms in the crystal). The energies regroup in
bands in the solid. In a band, the energy levels are very close to each other [ZIM 72].
Figure 3.12 shows that in the case of silicon, two bands appear that are separated by
a zone where there are no authorized levels.
88 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Silicon
crystal Atoms separated
from silicon

Electrons
Conduction
band Empty
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

1.09 e V Empty 3p
GAP Full

Electron energy
3s
Valence

Electron
energy
band

6 8 R(10 -1)
r 0 = 2.34% 10 -10 m Distance between
the aggregates of silicon

Figure 3.12. Modification of electron energy states occurring if the interatomic distance is
diminished. A r0 =2.34 indicates a formed solid. The energy levels are grouped in two
bands. The valence band corresponds to electrons bounded to a silicon lattice. The
conduction band corresponds to free electrons (from J.-J. Bonnet [BON 84])

Conduction
band

Eg

Fermi level
µ

f(ε)
0

Valence
band

Figure 3.13. Organization of bands in a semiconductor or in an insulator

 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 89

The valence band is the band of lowest energy (that is, greatest absolute value).
The conduction band has the weakest absolute values and the band gap is the zone
without allowable states [PHI 73]. The probability of the presence of an electron at a
given energy ε is given by the Fermi function f(ε) (see Figure 3.13). This law is
temperature T dependent. At T = OK, f(ε) = 1 when ε ≤ Fermi level and |ε| = o when
ε > Fermi level. The Fermi level in pure silicon is exactly in the middle of the
bandgap when the temperature reaches absolute zero (T = OK). The valence band is
thus saturated and the conduction band is empty (see Figure 3.13).

However, other elements of the periodic table, called transition elements, in the
isolated state have many peripheral electrons that occupy states other than s and p.
These electrons cannot combine in interatomic bands when solids are created. The
crystals that come from these elements have an energy state structure in which the
bands are not separated by a gap (see Figure 3.14). The crystal has an enormous
number of free electrons and nothing stops their displacement when a potential
difference is applied to the crystal. In this case, we are describing a metal.

Conduction
band

Ev

EF

EC

Valence
band

Figure 3.14. Organization of bands in a metal

In all solids, when the temperature increases electrons can occupy higher
energetic states (less negative) than at absolute zero. Unoccupied places then appear
in lower energy levels. The Fermi-Dirac statistics of electron’s energetic states
shows their probability P(E) occupies an energy state comprised of E and E + dE.
We get:

dn( E ) 1
P( E ) = = [3.33]
dN ( E ) ⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ KT ⎠
90 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

when dn is the number of electrons whose energy is comprised of E and E + dE, and
dN is the number of possible energetic states (states specific to the Schrodinger
equation) between E and E + dE. The Fermi level EF is therefore the energy for
which the probability of an electron existing at this (possibly imaginary) level is 1/2
(see Figure 3.15). Of course, at absolute zero, the Fermi level gives the highest
energy that an electron can attain (if it is authorized). In other words, all the energy
states lower than Ef are occupied and the higher states are empty.

P(E)

T = 0K
T

wf

Figure 3.15. Fermi probability

In the case of metal, the Fermi level is an eigenstate and for this reason is the last
state occupied at absolute zero. With semiconductors and pure (or intrinsic)
insulators, the Fermi level is not a proper state but is found exactly in the middle of
the restricted band. The Fermi energy is not reached at absolute zero and the
electrons saturate the valence band. We see in Figure 3.15 that the probability of
finding electrons in the conduction band becomes greater as the temperature
increases. These electrons no longer take part in crystalline bands and become free
carriers, as in metal. This increase of the number of electrons in the conduction band
also frees an equal number of spaces in the valence band. These spaces act as
positive mobile charge carriers.

The practical uses of semiconductors derive from the fact that the position of the
Fermi level inside the gap can be moved by introducing carefully selected impurities
into the crystal [SAP 92]. When these impurities have five peripheral electrons
(donors), the Fermi level moves towards the top of the gap. The probability of
finding electrons in the conduction band increases and very few holes remain in the
valence band. This kind of semiconductor is called type N to remind us that most
current carriers are electrons. On the other hand, when impurities are elements with
only three peripheral electrons (acceptors), the Fermi level moves towards the
bottom of the gap. The probability of finding electrons in the conduction band
becomes very low, and there are many empty spaces in the valence band. In this
case, the carriers are mostly holes (semiconductor type P).
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 91

3.1.8. Current expression in a material containing free charges

As soon as we apply a tension to the limits of a material that contains free

charges, this tension forms an electric field E and the Coulomb force F = qE sets
these charges in motion. They take on a speed v and the current I, formed by this
movement, is the quantity of charges crossing the material per second.

When impurities are present, or because of thermal agitation or photon

absorption (photoelectric effect), certain electrons go into the conduction band and
holes appear [SMI 67]. These carriers are then free to create an electrical current
when they are exposed to field E . This current is the density flux of the current
density J across the section of the material. If we call the number of mobile
charges by unit volume and v the carrier velocity, the current density J in a
conductor with electron type carriers (n by unit of volume e, charge of the electron)
is given as:

J = ρv = − ne v [3.34]

In addition, the relation between the speed v of the electron mass me and the
field E is given by the Coulomb law and the fundamental relation of the dynamic,
and is expressed by:

dv
F = −e.E = me [3.35]
dt

dv −e
= E [3.36]
dt me

The resolution of this equation leads to a speed v that linearly increases with
time:

–e
v= E t (+ constant = 0 if v = 0 at t = 0) [3.37]
me

Actually, this law is completely unrealistic because the electron (e–) undergoes many
collisions with the crystalline lattice. If we call k the mean time between two collisions,
the average velocity is limited to the value it achieves at the end of this time k:

−e
v= Eτ [3.38]
me
92 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

e
The quantity τ is called mobility µe of e–:
me

eτ
µe = [3.39]
me

This relation is general for all charge types, and we get:

qτ
µ= [3.40]
m

where the quantity q is the absolute value of the mobile charge. The speed v is thus
an average velocity between two successive collisions and this velocity is equal to:

⎛ + : charges > 0⎞
v= ±µ E ⎜ ⎟ [3.41]
⎝ - : charges < 0 ⎠

We see that v is proportional to E and independent of time because of the many

collisions. The expression of current density J can be given in the form:

J = + ne µ E [3.42]

The current density is proportional to E and we get:

J =σE [3.43]

which is the local Ohm law with j the given electric conductivity, expressed in the
case of conduction by e– by:

j = neµ [3.44]

We can generalize these relations by calling µe and µp the mobilities of e– and of

the holes (e+):

J = J n + J p = e (nµn + p µ p ) E [3.45]
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 93

where n and p are the densities of e- and of e+ and where µn and µp are given by:

e.τ .n .
µn =
mn
[3 .46]
e.k.p.
µp =
mp

Then conductivity is written as:

σ = e ⎡⎣ p µp +n µn ⎤⎦ [3.47]

10 6

N a, N d ≤ 1012 cm-3

10 5
4 × 10 13 T -2.20
.

.
T -2.42
.
10 4
.
1.3 × 10 17

2 × 10 17

10 3

µe

µt

10 2
1 10 10 2 10 3
Temperature (K)

Figure 3.16. Mobility variation (cm2/V s) of electrons µe and of the holes µp in silicon
according to the temperature for materials with different dopings. The mobility of e– is
represented in continuous traits, with those of e+ in discontinuous traits. The indicated
gradients correspond to the best linear adjustment of the experimental curves

In reality, the problem is more complicated than it appears in this simple

demonstration. For any given material, mobilities in particular depend both on
doping and on temperature. Figure 3.16, as it relates to silicon, shows that e– are
more mobile than e+ and that mobility decreases rapidly with increased
94 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

temperatures; typically they are reduced from 1 to 2 orders of magnitude between 77

and 300 K. This complexity aids sensors because in selecting the doping and
material type, we can produce components that are adapted to the desired measurand
(see the following section for an example of this).

3.1.9. Photoconductor cells

Photoconductor cells are the simplest optical sensors to make use of

semiconductors. Their basic operating principle depends on the photoelectric effect,
in which a photon is absorbed by the semiconductor in giving its energy (by
absorption) to an electron of the conduction band. In other words, the electron is
freed from the crystalline bands and moves under the influence of an external
electric field. Macroscopically, light absorption by the semiconductor means a rise
in its conductivity, while its resistance diminishes. These sensors are made of a
semiconductive plaquette with a large face that receives light and with two lateral
faces of surface A that are metallized to be used as collection electrodes (see Figure
3.17). The sensor is passive, polarized by an exterior tension V. We carry out
measurements according to the illumination received (the measurand) and the
variation of the electrical resistance (the measurement). In the following paragraphs
we will consider material of type N, which means the carriers are essentially of type
e–.

wave

Ip

Surface A
L

Figure 3.17. Schema of a photoconductive cell

Two phenomena occur in the semiconductor. These are: (i) carrier generation
through the photoelectric effect and (ii) carrier recombination on the crystalline
lattice.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 95

(i) As we saw before, light must be represented in the form of photons that are
energy grains hv. If hv > Eg (the gap energy) G electrons are created per second
throughout the volume of the sensor or g electrons per second and by unit of
volume:

G 1 (1 − R) 1 (1 − R)
g= = f= f [3.48]
AL AL hν AL hc

where A.L. is the sensor volume, is the photon conversion into electrons, R is the
coefficient of optical reflection of the receiving surface, f is the flux incident of
light on the sensor, and is the wavelength of the light flux.

(ii) The electrons freed by the photoelectric effect leave in the crystal many
charged atoms that can trap them after their displacement. The variation by unit time
of the number of free electrons occurring because of this recombination is
proportional to the number of free electrons produced, as well as to the number of
charged atoms. We get:

∂n
= −r n2 [3.49]
∂t

where r is called the recombination rate. At equilibrium, there are as many electrons
created as recombined:

∂n g
= 0 = - r n 2 + g from which we get n= [3.50]
∂t r

We have seen that electrical conductivity is expressed by:

σ = e µn n [3.51]

since the majority carriers are electrons. In the following equation, we see that by
replacing n with its expression as f (see [3.49] and [3.51]), we get:

1 η (1 − R )
σ = eµ n λΦ [3.52]
AL hc
96 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

When the sensor is polarized by the tension V, the current going across the
sensor is equal to:

V V σAV
.
I= = = [3.53]
R L L
A

Relationship [3.53] shows that the measurement I is not proportional to the

measurand f but to its root. The resistance R of the sensor, inversely proportional to
f-12, tends toward infinity when f tends toward zero. In practice, this value is
obviously finite because there are always carriers even when light is absent. This
darkness resistance R0 depends on the semiconductor being used and the geometric
form of the sensor. This resistance can go from several dozen Ohms to several
hundred M .

In fact, the experimental dependence of resistance with the flux f is not exactly
the same as with the model shown above. This dependence, however, is not linear
but is like the following:

R = k φ −γ with 0.5 ≤ γ ≤ 1. [3.54]

The number of carriers recombined by unit time can also be expressed with the
help of the lifetime of the carriers kn (which are the e- in the examples given above):

∂n n
=− [3.55]
∂t τn

At equilibrium we get:

n
g= [3.56]
τn

which lets us write the current delivered by the sensor as:

V A G A V µn k n
I= = V σ = Vq µn k n = q G = FqG [3.57]
R L AL L L2
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 97

where F is called the sensor’s gain factor:

τ µ
F= n n V [3.58]
L2

F can attain several tens of thousands following the applied tension V and the
geometric form of the sensor. In addition, this equation shows that it is necessary to
use semiconductors with excellent mobility and lifetime.

The equivalent schema of photoconductive cells involves placing the darkness

resistance R0 in parallel to a resistance that is sensitive to the flux Rcp. In practice,
this schema can be reduced to one resistance R, expressed by:

R 0 Rc p
R= # R cp = a l- if R 0 >> R cp [3.59]
R0 R cp

The relation between the light current Ip and the flux f is not linear:

V V
Ip = = l [3.60]
R a

The total sensitivity depends on the value of the detected flux:

∂I p V −1
S= = φ [3.61]
∂φ a

Furthermore, the spectral sensitivity can be deduced from the above formulae:

k n µnV (1 − R )
S (λ ) = q [3.62]
2 hc
L

This is applicable up to maxof the gap. If there is an abrupt gap, the spectral
hc
sensitivity ends after ≥ max = , shown in Figure 3.18.
E
98 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

S(λ) λmax

Figure 3.18. Theoretical spectral sensitivity of a photoconductive cell

Response time is directly related to the lifetime of the carriers kn. Like the
lifetime, response time is connected to parameters such as the temperature and
doping of the semiconductor. If we know the nature and operating mode of the
semiconductor, we can obtain values that range from 0.1s to 10-7s. Response time is
noticeably reduced when the luminous flux is high; this is because the lifetime
decreases with the number of free carriers.

The ultimate noise of these sensors is of the Johnson noise type and its minimum
value depends on the value of the darkness current I0. This obscurity current comes
from the creation of carriers (for example, of electrons) by thermal agitation. In
calling n0 the number by unit of volume of the thermal carriers, the electric
conductivity in obscurity is j0:

j0=eµ n0 [3.63]

from which we get:

1 L
R0 = [3.64]
eµn n 0 A

this helps us determine the current of Johnson’s noise traversing R0:

KT
iB = 2 [3.65]
R0

We remember that R0 largely depends on the kind of semiconductor used and on

the temperature. Typically, the specific detectivities D* are of the order of
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 99

1010 W-1 cmHz1/2, clearly inferior to what can be obtained with photodiodes, as we
will see in the following sections.

3.1.10. P-N junction and photodiodes

Introducing impurities into a semiconductor displaces the Fermi levels, so that

the current carriers become electrons (type N) or holes (type P). The P-N junction is
basic to the creation of photodiodes. It is obtained by producing on the same
semiconductor substrata two adjacent doping zones P and N. The junction has an
advantage over a simple semiconductor because it creates a charge zone of space
with a powerful electrical field. This field can efficiently separate charges created by
photoelectrical effect, as well as significantly improving light sensor detectivity.

3.1.10.1. Non-polarized junctions

Without bias, an electrostatic equilibrium appears between the two zones
separating the junction. This equilibrium is converted by the equalization of the
Fermi levels of the P and N regions. Both the energies WVP and WVN at the top of
the valence bands, and WC P and WC N at the bottom of the band are displaced in the
regions P and N and we get:

WC P >WC N [3.66]

that is:

WCP < WC N [3.67]

VP < VN [3.68]

The electrostatic potential of region P has become inferior to that of region N.

An electrostatic field E has appeared, directed from N towards P. The majority
carriers of each region are, for the most part, incapable of crossing this potential
barrier. However, the minority carriers of each region do cross the barrier. They are
launched by the field E towards the adjacent region. Again, the equilibrium is
converted by the equivalence of two currents (flowing in opposite directions) from
majority carriers with enough kinetic energy to cross both the barrier and the
minority carriers launched by E .
100 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

It is important to remember that the barrier of potential VN – VP = VB is an

electrostatic tension which corresponds to an absence of current. This difference of
potential converts an equilibrium and not an electromotive force.

a) diffusion b) charge of space

Figure 3.19. Diffusion and establishment of carriers after recombination

of the static potential barrier in a non-polarized diode

3.1.10.2. P-N junction with direct bias

Applying a positive difference of potential between the limits P and N of a
junction allows a large number of majority carriers to cross the junction. If the
applied tension is superior to the electrostatic tension of the barrier (0.7 V in the Si),
VP becomes superior to VN ( WC N > WC P ). The electrons, very numerous in N, go
into P, where they recombine in the many holes in that region. The current goes
through P by diffusing through the holes towards the junction to fill the deficit
produced by the electron recombinations near the junction. A direct current is
essentially a current of majority carriers. In practice, this is the sole contribution of
the total current as soon as VA > VB. It grows exponentially with VA:

qVA
I ≈ I majority = I 0 exp [3.69]
kT

where q is the electron charge 1.6 10-19 C and k is the Boltzmann constant + 1.36
10-23 JK-1.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 101

P N Energy (values < 0)

+ + + – + – – –
+ + + – + – – –
Wcp
+ + + – + – – –
Wcn
P, A
B N
Wvp
Wvn
+ –

a) Direct polarization b) Bands

A = recombination of the electrons arriving at P, followed by a diffusion of the holes in P
B = recombination of the holes in N, followed by a diffusion of the electrons in N

Figure 3.20. P-N junction in direct bias

3.1.10.3. P-N junction in reverse bias

When we apply a negative tension VA between the extremities P and N of the
junction, the electrostatic barrier is again amplified. The majority carriers capable of
crossing the barrier become fewer. The current of the majority carriers which, before
negative tension VA was applied, exactly offset the current of the minority carriers,
become very weak in comparison to the minority carriers current. The current
crossing the inversely polarized junction is almost exclusively a current of minority
carriers. This current is, by its very nature, opposed to a current obtained through
direct bias, which fundamentally comes from majority carriers. This reverse current
is independent of VA because the movement of minority carrier across the barrier is
produced by diffusion and not by a field effect. This is shown in Figure 3.21.

Iminority = – I’0 [3.70]

P N Energy
+ + + – + – – –
+ + + – + – – –
+ + + – + – – –
P
N

– +

a) Inverse polarization b) Energy bands

Figure 3.21. P-N junction in reverse bias

102 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.1.10.4. Diode equation

No matter what VA tension is applied to the limits of the diode the current is
always the sum of the majority carriers current and of the majority carriers current:

I = Imajority + Iminority [3.71]

We get:

qVA
I = I0 exp − I0' [3.72]
kT

We know that for VA = 0, the equilibrium imposes I = 0, so we get:

I’0 = I0 [3.73]

Finally, the diode equation is written as:

⎡ qV ⎤
I = I0 ⎢exp A − 1⎥ [3.74]
⎣ kT ⎦

Figure 3.22. Typical current tension of a diode

 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 103

Figure 3.22 shows us that a high negative current appears when reverse bias
becomes strongly negative. This is called the breakdown voltage and is produced by
a collision of minority carriers, which take on a high kinetic energy in crossing the
barrier, ionizing the fixed centers of the crystalline lattice. This effect benefits some
photodiodes by amplifying the photo current and reducing response time of light
sensors.

3.1.10.5. Illuminated P-N junctions

When diodes are exposed to a luminous flux with a wavelength λ that is inferior
to the wavelength λs corresponding to the gap energy (or the energy hv of the flux
photons superior to the gap energy hvs), they produce electron hole pairs through the
photoelectric effect, as we have seen with photoconductive cells. For these carriers
to generate a current, the pair must be separated quickly. This only happens through
the influence of electrical field, especially the one existing in the P-N junction. The
photoelectrical effect must then be produced throughout the zone of the field E of
the P-N junction. Through the stimulating effect of the field E , the generated photon
holes go towards region P and the electrons go towards region N. When the holes
are in P, they encounter negatively charged impurity sites which trap them. These
sites are almost always taken to be an e- from the atom’s valence Si. The photon
holes are trapped by these impurities; this produces a liberation of e–. In region P,
the electrons are diffused, moving toward the junction and filing in the deficit thus
created. The same thing happens in region N.

We can see that the photoelectrical current acts as a current of minority carriers
and therefore is negative.

3.1.10.6. Principle of photodiode fabrication

Several conditions must exist for the fabrication of photodiodes (see Figure
3.23):
– the photodiode must have a significant field of junction E to efficiently
separate the created photo carriers. Thus, it is clear that in this case, the diode must
be polarized in reverse.

incident flux
hν
P
0+ VA
zone of the field E e-
N

Figure 3.23. Schematic view of a photodiode

104 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– in order for the photons to penetrate the field zone in large numbers, the
incident flux must not be weakly absorbed by region P. Assume x is the thickness of
region P and g is its optical extinction coefficient at the frequency of the photons
of the monochromatic flux. The part 0 that comes to the junction after reflection on
the face in front and transmission by the doped zone P (see Figure 3.23) is equal to:

- αx
(1 − Ropt )φ 0 e [3.75]

where Ropt is the reflection coefficient of the photodiode surface. This transmitted
flux will be accordingly greater than α ⋅ x and will be weaker if the entire flux
coming into the junction is absorbed mainly in the field region;
– a field region must be designed that is sufficiently thick to allow the total
absorption of the light. This becomes possible, for example, by creating the type of
structure often called junction type PIN (P-intrinsic N).

3.1.10.7. Photodiode equation

The light current Ir is equal to the number of electrons (or number of holes) that
have been created by the photoelectrical effect and that have come to the limit of the
field zone per second:

qη (1-R opt )λ
Ir = φ0 e−α x [3.76]
hc

Because this current is created by minority carriers, it becomes entrenched in the

diode current. The equation (or feature) of the photodiode is:

⎡ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎤
I = I 0 ⎢exp ⎜ A ⎟ − 1⎥ − I r [3.77]
⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦
or:
⎡ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎤ qη (1- R opt )λ
I = I 0 ⎢ exp ⎜ A ⎟ − 1⎥ − φ0 e−α x [3.78]
⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦ hc

Equation [3.78] shows that if the dark current I0 is weak with respect to Ir, I is
proportional to 0 when VA is negative.

3.1.10.8. Electrical schema for a diode

Photodiodes are current sources, being the sum of the obscurity current and light
current. They are in parallel with the resistance and the capacity of the reverse
polarized junction. On the other hand, the charge impedance of the photodiode can
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 105

always be brought back to a resistance RL in parallel with a capacity CL (see Figure

3.24).

Photodiodes can be used as photoconductors with a reverse bias or as

photovoltaic sources without bias (see Figure 3.25). These two functioning modes
need some explanation in order to choose correctly between them.

Using photodiodes as photoconductors allows for a reduced response time

because reducing the diode capacity results in a shrinking of the junction zone in
reverse bias.

I VL
C R

Figure 3.24. Equivalent schema for photodiodes

Φ Φ
E

V V
I >0
I >0
RL RL
B A B A

Sensor output Sensor output

Figure 3.25. Photovoltaic and photoconductor modes

106 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

With the photoconductor mode, there is always a darkness current that produces
an internal noise of the Schottky type, which means that this mode is not especially
favorable for detecting very weak fluxes. On the contrary, with the photovoltaic
mode, the straight line of the charge goes through the origin I = V = 0, and the
darkness current no longer limits the very weak flux measurements. In the
photoconductor mode, photodiodes are linear, but in the photovoltaic mode,
photodiodes behave in a logarithmic fashion, except under very weak charges when
a photovoltaic generator is used with a battery charge as for solar cells (see Figure
3.26).

photoconductor mode
V
Φ= 0
photovoltaic mode
Φ=1
Φ= 2
Φ=3

Figure 3.26. Functioning points of photoconductor and photovoltaic modes

Table 3.1 reviews some of the points just covered.

Implementation Photoconductor mode Photovoltaic mode

Bias Reverse No
kT I −I
Vc 0 = .ln( L 0 ) ;
Output signal Ir = I0 + IL q I0
Icc ≈ I L

Wide band pass, short Low noise

Advantages response time

Table 3.1. Choice criteria for photoconductor and photovoltaic modes

Since the equivalent final schema can be reduced to the one shown in Figure
3.24, photodiodes are first order sensors (see Chapter 2). The cut-off frequency
given by fc = 1/2ヾRC depends on the charge resistance R (see Figure 3.27).
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 107

fc (Hz)

107

106

105

104

103

102
102 103 104 105 106 107 Rm (Ω)

Figure 3.27. Example of a photodiode cut-off frequency versus charge resistance Rm

Depending upon the structure of the different doped regions of a photodiode, the
performances are different. Table 3.2 reviews some of these possibilities. In the
schemata of Table 3.2, we see that the front face of the sensors, excepting the
Schottky structures, is covered with a fine protective layer of transparent SiO2. The
first semiconductive layer is generally of type P. This doping is often preferred for
its simplicity of preparation and transparency. The first schema (called planar type)
corresponds to the junction already described. The interfaces are flat and establish a
potential barrier between P and N. For those applications that concern the visible
light and are in use, this technique, used in silicon, is sufficient. When response time
needs improvement, the sensor’s thickness must be augmented, which reduces its
capacity. To effect this, a structured layer can be created by successive dopings
(weak planar capacity). A progressive passage (type P-N-N) can also be created to
realize the P-N junction. The spectral sensitivity is then modified by ensuring that
certain wavelengths are not absorbed into the depletion zone. This allows better
sensitivities in the infrared or ultraviolet. As mentioned above, the best way to
reduce diode capacity and improve the separation of photogenerated couples is by
creating an enlarged depletion zone. This is done by inserting an intrinsic stratum
between P and N. This produces rapid photodiodes (type P-I-N). Flux detection in
the ultraviolet field is difficult with semiconductive junctions because their fluxes
are rapidly absorbed in the P region when the wavelength decreases. To avoid this
problem, metal semiconductive Schottky junctions are realized. These junctions are
similar to P-N junctions, especially relating to their potential barriers. Although this
kind of junction has a narrower depletion zone, the metallic stratum can be made
very transparent to ultraviolet rays. Often, the width of the charge zone of space can
be augmented by creating a dopage gradient in the semiconductive area. In addition,
an internal amplification can be produced by a correct and controlled breakdown
stage.
108 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Type Construction Properties Material

P
Silicon or
Planar Weak darkness current
N GaAsP

P
Weak darkness current, rapid
Planar, low capacity N response, strong sensitivity in Silicon
UV and IR rays
N

P N
Weak darkness current, strong
PNN sensitivity in UV rays, Silicon
N
insensitivity to IR rays

N P I

PIN Very rapid response Silicon

P N
Very high sensitivity in UV GaAsP.
Schottky
N rays GaP

Internal amplification, ultra

Avalanche Silicon
rapid response

Table 3.2. Examples of adaptability of photodiode structures to measurands

The breakdown stage also influences the noise current so that photodiode
detectivity does not increase proportionally to the internal gain. In fact, the resulting
strong bias from the breakdown stage augments the width of the charge zone,
considerably reducing response time. Avalanche photodiode structures always
thicken gradually (zone ヾ), so that the electrical field is moderated, even under
strong tension, sometimes up to 1,000 V. Photodiode structures can also be created
heterogeneously with different kinds of semiconductors. In these cases, we speak of
heterojunctions as opposed to homojunctions created by dopings of a single
semiconductor. Since we have been for the most part discussing visible effects, we
have been describing photodiodes essentially as silicon homojunctions.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 109

3.2. Force and deformation sensors

Among the range of mechanical sensors (position, speed, acceleration, shock,

among others), we propose discussing two typical examples, one passive, the other
active, whose measurands are forces and deformations.

Passive sensors are mostly used in mechanics. In Chapter 2, we saw that these
sensors can be resistive, capacitive or inductive. Inductive sensors are often used for
displacement measurements. On the other hand, resistive sensors are often used for
deformation measurements and are sometimes called, somewhat incorrectly,
constraint gauges.

The piezoelectric effect [CAD 64] is the most widely used basic principle in
active mechanical sensors. It is used in its simplest form with force and deformation
sensors. In the following sections, we will explain the principles of piezoelectricity
and some methods used to analyze the signals it generates.

It is important to remember that very little difference exists between force and
constraint measurements. In order to measure a force, a kind of dynamometer is
generally used. This is a tool that helps us establish an equilibrium between the force
we want to measure and the constraint produced by the deformations undergone by a
solid that makes up a part of the sensor under the action of this force. Working in the
elastic domain of deformations, we see that constraints and deformations are
proportional. A simple calibration allows the same sensor to carry out both a
constraint measurement (or force by surface unit) and a deformation measurement.

3.2.1. Resistive gauges

Resistive gauges are simply resistive circuits that can be attached to a structure to
determine its local deformations. These kinds of resistances represent an important
percentage of deformation sensor sales. Their ability to function in many conditions
and their low prices explain their widespread usage. In addition to these long-known
assets, more recently gauges have been developed that aid in producing very small,
high-resolution sensors. As well, these resistive gauges are associated with proof
bodies and conditioners that improve sensitivities and signal to noise ratio.
Following these processes, the measurable relative elongations go from 10-7 to 10-1.
The relative deformation error, seldom below to 10-3, is more often of the order of
510-3 to 10-2. These gauges are sometimes in the form of wire, sometimes thin layers
of some material, or sometimes they are created by doping in the semiconductors.
For a wire of section S and the width 1 made of a material of resistivity ρ, the
∆R ρl
relative variation of the resistance R given by R = is written:
R S
110 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

∆R ∆ρ ∆l ∆ S
= + − [3.79]
R ρ l S

If we call d the diameter of the section of surface ヾ d 2/4, we get, by introducing

∆l 1 ∆d ∆ρ ∆V
the Poisson coefficient =− and in writing =C :
l ν d ρ V

∆R ∆l ∆l
= ⎡⎣(1 + 2ν ) + C (1 − 2ν ) ⎤⎦ =k [3.80]
R l l

where k is the gauge factor and C is Bridgman’s constant. The resistance values are
usually from several hundreds to several thousands of ohms. With metals, when
= 0.3 and C is of the order of 1, we get k of the order of 2. With semiconductors, C
can reach 200 and the gauge factor is high, of the order of C. This means that
measuring very weak deformation must be done with semiconductive gauges, but in
this case it is important to remember that R is very dependent on the temperature,
which, in practice, limits the use of these gauges to temperatures below 200˚C.

There are gauge assemblies able to determine deformation components following

several axes. When the situation does not help us know the main deformation
directions, we use gauges grouped in three resistances, each 120˚ from the other, that
is, in rosettes. The term rosette extends to more complex deformation measurements
known as shell deformations.

The main shortcoming of these gauges is that they must be attached to the
structure. This limits their use to medium temperatures (up to 500-600˚C for
metallic wire gauges). At higher temperatures, resistive gauges are increasingly
being replaced by optical methods using coherent light beams, among them speckle
interferometry.

3.2.2. Piezoelectric effect

Piezoelectricity derives its name from the Greek word “piezo”, meaning “to
press”. The piezoelectric effect is the conversion of pressure into electricity. To be
more precise, the term describes the appearance, due to the action of microscopic
deformations, of charges on the surface of a solid. These charges are produced by
local displacements of centers linked to the crystalline mesh.

In fact, the piezoelectric effect only exists in crystals, ceramics and polymers that
are anisotropes; that is, that have no symmetrical center in the elementary mesh.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 111

Although the Curie brothers discovered piezoelectricity in 1880, it was only put to
practical use during World War I, first by Paul Langevin, who developed sonar, then
in 1918 by Walter Cady, who built the first quartz oscillator. Today, the popularity
of high quality quartz oscillators makes piezoelectricity an integral part of
electronics. The production of products using piezoelectricity employs hundreds of
thousands of people throughout the world.

3.2.2.1. Electrostriction, piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity

Because the electric field is zero in metals, piezoelectricity cannot exist in it.
However, when we apply an electric field to a dielectric, the equilibrium positions of
electric charges bound to a solid undergo a slight displacement. In the absence of a
permanent dipole moment (corresponding to the moment when barycenters of
positive and negative charges join), a related dipole moment appears. In the presence
of a permanent dipole moment, its value is changed. The charge displacements lead
to a geometric deformation of the solid, with mechanical constraints compensating
the electric forces produced by the action of the resulting dipole moment.

When the solid has a center of symmetry, the deformation is very weak and is
proportional to the square of the applied electric field: this is electrostriction.

When the solid does not have a center of symmetry, the charge displacement,
which is clearly more important, is proportional to the applied filed. This is the
inverse piezoelectric effect. Often, when there is no center of symmetry, the material
already has a permanent piezoelectric bias. This dielectric bias varies not only
according to the applied field but also according to temperature: this is the
piezoelectric effect.

The following four points summarize these effects: in metals there is no effect; in
dielectrics with a center of symmetry, the weak effect is called electrostriction; in
dielectrics without centers of symmetry, their effect becomes stronger and is called
piezoelectricity; and in anisotropic dielectrics with permanent bias, there is a
piezoelectric disturbance of the piezoelectricity because the temperature is in this
case an intruding influence variable.

3.2.2.2. The case of quartz

Quartz is a silica crystal composed of SiO2 in which the peripheral electrons of
Si atoms and O2 groups of chemicals combine and reach the stability level of rare
gases (see section 3.1 for a discussion of chemical stability). The resulting solid
structure has a rhombohedric symmetry. This means the SiO2 groups form
hexagonal structures by projecting on the perpendicular plane to the optical axis z at
the top, where we find either Si atoms or O2 groups (see Figure 3.28).
112 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 3.28. Quartz structure

Si atoms can be seen as positively charged centers and O2 as negatively charged

centers. Both are bound to the crystalline mesh. If a force is applied following the y
direction shown in Figure 3.29, the hexagon becomes distorted and the barycenters
of charges + and – stop commingling. Electric dipoles appear that are all directed
toward the direction of the applied force F .

-
+

Figure 3.29. Appearance of dipole moment P under the action of a directed

F force following the y-axis of quartz

Suppose we metallize the two opposite faces of a piezoelectric crystal, exposing

these to an F force. In this case, a dielectric bias appears that will follow the vertical
direction shown in Figure 3.29. The effect of the elementary dipoles is to produce
electrostatic charges + and – respectively on the metallic electrodes M1 and M2 and
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 113

the total charge of the ensemble remains zero. Thus, the electric induction vector D
is also zero (Gaussian law), and we get:

D = i0 E + P = 0 from which we get P = − i ⋅ E [3.81]

Finally, the potential V that appears at the limits of the piezoelectric crystal is
deduced from:

P
E = −grad V = − [3.82]
ε0

Let us now suppose that we have short-circuited the two electrodes by means of
a metallic wire (see Figure 3.30b). The potential and the field between the electrodes
become zero:

D = P and div D = ρ = div P [3.83]

which means that the flux of P across the system shown in Figure 3.30b (the
crystal, the electrodes and the metallic wire) is equal to the total sum of the
contained charges. In the volume of the crystal = 0 and the specific charges that
produce the flux of P are the electrode charges M1 and M2 that we call the images of
internal bias, that is, constraints.

+,- : free charges

+,- : dipoles
+++++++++++++++ ------------------ M2
+ + + + + + M2 +-
- - - - - - -
--------------------------
+-
+- +- P
P V
+- +-
+- E +-
+- + +++++++++++
+ + + + + + M1

+++++++++++++++ M1
--------------------------
a) b)

Figure 3.30. Quartz with constraints in open circuit (a) and in short circuit (b)
114 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.2.2.3. Constraint tensors

Charges appearing on piezoelectric crystal faces depend on the direction of
applied forces that break down into axial components and shearing. In Figure 3.31,
the axial forces tend to stretch the cube in the direction of Oy and the shearing forces
tend to make the planes xOy slide toward one another.

z z

y
y

x
x a) b)

Figure 3.31. Axial constraints (a) and shearing (b)

In elasticity [GER 62] we note jij, the constraint components in a solid, the index
i giving the direction of the component, and the index j showing the normal of a
facet to which this component is applied (see Figure 3.32).

σzz

σyz
σxz
σzy

σzx σyy
σxy
σyx
σxx

Figure 3.32. Definition of constraints

It has been shown [ROY 99] that constraint tensors (jij) are symmetrical
(jij = jji) and we note that jii = ji and jij = jk. In general, we describe the
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 115

piezoelectric effect through the linear relations which bind the constraints to charges
by surface unity (qi) appearing on normal of facets in the direction i when the crystal
is short-circuited:

q1 = d11σ1 + d12σ2 + d13σ3 + d14σ4 + d15σ5 + d16σ6

q2 = d21σ1 + d22σ2 + d23σ3 + d24σ4 + d25σ5 + d26σ6
q3 = d31σ1 + d32σ2 + d33σ3+ d34σ4 + d35σ5 + d36σ6 [3.84]

We write equations [3.84] in the form of qi = ( d i j ) ( σ j ) . Here (dij) represents

the piezoelectric tensor. Noting the degree of symmetry of the crystals, we can show
that most of the dij are zero. For example, with quartz in the cross-section (with the z
axis optical, the x axis mechanical, and the y axis electric; see Figure 3.28), the
tensor is reduced to:

⎛ d11 ,− d11, 0 d14 , 0, 0 ⎞

⎜ ⎟
(di j ) = ⎜ 0, 0, 0, 0, - d14 , −2 d11⎟ [3.85]
⎜ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ⎟⎠
⎝

with d11 = 2.3 10-12 CN-1, d14 = 0.7 10-12 CN-1

For this Curie cut of crystal, we metallize the faces perpendicular to Ox (see
F
Figure 3.33). If we apply a force of module F in the direction Ox so that σ1 =
L`
the charge by unity of surface qi that appears on the electrodes equals:

F Q1
q1 = d11σ1 = d11 = [3.86]
`L L`

Optical (3)
axis z
L
e

l
y (2)
0 Mechanical
Electrical (1) axis
axis x Contacts

Figure 3.33. Quartz in Curie cut

116 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

If this same pressing force is applied following the Oy axis, the total charge Q1
L
increases in the relation :
e
F L
q'1 = d12 σ2 = − d11 σ 2 = − d11 = Q1 [3.87]
e e

Studying the piezoelectric matrix also makes clear that no charge can appear on
the faces perpendicular to Oz. In addition, the sensor can be used for measuring
shearing constraints of large surfaces (L, l), but not for hydrostatic measurements
(pressure P). Indeed, such a constraint leads to:

q1 = d11 σ1 – d11 σ2 = d11 P – d11 P = 0 [3.88]

3.2.2.4. Other piezoelectric materials

Aside from quartz, piezoelectric materials are usually ceramics made from
piezoelectric polycrystals fritted in the presence of an electric field that directs the
microscopic electric dipoles and finally produces a macroscopic bias. The only
ceramic that causes significant bias is PZT. By calling Oz (3) the direction of the
electric field, the matrix dij of this ceramic is written:

⎛ 0, 0, 0, 0, d15, 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0, 0, 0, d15 0, 0 ⎟ [3.89]
⎜ d , d , d , 0, 0, 0 ⎟
⎝ 31 31 33 ⎠

Ceramics cut perpendicularly to Oz are used in the manufacture of pressure

sensors applied to faces xOy. The planes perpendicular to Ox or Oy are generally
used for shearings. However, ceramics cannot be used for measuring hydrostatic
pressure because the sum (2d31 + d33) is almost zero. After preparing PZT
(composition, applied field, type of wiring), the coefficient d33 can be of the order of
some 102 pCN-1. Piezoelectric sensors can also be constructed with a polymer base.
As with ceramics, the bias of these materials is obtained, during polymerization,
through exposure to an electric field, this time by stretching them in heat, then
cooling them. The material most often used today is PVDF whose piezoelectric
tensor is written as:

⎛ 0, 0, 0, 0, d15 , 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0, 0, 0, d 24 0, 0 ⎟ [3.90]
⎜ d , d , d , 0, 0, 0 ⎟
⎝ 31 32 33 ⎠
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 117

The values of dij are slightly above those of quartz and are sensitive to and
dependent on preparation procedures.

3.2.2.5. Construction of piezoelectric sensors

These kinds of sensors are usually constructed in the form of “charge slices” (see
Figure 3.34). The extent of the measurement varies from several kN to more than
100 kN. In order to detect traction, we constrain the charge slice or slices between
two bolts. To increase sensitivity, assemblies are often used. For example,
piezoelectric sensors are often in pile assemblies with electric connections so that
either the tension or the piezoelectric charge is multiplied by the number of pile
plates. Sometimes sensors are installed on a proof body adapted to the kind of
constraint to be measured. Aside from compression sensors or simple shearings,
which have principles very close to those we described above, elementary cell
assemblies have different principles that allow for the construction of sensors that
are sensitive to directional forces or structure (such as moment, pair and torque
sensors).

3.2.2.6. Using piezoelectric sensors

The equivalent electric schema of piezoelectric sensors can be deduced directly
from its principle: a generator of variable charges in time that is represented by a
current source dQ/dt in parallel with the capacity Cd of the dielectric between the
two electrodes, and a flow resistance Rd that is also a characteristic of the dielectric.
In practice, because of the values of Cd and Rd, we must always take into account the
capacities and resistances Rc and Cc of the connecting cables, as shown in the
schema in Figure 3.35.

a b
Figure 3.34. Assemblies for measuring the three components of a force (a) or of the
component following z and of the couple around z (b) (from G. Asch [ASC 91])
118 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

dQ
Vm
dt Rc Cc Rd Cd
Req
Ceq

Figure 3.35. Equivalent schema of a piezoelectric sensor

If we measure the tension to the limits of the sensor or even the output of a
tension amplificator (which is equivalent), we get:

Q R r Cr jω
Vm = [3.91]
Cr 1+R r Cr jω

This is a first order low pass function with a cut-off frequency of c=1/2ヾReq Ceq
and the permanent value Q/Ceq depends on the impedance of the connecting cables
and the input impedance of the tension amplificator. This situation is less promising
than using a charge-tension convertor (see Figure 3.36) [BAU 61].

Rr

Cr

-
dQ ve +
dt C eq
R eq Vm

Figure 3.36. Piezoelectric sensor used with a charge-tension convertor

If we take the operational amplificator as an ideal with Vi zero, we carry out the
short circuiting of electrodes and the transfer function depends only on the counter-
reaction impedance:

Q R r Cr jω Q jωτ
Vm = = . [3.92]
Cr 1+R r Cr jω Cr 1 + jωτ
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 119

The response time k = RrCr of this kind of assembly no longer depends on the
sensor or on the converter connection. For the values of Cr of the order of several
hundreds of pF, and of Rr of the order of several 109 , we reach time constants of
the order of several hundred ms and measurement tension of several mV/pC. For
values of djj of the order of about 100 pC/N, we see that it is easy to reach sensitivity
of the order of V/N.

3.3. Thermal sensors

Thermal measurands are the temperature and the variables related to

accumulation or transfers of heat (specific heat, conductivity, thermal diffusion, heat
flux, among others). In this book we have limited our discussion to certain sensors.
With thermal sensors, the choice is simple, since in fact all these sensors are to some
extent dependent on the temperature measurement. So, we are going to discuss
temperature sensors in the following sections, beginning with the definition of
temperature, modes of heat transfer [CAR 69] and, lastly, the principle of
thermometry by contact. We will discuss the principle of thermoelectric sensors in
some detail [GOL 60].

3.3.1. Concepts related to temperature and thermometry

Our bodies can qualitatively evaluate the concept of hot and cold objects, but in
this sense, though this concept is assimilated to the concept of touch in the normal
five senses, it is both non-linear and residual: it depends on prior experience. Like
the other human senses, hot and cold cannot be measured – we do not even know
what it is we are trying to measure. The basic thermal sensor is, as we said above, a
temperature sensor. The first question to be answered is how to define this odd
measurand, which is not well understood in the physiological sense.

Temperature is a macroscopic concept which, even though it makes sense only in

terms of a number of sufficiently large atoms, is dependent on a microscopic variable.
This variable is the kinetic energy of each particle of the macroscopic system. The
temperature of a system is an expression of the mean kinetic energy of all the particles
contained in the system. The connection between the microscopic kinetic energy and
temperature is part of the field of statistical mechanics, and we will not discuss it here,
but will only note that this field proves that temperature sensors must be instruments
capable of evaluating the mean kinetic energy of a system.

There are two ways a body can transfer its kinetic energy to another body. One is
by contact that communicates the agitation of the first system to the second system;
the second is electromagnetic radiation exchanged between the particles of the two
120 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

systems. The particles of the first body play the role of an electromagnetic source
and those of the second body play the role of receiver. Temperature sensors are thus
systems that can transform the kinetic energy of agitation communicated by contact
or radiation into another form of energy, usually electrical.

We will only describe transfer by contact, since transfer by radiation really only
occurs with optical sensors. Temperature sensors were called thermometers for the
first time in 1624.

3.3.2. Thermodynamic temperature

Many physical properties of materials depend on thermal agitation of their

elementary components (of their mean kinetic energy). It is always possible to take
such a property, measure it and link it to the temperature (in terms of location and
equality). However, because it would be dependent on the body used and the
property measured, such a temperature scale would be completely arbitrary. Only
thermodynamic temperature has a universal character.

Looking for this universality, Carnot stated that energy takes two forms: thermal
agitation (heat) and organized energy (existence of privileged directions of speed)
which is called work. This means there is a relation between the concept of
temperature and that of heat conversion in work by means of a motor. Carnot
introduced the idea of the ideal or reversible motor able to constantly operate the
conversion of heat in work or the reverse (reversibility). He showed that the
production of such a motor, functioning between two heat sources of temperatures
1 and 2, is independent of the technology used to construct it. This production
depends only on 1 and 2:

F(θ1 )
η = 1− [3.93]
F(θ 2 )

where F( ) is a function that depends on the temperature scale chosen.

Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the choice of the scale as F( ) = T, so that:

T1
η = 1− [3.94]
T2

To construct a reversible motor, we can follow a compression cycle and

expansions that are, successively, isothermal and adiabatic to a mole of perfect gas.
At this point we can see that the temperature appearing in the state equation of the
mole of perfect gas, PV = RT, is Carnot’s thermodynamic temperature.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 121

If the value of R were known with a sufficiently weak uncertainty, temperature

measurement would be reduced to a pressure measurement. This is not the case and
we must eliminate R in carrying out a relative measurement. To do that, we chose a
physical phenomenon that depends solely on the temperature, one that can be
reproduced with a better uncertainty than we find with R. The triple point of water
fulfills this condition. With T0 as the value of the temperature of this fixed point, we
carry out two pressure measurements P0 and P by placing the thermometer
containing perfect gas first in contact with the triple point of water, then with the
body whose temperature T we want to measure. The thermodynamic temperature
scale is fixed, just as its Kelvin unit (K), upon which we impose the value T0. We
take T0 = 273.16 K in order for R to have a value equal (to the closest uncertainty) to
that produced by other measurement systems (R being the product of Boltzmann’s
constant and of Avogadro’s number) in units of international measurement equal to
8.32 J/K.

The thermometer of this scale in principle must be a perfect gas thermometer.

However, this kind of thermometer is too delicate for industrial use, and other
devices have been developed which are capable of giving thermodynamic
temperature measurements through the variations of other physical variables. The
ITS 90 scale stipulates the physical methods of measurement and the formulae that
help link diverse variables to temperature. These formulae are defined on the basis
of reproducible temperatures (changing of state of pure bodies) measured once with
a perfect gas thermometer. These fixed points, and interpolation formulae between
the fixed points under exact conditions, constitute the temperature scale.

3.3.3. Temperature scales currently in use and widely used measurements

Two other temperature scales are in use today. Much of the English-speaking
world uses the Fahrenheit scale for measuring thermodynamic temperature. This
scale differs from the Celsius system used through most of the world. R values are
different in the two scales. The R value of the Fahrenheit scale is related to a
thermodynamic temperature scale called the Rankin scale.

The two non-thermodynamic temperature scales are:

– Celsius temperature that attributes the value 0˚C to the freezing point of water
saturated with water to the pressure of 101,325 Pa (273.15 K). The relation between
the Celsius temperature and the thermodynamic temperature is expressed as:

(˚C) = T(K) – 273.15 [3.95]

122 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– Fahrenheit temperature, used mostly in the USA and the UK, takes from the
Rankin scale the value 32˚F as the freezing point of water. The relation between ˚F
and ˚C is expressed as:

(˚C) = 5/9 { (˚F) – 32} [3.96]

Following the example of the perfect gas thermometer, thermal dilation is the
physical variable most useful for making a thermometer. Thermal dilation is at the
basis of many thermometers used today. In all the bodies, the increase of mean
kinetic energy, that is, of temperature, is expressed by a modification of the mean
distances separating the elementary particles (atoms or molecules). In solids, this
modification is often different depending on the direction, and taking into account
this anistropy, we define the linear dilatation g1 in the following way:

1∂
αe = [3.97]
∂T

Strictly speaking, g1 is weakly dependent on the temperature. However, in most

industrial applications, small variations are disregarded. For isotropic materials, and
therefore for fluids, we introduce the volumic dilatation coefficient gv:

1 ∂V
α v = 3α = [3.98]
V ∂T

Many thermometers, among them perfect gas thermometers, make use of fluid
dilatation for temperature measurements, but this does not mean the measurand is
easily converted to an electric variable. Using the phenomenon of dilatation helps us
understand that it is crucial that thermometers carry out an efficient transfer between
the system we want to measure and the thermometer. We will discuss this further in
the following section.

3.3.4. Heat transfers

3.3.4.1. Conduction
The origin of heat (of thermal agitation) cannot really be known. We can say that
the increased temperature of a system does not retain the memory of whatever
produced the increase. This is due to the fact that it is impossible to contain heat
within a system. The agitation inevitably spreads to the outside environment by
contact or radiation. This process can be slowed to some extent by isolation
procedures, but the “leakage” is, in fact, inevitable. These phenomena are explained
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 123

by heat transfers; and we must understand these transfers in order to establish the
equilibrium temperature of a system, which is fundamental to procedures of taking
and recording temperatures.

Figure 3.37 schematizes the group of thermal transfers that can occur between a
temperature source T0 and the environment surrounding the temperature Ta. The
source is maintained at a constant temperature T1, partly to compensate for losses it
undergoes, and partly to give it the highest possible calorific capacity C. Three
successive plates of different materials have been attached to this source, and Figure
3.37 shows the temperature distribution from the source to the limit of the material
stacking making contact with the exterior air.

The transfer that occurs in the plates P1, P2, and P3 is transfer by conduction. It
lowers the temperature of T0 to Tb. The last temperature decrease (from Tb to Ta) is
produced by two other possible types of transfers: convection, which is a specific
form of conduction, and radiation. It is important to note that Figure 3.37 does not
show the order of importance of different thermal transfers. Transfer by conduction
is not systematically more efficient than other types of transfer.

Figure 3.37. Three types of thermal transfers

Each of the gradient plates, which are made of different materials, show transfer
by contact, that is, conduction. With the notations of Figure 3.37, we get:

dS

grad T
ϕ # −λ grad T

Figure 3.38. Transfer by conduction

124 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1 dQ ⎛ T −T ⎞ ⎛ T2 − T3 ⎞ ⎛ T3 − T6 ⎞
= λ1 ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ = λ2 ⎜ ⎟ = λ3 ⎜ ⎟ [3.99]
S dt ⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠ ⎝ L3 ⎠

This equation shows that the quantity of heat leaving the source by time unit and
the surface crosses without modifying the plates P1, P2, and P3. In other words, the
∆T
heat flux has been conserved. The factor i, which defines the gradient of the
∆x
temperature distribution in each material, is the thermal conductivity (Wm-1K-1).
More generally, thermal conductivity is defined through Fourier’s law. This
vectorially expresses the heat flux transmitted by conduction:

f f f
ϕconductive = − grad ( T) ≅ - grad T [3.100]

This expression only holds absolutely for the first equality because thermal
conductivity is weakly dependent on temperature (almost always increasing).

In the schema shown in Figure 3.37, we supposed there was no temperature

discontinuity at the level of contact surfaces between the different plates. In reality,
this would be impossible. At the junction between solid materials, there is always a
jump in temperature, as shown in Figure 3.39.
T2A T2B

A a B

A B
T1
T2A
T
T2B

T3
Lg

Figure 3.39. Contact resistance producing a temperature jump (T2A – T2B)

We characterize this temperature jump with a variable called contact resistance

Ra. Despite the presence of this resistance Ra, which essentially depends on the
quality of the surfaces in contact in the thickness zone Lg, there is always continuity
of heat flux l because no energy can accumulate. We get:

f 1 dQ T2 A − T2 B
ϕ = = [3.101]
S dt Ra
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 125

Taking into account the weak conductivity of air, the contact zone between the
two surfaces is responsible for the value of the thermal resistance. This explains why
the value Ra cannot really be calculated precisely. This value is deduced from the
T −T
relation 2 A f 2 B , which is measurable.
ϕ

3.3.4.2. Convection
Convection takes as a starting point the fact of a mobile fluid taking part in a
thermal transfer. In this transfer, the transmitted thermal flux increases considerably
in relation to the flux produced by the conduction between a solid and a fluid. The
fluid particles, their kinetic energy having been increased by contact (conduction)
with the solid wall, displace and are then replaced by other molecules of weaker
kinetic energy, capable of harnessing the heat of the wall. The movement of the fluid
components permanently renews the fluid molecules in contact with the solid.

Movement of hot molecules

Solid
Kinetic energy transfer
T∞

TS Arrival of new cold molecules

Figure 3.40. Principle of convective transfer

Convection appears of its own accord when different temperature zones coexist
in a fluid. Actually, its volumic mass = PM/RT decreases with the temperature, so
that the hot fluid tends to rise and the cold fluid tends to drop with the effect of
Archimedes’ principle (or law of buoyancy). This type of convection is called
natural convection. Of course, we can also force the movement of fluid by using a
turbine. We then speak of a forced convection. The speed of the particle group
becomes much higher and the flux exchanged by forced convection becomes higher
by several orders of magnitude to that of natural convection. Calculating convection
is difficult and often must be carried out by means of numerical calculation. In this
text we will limit ourselves to phenomenological expressions of the transmitted flux
by convection of a solid to a fluid. This occurs by means of a proportionality
coefficient hc that exists between the exchanged flux and the temperature
126 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

differences, between the surface S of the solid Ts and the fluid far from the surface
T∞ (in practice to several tens of thousands of µm):

1 dQ
= h C (Ts − T∞ ) [3.102]
S dt

In the air, hc is clearly equal to 5 W/m2K for natural convection and can reach
some hundreds of W/m2K for forced convection.

3.3.4.3. Radiation
We have seen in our discussion of optical sensors (see section 3.1) that the
surface dS of a body carried to a temperature T produces a radiation. The energetic
flux of the radiation transmitted in a solid angle d around a direction n (see Figure
3.41) is expressed by:

∞
dφ = ∫0 (ε λ L0λ ( T ) dΩ dS cos θ ) dλ [3.103]

where L0 (T) is the black body luminance at temperature T and i is the

transmissivity of the surface dS at the wavelength .

If the transmissivity i does not depend on (i = i is the gray body), the flux
transmitted by radiation can be calculated in the half space above the surface dS by
using the expression of the black body luminance L0λ (T ) (see Figure 3.41):

d φ = ijT4dS [3.104]

with j # 5.68 10-8 Wm-2 sr-1K-4.

∫∩ ∫0∞ ε λ L0λ (T) dS dΩ cos θ dλ

dΩ R
ελ L0λ (T)
(T) is
estthe black bodyduluminance
la luminance corps noir
θ C1
n =
C1 = 2hc 2 λ5 (e C / λT ) − 1
2

dS
C 2 = hc / k

Figure 3.41. Transfer by radiation

 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 127

We can see that the flux exchanged by radiation grows very quickly with the
temperature. In section 3.1 we also saw that with two facing objects of
transmissivity i and ia that are at two temperatures T and Ta, the flux lost by the
surface dS at the temperature T is:

4
dφ = ε εa σ (T − Ta ) dS
4
[3.105]

If T is close to Ta, d φ can be developed to the first order:

dφ ≅ 4εε a σ T 3 ( T − Ta )dS [3.106]

This is how we find a phenomenological law identical to that of convection with:

hR = 4 εε a σ T
3
[3.107]

For a body at ambient temperature, we find hr of the order of five. So, in air
without movement, at a temperature close to ambient, the sum of the convective and
radiative transfers can be expressed as:

φ = h(T – Ta)dS with h = 10 Wm-2 K-1 [3.108]

3.3.4.4. Contact temperature measurement of solids

When a thermometer comes in contact with the solid body to be measured,
several thermal transfers will assure the exchange of kinetic energy between the
thermometer, the solid and the surrounding environment (which we assume to be
fluid). In order to establish an equation that regulates, at any time, the relation
between the temperatures of the thermometer, the body and the surrounding
environment, we must make note of the instantaneous heat reading of the
thermometer, the equality between the flux gained by unit of time and the amount of
heat accumulated by unit of time. The factors which govern the equation are the
thermal capacity of the thermometer C, its geometry and the contact resistance
between the thermometer and the solid R and the phenomenological coefficient h of
the equation (see equation [3.108]) expressing the transfer between the thermometer
and the ambient fluid.
128 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This differential equation is of the first order. The response time k of the
thermometer is expressed by:

C
τ= [3.109]
1
hs +
R

with S being the surface of the thermometer in contact with the ambient fluid.

For the usual values of C, S, and R, we get k of the order of the second. This
order of magnitude shows that temperature sensors usually are very slow. To
improve this response time, the most frequently used solution is reducing the caloric
capacity of the thermometer by reducing to the minimum its geometric dimensions.
However, it is important to keep in mind that response time is not intrinsic to a
thermometer. It depends on how the thermometer is used.

Another consequence of the heat equation is that the equilibrium temperature of

the thermometer T∞ is not equal to the temperature of the solid Ts:
hs
T∞ − Ts = (Ta − Ts ) [3.110]
1
hs +
R
The deviation between T∞ and Ts, which is a systematic error of the
thermometer, can be minimized by improving the thermal exchange between the
thermometer and the solid and by reducing the exchange with the surrounding
ambient fluid. This is done in several ways: by reducing the contact resistance (with
thermal sticking or welding between the thermometer and the solid), by increasing
the contact surface by burying the thermometer, and by reducing the surface
exchange with the surrounding environment (reducing the length and diameter of the
connection wires between the thermometer and the instrumentation).

3.3.5. Contact thermometers

Thermometry by contact is done by two types of thermometers. These are

resistive thermometers that use the dependence of electric resistance on temperature
and thermocouples that use the Seebeck effect.

3.3.5.1. Resistive thermometers

Resistive thermometers are made of two materials: metals and semiconductors.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 129

We saw in section 3.1 that electric conductivity is proportional to mobility and to

the number of carriers by unit of volume.

With metal, electric conductivity decreases with the temperature because the
number of current carriers in a metal does not, in practice, depend on the
temperature. The only dependence on temperature comes from mobility, which
decreases with the number of collisions per second and thus with the temperature.
This decrease is approximately linear.

In the case of semiconductors, the temperature dependence is mostly controlled

by the exponential growth of carriers with the temperature. Resistance decreases
very rapidly with any drop in temperature. This variation is exponential, which
explains why resistive thermometers are highly sensitive to semiconductors.
However, their stability is clearly inferior to that of metallic thermometers. This
factor, more than their linearity, explains why metallic thermometers are preferred as
reference thermometers.

3.3.5.2. The Seebeck effect

Suppose we weld together the ends M and N of two different kinds of metallic
wires (see Figure 3.42) maintained by an outside energy supply at different
temperatures T0 and T. We can observe that in the closed circuit between the two
sources of heat T0 and T circulate not only a heat flux but also an electric charge
flux, which is another term for a current.

i>0

Metal B

Heat T T Heat
source 0 source

Metal A

i>0

Figure 3.42. Schema showing principle of the Seebeck effect

130 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We can express the creation of this electric current by saying that maintaining
constant temperatures from two heat sources leads to the appearance of an
electromotive force in the loop metal A + metal B. This A-B pair is called a
thermocouple. We make EAB (T, T0) the algebraic value of this electromotive force
in considering it to be positive because it makes the current circulate from A towards
B in the junction M to T0.

Of course, by reversing A and B or the temperatures T and T0, we get:

EAB (T, T0) = – EBA (T, T0) = – EBA (T0, T) = EAB (T0, T) [3.111]

The electromotive force of the thermocouple can be proved experimentally by

opening the circuit A-B and placing a voltmeter with all points at a single
temperature between the two entry points P and Q (see Figure 3.43).

Metal A

T0 M N T

Metal B Metal B
P Q

Voltmeter
maintained to a
uniform temperature T ’

Figure 3.43. Measuring the Seebeck effect

If T = T0, we observe that the deviation of the voltmeter is canceled and we can
also verify the sign (Vp – Vq) by reversing T and T0 or the metals A and B described
by equation [3.111].

The laws of thermodynamics (the first principle and the Onsager relation for
irreversible processes) allow us to establish the fundamental laws governing
thermocouples [MAC 62]. Thermodynamics does not give any explanation for the
basic physics of the phenomenon (which can be found by studying, through solid
state physics, the electron distribution in the different energies in the two metals
[KIT 83]). However, the description physics gives us of the phenomenon is
sufficient for studying temperature sensors. Thermodynamics shows us specifically
that the Seebeck effect is the result of the Peltier and Thomson effects.
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 131

3.3.5.3. The Peltier effect

i
A B

Ensemble at uniform T

Figure 3.44. The Peltier effect

Suppose that two different metals A and B are welded and traversed by a current
i (see Figure 3.44). When the current i traverses the welding in the direction AsB,
with the ensemble maintained at a temperature T, a certain power is freed in addition
to the Joule effect. This power dQ/dt is called the Peltier effect. It is proportional to
the current intensity i which traverses the welding and its sign depends on the
direction of i, helping us to differentiate it from the Joule effect, which is always
positive:

dQ
= π A − B (T ) i [3.112]
dt

The proportionality coefficient to i, ヾA-B (T), depends on T and changes sign

when we reverse i:

π A− B (T ) = − π B− A(T ) [3.113]

where A-B means that the direction of the current is of A towards B.

3.3.5.4. The Thomson effect

Suppose a conductor is made of one metal with two extremities P and Q at
different temperatures T + dT and T (dT > 0). The conductor is traversed by a
current i of P towards Q.

During a time interval dt, a certain quantity of heat is transmitted by the Joule
effect. But we also observe an emission or a heat absorption dQ of a different
physical nature. This quantity dQ is positive (heat emission towards the outside)
when i circulates from P towards Q and is negative (the metal absorbs the heat)
132 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

when i circulates from Q towards P. Between two distant points of dx on the

conductor with the different temperatures of dT, the exchange of d2Q is given as:

iiiif f d 2Q
d 2 Q = σ A (T ) grad(T). i.dx.dt or again = σ A (T ).dT .i [3.114]
dt

where dT and i are algebraic variables.

3.3.5.5. The Seebeck electromotive force

In applying the first principle of thermodynamics, we find that the variation of
the electromotive force of the thermocouple (M – N), dEAB(T,T0), when the welding
temperature N varies from dT, is equal to:

d E AB (T , T0 ) d π AB
= + (σ A (T ) − σ B (T ) ) [3.115]
dT dT

The Onsager relation then helps us find a second relation:

d E AB (T , T0 ) π AB (T )
= [3.116]
dT T

after derivation in relation to T, the above equation is also written as:

d π AB (T ) d E AB (T , T0 ) d 2 E AB (T , T0 )
= + [3 .117]
dT dT dT 2

from which we deduce, by using the relation in [3.115]:

d 2 E AB (T , T0 ) σ A −σ B
= [3.118]
2 T
dT

These equations clearly show that EAB is not a linear function of T. With the help
of the relations just presented, we establish the Seebeck effect created in the circuit
shown in Figure 3.43. For this, we maintain M to T0 and progressively raise N from
T0 to T1 so that the integration of dEAB(T, T0) from T0 to T1 leads to:

E AB (T1 , T0 ) = ∫T1 d E AB (T , T0 ) = [ ヾ AB (T1 ) − ヾ AB (T0 ) ] + ∫T1 ⎡⎣( σ A (T ) − σ B (T ) ) ⎤⎦ dT [3.119]

T T
0 0
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 133

This fundamental relation shows that we can deduce the electromotive forces of
the two couples A-B and C-B from the couple A-C:

E AB (T1, T0 ) − ECB ( T1 , T0 ) = E AC ( T1, T0 ) [3.120]

Equation [3.120] leads to establishing tables giving the electromotive force

(EMF) of couples made by combining a metal B of reference (Pb or Pt) with
different metals or alloys. From these tables we can deduce the EMF of all
thermocouples using a variety of metals.

The measurement of a temperature T1 with a thermocouple A-B that has a

welding reference at T0 can be deduced from the measurement with the same
thermocouple having a welding reference at T’0 by:

E AB (T1, T0 ) = E AB(T1, T0' ) + E AB(T0' ,T0 ) [3.121]

This relation is used when T'0 is the ambient temperature and we want to deduce
the EMF value in relation to T0 = 0˚C, the latter being the reference temperature
found in standardized tables. The electromotive force is often created by
compensation housing that allows for thermocouple use without a reference source.

It is important to remember that all isothermal metals C introduced into the loop
A-B do not modify the EMF of the thermocouple A-B. This allows us to construct
couples by heterogeneous welding. This fact also helps explain measurement with
the help of a voltmeter, as we have already described in section 3.3.5.2. Figure 3.43
can be schematized by Figure 3.45, in which we see that the branch PQ develops a
zero EMF if the metal C is at a uniform temperature T', so the only EMF is that of
the thermocouple A-B. We can introduce as many metals as we wish between P and
Q provided the temperature of the ensemble remains uniform.

Figure 3.45. Measurement principle of the EMF of a thermocouple

134 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

3.3.6. Features and uses of thermocouples

A normalized notation [ANS 82] of thermocouples (in capital letters such as E, J,

K, N, T, S, etc.) helps us recognize their alloys. While value tables of electromotive
forces of these couples [WIL 90] are cross-referenced to maintain standards, it is
preferable to carry out calibrations for each thermocouple before its use, especially if
the sensor is old and has already had several or more assemblies [ASH 81]. In fact,
all chemical or physical variations of the components can cause variations of the
EMF.

Even though many alloys can be used in making thermocouples, less than ten or
so are currently used for this purpose. The couple platinum-platinum plated with
10% rhodium with sensitivity of the order of 10 µVK-1 offers the lowest uncertainty
(< 0.1˚C) because of the attainable purity of its components and their chemical
stability. It can be used from 300 to 1,800 K but more often is used above > 500 K
in which its stability and manageability often make it preferable to other
thermometers, excepting platinum resistance thermometers, which are considered
the reference.

Thermocouples made of metal alloys have very weak sensitivities. The most
sensitive of these is the type E thermometer (chromel-constantan); this has a value
of around 80 mVK-1. We can replace the metal base couples with semiconductive
junctions (for example tellurium, bismuth or germanium with different dopings).
Although the transmitted electromotive forces are in this case clearly higher, the
manageability of these semiconductive thermocouples is still today limited, in any
case, for industrial usages. It is important to keep in mind that the calibration curve
of a thermocouple, whatever its composition, is never linear – but only within a
narrow temperature range. This means that sensitivity is strongly temperature-
dependent.

The sources of disturbances in thermocouples are, at low frequencies, Johnson’s

noise in resistance wires and at high frequencies, electrostatic and magnetic
couplings.

The manufacture and usage of thermocouples depends on two factors:

– the welding must be as small as possible in order to insure a weak response time;
– the assembly must be both mechanically solid and protective against disturbance.

The welding and connecting wires are usually placed within a protective metallic
sheath. The welding is sometimes in electrical contact with this sheath. The wires
are always isolated by a silica powder or a compacted alumina. When the structure
to be tested is metallic and can be grounded with the instrumentation, the assemblies
 Physical Principles of Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Sensors 135

with which the welding is connected to the sheath are preferred for suppressing
usual disturbances.

In principle, two thermocouples are necessary for measurement (see Figure

3.45). One of them is placed in contact with the structure whose temperature T is to
be measured; the other is placed in a protective shield whose temperature T0 is
known and fixed. It is best to have T0 equal to 0˚C, the reference temperature of
tables.

However, this kind of assembly is seldom used in industrial settings. In such

situations, the welding reference is replaced by an electromotive force that, for an
ambient temperature Ta, constantly gives the value EAB (Ta, T0). This force is placed
in series with the welding A-B fixed on the structure. The total EMF of the ensemble
is expressed by:

E AB (T , T0 ) = E AB (T , Ta ) + E AB (Ta , T0 ) [3.122]

this is the value we would have by using a second couple at the reference
temperature T0. The EMF EAB (Ta, T0) (compensation casing) can be produced by
the disequilibrium tension of a Wheatstone bridge containing a thermistor sensitive
to Ta. Regulating different impedances and tensions of the bridge gives us
EAB (Ta, T0) with a weak uncertainty if the ambient temperature does not vary more
than 50˚C during measurement. When the compensation casing cannot be directly
connected to the thermocouple, intermediary cables, called compensation cables,
must be used. This avoids systematic errors that can occur by creating parasite
EMFs at A-B junction connections if the connection was made without proper
precautions. Obviously, these compensation cables are dependent which A-B
couples have been used. Their sheath is usually the standard color of the
thermocouples currently in use.

3.4. Bibliography

[AFN] AFNOR, norm NF X07001.

[ANS 82] Standard, Temperature measurement, ISA/ANSI standard MC 96, International
Society for measurement and control, 1982.
[ASC 91] ASCH G. et al., Capteurs en instrumentation industrielle, Dunod, 1991.
[ASM 81] Manual on the use of thermocouples in temperature measurement, ASMT
Publication 04-470020-40, 1981.
[BAU 61] BAURAND J., Mesures électriques, Masson, 1961.
[BON 84] BONNET J.J., Physique générale, Dunod Université, Paris, 1993.
136 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[CAD 64] CADY W.G., Piezoelectricity, McGraw-Hill, 1964.

[CAR 59] CARLSLAW and JAEGER, Conduction of heat in solids, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1959.
[GER 62] GERMAIN P., Mécanique des milieux continus, Masson, 1962.
[GOL 60] GOLDSMID H.J., Applications of thermoelectricity, Wiley, 1960.
[HOD 71] HODGSON J.N., Optical absorption and dispersion in solids, Chapman Hall,
1971.
[KIT 83] KITTEL C., Physique de l’état solide, Dunod, 1983.
[MAC 62] MACDONALD D.K.C., Thermoelectricity: an introduction to the principles,
J. Wiley, NY, 1962.
[NOR 89] NORTON H.N., Handbook of transducers, Prentice Hall, 1989.
[PHI 73] PHILLIPS J.C., Bonds and bands in semiconductors, Academic Press, 1973.
 Chapter 4

Analog Processing Associated with Sensors

4.1. Introduction

Correct measurements are crucial to the field of instrumentation. No matter what

sensor is being used, many influence parameters or disturbances such as
temperature, pressure, mechanical constraints and electromagnetic environment can
contribute to measurement error. These kinds of problem are intrinsic to sensors.
Furthermore, the acquisition chain must link an electronic device that can condition
information and send it to a transducer. This information relates to the variable to be
measured and provides the closest possible representation of the observed physical
phenomenon.

variable digital
sensor filter amplifier processing
measurable & data analysis
analog processing

Figure 4.1. Simplified functional schema of a measurement chain

Most analog possessing of a signal sensor contains filtering and amplification

functions (Figure 4.1). These functions help us retrieve relevant information from
signal sensors and take it to a compatible and sufficient electric level so that the
information can be then used by the system or equipment. This process assures

Chapter written by Eduardo SANTANDER and Bernard JOURNET.

138 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

proper interface between user and displays, measurement devices and

microcomputers.

Because measurement systems depend on reducing electronic noise in order to

function correctly, in this chapter we will discuss in detail the aspects related to
amplification functions, as well as the different sources of intrinsic noise in
electronic devices. The concept of filtration will be dealt with in Chapter 5.

4.2. The problem of electronic noise

4.2.1. The origin of electronic noise

Electronic devices are subject to exterior noise sources (the field of

electromagnetic compatibility studies these sources) and to internal noise sources
caused by voltage variations and by circuit currents themselves.

There are two sources of exterior noise:

– one source of noise comes from electric disturbances transmitted by
conduction. These can include: the influence of network distribution of electric
energy of 230 V to 50 Hz; supply undulations (for example, alternating phase
recovery at 100 Hz); power signals functioning at commutation frequencies from
about 100 Hz to 100 kHz (breaks in energy supply);
– another source of noise can be radiated electric disturbances, including
radiofrequency transmitters, electromagnetic fields created by high variations of
voltage or current sometimes emitted by electric machines, such as motors or
transformers or, most frequently, by static converters such as clippers or inverters.

Noise sources that come from inside components have many origins and fall into
five categories. We discuss these below.

Thermal or Johnson’s noise

This kind of noise corresponds to the electrons in resistive components. Its
nature is random and does not depend on the value of the current traversing the
resistive element. This is because the displacement speeds of the charges linked to
thermal phenomena are much higher than the speeds of the group creating the
current in the conductor.

Thermal noise is expressed by an effective noise voltage, given by the relation:

U 2 = 4.k B .T .R.Bb [4.1]

 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 139

Here, kB is Boltzmann’s constant (kB = 1.38.10-23J/K), T is the absolute

temperature in Kelvin (K), R is the ohmic resistance of the element, and Bb is the
frequency range of usage (the bandwidth). The equivalent schema becomes that of a
voltage generator (or Thevenin generator) as shown in Figure 4.2.

I
U
R RR

Figure 4.2. Equivalent sources of a resistance noise

It is possible to use another, equivalent schema for a noise source using a current
or Norton generator. In this case, it is enough to divide the expression given above
by R2 to get a clear expression of noise current.

⎛T ⎞
I 2 = 4k .⎜ ⎟.∆f [4.2]
⎝R⎠

The spectral density of the voltage of thermal noise is written as:

Φ U+ ( f ) = 4.k B .T .R [4.3]

For a resistor of 1 k , for example, at ambient temperature (T = 300 K), this

spectral density of noise is close to 16.10-13 V2/Hz, or 4 nV/Hz1/2. Consequently, the
spectral density of thermal noise is constant (see Figure 4.3). That is why this kind
of noise is also called white noise. Thermal noise is present in all the resistive linear
elements, including microphones, loudspeakers, and antennae. With antennae, noise
is the product of the thermal agitation of air molecules.

Shottky’s or shot noise

Shot noise is present in all semiconductors (diodes and transistors), and is due to
random instances of charge carriers crossing P-N junctions. The direct external
current, though it seems constant, in fact fluctuates randomly around its mean value
ID (see Figure 4.4).
140 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

(V2/Hz)

4kTR

0 f

Figure 4.3. Spectral density of resistance noise

i(t)
iG(t)
ID

0 t

Figure 4.4. Fluctuation of the direct current (t) of a P-N junction

An electric charge (q) crossing a potential barrier is a Poisson process, so the

current i(t) is written as:

i(t ) = ∑ q.δ (t − t j ) [4.4]

j

The sum j corresponds to the crossings that occur per second. The probability
density of the time interval T1, separated by two successive crossings, is expressed
by (this is a Poisson process):

pT1 = λ exp(−λt ) [4.5]

where represents the average number of carriers crossing the barrier by unit of
time. We then see that the intercorrelation function Ri(k) of i(t) can given as:

Ri (τ ) = (q.λ )2 + q 2 .λ.δ (τ ) = I D
2
+ q.I D .δ (τ ) [4.6]
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 141

Here ID represents the average value of the current i(t). The spectral density of
the power of the current i(t) is calculated with the help of the Wiener-Khintchine
theorem applied to equation [4.6]. With a direct current we get:

+∞
Φi ( f ) = ∫ Ri (τ ). exp(− j 2πfτ )dτ = I D + qI D
2
[4.7]
−∞

The second term of this expression corresponds to the spectral density of the shot
noise ( iG). This means that shot noise, like thermal noise, is white noise. Because
of this, shot noise cannot be differentiated from thermal noise as soon as they both
become present in the same electrical circuit. On the other hand, shot noise only
exists when a current ID crosses the potential barrier.

In conclusion, an effective shot noise current (IG) depends on the direct current
(ID) and the range of working frequency (Bb) according to the relation:

I G2 = 2 BbΦ iG ( f ) = 2qI D Bb [4.8]

Flicker or l/f noise

This noise has various origins. In bipolar transistors it is due to defects on the
semiconductor surface in the depletion zone of the base-emitter, the carriers having
been randomly trapped in the crystalline lattice (also called mesh). The energy of the
resulting noise is mostly concentrated at low frequencies (between 0.1 Hz and 10
Hz) and the spectral amplitude density has, on a logarithmic scale, a linear decrease
according to the frequency (f). Flicker noise is also a function of the direct current ID
and can be written approximately as:

I αD
I F2 = K 1 . .Bb [4.9]
f

where K1 is a constant belonging to the component and g is a number included

between 0.5 and 2. This type of noise is mostly caused by active components but
also by carbon resistances. Flicker noise only exists in carbon resistances if the latter
are traversed by a current ID, with thermal noise always being present. That is why
metallic resistances in low noise assemblies (replacing carbon resistances) never
present flicker noise.
142 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

2
(A /Hz)

f
0

Figure 4.5. Spectral density of flicker noise

Burst or popcorn noise

This is another kind of low-frequency noise (lower than several kHz). It is found
in integrated circuits and discrete transistors. The nature of popcorn noise is not
completely known, but we can say that it is linked to the presence of contaminating
heavy metal ions in the circuits. For example, components doped with gold present
an especially high level of popcorn noise. The spectral density of noise can be
expressed as:

β
I P2 ID
= K2. . [4.10]
Bb 2
⎛ f ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ fc ⎠

where K2 is a constant belonging to the experimentally established component, is a

number between 0.5 and 2, and fc is a frequency of the given noise process. The
spectral density of the jump has a speed similar to that of a low pass filter with a
decrease at higher frequencies in 1/f2.

(A2/Hz)

-40dB/dec

f
0 fC log scale

Figure 4.6. Spectral density of popcorn noise

 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 143

Avalanche or Zener noise

Avalanche noise is produced by creating an avalanche in the P-N junctions of
Zener diodes. In the depletion zone, holes and electrons acquire enough energy to
create electron hole couples by colliding with silicon atoms. This phenomenon
occurs by means of random series of noise peaks. The resulting overall noise level is
higher than that of shot noise for the same current amplitude. The voltage of useful
noise, together with the Zener voltage, is strongly dependent on component structure
and the homogeneity of the silicon crystal. In practice, we measure spectral densities
of noise of the order of 10-14 V2/Hz for a Zener current Iz = 0.5 mA, which is the
equivalent of a resistance of 600 k to the ambient temperature. This means that it is
not advisable to use Zener diodes in assemblies requiring low noise levels.

4.2.2. Noise in an electronic chain

An electronic chain is made of many discrete components and integrated circuits

that themselves have a large number of transistors and resistances integrated into the
same substratum. This means, in practice, that studying noise with the help of an
equivalent schema representing the noise of the ensemble is a complex, often
irresolvable task. To simplify the problem, we represent the noise of each
component, independently of the true schema, by considering the noise as a
quadrupole (without noise) having a source of voltage noise at input (Un) and a
source of noise current (In), as shown in Figure 4.7.

Un

In
Quadrupole
without noise

Figure 4.7. Noise generators at quadrupole input

The two sources of noise are established experimentally by measuring their

respective spectral densities. For integrated circuits or operational amplificators,
these spectral noise densities in voltage and in current have speeds shown in Figure
4.8.
144 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

u2n (V2/Hz) i2n (A 2/Hz)

10-13 10-23
(for 741) (for 741)
1/f gradient 1/f gradient
10-14 10-24

fC f fC f
0 (130 Hz for 741) log scale 0 (1,600 Hz for 741) log scale

Figure 4.8. Speed of spectral noise densities in an operational amplifier

These noise specters have both a white noise component and a noise component
in 1/f.

Measuring the noise sources of a quadrupole is done with a spectrum analyzer.

This device analyzes the output signal for several input configurations (see Figure
4.9):

True
Un quadrupole

R=0
In Quadrupole
or without noise Umes Specter
analyzer
AV(f)
R = RE

Figure 4.9. Measurement of spectral noise densities of quadrupole noise

– When the input is short-circuited (R = 0), the spectral density of the noise
voltage equivalent to the input is simply expressed as:

u i2 = u n2 [4.11]
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 145

and the spectral density measured by the spectrum analyzer is:

2
2
u mes = Av ( f ) .u n2 [4.12]

Knowing Av(f), we can easily deduce un2.

– When the input is charged by a source resistance R = RE, the spectral density of
the equivalent noise voltage at input becomes:

u i2 = u n2 + u E2 + R E2 .i n2 + 2C.R E .u n .i n [4.13]

where the term uE corresponds to the thermal noise of the source resistance, we get:

u E2 = 4k .T .R E [4.14]

where C represents the correlation coefficient (a number between -1 and +1) of the
noise sources un and 1n.

By taking a very high value of RE, the third term of the equation is preponderant
even if the measured spectral density is as follows:

2
2
u mes = Av ( f ) .R E2 .i n2 [4.15]

This allows us to establish the source of the noise current In. An intermediary
resistance value for RE helps us find the correlation coefficient C.

4.2.3. Signal-to-noise ratio

Let Ps be the power of the useful signal at the output of an electronic chain and
Bs is the power of the corresponding noise. We then define the signal-to-noise ratio
(S/B)s at the output of the chain with the relation:

⎛S⎞ PS
⎜ ⎟ = 10. log [4.16]
⎝ ⎠S
B B S
146 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In the same way, the signal-to-noise ratio at the input of the chain can be written as:

⎛S⎞ P
⎜ ⎟ = 10. log E [4.17]
⎝ B ⎠E BE

These two relations help us establish the quality (with regard to noise) of an
electronic chain by defining the noise factor as:

FdB =
(S / B )E ⎛ P .B
= 10. log⎜⎜ E S
⎞ ⎛ B
⎟ = 10. log⎜ S
⎞
⎟⎟ [4.18]
(S / B )S ⎟ ⎜ G.B
⎝ PS .BE ⎠ ⎝ E ⎠

where G is the power amplification of the electronic chain. If this amplification is

ideal, it carries no supplementary noise to output, only amplifying noise at input. We
get:

BS = G.BE [4.19]

In this case, the noise factor is equal to the unity (0 dB). Another definition of
the noise factor is:

total power of ouput noise

F= [4.20]
power of output noise due to input generator

By using the spectral densities of equivalent noise at input of a quadrupole

(equation [4.13]), the noise factor is written:

u i2 . Av2 ( f ) u n2 + u E2 + R E2 .i n2 + 2C.R E .u n .i n
F= = [4.21]
u E2 . Av2 ( f ) u E2

u n2 + R E2 .i n2 + 2C.R E .u n .i n
F =1+ [4.22]
u E2

When the noise sources un and in are weakly correlated, the speed of F according
to the source resistance is shown in Figure 4.10.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 147

-10 dB/dec 10 dB/dec

0dB log scale

un2/4kT 4kT/in2 RE

Figure 4.10. Evolution of noise factor F according to source resistance RE

The above expression shows that the noise factor of a quadrupole is always
higher than the unit. Consequently, signal analysis always involves some
degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (see equation [4.18]). With reception
systems, or with weak signal amplification coming from sensors, the additive noise
at the first stage of reception or at preamplification plays an essential role in
conditioning the signals to be analyzed.

4.3. Amplifiers

4.3.1. Operational amplifier

An operational amplifier or integrated differential amplifier is an integrated

circuit which, in ideal conditions, provides an output voltage proportional to the
difference of input tensions U+ and U- of the observed limits “+” (not inverted) and
“-” (inverted) of the component. The positive coefficient A is the voltage differential
amplification of the amplifier. In practice, this is very high, of the order of 104 to
106. The power supply of these circuits goes from several volts to several dozen
volts maximum. The circuits cannot function by themselves (during open loop),
since they need differential tensions lower than a few µV in order not to “saturate”
(see the transfer feature in Figure 4.13).
148 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

US saturated
Usat+<Ualim+

AV gradient
input output
+
ε
IS
ε0' ε = (U +-U-)
_ 0 ε0
U+
US = Av.ε
U-
Usat->Ualim -
reference potential saturated

Figure 4.11. Schema for a differential amplifier and its features

This is why, from the perspective of linear functioning, the operational amplifier
is always used with a retroaction feature. This kind of amplifier can also be used in a
non-linear functioning mode, with or without a positive reaction. In this instance, the
feature is used for a broader input voltage dynamic. For these applications
(comparator, trigger, astable, etc.), the output can only take two values: Usat+ or
Usat–.

In order to study all possible feedback types, the operational amplifier can be
assimilated to a quadrupole of simplified design. This is shown in Figure 4.12.

I1A I2A
Zs
U1A U2A
Ze
A v.U 1A

Figure 4.12. Quadrupole design of a differential amplifier

Ze represents the input impedance of the operational amplifier, with Zs its output
impedance, and AV the amplification of the differential voltage.

4.3.1.1. Feedback and counter-feedback in currents and tensions

We can study an operational (or differential) amplifier that functions by means
of amplification in linear regime, by viewing the amplifier feedback (or counter-
feedback block) as the linking of two quadrupoles (Figure 4.13). One is part of the
direct chain (Av) and the other part of the return chain or retroaction loop (BR).
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 149

amplifier
input output
signal
signal
ε
+_ Av

BR
retroaction l oop

I1 I1A I2A I2
Amplifier
U 1A U 2A
Av

U1 U2
I 1R I 2R
counter
U1R feedback block U2R
BR
connections

Figure 4.13. Schema of an amplifier with retroaction block

Following the serial or parallel linkage of input dipoles of the two quadrupoles,
we can distinguish four possible configurations:
– serial input dipoles and parallel output dipoles;
– serial input dipoles and serial output dipoles;
– parallel input dipoles and parallel output dipoles;
– parallel input dipoles and serial output dipoles.

These four possibilities correspond to four types of feedback, either of voltage or

of current. They can be created with an operational amplifier. The following
examples illustrate, respectively, these four configurations.

– The counter-feedback of applied voltage applied in voltage (serial-parallel).

150 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

I1 I 1A
Zs I 2A I2
U1A
Ze
U 2A I1 Zs/(1+T) I2
Av .U 1A
U1 U2 U 1 U2
I1R I2R Ze.(1+T)
U 1R BR.U 2 U 2R A v.U 1/(1+T)
(T=Av.Kv )
I1=0
+ I2
U1A
_
R2
I1=0
RRchch U2
U1
U1R RR11

Figure 4.14. Counter-feedback assembly of applied voltage in voltage

In this assembly (known as a non-inverted amplifier), the output voltage U2 has

servo-control to the input voltage U1 through the intermediary of R1 and R2. The
transfer function of the return block is a constant without dimensions
BR = Kv = R1/(R1 + R2). Since this is a retroactive effect of re-injection of voltage,
input impedance is multiplied by (1 + T), where T = AvKv. The output impedance is
approximately divided by this term, on the condition that the generator impedance
is, ideally, negligible in view of Ze. If the amplification Av of the direct chain is high
enough, which is in practice true for operational amplificators, the input impedance
can be considered as infinity (I1 = 0), the output impedance as zero, and the voltage
amplification as equal to 1/Kv = 1 + (R2/R1).

– The counter-feedback of a current applied in voltage (series-series).

I1 I1A I2A I2
Ze
U1A 1/Zs U 2A
g.U 1A I1 Zs(1+T) I2
Ze.(1+T)
U1 U2
I 1R I2R U1 U2
U 1R B R.I2 U2R g.U 1 /(1+T)
(T=g.ZR)
I1=0
+ I2
U1A
_
RRch
ch U2
I1=0
U1
U1R RR11

Figure 4.15. Counter-feedback assembly for a current applied as voltage

 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 151

As with the output current I2 = U1R/R1 ≈ U1/R1, this has servo-control of the input
voltage U1: this is how voltage current convertors or transconductance amplifiers are
made. The transfer function of the return block is consistent with an impedance
BR = ZR = U1R/I2, (equal to R1 if we disregard I1). This assembly is similar to the one
shown before it, except that the charge resistance fluctuates because it replaces R2.
The input and output impedances are very high; they are both multiplied by (1 + T).
The term T corresponds to the transfer function in open loop of the assembly. It is
written T = g.ZR. Here, g represents the assembly transconductance. If g is high
enough, ideally infinite (or if I1 can be disregarded), the input impedances are
infinite. This means the voltage-current convertor is perfect and the
transconductance equals 1/ZR = 1/R1.

– The counter-feedback of voltage applied as current (parallel-parallel).

I1 I1A I2A I2
Ze Zs
I1 Zs/(1+T) I2
z.I 1A
U1 U2 U 1
I1R I2R Ze/(1+T) U2
I1 .z/(1+T)
B R .U 2
(T=z.YR)
I1
RR22 I1R
I1A
_
U1=0
+ RRch
I1 ch
U2

Figure 4.16. Counter-feedback assembly of voltage applied as current

This assembly is also called a current-voltage convertor or transresistance

amplifier. The transfer function of the return block is an admittance BR = YR = -1/R2
(it is negative for this assembly.) If we suppose that the operational amplifier
imposes a nearly zero voltage (U1 = 0), or is negligible in relation to U2, we obtain
U2/I1 ≈ U2/I1R = -R2. This means the output voltage has servo-control of the input
current. In such cases, the input impedance is zero. In reality, it is divided by (1 + T)
where T=YR.z, z being the “transimpedance” of the direct chain. The output signal is
only approximately divided by (1 + T) if the generator impedance of the current is
not too small in comparison to the input impedance Ze of the amplifier. If z tends
152 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

towards infinity, we get an ideal current-voltage convertor with an impedance

transfer of 1/YR (-R2 for the assembly shown in Figure 4.16).

I1 I1A I2
Ze Zs
I1 Zs(1+T) I2
Ai .I1A
U1 U2 Ze/(1+T)
I1R U1 U2
B R .U2 I1 .Ai/ (1+T)
(T=Ai.Ki)
I1 I1A _
I2
U1A=0
+
RRch
ch U2
RR22
I1R
U1R RR11

Figure 4.17. Counter-feedback assembly of current applied as current

With this assembly, the output current I2 has servo-control of the input current I1.
This current crossing the charge resistance is then shared among the resistances R1
and R2, which are both linked in parallel because U1 = 0. Under these conditions, we
can easily show that I2 = I1R(R1 + R2)/R1 ≈ I1(R1 + R2)/R1. The return chain is thus a
coefficient of current transfer without dimension BR = Ki. The loop transfer function
is T = Ai.Ki with Ai being the amplification in current of the direct chain. Since this
is a retroactive effect in current, the input impedance is divided by (1 + T), and the
output impedance is multiplied by this term. When Ai is very high or if we suppose
that U1 = 0, the input impedance is zero and the output impedance is infinite, the
current generator is then ideal and the current amplification equals
1/Ki = (R1 + R2)/R1.

These assemblies are important for conditioning signals before the measurement
chain is introduced, especially with signals coming from sensors. According to the
nature of the available signal, we can make use of one or the other of these counter-
feedbacks.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 153

4.3.1.2. Principle features of operational amplifiers

An operational amplifier is ideal if the differential amplification Av is infinite, if
the output voltage is zero when the input differential voltage is zero, and if it has an
infinite input impedance as well as a zero output impedance. These conditions must
exist throughout the entire range of frequency usage. Since in fact this kind of ideal
amplifier does not exist, we will summarize the principle features of integrated
differential amplifiers.

4.3.1.2.1. Bandwidths
When the input signals are of high speed and amplitude, the linear functioning of
the amplifier is limited by its maximum variation speed (also called the slew rate).
This slew rate corresponds to the maximum gradient of the output signal, so that
when the input signal exceeds this value, there is a reduction in amplitude and major
distortion. In such cases, we speak of a “high signal” bandwidth. With these circuits,
the term varies from 0.5 V/µs to 20 V/µs, but specific amplifiers can reach several
hundred V/µs and 1,000 or 2,000 V/µs for hybrid components.

When the input signals are of low amplitude (“small signals”), the slew rate no
longer appears. However, sometimes disturbances can create a bandwidth through
the Miller effect. At the first order, we can see that the transfer function Av in the
open loop of an operational amplifier (the relation between the output voltage Vs and
the differential voltage of input i in sinusoidal regime) is given as:

A0
Av = [4.23]
f
1+ j
fo

where A0 is the amplification in static open loop, f is the working or using

frequency, and f0 is the cut-off frequency. For example, for an operational amplifier
TL081, A0 is higher than 2.105 and f0 is close to 10 Hz (see Figure 4.18).

The asymptomatic forms of the module (which is that of a first order bandwidth
filter) of this function, in discontinuous features, are:

– Av = A0 for f << f0 [4.24]

A0 . f 0
– Av = for f >> f0 [4.25]
f
154 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

20 log(AV) AV real
AV asymptotic
2.105
A0 A'V asymptotic

-20 dB/dec
A'0

10 Hz f(Hz)
0 f0 f'0 fT log scale

Figure 4.18. Frequency response of an operational amplifier

Subsequently, the transfer function of an assembly using an operational amplifier

in linear regime (with retroaction) keeps approximately the same expression. Here
we suppose that A0/A’0 is much higher than the unit in which A’0 indicates the static
amplification of the assembly:

A0
f
Av 1+ j f A0 A' 0
Av' = = 0
= ≈ [4.26]
A A / A' 0 f A f
1+ v 1+ 0 1+ j + 0 1+ j
f f 'o
A' 0 1+ j f 0 A' 0
f0

In this case, we get a new cut-off frequency f 0:

A0
f '0 = . f0 [4.27]
A'0

or a product called the bandwidth gain:

A'0 . f '0 = A0 . f0 = fT [4.28]

This bandwidth gain corresponds to the transition frequency fT, for which the
voltage amplification in open loop becomes equal to the unity (gain of 0 dB). This
expression shows that the multiplication term between gain and cut-off frequency
called “bandwidth” is conserved. We see that the bandwidth of an operational
amplifier assembly is accordingly reduced when the static amplification of the
closed loop is high.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 155

4.3.1.2.2. Input impedances

Two types of impedances exist at the input of an operational amplifier (see
Figure 4.19). These are:
– differential impedance (Zed);
– common mode impedance (Zmc).

The differential input impedance of amplifiers with bipolar transistor bases

rarely exceeds a few dozen M . At low frequencies, this impedance can be
assimilated to a resistance with a “small signal” expression of:

2 β .U T 2
Red = 2h11 = = [4.29]
IC 40 I B

where is the current amplification of transistor currents, IC is the polarization

current, and UT = kT/q = 25 mV (at 25˚C) , just as IB = IP+ = IP¯ = I0.

Ip-

Zed
V-
Ip+ Ip+=I0 Ip-=I0

V+ VS
Zmc 2I0

Figure 4.19. Input impedances and polarization currents

The input resistance in common mode (as seen on inverting and non-inverting
inputs in relation to the ground), in the same conditions, is expressed by:

R mc = 2 β .R E [4.30]

where RE indicates the polarization resistance that links the emitters to the power
source. Rmc is in practice much higher than the differential input resistance
(Red < <Rmc).
156 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

However, using JFET or MOSFET transistors in the differential stage of

operational amplifiers helps us get, at low frequencies, very high input impedances
(of the order of 1012 ).

Nevertheless, for high frequencies it is important to bear in mind the differential

capacities and the common mode of field-effect transistors, which are of the order of
a picofarad. These can make certain assemblies oscillate or reduce their
performances at high frequencies.

4.3.1.2.3. Polarization currents and gap currents

Input impedances and input currents are obviously closely linked. The higher the
input impedances are, the lower input currents become. For bipolar input stages,
these currents vary from 1 to several dozen nA and from 10-3 to 102 pA for input
stages using field effect transistors of FETs. Also, because of the inevitable
dissymmetry of the differential input stage, the input currents1 Ip+ and Ip¯ of the
inverting and non-inverting limits of the amplifier are different.

The polarization current (Ip) is then defined as the average value of the currents
Ip+ and Ip¯. Their difference is called the gap current (Id):

I +p + I −p
Ip = and Id = I +p − I −p [4.31]
2

It is important to limit these currents. In practice, they bring about an output gap
voltage whose value is dependent on the assembly being used. This is why
amplifiers with FETs at the input stage are by far the best performing and most
popular amplifiers currently used for instrumentation purposes.

4.3.1.2.4. Input gap voltage

This residual voltage (or offset voltage Ud) at the input of the amplifier (see
Figure 4.20) is a product of the inevitable dissymmetry of the differential stage. To
be more precise, it has to do with the different tensions that make up the stage (base
emitter tensions for bipolar transistors and gate-source for field effect transistors).
This voltage increases according to the gain of the amplifier assembly in closed
loop. This can be a drawback for applications in which the amplifier signal is of low
amplitude.

-
1 Because the terms Ip+ and Ip correspond to base (or gate) currents of the differential stage,
their input or output direction depends on the transistors being used (PNP, NPN, N-channel or
P-channel).
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 157

Ud

ε' ε
_
U+
Us
U-

Figure 4.20. Gap voltage Ud

Advances in microtechnologies have helped to lower this voltage, which in

previous generations of amplifiers sometimes ranged from several mV to as high as
100 mV. Today, thanks to current techniques of resistance adjustment by laser or
Zener short circuiting (sometimes called Zener zapping), gap voltage is around
25 µV for amplifiers using matched bipolar transistors and around 0.1 mV for
amplifiers with FET transistors.

Gap voltage is a function of temperature, of the supply voltage of the amplifier,

and of the amplifier’s age. If the supply voltage is well-designed, correctly regulated
and filtered, its influence is minimal in relation to that of the temperature.

Because of the evolution of the Ube and the Ugs with the temperature of
transistors of the differential stage, the thermal drifts of the gap voltage are of the
order of several µV/˚C. These drifts can be minimized by using the following
techniques:
– we can try to create two differential stages to compensate for the drifts
(LM121, for example);
– we can stabilize the substratum temperature, close to the differential stage, by
means of a transistor that heats it (to a certain extent).

There are also self-switching circuits (one example is the ICL 7605 of Intersil)
that use two differential amplifiers functioning alternately, switching to the rhythm
of a clock. These are similar to the chopper-stabilized amplifiers like the circuit ICL
7650, also made by Intersil. The gap tensions we get are of the order of
2 µV and the temperature drift of the first circuit is of the order of 0.1 µV/˚C.
However, the use of these components is limited to frequencies below that of their
internal clocks.

In any case, most circuits have an interior adjustment that provides for an offset
compensation.
158 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

4.3.1.2.5. Common mode rejection ratio

A gap voltage can come from common mode amplification Amc of the
operational amplifier. Actually, the output voltage depends not only on the input
differential voltage but also on the common mode voltage Umc, defined by:

U + +U −
U mc = [4.32]
2

The output voltage is then written as:

⎛U + +U − ⎞
Us = Av .U d + Amc .U mc = Av . U ( +
−U −
) ⎜
+ Amc .⎜
⎜ 2
⎟
⎟
⎟
[4.33]
⎝ ⎠

It is clear that the higher the relation Av/Amc, the smaller the gap voltage is at the
amplifier’s output. We call this common mode rejection ratio the Common Mode
Rejection Ratio (CMRR). It is expressed in decibels in manufacturers’ specifications
and can vary from 80 dB to 140 dB depending on the circuits.

We see that this ratio decreases with the utilization frequency and, in practice, is
only a factor in assemblies with fairly high to high common mode voltage (for
example, in differentiating assemblies and instrumentational amplifiers). This is
because with assemblies having one input directly linked to the ground (as with
reversed assemblies), we have: U+ ≈ U¯ = 0V.

4.3.1.2.6. Noise
We model the noise sources appearing at the input of a differential amplifier
assembly by three generators of basic noise (Un, In1 and In2), and by two other sources
(UTHR1 and UTHR2). These are relative to the equivalent thermal noise resistances
analyzed through inverting and non-inverting inputs, as shown in Figure 4.21.

I n1
R1 U THR1 Un
+

R2 U THR2
_
Us
In2

Figure 4.21. Equivalent schema of noise of a differential amplifier assembly

 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 159

The generators of noises specific to the amplifier (Un, In, and In2) are defined
from the respective spectral densities (un, in1, and in2) for a frequency utilization band
Bb = fmax - fmin:

f max
Un = ∫f min
u n df , [4.34]

f max
I n1,n 2 = ∫f min
i n1,n 2 df [4.35]

the sources of thermal or Johnson’s noise being defined as:

U R1, R 2 = 4k TR 1,2 Bb [4.36]

If we let In = In1 = In2, the voltage of total noise at the input of a differential
amplifier is written as:

U nT = U n2 + (R1 .I n )2 + (R2 .I n )2 + U R21 + U R2 2 [4.37]

Then the output noise voltage is:

U s = A'.U nT [4.38]

where A’ is the assembly amplification (in closed loop) as defined in section

4.3.1.2.1.

Manufacturers indicate the spectral density values (un, in) of these components
whose order varies from several nV.Hz-1/2 to about 100 nV.Hz-1/2 for un, and of
0.01 pA.Hz-1/2 to 1 pA.Hz-1/2 for in.

A well-known method for minimizing noise consists of using two amplifiers to

get an amplification A’. The first one must be a low noise preamplifier (Unl << UnT)
with gain A1, while the second can be an initial amplifier (Un2 = UnT) but used with a
lower gain (A2), so that A’ = A1.A2.

The total noise at assembly output is:

U 's = ( A1. A2 .U n1 )2 + ( A2 .U n2 )2 [4.39]

160 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

U ' s = A'. (U n1 )2 + (U nT / A1 )2 [4.40]

If A1 >> 1 then we get:

U ' s ≈ A'.U n1 << U s [4.41]

This demonstrates the importance of the first stage of amplification in the global
noise level of the amplifier device.

4.3.2. Instrumentation amplifiers

The name of these amplifiers comes from the fact that they are designed for the
amplification of very low measurement signals (of the order of µV or of mV)
coming from sensors, transducers (constraint gauges, thermocouples) and
measurement bridges such as Wheatstone’s bridge, among others. They must
perform well and must have the following features:
– a significant static amplification (> 106);
– a very low offset error (≈ 1 µV);
– a lower drift versus temperature and time (< 1 µV/˚C and < 1 µV/month);
– efficient values of noise, low in voltage and current, (of the order of 1 nV/Hz1/2
and of 1 pA/Hz1/2);
– a high common-mode rejection ratio (> 100 dB);
– a high input impedance in well-functioning high impedances;
– polarization currents below 1 pA;
– a bandwidth and a high slew-rate according to the frequency and nature of the
signal.

Several structures basic to operational amplifiers in order to get a differential

amplifier are in use. The most frequently used are (see Figure 4.22):
– an instrumentational amplifier with two operational amplifiers;
– an instrumentational amplifier with three operational amplifiers;
– an instrumentational amplifier with switched-capacitor.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 161

Figure 4.22. Different assemblies of an instrumentation amplifier

The first two assemblies offer a very high input impedance and regulation of the
gain with one variable element (P). However, the common-mode error is, relatively
speaking, higher for a structure with two amplifiers. The commuted capacity
assembly can function up to frequencies of close to MHz and the common-mode
rejection ratio reaches 120 dB. In addition, manufacturers have developed other
schemata and specialized components.
162 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

4.3.3. Isolation amplifiers

This kind of amplifier is used when it is important to isolate an electronic

monitoring sensor, such as those used in medical instrumentation (electrodes applied
to the human body, to cite one example). These amplifiers help resolve issues
arising from problems of ground that can occur when measurement signals are of
low amplitude. For example, when we must connect two devices with a coaxial or
sheathed cable, or connect a sensor with a measurement tool, each with its own
ground, a fairly large “ground” voltage appears between the two ends of the cable.

Signal
Device
or Measurement
sensor device

Mass tension

Figure 4.23. Ground voltage resulting from use of a coaxial cable

There are three types of isolation amplifiers that we define according to the
physical principle being used. “Galvanic” isolation is achieved by any of the three
following ways:
– it can be achieved by electromagnetic coupling with the help of a transformer.
In this case, a high frequency carrier is modulated in frequency or in impulse width
by the signal that must be isolated. In particular, this principle is used in the isolation
amplifiers made by Analog Devices. This company has demonstrated the advantages
of using only one supply voltage that is shared between the “emission” and
“reception” points of the transmission;
– it can be obtained by optical coupling (with a DEL emitter and a photodiode
receiver). This technique does not require a high-frequency carrier and is well used
by Burr-Brown. This company has succeeded in reducing linearity defects by using
a retroaction mechanism with a second photodiode in the emission point;
– it can be obtained by capacitive coupling of a high frequency carrier
modulated in frequency by the signal to be transmitted (the ISO 122 model made by
Burr-Brown is an example).

The isolation tensions are of the order of 4 kV for isolation amplifiers with
magnetic and capacitive coupling, and of several hundreds of volts for those using
optical coupling. The bandwidths are lower by about 100 kHz.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 163

4.3.4. Logarithmic amplifiers

When a sensor’s output dynamic is of a high amplitude (10 mV to 10 V, for

example), it can be useful to compress the signal by using a logarithmic amplifier.
After amplification and digitization, the signal can be easily transmitted across a
transmission line. At reception, it is enough to carry out the reverse operation to
restore the measurement signal. This principle allows us to lower noise sensitivity.
Thanks to the compression, the output voltage to be digitized can be amplified
(between 1 V and 5 V, for example) to get the most precise conversion. This is
possible because the noise is independent of the level of the transmitted signal; in
fact, it is easier to extract a signal of 1 V from noise than to do this with a signal of
1 mV.

Logarithmic amplifiers also help us “linearize” sensors, carry out multiplications,

divisions, elevations in the square, and extractions of the root squared.

To construct this type of amplifier (see Figure 4.24), we use the feature of a P-N
junction with an equation (Ebres-Moll equation) in the following form:

⎛ ⎛ qU ⎞ ⎞
i = io ⎜⎜ exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎟ [4.42]
⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠

⎛ qU ⎞
i ≈ io .exp ⎜ ⎟ [4.43]
⎝ kT ⎠

where q is the electron charge, k the Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute

temperature, and U is the direct voltage and i0 is the flow of reverse current
(extrapolated from U = 0).

R R
_ _

Ue Input + Ue +
Output Us Input Output Us

Potential reference Potential reference

Figure 4.24. Schemata of logarithmic amplifier principle

164 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We see that it is also possible to construct an exponential amplifier (or

antilogarithmic) by using diodes or transistors, as shown in Figure 4.25.

U s=R.i ref.exp(-U e/ke)

with ke=(kT/q)(1+R 1/R2 )
_ R
R3 T r2
_
A1
+
A2
T r1 Us
i ref +
R1 R2
Ue

Figure 4.25. Schema of an exponential amplifier principle

4.3.5. Multipliers

Because of logarithmic and exponential amplifier circuits, it is possible to

construct a multiplier assembly between two inputs, as shown in the functional
schema in Figure 4.26.

Ue1
Logarithmic
lnUe1 lnUe1 + lnUe2
amplifier
Ue1*Ue2
Exponential
Adder
amplifier
Output
Ue2
Logarithmic
lnUe2
amplifier

Figure 4.26. Functional schema for a multiplier

If we replace the functional block adder with a subtractor, we get a divider.

Multipliers are usually sold in integrated forms; their price depends on how well
they perform. They are mostly used to modulate amplitude, as well as in
instrumentation for constructing synchronous detectors.
 Analog Processing Associated with Sensors 165

4.4 Bibliography

[BIC 92] BIQUARD M., BIQUARD F., Signaux, systèmes linéaires et bruit en électronique,
Ellipses, 1992.
[CHA 90] CHATELAIN J.D., DESSOULAVY R., Electronique, tome 1 – Traité d’électricité
d’électronique et d’électrotechnique, Dunod, 1990.
[COR 99] CORVISIER P., “Filtres à ondes de surface”, Mensuel Electronique, no. 94, July
1999.
[GRA 93] GRAY PAUL R., MEYER ROBERT G., Analysis and Design of Analog
Integrated Circuits, Wiley International Edition, 1993.
[HAS 89] HASLER M., NEIRYNCK J., Filtres electriques – Traité d’electricité
d’electronique et d’électrotechnique, Dunod, 1989.
[HOR 96] HOROWITZ P., HILL W., Traité de l’électronique analogique et numérique,
Techniques Analogiques Elektor, 1996.
[LET 87] LETOCHA J., Circuits intégrés linéaires, McGraw-Hill, 1987.
[PAR 86] PARATTE P.A., ROBERT P., Systèmes de mesure – Traité d’électricité
d’électronique et d’électrotechnique, Dunod, 1986.
[PRI 97] PRICE T.E., Analog Electronics: An Integrated PSpice Approach, Prentice Hall,
1997.
[TIE 78] TIETZE U., SCHENK CH., Advanced Electronic Circuits, Springer-Verlag, 1978.
[TRA 96a] TRAN TIEN LANG, Electronique analogique des circuits intégrés, Groundon,
1996.
[TRA 96b] TRAN TIEN LANG, Circuits fondamentaux de l’électronique analogique, 3rd ed.,
TEC & DOC, 1996.
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 Chapter 5

Analog Filters

5.1. Introduction

Sensors in instrumentation systems usually emit analog signals that must be

conditioned before they are digitized (see Chapter 1). Analog filtering, which is
indispensable in an electronic conditioning device, has two principal functions:
– improving the signal-to-noise ratio;
– eliminating any frequencies that might be aliased by sampling that precedes
digital processing.

Analog filters are also used in the output stages of instrumentation systems when
it is necessary to reconstruct an analog signal from the conversion of a digital signal.

Filters are complex and expensive mechanisms, with features that are often
crucial to the overall performance of a system.

5.2. Technological constraints

The role of a filter is to separate the useful frequencies in a signal (those that
carry information) from unwanted frequencies, such as noise or other signals.

Chapter written by Paul BILDSTEIN.

168 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The basic circuit of a filter is the resonator, a mechanism whose performance

varies very selectively according to the frequency. A resonator is for the most part
modeled by a transfer function of the second order, with parameters that are the
resonance frequency f0 and the quality coefficient Q. For example:

2 H( j )
H ( p) = 0
with Q = 0
2 p H (0)
p2 + 0 + 02
Q

An efficient instrumentation filter must have the following qualities:

– it should have high quality coefficients Q to get a good frequency
discrimination;
– it needs very precise and stable resonance pulsations, according to temperature
and time. In particular, imprecise component values must have only a slight
repercussion on the values of Q and 0. If this condition is met, we can say that the
filter presents a low sensitivity to component imperfections;
– it should have a low noise level and a high dynamic. Passive filters, which are
constructed without electronic components, are especially important here;
– this kind of filter should be relatively small;
– it should entail reasonable production costs. Adjustments that are often
necessary for producing precise filters are incompatible with this constraint.

Electronic resonators respond badly to the first two constraints, especially if the
filter must be produced in the form of integrated circuits. That is why high quality
filters are basically made with mechanical resonators with surface or volume waves.
In this filter type, mechanical resonance is transformed into electrical resonance by
piezoelectricity [DIE 74]. However, this technique does not work except with high
frequencies (more than a few MHz). For lower frequencies that mostly exist in
instrumentation systems, we get around this problem by using the following three
techniques:
– we can use inductors and capacitors. If the L-C resonators individually have
mediocre stability, the filters made with the help of this technique have, overall, an
excellent stability (with a few restrictive conditions). This paradoxical property is
directly turned to good account when technological constraints making adequate
inductors are not prohibitory. Otherwise, we can make electronic copies of filters
from L-C models;
– we can use active filters that have only resistors, capacitors and amplifiers.
These kinds of filters are made by putting basic filters into cascade or by copying L-
 Analog Filters 169

C filters. The mediocre stability of these mechanisms can be partly compensated by

settings that eventually have servo-control;
– we can use switched capacitor filters having only capacitors, amplifiers and
switches. Because of an ingenious device invented around 1980 [ALL 78], these
filters, which can be completely integrated into the system, have excellent stability
and precision and do not require any adjustment. However, their application field is
limited to several hundred kHz.

These three basic techniques are presented in this chapter, after a brief summary
of general calculation methods. These techniques are still evolving, connected as
they are to rapid, constant and unforeseeable progress in electronic component
technologies.

5.3. Methods of analog filter calculation

An analog filter used in instrumentation must respond to fixed behavioral

specifications in the frequential domain, with attenuation A (expressed in decibels
dB) and phase difference ϕ. For a filter with inputs and outputs Ve and Vs, these
variables are defined by the relations:

V e ( jω )
A = 20 log = 20 log H −1 ( jω )
V s ( jω )
ϕ = arg( H ( jω ))

In these expressions, H(j ) = Vs (j )/Ve(j ) is the isochronous transfer function

of the filter.

In order for a filter to transmit a signal without deformation, the phase difference
must vary linearly according to the frequency. If this occurs, the derivative of the
phase difference in relation to the frequency has a constant value. This variable is
the group delay of group k defined by the relation:

∂ϕ
τ =−
∂ω

In practice, the values of A and k become written within the attenuation gauge
and the group delay gauge, as shown for the attenuation in Figure 5.1 and the group
delay in Figure 5.2.
170 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

A(dB)

Amin

Amax
0 ωp ωa

Figure 5.1. Gauge of a low pass attenuation filter

τ (S)

τmax

τmin

0 ωp- ωp+
ω (Rd/s)
Figure 5.2. Gauge in group delay of a band pass filter

In most instrumentation applications, the attenuation feature is the most

important. We calculate a filter from the attenuation gauge and, if the application
requires it, we correct the inequality of the group delay with the help of an additional
corrective filter [SED 79].
 Analog Filters 171

A(dB)
Amin

Amax

ωa- ωp- ωp+ ωa+ ω (Rd/s)

Figure 5.3. Attenuation gauge of a low pass filter

There are four types of gauges that measure attenuation, with corresponding
parameters:
– low pass, with parameters ωp, ωa, Amax and Amin (see Figure 5.1);
– high pass, with parameters ωp, ωa, Amax and Amin;
– band pass, with parameters ωp+, ωp- ωa+, ωa-, Amax and Amin (see Figure 5.3);
– band reject, with parameters: ωp+, ωp-, ωa+, ωa-, Amax and Amin.

In instrumentation systems, band pass filters are most widely used (for anti-
aliasing, improvement of signal-to-noise ratio, and for reconstruction). However,
band pass and band reject gauges are also used when a major amplitude disturbance
must be eliminated before conversion into digital signals.

In all cases, the usual method of calculating is to determine, from the attenuation
gauge, the transfer function of a band pass filter which is called the prototype. From
this we deduce, by conversion, the transfer function of the filter being planned. The
synthesis is then carried out from this function. We see that the transfer function of
the prototype is always normalized; that is, it is calculated by taking the cut-off
pulsation p as unity.
172 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

5.3.1. Attenuation functions of standard low pass prototype filters

There are four types of important and well identified attenuation functions of
prototype filters. These give rise to transfer functions that can be physically
produced and verified:
– Butterworth filters:

2
H −1 ( jω ) = 1 + ε 2ω 2n

– Direct Tchebycheff filters:

2
H −1( jω ) = 1 + ε 2Tn2 (ω )
Tn (ω ) = cos (n a cos (ω ))

In these relations, n is the order of the filter, that is, the degree of its transfer
function. i is a parameter depending on attenuation tolerance in the pass band Amax:

ε 2 = 10 A max/ 10 − 1

For these two types of filters, the inverse of the transfer function is a
polynominal of variable . They are thus called polynomial filters. The attenuation
curve of Butterworth filters is said to be maximally flat because all the attenuation
derivations are zero at pulsation 0. However, the pass band response of Tchebycheff
filters fluctuates n + 1 times between the values 0 and Amax (in dB). These are
called equiripple filters.

In order to meet the requirements of a given filter, the necessary order n is much
higher for a Butterworth filter than for a Tchebycheff filter. Polynomial filters are
easy to make because their transfer function is simple.

The following are formulae for elliptical filters:

( )
n/2
2 2
∏ ω − ω0i
2 i= 1
H −1 ( jω) = 1 + ε# 2 if n is even
( )
n/2
2 2
∏ ω − ω∞ i
i= 1
 Analog Filters 173

( ω2 − ω02i )
n −1/ 2
ω2 ∏
2 i =1
H −1 ( jω) = 1 + ε# 2 if n is odd
∏ ( ∞i )
n −1/ 2
2 2
ω − ω
i =1

ωa
with: ω0i ω∞i =
ωp

where 0i and ω∞i are respectively normalized pulsations for which the attenuation is
zero and infinite and ε is a constant. The numerical values of these parameters can
be calculated analytically, as Cauer has shown. However, nowadays it is simpler and
more efficient to calculate these values by direct digital optimization; the existence
and unicity of the solution have been shown, leading to a rapid and certain
convergence of the algorithm for the calculation.

The attenuation curve of Cauer filters fluctuates n + 1 times between the extreme
values allowed by the gauge. This is true both for pass bands and attenuated pass
bands. Of all filters, these meet the requirements of a given gauge with a transfer
function of minimal order n. Unfortunately, their group propagation time is
extremely irregular, which means they cannot be used when the temporal form of a
signal must be preserved.

– Inverse Tchebycheff filters:

2 1
H −1 ( jω) =1 +
⎛1⎞
ε 2Tn2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω⎠

Tn ( ω) = cos ( n a cos ( ω) )

ε is a scale constant.

These filters are among the best available in terms of stiffness of the attenuation
curve and pass band group delay regularity. These properties make this kind of
filters very useful in instrumentation systems.
174 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

5.3.2. Transfer functions of common prototype low pass filters

Attenuation functions define the square of the module of the transfer function. A
standard, but sometimes difficult to realize, mathematical calculation helps us
deduce the transfer function. It is carried out as follows, by noting the transfer
function H(p) = P(p)/E(p):

E ( p ) E (− p ) F ( p) F (− p) 2
H −1 ( p ) H −1 (− p) = =1+ = H −1 ( jω )
P( p ) P(− p ) P( p) P(− p )

By identifying this expression with the attenuation functions calculated above,

we get polynomial values P(p) and F(p).

We then get E(p) from:

E ( p) E (− p ) = P( p ) P(− p ) + F ( p) F (− p )

This equation is known as the Feldtkeller equation. It has a unique solution

because E(p) is a Hurwitz polynomial (its roots are real negative parts) so that the
transfer function is that of a stable field.

Resolving the Feldtkeller equation requires a computer (there are many software
programs available that can do this, such as Matlab and Mathcad), except for
Butterworth filters, which allow for a simple analytic solution:

n/ 2⎛ ( 2i − 1) π 2 ⎞
E ( p ) = H −1 ( p ) = ε ∏ ⎜ p 2 + 2δ p cos + δ ⎟ if n is even
i =1 ⎝ 2n ⎠
( ) ⎛
n − 1 / 2
iπ ⎞
E ( p ) = H −1 ( p ) = ε ( p + δ ) ∏ ⎜ p 2 + 2δ p cos + δ 2 ⎟ if n is odd
i =1 ⎝ n ⎠
with δ = ε ( −1/ n )

5.3.3 Transfer functions of derived filters

To obtain transfer functions of filters made from the normalized prototype, we

apply a frequential transformation according to the transfer function of the low pass
prototype. These transformations, which are always used, are as follows:
p
– low pass low pass transformation: p →
ω0
 Analog Filters 175

ω0
– low pass high pass transformation: p →
p

– low pass pass band transformation: p →

(p 2
+ ω 02 )
Bp
Bp
– low pass band rejector transformation: p →
p + ω 02
2

In these formulae, 0 is the central pulsation of the band pass or band reject,
expressed in radian/second, with B the width of the band pass or band reject, in the
same unity. These transformations are complicated and difficult to carry out,
necessitating the use of a computer. Many commercial software programs contain
these transformations (Matlab, Mathcad and Matrixx are examples, as are most
signal analysis programs).

5.3.4. Filter synthesis carried out from the transfer function

Two synthesis methods of an analog filter, done from transfer functions, are
widely used.

Cascade synthesis
This is based on the decomposition that can always occur of H(p) in biquadratic
terms (and of a first degree term when order n of the filter is odd):

α m p m + α m −1 p m −1 +...+ α 0
n/2
n/2 ai' p 2 + bi' p+1
H ( p) =
β n p n + β n −1 p n −1 +...+ β 0
=G ∏ a p 2 + bi p +1
∏
=G Bi ( p)
=
i 1 i i 1 =

if n is even, and:

n −1 n −1
2 2 2
a0' p +1 a' p + bi' p +1 a ' p +1
H ( p) = G
a0 p +1 ∏ aii p 2 +bi p +1 = G a00 p +1 ∏ Bi ( p)
i =1 i =1

if n is odd.

To construct this kind of filter, we need to cascade basic biquadratic circuits with
transfer function Bi(p) (and an additional first order circuit when n is odd). Here we
176 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

must ensure that no circuit interacts with another (see Figure 5.4). This condition is
met if the output impedance of each basic circuit is zero, or very low in comparison
to the input impedance of the next circuit.

B1 B2 Bi

V1 V2

V2
H ( p) = = B1 ( p)A × Bi ( p)
V1

Figure 5.4. Principle of cascade synthesis when circuits Bi are independent

However, it is impossible to meet this condition with passive elements, although

it is easy to do with active circuits because of the very low output impedance of
operational amplifiers.

Each biquadratic element depends on only four parameters. These are ai, bi, a’i
and b’i, and can be created by standard circuits that are easy to adjust individually
and available in the form of hybrid or integrated modules from many manufacturers.
The best way to adapt these elements to specific needs is to construct them, with the
help of resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, using methods which we will
describe later. These methods are very easy to implement, both in terms of
calculations and from the point of view of adjustments and maintenance. They are
universally applicable and work no matter which transfer function needs to be
synthesized. Unfortunately, this structure does not have a good sensitivity in relation
to component value variations. In particular, it does not allow us to construct narrow
band pass filters (< 5%) as soon as the frequency exceeds several tens of kHz.

Comprehensive synthesis
This method involves synthesizing the filter with one network in order to
minimize sensitivities. Calculations, adjustments, and optimizations are much more
complex. Since L-C filters have an optimal sensitivity (see section 5.4), most of
these methods directly or indirectly stimulate L-C structures.
 Analog Filters 177

5.4. Passive filter using inductors and capacitors

Passive filters using inductors L and capacitors C were first developed in 1923.
These are called Zobel filters [ZOB 23]. They are made of a quadrupole that only
contains this type of element, inserted between two resistors R1 and R2, respectively
the generator resistor and the charge (Figure 5.5).

R1
L-C V2
E1 R2
Quadripole

Figure 5.5. Schema of the principle for an L-C filter

These filters have the following advantages.

– they do not require a power supply;
– they have good dynamics;
– they have a very low noise level;
– they have low response sensitivity to the values of their own components.

However, these filters require the use of inductors, components that are costly,
take up much space, and cannot be adjusted for industrial purposes. This is why, in
mass production, L-C filters have been increasingly replaced by active filters, at
least for in low and medium frequency applications. However, the technologies
involved in manufacturing inductors have improved in recent years. Miniaturization,
quality and costs have continued to improve. Laboratories have created higher
quality inductors that can be integrated and electronically regulated.

Moreover, the very low sensitivity of L-C filters cannot be matched. Therefore,
we use these filters as models to produce “electronic copies” with the same
sensitivity features, but without inductors. These techniques will be discussed in
sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3. In practice, the only structures that are still used are ladder
filters, as shown in Figures 5.6 and 5.7.
178 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

5.4.1. Sensitivity; Orchard’s theorem and argument

The basic schema of an L-C filter is shown in Figure 5.5. The voltage generator
E1 of internal impedance R1 can supply charge R2 with a maximum power
2
P1m = E1 / 4R1 .

We define the transmission function in power by the relation of P1m to power P2

effectively furnished to the charge by the relation:

2 2
P1m E1 R2 R2 E1 2
= = = H −1 ( j )
P2 4 R1 2 4 R1 V 2
V2

E1 R2
with: = H -1 ( p )
V2 4 R1

The attenuation A( ) of the filter expressed in decibels is given by the relation:

A( ) = 20 log H −1 ( j )

This variable is always positive or zero.

Let Xi be the value of an element of the filter (inductor or capacitor), and ∂A/∂Xi
the partial derivation of A in relation to the value of this element. If Xi diverges from
its nominal value by a quantity Xi (because of temperature variation or a time drift,
for example), the corresponding variation of attenuation A moves near the first order
by means of:

∂A
A( X i + X i ) = A( X i ) + X i
∂X i

At frequencies at which adaptation is carried out, P2 = P1m and A = 0 (attenuation

zeros), which gives us:

Xi
∂A
(
= A Xi + Xi ≥ 0 )
∂X i
 Analog Filters 179

Since variation Xi is a rather vague sign, the relation can only be verified with
an equal sign. From this we get the following theorem: the partial derivation of the
L-C filter attenuation inserted between resistors in relation to the value of each of
the elements is annulled to the attenuation zeros.

This property is extended to all the non-dissipating quadrupoles whatever

synthesis method is used. It is valid only for attenuation zeros. However, throughout
the pass band of a filter, attenuation remains, by definition, close to zero; and we can
see that ∂A/∂Xi remains low, even lower than the maximum attenuation is low. This
last proposition has not been proven by very rigorous methods, but it has been
confirmed often in practical experience. It is known as Orchard’s argument.

Orchard’s argument is very important because it shows that a non-dissipating

filter inserted between two resistors allows important tolerances on the value of its
components without affecting its performance. This characteristic is especially
important since the function of a filter is to accurately discriminate narrow
frequency fields. This feature demands, a priori, very stable and precise
components. Zobel filters could attain very high selectivity despite the use of the
relatively mediocre components then available.

However, active filters do not have the advantages of this property. That is why,
at this time, constructing a high performance filter using an L-C prototype must be
done by electronic simulation. We must remember the restrictive conditions of
Orchard’s argument when carrying out this procedure:
– it is not valid except for the pass band (and not for the stopband where
admissible tolerances for attenuation are notably higher);
– it only applies if attenuation zeros correspond to the transmission of maximum
available power. Filters taking in a constant non-zero pass band attenuation are
therefore excluded;
– it applies only to attenuation and not to propagation delay.

5.4.2. Low pass ladder filters

In practice, most L-C filters have a ladder structure. This topology avoids the use
of transformers and gives better results. From a given gauge, we must establish the
schema and calculate the value of the elements of this schema.

Cauer and Darlington developed a systematic method of synthesizing ladder

filters [CAU 41] from the transfer function and the characteristic function. This very
powerful method makes use of very complex theoretical development. However,
180 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

implementing it is simple if we limit ourselves to common and straightforward

ladder structures. This simplified procedure works for most filtering applications
used in acquisitions systems. That is why we limit ourselves in this book to this
presentation. The reader who is interested in more complete developments may refer
to [SED 79] and [SAA 58]. The simplified method presented here consists of first
calculating a low pass filter prototype with a simple repetitive structure (canonic).
We can then deduce the planned filter from frequential transformations.

5.4.2.1. Structures of basic low pass filters

These filters have topologically simple schemata. They are made of branches
that have, at most, two elements: an inductor and a capacitor. With the branches in
series, these elements are in parallel. With the parallel branches, these elements are
in series. The filter has n branches if its transfer function is of the order n.

The first branch can be a series branch (structure in T) or a parallel branch

(structure in ). We get only two schemata type; these can be deduced from one
another by duality (see Figure 5.6). The filters in of odd order terminate with a
parallel branch of those of even order with a series branch. The opposite is true for T
filters. We see that if a branch contains two elements (an inductor or a capacitor),
this branch provokes a signal interruption transmitted to the charge to its resonance
frequency (zero transmission to finite frequency). Polynomial low pass filters thus
have only one element per branch and their structures are quite simple.

Direct structure (in Pi)

Dual structure (in T)

Figure 5.6. Schemata of polynomial low pass filters

 Analog Filters 181

The transmission zeros of Cauer and low pass inverse Tchebycheff filters are
produced by trapped circuits in series in parallel branches. Only odd order filters can
be produced by L-C technology (the explanation for this is given later). We thus
have one schema in T (and its equivalent in ) as shown in Figure 5.7.

The schemata shown help produce standard low pass filters, such as the
Butterworth filter, the direct and inverse Tchebycheff filter, and the elliptic filter.
These give excellent results in most practical applications.

The schema being established from the transfer function, we need only calculate
the value of the elements. This calculation can be carried out analytically following
Darlington’s decomposition method, or it can be done directly by modern methods
of digital optimization, if the necessary software is available.

Direct structure (in Pi)

Dual structure (in T)

Figure 5.7. Schemata for elliptic and inverse Tchebycheff filters

5.4.2.2. The Darlington analytic synthesis

Even though the theoretic developments of this method are complex, the method
is simple to use in the following ways:
a) From the attenuation gauge, we choose the type of filter we want to complete.
We determine the minimal order and calculate the transfer functions and
polynomials E(p), P(p), and F(p) using the method described in section 5.3.2.
182 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

b) By knowing polynomials E(p), P(p), and F(p), we can deduce these L-C
quadrupole impedances: z11, z22, y11, and y22. The results of this calculation are given
in Table 5.1. Indices p and I indicate the even and odd parts of polynomial E(p) and
F(p). This means Ep indicates the even part of polynomial E(p). These results have
been established from Darlington’s original calculation [HAS 81].
c) From any one of these four impedances, we calculate the successive values of
the branch impedances by a procedure of iterative extraction. For polynomial filters,
this procedure is very simple; it is only a development of continued fractions of the
initial impedance. For example, for a structure in T shown in Figure 5.6, it is:

1
z11 = L1 p +
1
C2 p +
1
L3 p +
C4 p + ........

z11 z22 1/ y11 1 / y22

Structure in Ei + Fi Ei −Fi E p + Fp E p + Fp
R1 R2 R1 R2
Π Ep − Fp E p −Fp Ei − Fi Ei + Fi

Structure in Ei − Fi Ei + Fi E p −Fp E p − Fp
R1 R2 R1 R2
T E p + Fp E p + Fp Ei + Fi Ei − Fi

Table 5.1. Quadrupole impedances

This decomposition can occur element after element by making p tend towards
infinity:

L1 p = z11 p → ∞
1
C2 p =
z11 − L1 p p → ∞

etc.
 Analog Filters 183

For elliptic and inverse Tchebycheff filters, the procedure is a bit more
complicated. This is because the frequency of L-C branches must be positioned to
their values, that is, to frequency pulsations ω∞i, which annul P(p) and correspond to
a transmission zero. For example, for the structure in T shown in Figure 5.7, we get:

1
z11 = L1 p +
1
Y2 +
1
L3 p +
Y4 + ........
Ci p Ci p
with: Yi = =
2
1 + Li Ci p p2
1+ 2
∞i

In this case, the fractional decomposition continues as follows:

L1 p = z11 p 2 → − 1/ L C
2 2
1
Y2 = − Yr
z11 − L1 p

etc.

We see that in all cases, we must use a calculator to carry out these operations
precisely in order to avoid cumulative errors at each stage. We illustrate this
mechanism with two examples.

d) Terminal resistor calculation. For filters with zero attenuation at zero

frequency, terminal resistors R1 and R2 are equal. Their value determines the
impedance level of the filter and can be taken as unity of normalization:
R1 = R2 = Ru.

For filters with attenuation equal to Amax at zero frequency, and infinite at
infinite frequency (such as direct even order Tchebycheff filters), the resistor of the
generator is taken as unity and the terminal resistor is calculated in the following
way. By writing that the attenuation at = 0 is obtained by bridge divider R1, R2,
the L-C filter acting as a short circuit between the two resistors is expressed as:

Pm E 2 V22 (R1 + R2 )2
= 1 =
P2 4 R1 R2 4 R1R2
184 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The attenuation at = 0 is:

⎡ (R + R )2 ⎤
A max = 10 log ⎢ 1 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 R1 R2 ⎥⎦

If R1 = 1, we deduce from it R22 + 2R2(1 + 2g) + 1 = 0

with g = 10Amax/10 and so:

R2 = (2α − 1) ± (1− 2α )2 −1

In this relation, the sign + is used for structures in T and the sign – for those in .

It is important to be aware that elliptic and inverse Tchebycheff filters of even

order can not be completed in L-C filter format. In fact, at pulsations = 0 and
= ∞, an L-C filter acts as a short circuit between the generator and the charge, or
simply as a short circuit. For these types of filters, and at two frequencies,
attenuations have distinct and non-zero finite values Amax and Amin: this means
that synthesis is not possible. In practice, we avoid this difficulty by carrying out a
prior transformation of the transfer function [SED 79].

5.4.2.3. Examples of synthesis

Example 1
We can produce a low pass Tchebycheff filter of the order 6, Amax = 1 dB, and
whose cut-off frequency is 1 MHz. The retained structure is in T. The calculation
done according to the method discussed in section 5.3.2 gives the characteristic
polynomials E(p), F(p) and P(p) in the normalized form (that is, that the cut-off
frequency is taken as frequency unit):

E ( p) = 16.28 p 6 + 15.11 p5 + 31.44 p 4 + 19.57 p3 + 15.3 p 2 + 5 p + 1.22

F ( p) = 16.28 p 6 + 24.425 p 4 + 9.159 p 2 + 0.5088

P( p) = 1

Since F(p) is even, F(p) =Fp and Fi = 0. This gives us z 11 = y22 and z22 = y11.

E p = 16.28 p 6 + 31.44 p 4 + 15.3 p 2 + 1.22

 Analog Filters 185

Ei = 15.115 p5 + 19.57 p3 + 5 p

By carrying over the values in Table 5.1, we get parameters z and y of the filter
in normalized form (R1 = 1 for the calculation of z11 and y11 and R2 = 1 for the
calculation of z22 and y22):

32.57 p 6 + 55.86 p 4 + 24.45 p 2 + 1.631

z22 = y11 =
15.11 p5 + 19.57 p3 + 5 p

7.015 p 4 + 6.136 p 2 + 0.6132

z11 = y22 =
15.11 p5 + 19.57 p3 + 5 p

The schema obtained by the fractional decomposition of z11 is an L-C ladder in T

whose normalized component values (and therefore without dimensions) are:

L1 = 2.1546 C2 = 1.1041 L3 = 3.0634

C4 = 1.1518 L5 = 2.9367 C6 = 0.8101

The terminal resistors are calculated as shown above:

α = 10 A max/10 which gives us: R2 = ( 2α − 1) + (1 − 2α )2 − 1 = 2.66

In order to obtain the real values of the components, we must determine the
unitary values of the capacitor and the inductor, after having determined an
impedance level by choosing resistor R1, which we take as unity. For example, if we
choose R1 = Runitary = 50 , we deduce R2 = 133 , and from relations RuCu u = 1,
and Lu u = Ru:

1 Ru
Cu = = 3.18nF and Lu = = 7.958µ H
2π fu Ru 2π fu

The definitive schema is shown in Figure 5.8.

186 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 5.8. Schema of a low pass filter calculated in Example 1. The resistors are in Ohms

Example 2
We can construct a low pass elliptic filter of order 5, Amax = 0.2 dB and
Amin = 40 dB, with a cut-off frequency of 50 kHz. The structure is in T. The
calculation follows the method presented in section 5.3.2 and gives characteristic
polynomials E(p), F(p), and P(p) in normalized form.

E ( p) = 17.87 p5 + 26.18 p 4 + 43.68 p3 + 36.07 p 2 + 23.26 p + 8.141

F ( p) = 17.87 p5 + 24.53 p3 + 7.319 p

P ( p ) = p 4 + 6.12 p 2 + 8.14

In carrying over the values in Table 5.1, we get parameters z of the filter (if we
take R1 = 1 and R2 = 1):

26.18 p 4 + 36.06 p 2 + 8.14

z11 = z22 =
35.74 p5 + 68.21 p3 + 30.58 p

The normalized value of the elements is obtained by the fractural decomposition

according to the method shown above:

L1 p = z11 | p 2 → −1/ L2C2 = ∞

2
1 = 1.3978 = 0.8965 p

or L1 = 0.8965
1 0.8179 p
Y2 = − Yr =
z11 − L1 p 1 + 0.5115 p 2

or C2 = 0.8179 and L2 = 0.6258

Also: L3 = 1.6857; C4 = 1.140; L4 = 0.2104; L5 = 1.1742

 Analog Filters 187

Terminal resistor R2 is equal to R1, because z11 = z22.

By taking a value of 1 k for these resistors, as unitary values:

1 R
Cu = = 3.183 nF and Lu = u = 3.183 mH
2π fu Ru 2π fu

Eventually, the schema for creation shown in Figure 5.9, where we see that real
component values have been obtained by multiplying the normalized values by the
unitary values.

5.4.2.4. Direct digital synthesis

When using numerical optimization software, calculating the digital value of
elements can be directly carried out, with the condition that several precautions must
be taken. Actually, the weak sensitivity to value variations of L-C filters brings
about, in mathematical terms, very low partial derivation values. Numerical methods
are almost always based on calculations of these derivations. The algorithm can
easily converge on a local minimal more or less removed from ideal values; or these
may not converge at all.

Figure 5.9. Schema of a band pass filter calculated by using Example 2.

The resistors are in Ohms

For polynomial filters of order n, the variable is the vector of n values of

inductors and capacitors. We take as initial values the unity and we carry out the
calculation from a least mean square criterion by about 100 frequency values
distributed between the band pass and the stopband. The attenuation is expressed in
dB.
188 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

For elliptic and inverse Tchebycheff filters, the variable is also a vector of n
values of capacitors and inductors; that is, a value by branch. For branches with a
tuned circuit, the value of the second element is calculated based on knowing
transmission zeros ω∞i of the transfer function, which means of the zeros of P(p):

L j C jω ∞2 i = 1

This procedure is shown by the direct numerical calculation of the two same
filters that were previously calculated by the analytic method, using Matlab software
and its “optimization toolbox”:
Step 1: we have the initial values of the components. The unity value is always a
good choice for L and C elements. The generator resistor is taken as equal to unity.
The terminal resistor is calculated as shown above.
Step 2: we choose m pulsation values, for which we calculate the filter
attenuation. Between 100 and 1,000 values included between normalized pulsations
0 and 5 constitute a correct order of magnitude.
Step 3: for these m values, we calculate the filter attenuation with the help of a
function written for this purpose.
Step 4: for these m frequency values, we calculate the ideal attenuation from the
transfer function.
Step 5: we calculate the distance between these two series of values with a
quadratic criterion.
Step 6: we minimize this distance by using a universal optimization function
made by Matlab. Here, we use the “constr” function which allows us to introduce a
positivity constraint on the element values. This helps us to avoid arriving at a
solution that cannot be put into practical use.

The calculation takes only several dozen seconds working with a Pentium III and
much less time at a workstation. We usually get a correct convergence. We see that
if the calculation is not carried out very precisely, we can get a value set quite
different from the values obtained by analytic calculation, even if the filter has a
satisfactory response. This fact proves the weak sensitivity of L-C filters, since
equivalent results can be obtained with quite a different value set.

For an elliptic filter, the procedure is almost exactly the same, with one
difference. It is necessary in this case to calculate the values of the second resonant
branch elements from the initial values.
 Analog Filters 189

Example 1
The same Tchebycheff filter of order 6 calculated by this method gives, after
1,800 iterations, the following normalized values (without unities):

L1 = 2.1467 C2 = 1.1113 L3 = 3.0182

C4 = 1.1690 L5 = 2.9180 C6 = 0.8130

We notice that the values are more or less different from those calculated by
Darlington’s exact method, even though the precision required by the algorithm of
the calculation was very high However, the difference between the response curves
is undetectable.

Example 2
The elliptic filter of order 5 calculated by the direct numerical method gives the
following normalized values (without unities) after 800 iterations:

L1 = 0.7407 C2 = 0.8750 L2 = 0.5295 L3 = 1.5832

C4 = 1.1855 L4 = 0.1787 L5 = 1.0338

Even if the values are quite different from the exact values, the response curves
differ by less than a thousandth of a dB.

5.4.3. L-C filters derived from a pass band

When the filter is not a band pass, we first calculate the transfer function of the
corresponding low pass prototype. Then, we carry out the synthesis of this
prototype. The last step is deducing the final schema by applying the frequential
transformations shown in section 5.3.3 to the impedance values of the low pass
schema. In this way we get the schema of the transformed filter, with element values
expressed in real unities. This transformation is simple to effect.

Example
Suppose we want to produce an elliptic band pass filter of order 10 with
Amax = 0.2 dB and Amin = 40 dB. Its central frequency is of 100 kHz and its band
width B = 20%, that is, 20 kHz.

The low pass prototype of this filter is exactly the filter calculated in Example 2
of the above section (see Figure 5.9). Transformations of low pass impedances s
band pass are seen in Figure 5.10. Each impedance is converted into a capacitor in
190 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

parallel with an impedance. In this schema, the elements appear with normalized
values.

1 4.48 0.223 8.43 0.119 5.87 0.17

0.3196 0.95

3.13 1.05
1

5.7
4.09

0.2445 0.175

Figure 5.10. Schema of a band pass filter obtained by conversion of the low pass prototype
shown in Figure 5.9. The elements are in normalized values (without unities)

5.4.4. Conversions of L-C filters; optimization

The schemata obtained by the method just described are not always compatible
with the technological constraints presented by capacitors and, most importantly,
inductors. We can then obtain schemata derived from network transformations.

Here, there are many possibilities, such as the Norton transformation and the
Star/Triangle conversion. Implementing them is a delicate task and needs to be done
by an engineer. These techniques are described in [HAS 81]. We present here one
very common example of conversion, universally used in creating band pass filters.
This consists of replacing the four elements of parallel branches with two resonant
circuits in series. We then have a schema similar to that shown in Figure 5.11, but
less sensitive to disturbances and with values that are less dispersed. In this schema,
the values of elements are in real unities, by taking a value of 1 k as the generator
resistor.
 Analog Filters 191

Figure 5.11. Schema expressed in real values obtained after transformation

of the schema in Figure 5.10. The resistors are in Ohms

Optimization
The calculations presented above are carried out by supposing that the capacitors
and resistors have no losses. In reality, even if this hypothesis is generally valid for
capacitors, it is not as valid for inductors whose coefficients of quality Q are limited.
The response curves diverge so much from ideal curves that these losses become
significant.

It is possible to partly remedy these imperfections by modifying the element

values by using a numerical optimization tool such as the “optimization toolbox”
made by Matlab. However, losses can be effectively compensated only if component
quality is sufficiently raised. There must be values of Q of the order of about 100 to
produce high performance L-C filters.

5.5. Active filters

Active filters are made of capacitors, resistors and active elements (almost
always operational amplifiers). Less bulky, easier to produce, and thus less costly,
active filters are useful when frequencies are not too high (typically up to several
MHz). Nevertheless, active components introduce noise, limiting the maximum
voltage that can be filtered, and requiring a power supply.

Active filters are usually produced by putting basic second order cells in cascade,
as shown above. Simple and very widely used, this method does have the limitation
of producing filters that are very sensitive to imprecisions or variations in
component values. To avoid this problem, we also make active filter copies of L-C
filters, following several very good methods. The following sections will present
these different approaches.
192 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

5.5.1. Second order or biquadratic cells

RC circuits of varying complexity can be linked successfully to one to four

operational amplifiers. In this chapter, we present increasingly complex applications,
beginning with cells linked to only one operational amplifier and a minimal number of
capacities. Presenting more complex applications at each level, only the most current
constructions and their main results will be presented and analyzed. The most complex
configurations will be discussed only if they offer some practical advantage.

5.5.2. Biquadratic cells with one operational amplifier

Their general schema is given in Figure 5.12. Quadrupoles (RC)1 and (RC)2 are
respectively inserted into a positive and negative reaction loop. In order for this to
be cost-effective, quadrupoles (RC)1 and (RC)2 must not have more than a minimal
number of capacities, at most two or sometimes three. From there, we have three
circuit families, each one having approximately the same qualities.

Negative reaction biquadratic cells

The positive input of the amplifier is linked to the mass (if there is no RC1
quadrupole). The most widely used cell of this type is the Rauch band pass cell (see
Figure 5.13). Its transfer function is given by the following relation:

V2 − R2 C p
=
V1 R1 R2 C 2 p 2 + 2 R1 Cp +1

1 R2 1
Q= and ωo =
2 R1 C R1 R2

Figure 5.12. General biquadratic cell with one amplifier

 Analog Filters 193

Figure 5.13. Biquadratic band pass cell in negative reaction (Rauch cell)

Biquadratic cells in positive reaction

With these types of circuits, the operational amplifier is assembled as a
controlled source; that is, as a constant gain amplifier, usually equal to or near unity.
Low pass and high pass cells of this type, called Sallen-Key cells, are very widely
used (Figure 5.14).

Figure 5.14. A Sallen-Key low pass cell

194 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The transfer function of the low pass cell is:

V2 K
=
V1 R 2 C1 C 2 p 2 + R p[2C 2 + (1− K ) C1 ]+1

C1 C2
Q=
2C2 + (1 − K ) C1
1
o = with K ≈ 1
R C1C2

Biquadratic cells in mixed reaction

The two types of cells described above are simple but specific: they have no
transmission zeros. By combining positive and negative reactions, we can obtain all-
purpose biquadratic cells. However, these cells are much more complex. The most
widely used cell of this kind is the Friend cell (see Figure 5.15). Its transfer function
is very complex and the use of an appropriate software program is indispensable for
calculating a cell of this type, otherwise the cells may not be viable. However, the
high number of components does allow for a very flexible design.

The major advantages of these simple structures are their low number of
components and reduced energy use. But there are many disadvantages. Some are:
– difficult adjustments and settings (not independent for Q and 0);
2
– high dispersion of component values (proportional to Q );
– high active sensitivities (proportional to Q2);
– structures specific to a response type.

Figure 5.15. General schema of a Friend cell

 Analog Filters 195

These disadvantages can be minimized by using more complex structures. These

structures should have dispersions and active sensitivities proportional to Q and,
especially, universal schemata. Because of this last characteristic, cells with three or
even four operational amplifiers are mass produced and found in all manufacturers’
catalogues. Their relatively high cost and required use of more amplifiers is
compensated by their wide availability and by the advantages of their simple design
and adjustments.

5.5.3. Universal biquadratic cells with three or four amplifiers

Manufacturers have presented several schemata for these cells. All are based on
the theory of state variables. According to this theory, it is always possible to
decompose a transfer function of the order n in an ensemble of n functions of the
first order that have been simulated by integrators and combined with adders-
subtractors. As an example, let us look at the high pass function of the second order
with a transfer function as follows:

V2 a' p 2
=
V1 ap 2 + bp +1

This equation can be written as:

a' b V2 V2
V2 = V1 − −
a a p ap2

This equation can be carried out by the analog circuit shown in Figure 5.16,
which has two integrators and an adder.

Figure 5.16. Principle of producing a biquadratic state variable high pass transfer function
196 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Several schemata derived from this principle have been developed. We will
present two of them, both of which are widely used and important.

The Kerwin, Huelsman and Newcombe cell (KHN)

This cell was the first to be developed. It has been the basis for later cells. It is
produced by rearranging the signs of Figure 5.16 by using only three amplifiers (see
Figure 5.17). The calculation is carried out from the adder-subtractor forming the
first operational amplifier. We get the following transfer function:

V3 2 Q −1 R 2C 2 p 2 1
= with RC =
Ve Q 2 2 2 RCp
R C p + + 1 ω0
Q

The KHN cell has the remarkable characteristic of simultaneously presenting, on

the same circuit, a low pass transfer function (between V1 and V2) high pass
(between V1 and V3) and pass band (between V1 and V4). This quality is important;
it allows for easy production standardization. In addition, the gain and the quality
coefficient Q can be independently adjusted by r1 and R.

These cells are sold by several manufacturers under the name “Universal
Filters”. A fourth amplifier is also sold along with these cells, allowing the user to
adjust transmission zeros using a technique we will discuss below.

Figure 5.17. KHN biquadratic state variable cell

Tow-Thomas cell
Because of a small modification generalized in the Tow-Thomas cell (Figure
5.18), amplifiers have their positive input linked to the mass. By supposing three
 Analog Filters 197

amplifiers, whose gain in open loop is A >> 1, to be identical, the transfer function
of this kind of cell is written:

V2 1 1
= with ωo ≈
V1 RC RC
R2 C 2 p2 + p +1
Q

Figure 5.18. Tow-Thomas biquadratic state variable cell

We simultaneously get a band pass output at point V3. This circuit has excellent
qualities, low passive and active sensitivities, and gives the possibility of producing
circuits with very high quality coefficients Q.

Active KHN universal filter

KHN cells simultaneously have three outputs: band pass, high pass and low pass.
In adding these three outputs weighted by factors a’, b’, and c’, we can obtain any
biquadratic function (see Figure 5.19):

a' p 2 b' p c' a ' p 2 + b' p + c '

+ + =
ap 2 + bp +1 ap 2 + bp +1 ap 2 + bp +1 ap 2 + bp +1

This is why component manufacturers sell KHN cells with an amplifier, which
makes summation possible. These cells are very easy to use, in addition to being
adaptable and affordable.
198 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Universal Fleisher-Tow filter

Another technique, called feed forward, helps obtain universal biquadratic cells.
It requires just three amplifiers. This cell is called the Fleischer-Tow cell. The
schema of its principle is given in Figure 5.20, if the desired transfer function is:

V2 a ' p 2 + b' p + c
=
V1 ap 2 + bp +1

Figure 5.19. KHN biquadratic universal cell obtained by weighted summation

of band pass, high pass and low pass outputs

The normalized values of the schema elements are, if we suppose that C = 1:

a a a a
R= a R1 = R2 = R3 = Q=
a a ' − b' a 'b c' b
 Analog Filters 199

5.5.4. Elevated order active filters (elevated by putting biquadratic cells in cascade)

The principle of these cells has been shown in section 5.3.4 (Figure 5.4). In order
to minimize noise and maximize the dynamic, three precautions must be taken:
– we must ascertain that the order used to put the cells in cascade are such that
the cells with high overvoltage coefficients are placed near output. This preserves
the filter dynamic;
– for filters with transmission zeros, we should ensure that the poles and zeros
of biquadratic functions are optimally matched. Practically speaking, we must often
be satisfied with linking the closest pair of zeros to a pair of poles;
– we must ensure that the gain repartitions of the different biquadratic cells
preserves the ensemble dynamic. A good way to do this is to equalize all cell
responses.

Figure 5.20. Universal Fleischer-Tow cell with three amplifiers

It is important to note that this type of synthesis is limited to certain filters. These
are:
– low pass and high pass filters with a degree not exceeding eight to ten;
– band pass filters with a band width not much below 20%.
200 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

If these limitations are not considered, the synthesis may produce excess
sensitivity to component value variations.

5.5.5. Simulating an L-C filter

Orchard has shown that L-C filters inserted between two resistors have the best
possible sensitivity. This means that an active filter with low sensitivity is produced
by “copying” an L-C filter, which is used as a model. Among the solutions proposed
for this, three methods yield a workable way of doing this, and are easy to
implement. All three techniques produce a filter with a sensitivity considerably
lower than their homologues using the cascade technique.

Copying by simulation of inductors using gyrators and capacitors

A gyrator is an electronic ensemble that converts a capacitor impedance to an
inductor impedance. At the time of writing, the best gyrator is made with a
generalized impedance converter, called a GIC (Figure 5.21). This mechanism is
only useful for inductors that have a point linked to the mass. All high pass filters
and even band pass filters satisfy this constraint, making possible adequate
conversions. The synthesis method based on the use of gyrators (see Figure 5.22)
is excellent for producing filters with very narrow bands, up to a few hundred
kHz.

FDNR-based simulation
Another method for simulating L-C filters is based on an impedance conversion
called the Bruton transformation. This transformation suppresses the inductors while
activating the Frequency Dependent Negative Resistor (FDNR). This element is an
electronic ensemble that converts the capacitor impedance into a negative resistor
whose value is inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. The best FDNR
schema is obtained with the help of the GIC shown in Figure 5.21, in which Z1 and
Z are capacitors of value C and the other impedances are resistors of value R. The
−1
input impedance of this mechanism is then Z e = . Here, we are describing
RC 2ω 2
a negative resistor dependent on the frequency.
 Analog Filters 201

V Z Z
Figure 5.21. Generalized impedance converter (GIC): Ze = 1 = 1 3 Z
I1 Z2 Z4

Figure 5.22. Inductor simulation by a GIC: L=R2C

The Bruton transformation involves multiplying all the impedances of an L-C

filter by 1/p. This leads to the following steps:
– inductors are converted into resistors;
– capacities are converted into FDNR;
– terminal resistors are changed into capacities.

The overall response is not affected by this transformation. This method works
particularly well with low pass filters (see Figure 5.23), if we begin with a schema in
T in which resonant circuits are serial circuits, in parallel branches. As with
202 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

simulating inductors by gyrators, it is not easy to produce floating FDNRs. We must

also look for the L-C configuration that reduces their number. A combination of
Bruton transformations and a gyrator can often help us avoid the use of floating
FDNRs and gyrators.

Operational simulation of an L-C filter

A third method of copying L-C filters is to produce an electronic circuit that has
no inductors but is responsive to the same differential equations. This method is
widely used to make integrated filters with switched capacitors. This method will be
presented in the next section.

Figure 5.23. Low pass L-C filter (a) and a filter converted by
Bruton’s method (b) producing two FDNRs

5.6. Switched capacitor filters

Producing a filter requires very precise and stable components. This condition is
incompatible with the technological constraints of integrated circuits. An ingenious
and very useful device invented by Friend in 1972 [FRI 72] avoided this problem
and produced excellent filters that were completely integrated and required no
adjustments. Unfortunately, at the time of writing this type of filter can only be
produced at frequencies lower than a few MHz.
 Analog Filters 203

The basic assembly, shown in Figure 5.42, consists of replacing the resistors of
an active filter with an assembly that only contains capacitors and interruptors that
alternately open and close to the rhythm of a clock of period T = 1/fh. Each T period
decomposes in two non-overlapping phases 1 and 2. If this mechanism is
connected to two voltage sources V1 and V2, we can write that a charge Q is
transferred from the output source at each period: Q = C1(V2-V1).

During time t >> T, the transferred charge and the mean current are:

Figure 5.24. Principle of switched capacitor circuits: a) basic schema;

b) control voltages of interruptors 1 and 2; c) equivalent schema
204 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

t
Q= C1(V 2 - V1)
T
Q C
I mean = = 1 (V 2 - V1) = f h C1(V 2 - V1)
t T

In terms of the transferred charge, the circuit becomes equivalent to a resistor:

- 1 T
R equivalent = V 2 V1 = =
I mean .
C1 f h C1

This resistor of value T/C1 can be easily integrated, since MOS transistors can be
excellent analog interruptors. This mechanism becomes extremely useful when it is
used as the resistor of an analog integrator (see Figure 5.25). The corresponding
transfer function is:

V2 −1 C
= =− 1
V1 ReqC2 P TC2

C2

Φ1 Φ2

V1 C1

V2

Figure 5.25. Switched capacitor integrators

The time constant of this integrator only depends on the relation of capacities C1
and C2, and not on their individual value. If these elements are produced on the same
substratum, this relation depends solely on the relation of their physical surfaces,
which can be established by construction, with excellent precision (of the order of
0.1%).
 Analog Filters 205

Since it is possible to make active filters that use only integrators (the KHN cell
is one example), we can create very precise integrated filters without carrying out
adjustments. Another advantage is that the time constant depends on the clock
period T, so we can modify cut-off frequencies by digitally programming the clock.
In practice, this is a very helpful property.

5.6.1. Integrators without sensitivity to stray capacitances

As such, the basic assembly cannot be used in an integrated filter. Actually, the
values of C1 and C2 must be very low (lower by several pF) in order to conserve the
silicon surface. This means that it is of crucial importance that inevitable stray
capacitances, which have values that are difficult to control, should not influence the
charge transfer. We can achieve this by using an integrator with four interruptors
(see Figure 5.26). This assembly is insensitive to the principles of the stray
capacitances of MOS interruptors. It can be used with two phasings of separate
clocks. The following steps describe two different phasings:
– interruptors 1 and 4, as well as 2 and 3, are simultaneously activated. The
transfer function is that calculated previously. We will call this a “type 1” integrator;
– interruptors 1 and 3, as well as 2 and 4, are simultaneously activated. The sign
of the transfer function is reversed, because capacitor C1 is re-set before ceding its
charge to C2:

V2 1 C
= = 1
V1 ReqC2 P TC2

This is called a “type 2” integrator.

C2

C1
Φ1 Φ1

V1 Φ2
Φ2
V2

Figure 5.26a. Type 1 integrator (reverser)

206 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This dual possibility facilitates filter synthesis by avoiding the use of inverters.
We will see that, strictly speaking, these two circuits do not share the same transfer
function in z, which is an added advantage.

C2

C1
Φ1 Φ2

V1
Φ2 Φ1
V2

Figure 5.26b. Type 2 integrator (non-reverser)

As a standard analog electronic mechanism, it is possible to place several

branches with switched capacitors at the input of an integrator. In this way, we have
an adder or subtractor with multiple inputs. This is why these two schemata are the
bases for creating all integrated filters with switched capacitors.

5.6.2. Analysis of switched capacitor integrators

Equivalence between a switched capacitor resistor and an ohmic resistor is only

approximate because this equivalence has been established by assuming a very high
clock frequency in view of the filtered signal frequency. A more precise analysis
comes up against a fundamental problem: a circuit with switched capacitors is not
time invariant and therefore cannot be analyzed by using traditional methods. In
particular, the concept of transfer function does not really apply to these circuits.

Attempting to overcome this problem, we see that, aside from input nodes,
currents are zero and voltages are completely stationary, except for moments of
interruptor switching. If we restrict our observation of circuits to instants that
immediately follow these transitions, we can write equations from divergences that
create the charge conservation between two consecutive clock periods. From this we
can deduce a transfer function in z, allowing for a rigorous analysis of the circuits.
For this method to be effective, we must block the input voltage on each T period in
order to make it stationary as well.
 Analog Filters 207

We illustrate this method by calculating the transfer function of the type 1

integrator (Figure 5.26a) that has an input blocked between two T instants. If we
estimate the charge transferred to capacitor C2, between two consecutive instants (n-
1)T and nT, by supposing perfect interruptors and amplifiers (the charge transfers
then being instant), we get:

C2 V2 (nT) − C2 V2 (n − 1)T = − C1V1 (nT)

In taking nT as the reference instant, we deduce the linked transfer function in z:

V2 C 1
C2 V2 (1 − z −1 ) = − C1V1 or: =− 1
V1 C2 1 − z −1

For a type 2 integrator, a charge is accumulated by C1 before transfer into C2.

Taking into account this delay, the inversion of C1 and the blocked input, the
equation for the charge transfer becomes:

C2 V2 (nT) − C2 V2 (n − 1)T = C1V1 (n − 1)T

V2 C1 z −1
C2 V2 (1 − z −1 ) = C1 V1 z −1 or: =
V1 C2 1 − z −1

This is a transfer function of a non-inverting integrator

5.6.3. Synthesis of switched capacitor filters

The technology of switched capacitors plays only a practical part in making

integrated filters. The following three application categories have been developed:
– switched capacitor biquadratic cells, available in standard packaging have been
developed. These are parametrizable by external resistors. They have a great
advantage over the usual equivalent analog devices of being programmable in cut-
off frequency by clock frequency;
– manufacturers have developed filters of all types in the form of catalog
circuits. This is possible because cut-off frequencies can be adjusted and set by the
clock;
– specific circuits have been developed by manufacturers of analog circuits.
They also offer a wide range of switched capacitor filters, as well as software
necessary to carry out the correct synthesis. This helps us make a filter or include a
filtering function in a more complex integrated circuit.
208 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Synthesis of biquadratic cells is done only from state variable cells. Only these
cells use nothing but adder-subtractor integrators. As for the last two applications,
they use all the operational simulations of L-C filters, in order to take advantage of
the low sensitivity of these filters. This method will be described in the next section.

5.6.4. Operational simulation of an L-C filter (leapfrog simulation)

It is actually impossible to create a gyrator and an FDNR only with integrators.

This is why we use another technique to copy L-C filters: it is an operational
simulation called leapfrog. It consists of simulating differential equations that
govern the L-C circuit by means of an ensemble of integrators and adder-
subtractors. This procedure is similar to that used for creating state variable
biquadratic cells. Its principle is illustrated by band pass filter synthesis.

An L-C filter is a ladder filter with impedances of branches in parallel. These are
noted as Zi, with the admittances of serial branches Yj (Figure 5.27). We can express
recurrently the node voltages and branch currents as follows:

I1 = (V0 − V2 ) Y1
V2 = ( I1 − I 3 ) Z 2
I 3 = (V3 − V4 ) Y3
V4 = ( I 3 − I 5 ) Z 4
... = ...........

I1 I3 I5 I7
V2 V4 V6
Y1 Y3 Y5 Y7

V0 Z2 Z4 Z6 Vn

Figure 5.27. Structure of an L-C ladder filter

These equations can be symbolized by a graph in leapfrog form, as in Figure

5.28. For a polynomial low pass L-C filter, impedances Zi and admittances Yj have
the respective values of 1/Cip and 1/Lip. They can be produced by switched
capacitor filters.
 Analog Filters 209

-1 -1

V2 I3
I1
E1 Y1 Z2 Y3 Z4

-1

Figure 5.28. Leapfrog operational graph

To illustrate this method, we have to use a third order filter, knowing that the
process is iterative (Figure 5.29). The iterative equations are modified in order to
introduce terminal resistors and to avoid voltages (we multiply the intensities by a
scaling resistor of arbitrary value R). We then introduce the appropriate signs for the
integrations to end up with a simple schema. We get the following equations:

− 1 Ve − V 2
− V2 = ( − I2)
C1 p Re
+ R 2 (V s − V 2 )
− RI 2 =
L2 p R
− 1 Vs
Vs = ( − I2 )
C3 p Rs

I2

Re
V2

L2
Ve C1 C3 Rs Vs

Figure 5.29. Third order polynomial L-C filter

210 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1/Re

1/Re −1
Ve -V2
C1 p

1/R 1/R
2
RI
R2
L2 p

1/R 1/R

−1
Vs
C3 p

1/Rs
Figure 5.30. Operational graph of the L-C filter shown in Figure 5.29

This set of equations is symbolized by the graph shown in Figure 5.30, where
there are only integrators and adder-subtractors. Integrators 1 and 3 are type 1 and
the central integrator is type 2. The ensemble can be created entirely with switched
capacitor integrators. We see that many interruptors have two uses. After
suppressing the unnecessary elements, we get the final schema, shown in Figure
5.31.

In this assembly, capacitor values C2 and C4 are the same as those in the first
schema. The other capacitor values are established after choosing a clock frequency
of period T and a resistor of arbitrary value R:

T T T L2
C= Ce = Cs = C3 =
R Re Rs R2

A careful analysis of the assembly, made with the transfer functions in z

introduced before, shows that alternating type 1 and 2 integrators suppresses the
imperfections (losses) coming from the discretization of the resistors. We speak of
the “exact synthesis” of an L-C filter for this kind of operation, which is notable for
its precision and stability.
 Analog Filters 211

Φ2 Ce Ce
Ve

Φ1
C2
Φ2 Φ1
Φ1 Φ2

C C
C3

Φ1 Φ2
Φ1 Φ2
Φ

C C

Φ1 Φ2 C4
Φ2 Φ1

Vs
Cs

Figure 5.31. Switched capacitor filter deduced from graph in Figure 5.30

5.6.5. Switched capacitor biquadratic cells

All manufacturers of analog integrated circuits offer universal cells with

switched capacitors. These are usually parametrizable by external resistors, but this
can also be done by setting cut-off frequencies to clock frequencies. All these
circuits are variants of variable state cells, but they only have two operational
amplifiers because they have inverting and non-inverting integrators.

To show this, Figure 5.32 presents a schema of this type of cell. The interruptors
shown there are in another form which is also widely used. The reference phase is
212 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

that which corresponds to the position of the interruptors on the schema. In the next
phase, all interruptors switch. The transfer function of this cell is:

V2 DI + z −1 ( AG − DJ − DI ) + z −2 DJ
=
V1 BD + z −1 ( AC + AE − 2 BD) + z − 2 ( BD − AE )

These switched capacitor filters perform very well from the point of view of
flexibility and complete integration possibilities. However, we should remember that
their applications are limited in frequency to several hundred kHz. In addition, the
filters have been sampled and are subject to aliasing. This means they must have a
continuous filter that eliminates this unwanted phenomenon.

Figure 5.32. Switched capacitor biquadratic cell

5.7. Bibliography

[ALL 78] ALLSTOT D.J., BRODERSEN R.W., GRAY P.R. “MOS swiched capacitor ladder
filters”, IEEE Journal on Solid-State Circuits,12/1978, p. 806-814.
[BIL 80] BILDSTEIN P., Filtres actifs, Editions de la Radio, 3rd edition, 1980.
[CAU 41] CAUER W., Theorie der Linearen Wechselstromschaltungen, Akademische
Vergas, Gesellschaft Becker, 1941.
[DIE 74] DIEULESAINT E., ROYER D., Ondes élastiques dans les solides, Monographies
d’électronique, Masson, 1974.
[FRI 72] FRIED D.L., “Analog sample data filters”, IEEE Journal on Solid-State Circuits SC
7, August 1972.
 Analog Filters 213

[HAS 81] HASLER M., NEIRYNCK J., Filtres électriques, vol. XIX, Editions Georgi, 1981.
[HUE 76] HUELMAN L.P., Active L-C filters, theory and applications, Dowden, 1976.
[SAA 58] SAAL R., ULBRICH E., “On the design of filters by synthesis”, IRE Transactions
on Circuit Theory, vol. CT 5, December 1958.
[SED 79] SEDRA A.S., BRACKETT P.O., Filter theory and design, active and passive,
Pitman, 1979.
[ZOB 23] ZOBEL O.J., “Theory and design of uniform and composite wave filters”, Bell
System Technical Journal, January 1923.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 6

Real-time Data Acquisition

and Processing Systems

6.1. Introduction

When carrying out numerical analysis in real time, it is not enough to sample the
signal to be analyzed at a rhythm that complies with Shannon’s criterion. It is also
necessary to calculate at a speed compatible with the flow of the incoming samples.
If, for a sampling frequency fe, we make M basic operations1 between each
sampling, the necessary calculation power is M · fe, expressed in MOPS (millions of
operations per second). This calculation power is a datum of the processor being
used and is a compromise between the sampling frequency and the sophistication of
the chosen analysis. But the lower the sampling frequency, the higher the order of
the anti-folding filter;2 thus it will be difficult to integrate into the numerical system.
The popular technique currently used to solve this issue (over-sampling and
decimation) is discussed at length in this chapter. Part of this discussion will deal
with - analog-to-digital converters using this technique. This will lead us into a
presentation of implanting digital filters in cabled or programmed models (these can
be comb or half-band filters).

In this chapter, we will only discuss “real” signals, that is, those with a physical
existence. It is also quite often a question of limited spectrum signals. These are
signals with a spectrum assumed to be zero outside a band [fmin · · · fmax]. From a
mathematical point of view, limited spectrum “real” signals do not exist. Actually, a

Chapter written by Dominique MILLER.

1 This means it is part of the range of instructions of the processor being used.
2 This is always necessary, if only as regards noise.
216 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

limited spectrum signal is always of infinite duration, so it not very “physical” in

nature. In addition, when we speak of a limited spectrum “real” signal, we mean a
signal that has been limited the spectrum occupation to a band containing one
sufficient part of the signal energy. This means we have replaced:

+∞

∫ X(f )
2
df [6.1]
0

which contains the energy integrality of the signal, with:

f max

∫ X(f )
2
df [6.2]
f min

The concept of “sufficient part” obviously depends on the application.

6.2. Electronic devices for signal sampling and quantification

6.2.1. Nyquist sampling

In real-time, the Nyquist frequency is the minimum frequency that can be used
for signal sampling. The first criterion is Shannon’s criterion, which shows that, for
a limited spectrum signal [0…fmax], we can take3:

fe > 2 ⋅ f max [6.3]

The second criterion is more constraining than the first. It is the anti-folding
filter4, and it is indispensable, even if a priori the signal to be analyzed is present at
input. Here, we must always take noise into account. If we consider that the signal at
input is spoiled by a uniform density noise in a band [0···K · fe/2], with K being even,
a sampling at fe will fold down in the band [0···fe/2] the K-1 bands for
[ ( ) ]
nf e A n + 12 f e for − K ≤ n < K . This means the noise power in the band [0···fe/2] is
2 2
therefore K times more significant after sampling than before, degrading the noise-
signal ratio accordingly.

3 We will see in section 6.2.4 that there is another, less constraining version in the case of
band signals limited around a carrying frequency.
4 Or, in symmetrical fashion, the smoothing filter as a analog-to-digital converter, if the
analyzing device has an analog output that functions at the same frequency as the sampling.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 217

The anti-folding filter must:

– “let the band go” through [0··· fmax];
– avoid folding in the band [0··· fmax] by sufficiently attenuating5 beyond fe – fmax .

It becomes clear that we are not trying to eliminate folding in the band [0···fe/2].
Consequently, there has to be some folding in the band [fmax ··· fe/2]. We assume from
the start that the numerical analysis we will carry out will sufficiently attenuate this
band.

We see that the width of the transition zone of this filter is fe - 2fmax. For a given
attenuation, the more narrow the transition zone, the higher the order of the filter;
and since this is an analog filter, the higher the phase distortion in the band [0···fmax]
will be. By way of an example, we sample an order 9 elliptical filter at 256 kHz, and
do an 18 bit quantification on a useable band signal heard from 0 to 100 kHz. We
understand how difficult it will be to produce such a filter and the stability problems
that will occur over time.

This is why another approach is being used increasingly. In order to limit the
order of the analog filter, we will sample at a frequency significantly higher than
Nyquist’s frequency. This will give us a good flow of samples, which we will reduce
by digital filtering operations,6 called decimations (analyzed in section 6.3.2). We
will see in section 6.2.3 that over-sampling yields a better resolution than an analog-
to-digital converter. This technique is fundamental to - converters.

6.2.2. Quantification noise

The analog-to-digital converter, as a quantifier, introduces an error term. We can

model it as in Figure 6.1. For a converter that rounds off, this term is included
between –q/2 and q/2, where q is the quantum. A priori this quantification error
depends on the input signal.

5 “Sufficiently” here depends, in this case, on the quantum of the analog-to-digital converter
being used. The folded data will be of a lower level than the quantum.
6 These filters, even if they are often of a higher order than their analog equivalent, will be
stable over time and more often will be linear-phase filters.
218 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Te error(t)

s(t) Sq(nTe) s(t) Sq(nTe)

Te
CAN

Figure 6.1. Modeling an analog-to-digital converter

However, for a high-amplitude signal, this error presents the speed of a noise
(Figure 6.2). This means we consider the error to be an independent random input
signal called quantification noise. This is characterized by it power spectral density.
This approach is only valid if the quantum is small in relation to the maximum value
of the input signal. Since this value defines the full range of the converter, the
concept of independent quantification of the input signal only has meaning for
converters with a fairly high number of bits.

Figure 6.2. Quantification error of a 8 bit full-scale CAN

By applying a triangular signal to an amplifier input, we easily show that the

power of the quantification error equals j2q = q2/12 for a quantifier by rounding off.
This power becomes the noise power of the quantifier. This concept does not
interfere with the sampling frequency. It interferes only in that it guarantees a
correct monitoring of the signal; that is, that we do not jump from the quantum
between two samplings. Under these conditions, the quantification noise power does
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 219

not depend on the signal frequency, and the spectral density can be considered as
uniform. In order to give a value to this density, and to respect Shannon’s criterion
as much as possible, we limit the input signal frequency to the interval 0 to fe/2. We
then over-extend the uniformity domain of the spectral signal throughout [0···fe/2].
With this hypothesis, the spectral density of the quantification noise power equals:

σ q2 q2 1
Sq = = ⋅ [6.4]
fe 6 fe
2

From here, we establish a reference signal ratio to quantification noise where the
reference signal is an amplitude sinusoid equal to the full range Vref of the converter,
whose frequency is in the band [0···fe/2]:

2
Vref
2
⎛ S ⎞
⎟ = 2 = 6⎛⎜ ref ⎞⎟
V
⎜ [6.5]
⎜ Bq ⎟ q2 ⎜ q ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ref ⎝ ⎠
12

The quantum is calculated from Vref and the M number of bits:

2Vref 2Vref ⎛ S ⎞
q= ≈ ⇒⎜ ⎟ ≈ 3 ⋅ 22 M [6.6]
M
−1 M ⎜ Bq ⎟ 2
2 2 ⎝ ⎠ ref

or, expressed in dB, we have the standard relation:

⎛ S ⎞
10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 1.76 + 6.02 ⋅ M [6.7]
⎜ Bq ⎟
⎝ ⎠ref

6.2.3. Over-sampling

6.2.3.1. Acquisition over-sampling

Let us suppose that a signal to be sampled has a Nyquist frequency equal to 2fa,
meaning that its useful band is approximately [0···fa]. We sample this signal at a
frequency f e = α ⋅ 2 f a , where α > 1 is the over-sampling factor. The first goal of this
220 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

over-sampling is to enlarge the width of the transition zone of the anti-folding filter
that goes through 2 f a (α − 1) . This helps lower the order of this filter and improves the
phase linearity in the useful band. Again, there will be noise folding in the band
[ f a A f a (α − 1)] , but we already know that numerical filtering will eliminate this
problem.

The other advantage of over-sampling is that it distributes the quantification

noise over a higher band frequency, thereby reducing spectral density:

q2 1 q2 1
⋅ → ⋅ [6.8]
6 2 fa 6 α ⋅2 fa

The power noise quantification in the only useful band is reduced by a factor a:

fa
q2 1 σ q
2
q2 1
∫ ⋅
6 α ⋅ 2 fa
⋅ df = ⋅ =
12 α α
[6.9]
0

For a full-scale sinusoid in the band [0···fa], the signal to quantification noise
ratio becomes:

⎛ S ⎞
10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 1.76 + 6.02 ⋅ M + 10 log α [6.10]
⎜ Bq ⎟
⎝ ⎠ref

We can write:

1.76 + 6.02 ⋅ M + 10 log α = 1.76 + 6.02 ⋅ M e [6.11]

by taking:

1
Me = M + log 2 α
2 [6.12]

In other words, an analog converter of M bits, used with an over-sampling factor

α, leads to the same noise quantification power in the useful band as a converter of
Me bits used at Nyquist frequency. We then say that this converter has a resolution
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 221

or an equivalent number of bits of Me bits. We gain 1 resolution bit each time we

multiply the sampling frequency by four.

Here, this concept of “resolution” improved by over-sampling needs some

explanation. For example, let us consider a 10 bit convertor with a full range ±10 V.
Its quantum is 19.53 mV. We sample a sinusoid of 100 Hz with an amplitude of
9 mV at a frequency of 256 kHz. It becomes obvious that the converter output is
always zero. If we then use a 14 bit converter at 1 kHz (whose quantum is 1.22 mV),
we get the signal shown in Figure 6.3. The first converter is used with an over-
sampling factor of 256 per second, leading to a theoretical resolution augmentation
of 4 bits, or 14 equivalent bits. Obviously, this does not lead to the same result.

0.01

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

-0.002

-0.004

-0.006

-0.008

-0.01
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 6.3. Quantification by a 14 bit CAN/10 V with a sinusoid amplitude of 9mV

Here, the idea of resolution is only defined in terms of the signal-quantification

noise ratio in the useful band. However, we can obtain the effective resolution of 14
bits by superimposing on the input signal, before quantification, a noise apart from
the useful band. This noise should have an amplitude higher than the quantum of the
10 bit converter. We eliminate this noise by digital filtering, leading to the
quantification error shown in Figure 6.5. This operation is called dithering (see
Figure 6.4).
222 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

noise

Te
fa fe/ 2

fa
CAN

Figure 6.4. Dithering technique

Figure 6.5. Quantification error after dithering

6.2.3.2. Over-sampling and reconstruction

If, after over-sampling with Nyquist frequency, we have to reconstruct the
analog signal, the problem of the smoothing filter following the analog-to-digital
converter is absolutely the same as with anti-folding filter. The over-sampling before
conversion allows us to reduce the order of this filter.

Over-sampling of an entire factor N consists of, for the first time, inserting N – 1
zeros between each sample. This clearly does not change the spectrum of the
sampled signal (since we have added only zeros), but it does displace the sampling
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 223

frequency of the first image of the spectrum in the basic band to that of the Nth
power. A low pass numerical filtering, carried out at the new sampling frequency,
helps eliminate all the intermediary images (Figure 6.6).

sampled signal

-fe fe 2fe N *fe

oversampled signal by insertion of N '0'

fe

oversampled signal after lowpass filtering

fe

Figure 6.6. Output over-sampling

A sample of N of the signal to be filtered is not zero. This allows us to introduce

this filter in a polyphase form. This reduces the power of the necessary calculation.
If the filter is a FIR filter (for phase linearity), of length L, it must be calculated as
follows:

L −1
y ( n) = ∑ a i ⋅ x(n − i ) [6.13]
i =0

In general, L > N. We can take, for example L = 2 · N ·R + 1 with 4 ≤ R ≤ 10. If

at this instant n, x(n) is a non-zero sample, the calculation of y(n) is reduced to:

( L −1) N
y ( n) = ∑ a N ⋅i ⋅ x(n − N ⋅ i) [6.14]
i =0
224 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Then, at the instants n + 1, n + 2…,n + N - 1:

( L −1) N ⎫
y (n + 1) = ∑ a N ⋅i +1 ⋅ x(n − N ⋅ i) ⎪
⎪
i =0
⎪
( L −1) N ⎪
y (n + 2) = ∑ a N ⋅i + 2 ⋅ x(n − N ⋅ i ) ⎪
⎬ [6.15]
i =0
⎪
B ⎪
( L −1) N ⎪
y (n + N − 1) = ∑ a N ⋅i + N −1 ⋅ x(n − N ⋅ i)⎪⎪
i =0 ⎭

Then the filter initially of length L, working at a sampling frequency Nfe, requires
a power calculation L · N · fe, which is divided into N filters of length (L-1)/N. These
are calculated alternately. The necessary power calculation is therefore only Lfe.

6.2.4. Under-sampling

A discussion of Shannon’s theorem usually concerns a signal to be sampled at

limited spectrum in [0···fmax], called a baseband signal, but in fact, this theorem is
more general. It stipulates that the sampling frequency must be higher than the
doubled width of the signal band, that is, for a signal at spectrum in [fmin ··· fmax]:

f e > 2( f max − f min ) [6.16]

This does not mean we cannot take a sampling frequency lower than fmax or fmin.
In general, we speak of under-sampling as soon as the sampling frequency is below
2 fmax, this being the minimum frequency for standard sampling.

In Figure 6.7, we give the spectral effect of an ideal sampling of a basic band
signal at limited spectrum.

If we number the “Nyquist zones” that have a width fe/2, we find that:
– the images of positive frequency are in the odd zones;
– the images of negative frequency are in the even zones.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 225

1 2 3 4 5 2N 2N+1

-fe fe 2fe N*fe

Figure 6.7. Spectra before and after an ideal basic band sampling

If now, for a given sampling frequency, we start from a “high frequency, narrow
band”7 signal (HF-NB) that is located in an odd Nyquist zone, after under-sampling
we find absolutely the same spectrum as in the previous case (see Figure 6.8). In
zone 1 we find same spectral information as in the signal of origin at an interval
(f s f – Nfe). In other words, if the signal frequency is not useful information, the
under-sampling preserves the information. The major under-sampling application
domain is that of transmitting information by amplitude modulation and/or phase, or
carrier frequency. This falls within the field of communication, but some sensors
function according to the same modulation principle as a measurement carrier8.

1 2 3 4 5 2N 2N+1

-fe fe 2fe N *fe

Figure 6.8. HF-NB Signal under-sampling in an odd zone

If the HF-NB is in an even zone (see Figure 6.9), we find, after under-sampling,
the same spectrum, but with a frequency turn-up (f s Nfe – f).

7 This means the band is still lower by half than the sampling frequency.
8 For example, sensors using Foucault currents in measurement applications of thickness and
distance in front of a moving object. The frequency used is linked to the electromagnetic and
geometric properties of the object, and this influences the module impedance and the sensor’s
phase. But the development rapidity of this impedance, and thus the band width of the signal,
depends mainly on the speed of movement.
226 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1 2 3 4 5 2N 2N+1

-fe fe 2fe N * fe

Figure 6.9. Under-sampling of an HF-NB signal in an even zone

According to both cases, the criteria for under-sampling are as follows:

N ⋅ f e < f min ⎫
⎪
⎛ 1⎞ ⎬ ⇒ f e > 2( f max − f min ) [6.17]
⎜ N + ⎟ ⋅ f e > f max ⎪
⎝ 2⎠ ⎭

⎛ 1⎞ ⎫
⎜ N − ⎟ ⋅ f e < f min ⎪
⎝ 2⎠ ⎬ ⇒ f e > 2( f max − f min ) [6.18]
N ⋅ f e > f max ⎪
⎭

which clearly fits the Shannon criterion of “widened”.

We see that under-sampling can lead to using a sampling frequency much lower
than those in the useful field domain. We can thus use an analog-to-digital converter
with a fairly long conversion time. However, the sampling must be “ideal”, which
means it must be very short as concerns the signal frequency domain. In addition,
the sampling clock must have a very weak jitter, always in keeping with the signal
frequency domain. This means that under-sampling requires using sampling
structures that perform, as well as those of “standard” sampling. The importance is
in the fact that the flow of numerical data to be analyzed by the processor may be
low and is not connected to the carrying frequency. To demonstrate this (see Figures
6.10 to 6.15), we present the structure and the different analysis steps of a GSM
receptor functioning by under-sampling of the first intermediary frequency
(69.875 MHz) for a band width of 200 kHz (corresponding to the juxtaposition of
8 channels).
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 227

Figure 6.10. Structure of a GSM digital receiver

In this structure, the processor finally receives a flood of digital data at

406.25 kHz. We should see that part of the digital analysis (translation, filtering and
decimation9 of a factor 16) of the output of an analog-to-digital converter is carried
out by wired structures.

69.875

Figure 6.11. Signal of origin, at intermediary frequency

-6.5 0 4.785 6.5

Figure 6.12. After sampling at 6.5 MHz, zones 1 and 2 and quantification noise

9 See section 6.3.2 on a discussion of - converters.

228 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

-6.5 0 6.5

Figure 6.13. Changing digital frequency at 100 kHz

-6.5 0 6.5

Figure 6.14. After low pass digital filtering at 200 kHz

-0.406 0 0.406

Figure 6.15. After decimation by a factor of 16

The anti-folding filter is still necessary, even if only to limit the noise band to
[fmin ··· fmax]. The anti-folding filter then becomes a pass band (see Figure 6.16).

If the pass band filter is symmetrical in relation to its central frequency, it

becomes important to center the band in a Nyquist zone:
– in an odd zone: f c = f max + f min = ⎛⎜ N + 1 ⎞⎟ ⋅ f e [6.19]
2 ⎝ 4⎠
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 229

– in an even zone: f c = ⎛⎜ N − 1 ⎞⎟ ⋅ f e [6.20]

⎝ 4⎠

Figure 6.16. Anti-folding filterings in standard sampling and in under-sampling

We get from this a relation between the sampling frequency, the central
frequency of the signal to be sampled, and the number of the Nyquist zone in which
we find the signal:

even zone ⇒ Z = 2 N ⎫ 4 fc
⎬ ⇒ fe = [6.21]
odd zone ⇒ Z = 2 N + 1 ⎭ 2Z − 1

In this way we establish the relation between the carrying frequency of

69.875 MHz and the sampling frequency of 6.5 MHz.

6.3. Analog-to-digital converters

Since the technologies develop so quickly, in a reference book of this type it is

not helpful to discuss all utilization domains of different types of analog-to-digital
converters. The following points briefly summarize a few general points:
– there are converters that carry out successive approximations, all-purpose
converters, as well as converters with medium resolution and medium sampling
frequency converters;
– there are “high speed” converters. These are not defined by their number of
bits (that is, by their binary word format), but by a number of effective bits that take
imperfections into account, depending on the frequency;
230 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– gradient converters, both the high resolution and low speed varieties, have
been supplanted by - converters.

In this section we have only touched on “new” points, introducing the idea of
number of effective bits and, most importantly, the - converter, which uses the
more modern techniques of over-sampling and digital decimation.

6.3.1. Features of SINAD10 and ENOB11 converters

The first criterion for choosing an analog-to-digital converter is its number of

bits M, determined by the dynamic of the signal D12 to be quantified, as well as by
the minimum signal to quantification noise ration RSBqmin that we want to allow. For
the full-range signal and a converter of M bits, the signal to quantification noise ratio
is given in equation [6.7]. For the minimum signal, of lower useful value D dB, the
signal-to-noise ratio is only:

RSBqmin = 6.02 ⋅ M + 1.76 − D [6.22]

If this quantity is a constraint, we then take:

RSBqmin + D − 1.76
M = [6.23]
6.02

From this point, the converter can be characterized in terms of dynamic or static
non-linearities, missing codes and so on. These features can be obtained by applying
a sinusoid to the converter’s input. This sinusoid must be of very high spectral
purity. We then analyze the incoming samples:
– by histogram, that is, mainly in order to detect the missing code;
–by FFT for non-linearities.

10 Signal to Noise and Distortion ratio.

11 Effective Number of Bits.
12 That is, the relation between its maximum value and it minimum useful value, expressed in
decibels.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 231

The spectral analysis of an ideal converter gives a single line to the input
frequency13 emerging from a lower limit of quantification noise. With non-linearity,
lines will appear at harmonic frequencies. We then call SINAD the ratio, in power,
of the fundamental line to the highest disturbance lines or of the ground noise. If
there is no distortion, the SINAD is equal to the reference signal-to-noise ratio
defined in section 6.2.2, depending only on the number of bits. If not, we define the
number of effective bits by:

SINAD − 1.76
ENOB = [6.24]
6.02

The non-linearities depend on the input frequency and increase with it. At low
frequencies, the number of effective bits is equal to the number of bits of the
converter; but this decreases at higher frequencies. This means an 8 bit converter can
have an ENOB of 6.7 bits for an input signal of 100 MHz. A general rule is that we
get curves of the type shown in Figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17. Development of the ENOB depending on the input frequency, for two converters

At a higher input frequency, the best ENOB does not necessarily correspond to
the highest number of low frequency bits.

6.3.2. - converters

These were first developed by audiodigital technology. They have increasingly

supplanted gradient converters for instrumentation purposes. The problem of

13 There must be a precise relationship between the sampling frequency and the sinusoid
frequency.
232 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

audiodigital technology was this: it used a base Nyquist frequency (44 kHz for a
pass band of 20 kHz) in order to reduce the number of samples to be memorized and
analyzed. This was done with a quantification of at least 16 bits for 90 dB of desired
dynamic and a signal-to-noise ratio of the order of 8 dB, leading to very high order
anti-folding filters. This type of filter is not only tricky to produce; in an essentially
analog technology it cannot be integrated on the same chip as the rest of the digital
part.14 This resulted in higher costs. To overcome this problem, manufacturers have
tried to reduce as much as possible the analog part by transferring most of the
analysis towards digital processes. Over-sampling has provided this solution. Today,
64 the most widely used over-sampling factor, bringing the anti-folding filter to an
order of 2 to 4. However, there are not (or were not) 16 bit converters at 2.8 MHz
(64 times 44 kHz). But we can make use of the fact that over-sampling helps
improve a converter’s resolution (see section 6.2.3). To improve resolution even
more, we proceed to - modulation that helps reject quantification noise at high
frequencies, that is, outside the useful band. We can then significantly lower the
number of converter bits, and even use a 1 bit converter (a simple comparator) that
has the advantage of being perfectly linear. An inherent part of the converter, digital
analysis for filtering and decimation helps return the initial high flow and low
resolution to the Nyquist flow with a resolution of 16, 18, …, 24 or even 28 bits!
That is the range of techniques discussed in this section.

The - modulator is supported in the beginning by the modulator (see

Figure 6.18) whose output is a signal modulated by impulse length. Its mean value is
equal to the derivation of the input signal.

Figure 6.18. modulator

In order to obtain an output with a mean value directly proportional to an input

signal, we integrate the input signal ahead of the modulation, hence the name
- filter.

14 The production and purchasing levels reached by the field of audio technology has lead to
the creation of specific integrated circuits.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 233

Figure 6.19. - modulator

In a sampling context, the comparator is actually an analog-to-digital converter

(possibly 1 bit, more often M bits), that we model as a source of quantification
noise15 (see Figure 6.20). In the return loop, an analog-to-digital converter is
necessary. It must be modeled by a pure time-lag.

Figure 6.20. Sampled - modulator

The transfer functions in z of the integrator and of the time-lag are respectively
1 and z-1. In these conditions, we get:
1 − z −1

(
S * ( z ) = S ( z ) + Bq ( z ) 1 − z −1 ) [6.25]

This is a “pass-through” structure with regard to the signal and a differentiator;

that is high pass structure regarding quantification noise. This means it doubles the
noise power (if we consider that two successive samplings of the quantification error

15 Extrapolating the concept of quantification noise to a 1 bit converter is a bit risky.

However, it does give a qualitative approach and the technique of dithering helps us use this
model.
234 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

are independent), but rejects it at higher frequencies. We say that the noise has been
“put into form”. Its power spectral density is obtained by calculating:

2
q2 1 2
⎛π f ⎞ q 1
2
Nq ( f ) = 1 − z −1 = 4 sin ⎜ ⎟ [6.26]
6 fe z = e j 2 πf / f e ⎝ fe ⎠ 6 f
e

If g is the over-sampling factor and q is the converter’s quantum, the noise

power in the useful band is:

fe
2α 2 2
q 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎛ π ⎞⎤
4 sin⎛⎜ π f ⎞⎟
q 1
∫ ⎝ fe ⎠ 6 f
e
⋅ df = ⎢ − sin⎜ ⎟⎥
6 ⎣α π ⎝ α ⎠⎦
[6.27]
0

by supposing π << 1 , this power is written as:

α

q2 1 π 2
⋅ ⋅ [6.28]
6 6 α3

We can express the signal-noise ratio with the reference signal according to M
and g.

⎛ S ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 22 M ⋅ α 3 [6.29]
⎜ Bq ⎟
⎠ref 2 π
2
⎝

⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ 3α 2 ⎞
10 log ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 1.76 + 6.02M + 10 log α + 10 log ⎜ 2 ⎟ [6.30]
⎜ Bq ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ref ⎝ π ⎠

So as soon as α > π 3 ≈ 1.8 , the signal-to noise ratio increases much faster with g
than in the case of simple over-sampling, without appearing as noise. We gain 9 dB,
that is, 1.5 bits of resolution each time that g doubles.

We can also improve this resolution by using a - modulator of the order N

(see Figure 6.21). This is expressed by:

(
S * ( z ) = S ( z ) + Bq ( z ) 1 − z −1 )
N
[6.31]
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 235

Figure 6.21. - modulator of order N

The power spectral density of the noise put into form is then:

2N
⎛ f ⎞ q2 1 [6.32]
N q ( f ) = 22 N sin⎜⎜ π ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⋅
⎝ fe ⎠ 6 fe

Integrating this function is not simple, and we must be content with a first order
development. This is reasonable because we integrate from 0 to fe/2α, a field for
which f << fe, since we over-sample from a significant factor.

2N 2N
⎛ f ⎞ f
sin ⎜⎜ π ⎟
⎟ ≈π [6.33]
⎝ fe ⎠ fe

We then get:

⎛ S ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 3 ⋅ 2 N + 1 ⋅ 22 M ⋅ α 2 N +1 [6.34]
⎜ Bq ⎟
⎠ref 2 π
2N
⎝

⎛ S ⎞ ⎡ α2N ⎤ [6.35]
10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 1.76 + 6.02 M + 10 log ( α ) + 10 log ⎢( 2 N + 1) ⎥
⎜ Bq ⎟ π2 N ⎦⎥
⎝ ⎠ ref ⎣⎢

We can give, in monograms, the resolution gain16 according to g and N (Figure

6.22) and compare it with the simple over-sampling (“MIC” in the figure).
Theoretically, we get more than 20 bits of resolution with a 1 bit converter, a
modulator of order 4, and an over-sampling factor of 64. We should not forget that,
in addition to a good resolution, we get a converter with very good linearity. This is
because when we use a low-bit converter, the resulting digital analysis will also be
linear.

16 That is, the gap between the number of effective bits and the number of converter bits used
in the modulator.
236 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 6.22. Resolution gain of a - modulator of N order

We thus have a significant flow of quantified data with a low number of bits,
representative of a basic signal frequency and a significant noise level; rejected
beyond, however, the useful band of the signal (Figure 6.23).
Spectral density in dB

Figure 6.23. Spectral densities of the signal (7 Veff ) and

of the quantification noise for M = 1, g = 64 and N = 3

Digital filtering suppresses this high frequency noise in order to conserve only
the useful band [0A fe 2α ] . Since at the end of this digital filtering, there is nothing
left in the band [ fe 2α A fe 2] , we can only take a sample on α without losing
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 237

information. This brings the sampling frequency to the Nyquist frequency. This
ensemble of operations, filtering and lowering the sampling frequency, is called
decimation. This process will be discussed in detail.

A priori, it is sufficient to set up a digital filter of type FIR to ensure linearity.

We can calculate the order of the filter by using a standard empirical formula:

2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ f
2M + 1 = log⎜ ⎟⋅ e [6.36]
3 ⎜ 10δ pδ a ⎟ ∆f
⎝ ⎠

where:
– ha and hp are undulations in attenuated bands and pass bands;
– f is the width of the transition band of the filter.

Looking at the example in Figure 6.23, we see that we want to bring the noise
level to that in the pass band (–100 dB is the “resolution” of a 16 bit converter) for a
transition width of 22 – 20 = 2 kHz. This means we need an attenuation of 110 dB.
We can choose an undulation in the pass band lower than ½ quantum. Let this be
152 µV (16 bits, full range 10 V). The sampling frequency is 64*44 kHz = 2.816
MHz. All this leads to a filter order of around 13,000. With a processor capable of
analyzing 200 million operations per second, at 2.816 MHz, we cannot produce a
filter of an order above 70. This means we have to proceed in several steps, by
beginning with a filter that can be made by using a cabled structure: the comb filter.

The comb filter is an FIR filter, with all coefficients equal. It is therefore a linear
phase filter, and there is a recursive way of expressing it. For a filter of L length, we
get:

k = L −1 k = L −1
1 − z −L
h ( z ) = h0 ⋅ ∑ z −k = h0 ⋅ 1 − z −1 ⇒ y(n) = h0 ⋅ ∑ x(n − k ) [6.37]
k =0 k =0

The response in frequency of this filter is given by the following equation and is
shown in Figure 6.24.

⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ fL ⎞
L
− jω T sin⎜ ω T ⎟ sin⎜⎜ π ⎟
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⇒ h( f ) = h ⋅ ⎝ f e ⎟⎠
h( jω) = h0
e
[6.38]
sin (ωT )
0
L
− jω T ⎛ f ⎞
e 2 sin⎜⎜ π ⎟
⎟
⎝ fe ⎠
238 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Its continuous gain is therefore h0 L. For a unitary gain we take h0 = 1/L. This
filter carries out the arithmetic mean of the last L input samples. If L = 21, the
division by L in turn performs l intervals to the line of the accumulated total of the
samples. Under these conditions, the filter can be made with the help of simple
accumulators and registers, that is, by means of a hard-wired logic that can function
at a very high sampling frequency.
10

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60
1/16 2/16 3/16 4/16 5/16 6/16 7/16 8/16

Figure 6.24. 16 length comb filter, response in dB between 0 and fe/2

The attenuation is infinite throughout fe/L, and is significant around these

frequencies. This means that if the useful band of the filtered signal is much lower
than fe, we can proceed to a decimation of order L (that is, we only sample L)
without folding in the useful band. Actually, the decimation of order L will fold the
frequencies in the useful band that are close to different multiples of fe/L. The comb
filter of length L easily helps us produce a decimator filter of order L that can
function at high frequencies (see Figure 6.25).

1 − z −L
L
1 − z −1

1
1 − z −L L
1 − z −1

1 −1
L 1− z
1 − z −1

Figure 6.25. Three equivalent ways of producing comb filtering and one decimation
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 239

In the last analysis, the filtering-decimation ensemble is made by means of:

1
– an accumulator , functioning at fe;
1 − z −1
– taking a sample of L at the accumator’s output;

– a differentiator 1 − z −1 functioning at fe /L.

To enlarge the zones of high attenuation around all the fe/L areas, we increase the
filter order by cascading the accumulators17 and differentiators before and after
decimation (Figure 6.26). The frequency response for an order 4 is compared to that
of an order 1 in Figure 6.27.

N integrator

N differentiator

Figure 6.26. Order N comb filter

-50

-100

-150
1/16 2/16 3/16 4/16 5/16 6/16 7/16 8/16

Figure 6.27. Response in frequency (in dB) of comb filters of 16 lengths and
of order 1 and 4, between 0 and fe/2

17 This cascading does not require accumulators with a high number of bits.
240 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This kind of filter is used as the first decimator filter at the output of the -
modulator. It is most frequently of an order 4 and a length 16; this means it has a
decimation of factor 16. This filter does not perform well enough to be able to go as
low as Nyquist frequency. This phase is completed by FIR programmed filters. For
these filters, we must minimize the necessary power calculation.

Looking again at Figure 6.23, we see that the noise remaining after a comb filter
of 16 lengths and of order 4, but before decimation of a factor 16, is given in Figure
6.28. We see that, except for the first two lobes, all the others are below –80 dB. The
decimation will move back all these lobes for a total level of –64 dB. To proceed
further in decimation (there remains a factor 4), we must bring this level to the
required –100 dB. By calculating the order of the necessary filter, we get the
following parameters:
– 36 dB and 152 µV undulation;
– sampling frequency of 176 kHz and transition width of 2 kHz.

This leads to an order of 376 or a more realistic calculation power18 of 66 MOPS

(which can be even somewhat higher).

Figure 6.28. Quantification noise after comb filtering

18 By assuming that the processor can make a product and an accumulation in one operation.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 241

The decimation, done in two steps with half-band filters, helps reduce the
necessary power calculation.

A half-band filter is really a linear phase low pass filter with a unitary gain in the
pass band, so that H(f) presents an odd symmetry around the point fe , 0.5 : ( 4 )
H ⎛⎜ 4e − f ⎞⎟ = 1 − H ⎛⎜ 4e + f ⎞⎟
f f
[6.39]
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

These kinds of filters are of odd order, with even coefficients, apart from the
central coefficient, which is zero. For a given order of a filter, the required power
calculation is two times lower than for an ordinary FIR filter. In addition, a = p.
This kind of filter is especially useful to the decimation of a factor 2, as we see in
Figure 6.29. Since the transition width is relatively large, this leads to a slightly
higher order. Still for the same example:
– for a first order half-band filter:
- ha = hp = 50⋅10-6 (1/3 of the previous undulation because we will cascade
three filters);
- sampling at 176 kHz and transition width (88 – 20) – 20 = 48 kHz;
– for a second order half-band filter:
- ha = hp = 50⋅10-6;
- sampling at 88 kHz and transition width (44 – 20) – 20 = 4 kHz.

This gives filters of order 19 for 111 for the second. So the total power
calculations of 10*176 103 + 56*88 103 ≈ 6.7 MOPS.

Zone folded by
useful band decimation by 2
1

1/2

fa
Fe/4 Fe/2 Fe

Before decimation by 2

1/2

fa
Fe/2 Fe

After decimation by 2

Figure 6.29. Half-band filter and decimation

242 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We have to complete the procedure with a standard FIR filter that compensates
for the attenuation in the pass band resulting from the comb filter and carries out a
last filtering in the transition zone. Of an order of around 100, at 44 kHz, it adds
about ten MOPS, which is within the range of all specialized processors.

This concept of over-sampling (with or without being in the form of

quantification noise) and decimation is so important that specialized integration
circuits have been have been made that include comb filters and FIR filters.19

Today, we find integrated converters20 that have a modulator, digital filters and
decimation capabilities. With the resulting high number of bits, the interface is
serial, often connected to a processor unit.

6.4. Real-time digital analysis by a specialized processor

Specialized processors used in signal analysis are basically conceived for linear
analyses of the convolution type or the equivalent. These can be expressed by:

y= ∑ a i ⋅ xi [6.40]
i

Choosing the number of bits used to represent intervening variables in the

analysis depends on the same criterion used for choosing the number of bits for an
analog-to-digital converter (see section 6.3.1). We need to know the dynamic of
these variables and the admissible quantification.

Representation in fixed-point notation (in whole numbers or fractions) leads to a

non-uniform quantification error that is more significant for lower values. However,
representation in floating point (with mantissa and exponents) will be more or less
independent of the quantified value.

A calculation unity expressed in floating point is more complex, and thus more
costly21; above all, it uses more energy. There are also processors that use both types
of notation, but the ones that use fixed-point notation tend to be preferred when
energy consumption is a concern.

19 For example, HSP50016, HSP43220, HSP43168, etc., from Harris [HAR 95].
20 Often with two in the same circuit, since the audio is stereo.
21 But which especially depends on the production volume.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 243

6.4.1. Fixed point and floating point analysis

6.4.1.1. Fixed point notation

Here we will discuss only complement notation of 2, which is used solely for the
purpose of carrying out fixed point calculations22.

If a whole number is shown in complement of 2s by the N binary digits bN–1bN– 2···

b0, its numerical value is:

− b N −1 ⋅ 2 N −1 + b N − 2 ⋅ 2 N − 2 + … + b1 ⋅ 21 + b0 ⋅ 2 0 [6.41]

The most weighted bit is representative of the sign, but there is a weighting since:

− 2 N + 2 N −1 = 2 N −1 ⋅ (− 2 + 1) = −2 N −1 [6.42]

An integer represented with N bits can be represented by N + 1 bits by recopying

the most weighted bits. The extension of the sign is:

− b N −1 ⋅ 2 N + b N −1 ⋅ 2 N −1 + … + b1 ⋅ 21 + b0 ⋅ 2 0 [6.43]

We can represent the fractional numbers by arbitrarily putting a decimal point

between the bits k - 1 and k. We then speak of a representation in Qk. The
representation b N −1b N − 2 bk • bk −1 b0 has the value of:

(− b N −1 ⋅ 2
N −1
)
+ bN − 2 ⋅ 2 N − 2 + … + b1 ⋅ 21 + b0 ⋅ 20 ⋅ 2 − k [6.44]

For a coding in fractional numbers, the dynamic23 is always (2N-1 – 1). The
quantification error (1/2 LSB or 2-k-1) is a constant, and relatively more important for
low values.

6.4.1.2. Floating point notation

We notate the number in the form 2exp mantissa, where exp is an integer in
complement of 2s on E bits and mantissa is a fractional number coded as Qk on
M = N – E bits (k ≤ M). The number is then written on N bits:

b N −1b N − 2 b0
[6.45]
e E −1e E − 2 e0 m M −1 m M − 2 m0

22 Many AN and NA converters use, by successive approximations, the offset binary. We

continue with the complement of 2s by complementing the most weighted bit.
23 That is, the relation, in absolute values, of the highest value to the non-zero lowest value.
244 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

For a reason we will explain below, we exclude the possible values by exposing
the value – 2E-1. We then get:

− 2 E −1 + 1 ≤ exp ≤ 2 E −1 − 1 [6.46]

If we work with positive numbers:

E −1
( )
– the highest positive value is 2 2 −1 ⋅ 2 ( M −1) − 1 ⋅ 2 − k ;
E −1
– the lowest non-zero positive value is 2 −2 +1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 − k .

This gives us a dynamic of 22

E
−2
(
⋅ 2M −1 − 1 .)
The dynamic in floating point notation is thus around 22 −2 − E times higher than
E

for a fixed point notation on the same number of bits. For 16 bits having 4 exponents
and 12 of mantissa, the dynamic is 3.35⋅107 in floating notation as opposed to
3.28⋅104 in fractional.

The multiplicity of notation is hard to control. We can impose a condition on the

mantissa (similar to that of the scientific notation in the decimal system):

1 ≤ mantissa < 2 [6.47]

The value “0” is then represented by exp = −2 E −1 .

The notation of the mantissa is in QM-2, but one of the most weighted of the 2 bits
is necessarily non-zero:
( )
– the highest positive value is 2 2 −1 ⋅ 2 ( M −1) − 1 ⋅ 2 −(M −2 ) ,
E −1

E −1
– the lowest positive non-zero value is 2 −2 +1 ⋅ 1 .

( )
So the dynamic is 22 − 2 ⋅ 2 − 2−(M −2) . This is around 2(M - 2) times lower than in
E

the previous example. For 16 bits, 4 of exponents and 12 of mantissa, the dynamic is
of 3.28⋅104, practically the same as for fractional notation. In terms of the dynamic,
we have lost the advantage of the floating point, but the quantification error is no
longer a constant. It equals 2exp ⋅2- M + 1. This means that for the relative error, we
have, no matter what the value is:

2− M +1 δx 2− M +1
= 2− M < ≤ = 2− M +1 [6.48]
2 x 1

We should keep in mind the following points.

– For positive numbers, the mantissas between 1 and 2 coded as QM-2 are written
01.xxxxxxx.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 245

– For negative numbers, the mantissas between -1 and -2 coded as QM-2 are
written as 10.xxxxxxx.

As such, 2 bits of the mantissa are always complementary. It is redundant to

conserve both. We gain a bit of resolution by making one of them implicit.24

There is an IEEE 754 normalization of numbers in floating notation, allowing for

the exchange of data between different systems. The format, on 32 bits, is:
SEEEEEEEEMM…M

The exponent on 8 bits is in offset binary of 126. The binary mantissa is signed
on 23 bits, with the first “1” implicit. The notated value is then:

(− 1)S ⋅ 2 exp−127 ⋅ (01.mantisse) [6.49]

In certain cases:
– 0 if exp = 0 and mantissa = 0;
– (-1)s ∞ if exp = 255 and mantissa = 0;
– NaN (Not A Number) if exp = 255 and mantissa ≠ 0;
– (-1)s·2-126 .(0.mantissa) if exp = 0 and mantissa ≠ 0 (denormalization).

If the concepts of NaN or of infinity are of mathematical importance, we cannot

do much in real-time.

6.4.1.3. Comparison between the two notations

If we impose a minimum precision (that is, a maximum relative error), the fixed
point dynamic is much lower than in floating point. If we compare the two notations
on 32 bits with, for the floating point, 8 bits of exponent, we find the following.
– in floating point, the relative error is always below 6 10-8, for a dynamic of the
order of 1076;
– in order to have a relative maximum error below 6 10-8, the lowest value that
can be notated is therefore 8.333 106, for a maximum value of 2.14 109 or a dynamic
of 256.

Using a processor in fixed point requires special attention in the area of data
framing, in order to obtain the best precision by avoiding overflow problems. In
floating point, the problem of framing is not of crucial importance. The only
remaining issue is the effect on the final result of the variable quantification.

24 In TMSC3x processors, made by Texas Instruments, the bit of the mantissa sign is kept and
the following bit is omitted.
246 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

6.4.2. General structure of a DSP25

Almost by definition, a signal analysis processor is a RISC machine26. This is so

because we need a machine that can analyze a limited number of operations with
maximum efficiency. The limited number of instructions, a maximum resource
parallelization and a pipeline of 4 or 6 levels helps us obtain an optimum situation: 1
instruction = 1 word = 1 cycle.

The examples in this section are drawn from processors of TMS320C54x (fixed
point) and TMS320C3x (floating point) made by Texas Instruments, the uncontested
leader in DSP processors. What we present here is general information: the
structures described here can be found in all these processors.

In this section we are only interested in real-time analysis, which generally

means that the analysis is done on samples taken by an analog-to-digital converter.
In other words, in the expression:
y= ∑ ai ⋅ xi [6.50]
i

the xi are successive samples x(n-i); they are numbers noted in fixed point, coming
from a M bits converter, thus in QM-1.

y( z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + A + a N z − N Waiting time of
h( z ) = = sampling
x( z ) 1 + b1 z −1 + A + bN z − N

Acquiring x(n)

i=N i= N Calculating y(n)

y(n) = ∑ ai x(n − i) + ∑ bi y(n − i )
i =0 i =1

x ( k ) ⇔ x (k ⋅ Te ) x(n-i) -> x(n-i-1)

y(n-i) -> y(n-i-1)

Figure 6.30. Linear real-time digital analysis

25 Digital Signal Processor: a specialized processor for signal analysis.

26 Educed Instruction Set computer: a calculator (or processor) with a reduced range of
instructions, which allows for a more efficient and rapid wiring circuit, with an instruction
carried out by cycle.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 247

Looking at Figure 6.30, we see that for efficient analysis, we must have:
– a multiplication/accumulation structure (see section 6.4.2.1);
– a time lag or data aging structure (see section 6.4.2.2).

Another structure that is not explicitly shown in Figure 6.30, but is nevertheless
necessary, for both DSP processors working in fixed point and floating point is data
reframing. It will be described in section 6.4.2.3.

6.4.2.1. Multiplication/accumulation structure

This operation is the basis of all DSP processors, often indicated by MAC
(Multiply and Accumulate27). The usual structure is shown in Figure 6.31. The
multiplication makes two operands play a part, which can be identical or different:
– they can be different for adaptive operations at constant coefficients. The ai are
the constants and can be arranged as “ROM”, or more generally as program
memory, with the x(n-i) and y(n-i) being the variables that can be stored as “RAM”
(data memory);
– they can be identical for adaptive or correlative filtering operations. All the
operands are variable and can be stored as data memory.

In the first case, the operands can be introduced simultaneously if distinct buses
exist, and the multiplication/accumulation can be carried out in a single cycle. In the
second case, a temporary register T is necessary, and there must be a supplementary
cycle.

We have already discussed multiple buses. These have two types of structures:
– the modified Harvard type of structure with a memory space “program” and a
memory space for “data”, all accessible by several bus addresses and data (Figure
6.32). The “program” and “data” spaces can be internal and/or external. This kind of
configuration allows, means of a pipeline, an instruction “fetch”, two data readings,
and a data writing, all in a single cycle (see Figure 6.37). The one condition that
must be met for this to happen be that the two “program” and “data” spaces are
respectively internal and external;
– a single memory space “simplified”, but with multiplication buses to allow for
simultaneous access to the different memory units (Figures 6.34 and 6.35).

27 It is under the name MAC that the aptitude of a general-interest processor or micro-
controller is designed to carry out signal analysis.
248 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Temporary register T
Multiplier

Accumulator

Figure 6.31. Multiplier/accumulator

CNTL PC ARs

M
D
INTERNAL U M EXTERNAL
X C U
MEMORY E X MEMORY
S
E

T MAC A B ALU SHIFT

Figure 6.32. Structure of modified Harvard (doc. Texas Instruments C54x)

 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 249

D AT C P DA
s/u s/u D = Data Bus
MPY C = Coefficient Bus
A P = Program Bus
FRCT B
A = A accumulator
0
ADD B = B accumulator
T = Temporary register

s/u = signed/unsigned
acc A acc B FRCT = Fractional mode bit

Figure 6.33. Operand choices for a MAC operation (doc. Texas Instruments, C54x)

Figure 6.34. Multiples buses of C3x (doc. Texas Instruments)

250 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 6.35. C3x MAC unit (doc. Texas Instruments)

6.4.2.2. Time lag structures

Time lags converts a sample x(n-i) and x(n-i-1) for the next convolution. There
are two techniques used for carrying out this operation:
– time shifts carried out through memory (see Figure 6.36);
– the use of pointers on a circular table (see Figure 6.38).

Time shifts carried out through memory stimulate high bus activity. However, if
the convolution is calculated in “inverse” order, we get:

N
∑ ai ⋅ x(n − i) = aN ⋅ x(n − N ) + aN −1 ⋅ x(n − N + 1) + A + a0 ⋅ x(n) [6.51]
i =0

Once the sample x(n-i) is loaded in the multiplier, it can be rewritten at the next
address x(n-i-1), which already has been used and been shifted. This operation is
called MACD (Multiply, Accumulate, and Delay: see Figure 6.37). The modified
Harvard structure seen in section 6.4.2.1 helps us produce it in a single cycle if the
pipeline is used correctly.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 251

new value x(n)

Beginning x(n) Beginning

x(n-1) x(n)

x(n-2) x(n-1)

x(n-N) x(n-N+1)

Garbage

Figure 6.36. Time shifting by memory shifts

Mult./add. instructions: Time shift instructions:

•MPY[R] Smem,dst : •DELAY Smem
(Smem)*(T)->dst (Smem)->Smem+1
•MPY Xmem,Ymem,dst •LTD Smem
(Xmem)*(Ymem)->dst (Smem)->T
(Xmem)->T (Smem)->Smem+1
•MAC[R] Smem,dst :
(Smem)*(T)+(dst)->dst
•MAC Xmem,Ymem,src[,dst]
(Xmem)*(Ymem)+(src)->dst
(Xmem)->T

Multiplication/accumulation and time shifts:

MACD Smem,pmad,src
(Smem)*(Pmad)+(src)->src
(Smem)->T
(Smem)->Smem+1

Figure 6.37. Arithmetic operations and possible shifts with a modified

Harvard structure (extract from instructions of C54x)

Pointers are the only solution to circular addressing (that is, of ARn address
registers). But these pointers must allow us to carry out modular operations
throughout the length of the table. This requires a dedicated arithmetical unit, such
as the Address Register Arithmetic Unit (ARAU). This allows for efficient address
tables (see Figure 6.39).
252 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

table x(n-k-1) table x(n-k-1)

end
end x(n-N) x(n-N) new value

Beginning
Beginning x(n) x(n)
x(n-1) x(n-1)

table+M x(n_k) table+M x(n_k)

Figure 6.38. Time shifts done with pointer on a circular table

Figure 6.39. Extract from addressing mode by register of C3x (doc. Texas Instruments)

Apart from the problem of shifting, addressing by register (or indirect

addressing) is useful because it makes instruction coding possible with a single
word, whether with one, two, or three operands.

6.4.2.3. Reframing structures

Suppose we want to carry out, on a fixed point DSP, an analysis of the type:

y ( n) = ∑ a i ⋅ x(n − i ) [6.52]
i
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 253

Here, y(n) and the x(n-i) are samples directly represented as whole numbers,
since they come from or will go into AN or NA converters. The ai are coefficients
that can be determined by one of several techniques, and are therefore real numbers
that we will represent as Qk:

(
ai → Ai = round ai ⋅ 2k ) [6.53]

The processor will calculate:

Y ( n) = ∑ Ai ⋅ x(n − i) = 2 k ⋅ y(n) [6.54]

i

At each sampling period, y(n) will be obtained by a cropping28 of Y(n). A barrel

shifter is the structure that allows us to shift a binary word to the right or left of a
quantity. If the principle structure (Figure 6.40) is simple, the number of ports of the
combination unit increases significantly.

n
combinatory
H

Figure 6.40. Barrel shifter

If we now consider a DSP working in floating point mode, the problem of

reframing appears when two numbers are added (Figure 6.41) when we must bring
one of the exponents to the same value as the other.

-k
28 A multiplication by 2 is carried out by k shifts, to the right or left according to the sign of
k.
254 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

x1 = m1 ⋅ 2exp1 ,1 ≤ m1 ≤ 2
x2 = m2 ⋅ 2exp21 ,1 ≤ m2 ≤ 2
exp 2 = exp1 + k , k > 0

( )
x = x1 + x2 = m2 + 2− k m1 ⋅ 2exp 2 = m ⋅ 2exp

if m ≥ 2, x = m ⋅ 2exp 2 +1
2

Figure 6.41. Addition of two numbers in floating point mode

6.4.2.4. Resource parallelization

All the resources described above are for the most part parallelized (see Figures
6.42 and 6.43).

Figure 6.42. Resource parallelization in a C54x (doc. Texas Instruments)

 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 255

Figure 6.43. Resource parallelization in a C3x (doc. Texas Instruments)

This structure is linked to an intensive pipeline. In most cases, this allows for
functioning according to the following rule: one instruction = one cycle (Figures
6.44 and 6.45).
256 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

P Drive address of instruction PA

F Collect instruction PD
D Interpret instruction, plan job ctlr
A Set up pointers, Calc data address DA/CA
R Collect operand DD/CD
Calculate Write address EA
X Execute operation *,+
Send result ED

Figure 6.44. Decomposition of a C54x instruction (doc. Texas Instruments)

TIME

P1 F1 D1 A1 R1 X1
P2 F2 D2 A2 R2 X2
P3 F3 D3 A3 R3 X3
P4 F4 D4 A4 R4 X4
P5 F5 D5 A5 R5 X5
P6 F6 D6 A6 R6 X6

FULLY LOADED 'PIPE'

Figure 6.45. C54x pipeline (doc. Texas Instruments)

It should be remembered here that, because of the pipeline, the instructions

giving the parallel operations calculate with the register values before the beginning
of the instructions. This means that a MAC instruction accumulates a product that
has already been calculated. It then calculates a new product which will then be
accumulated subsequently.

6.4.3. Using standard filtering algorithms

6.4.3.1. General structure of a real-time filtering program

In a digital filtering operations, there is input and output of analog variables via
the converters. Since parallelization is a concern, DSPs have input/output ports.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 257

Usually these are serial, and interface directly with the analog interfaces of the same
family. These interfaces have converters, anti-folding filters and switched smoothing
capacities. The counters help determine the filters’ sampling frequencies and break
frequencies (see Figure 6.46).

Figure 6.46. TCL32040 analog interface (doc. Texas Instruments)

The interfaces also ensure data transfer to and from the DSP. This makes the
exchanges completely transparent for the programmer. Almost without interruption,
an input register can be read and an output register can be filled in when a transfer
has taken place. The main program resumes at initializations and while waiting for
interruptions (see Figure 6.47) and analysis is done during the interruptions (Figure
6.48).

The system is configured so there will be interruptions:

• each time the CAN carries out a conversion (DRRO full)
• each time the system carries out a conversion (DRRO empty)
.text

; different initializations and pointers

wait_and_see: idle ; IT waiting

NOP ; continuous loop
NOP
b wait_and_see

Figure 6.47. Main program (C3x syntax)

258 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

receive: recuperation in DRR0 of x(n)

putting into format of x(n)

; output calculation of filter Yn

RETI ; interruption return

transmit: putting into format of y(n)

y(n) -> DTR0
RETI

Figure 6.48. Analysis of emission and reception interruptions

6.4.3.2. The FIR filter and simple convolutions

The transfer function in z of these filters being a simple polynominal, they are
always stable. Quantifying coefficients, especially in fixed point, can be expressed
by a slightly different frequency response, but this does not lead to instability.
However, there is no specific structure for setting up these filters. We can choose the
memory-based structure shown in Figure 6.49 for a filter of length N. The relevant
algorithm is given in Figure 6.50. We see that there is a setting for the instruction
repetition RPTS that uses a loop counter and provides for the optimum functioning
of the pipeline in the fetch phase. Use of the pointers is as follows:
– the pointer on the coefficients undergoes N incrementations modulo N. It thus
returns to the initial situation;
– the pointer on the samples undergoes N + 1 decrementations modulo N. It
shifts at each FIR carrying out. This brings about the time shift.

Figure 6.49. Memory-based structure for an FIR filter

 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 259

R4 contains x(n) AR1 point a(n-N+1), AR2 point x(n-N+1)

The circular address is made modulo N

FIR: stf R1,*AR2--(1)% storage x(n)

and time shift
ldf 0,R2 RAZ sum total
mpyf *AR1++(1)%,*AR2--(1)%,R0 first product

RPTS N-2 repetition N-1

mpyf *AR1++(1)%,*AR2--(1)%,R0
||addf R0,R2,R2 MAC

addf R0,R2,R2 final product

the result is in R2

Figure 6.50. FIR filter algorithm (C3x syntax)

Only six words are necessary, whatever the filter order. 11 + (N – 1) cycles must
be anticipated.

If we use a fixed-point DSP with a quantification closest to the coefficients (see

section 6.4.1), the accumulation can temporarily exceed the maximum representable
value. This can force us to a quantification as Qk with k lower; that is, with a
relatively higher quantification error. However, most accumulators or data registers
have guard bits (8 for 32 bit registers) and these help solve the problem of overflow.
Only the final result must be in format. This happens if the filter does not carry the
gain. But we can still configure the ALU so that if overflow occurs,29 we can obtain
a saturation-type functioning.

FIR filters in linear phase have a central coefficient symmetry, so that the
number of products can be divided by two:

L −1 ( L −1) 2
y ( n) = ∑ ai ⋅ x(n − i) = ∑ ai ⋅ [x(n − i) + x(n − L + i + 1)] [6.55]
i =0 i =0

Each calculation step requires an addition, a product and an accumulation.

Without an instrument to aid in carrying out these three operations in a single cycle,

29 This means that an error results from a 2 complement.

260 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

we gain nothing from the symmetry feature, since it requires two instructions and
thus two cycles. The C54x makes use of the FIRS instruction:
– total of the accumulation A in the accumulation B;
– multiplication of the accumulation A by a coefficient of a memory-based
program;
– addition of the two samples of a memory-based program in the accumulation
A.

6.4.3.3. IIR filters

An IIR filter is characterized by a transfer function in z of a rational fraction
type:

y( z) a 0 + a1 z −1 + A + a N z − N
h( z ) = = [6.56]
x( z ) 1 + b1 z −1 + A + b N z − N

linked to a direct recurrent equation:

N N
y ( n) = ∑ a i ⋅ x(n − i) − ∑ bi ⋅ y ( n − i ) [6.57]
i =0 i =1

Studies on the quantification effect of coefficients show that we reduce

calculation errors by decomposing the transfer function through a cascade of second
order cells. We then pair the poles and the zeros:

a0i + a1i z −1 + a 2i z −2
h( z ) = ∏ 1 + b1i z −1 + b2i z −2
[6.58]
i

The most straightforward way of producing the effect described above on second
order cells in shown in Figure 6.51, but since the analyses are linear, we can
exchange them (see Figure 6.52), leading to the effect shown in Figure 6.53, which
has the advantage of reducing the number of samples to be memorized.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 261

Figure 6.51. Direct form of a second order cell

Figure 6.52. Equivalent form

Figure 6.53. Canonic form

If this solution is recommended by floating-point processors, it can be used with

precaution for fixed-point processors. This is because the input of a cell can be
262 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

found outside format. In this case, we use a scale factor before each cell (Figure
6.54), such that:
(
– for the first cell: SF1 = max h1 ( z ) z =e jwTe )
⎛ ⎞
– for the second cell: SF2 = max⎜ 1 ⋅ h1 ( z ) ⋅ h2 ( z ) ⎟
⎜ SF1 ⎟
⎝ z =e jwTe ⎠

Figure 6.54. Second order cell with scale factor

The memory structure for a second order cell is given in Figure 6.55. Setting up
the circular address (here, modulo 3) with masking creates the alignment of an
address table to the addresses of the power of 2 (here 4).

Figure 6.55. Memory structure for a second order cell

This structure allows for a simultaneous calculation of the products of the

numerator and denominator (see Figure 6.56). We no longer use circular addressing
for the coefficients, since the tables are not of the same length. This means we must
reinitialize the pointer at each call.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 263

; R2 contains x(n), AR1 point -b2, AR2 point w(n-2)

the circular addressing is done modulo N

IIR2: mpyf *AR1,*AR2,R0 ; -b2*w(n-2) -> R0

mpyf *++AR1(1),*AR1--(1)%,R1 ; a2*w(n-2) -> R1

mpyf *++AR1(1),*AR2,R0 ; -b1*w(n-1) -> R0

|| addf R0,R2,R2 ; x(n)-b2*w(n-2) -> R2

mpyf *++AR1(1),*AR2--(1)%,R0 ; a1*w(n-1) -> R0

|| addf R0,R2,R2 ; x(n)-b2*w(n-2) -b1*w(n-1) -> R2

mpyf *++AR1(1),R2,R2 ; w(n)*a0 -> R2

|| stf R2,*AR2++(1)% ; memorization w(n)
; and time shift
addf R0,R2 ; a0*w(n)a1*w(n-1) -> R2
addf R1,R2,R0 ; a0*w(n)a1*w(n-1)+a2*w(n-2) -> R0

; result in R0

Figure 6.56. Algorithm for a second-order IIR cell (C3x30 syntax)

This sequence requires 7 words and 11 cycles.

For the cascading operation, we can use the structure shown in Figure 6.57. The
empty compartment is necessary for the alignment of the multiple addresses of 4
tables. After calculating a cell, the pointer on the coefficients jumps by 4 in order to
go from one table to the next.

30 The assembler of the C3x makes the idea of parallel instrumentation explicit, here a
“MAC” written as mpyf (operands) ｬaddf (operands). But this corresponds to one instruction,
coded on one word and carried out in one cycle, if the pipeline functions well.
264 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 6.57. Memory structure for a cascade of second order cells

6.5. Conclusion

In this chapter, we have tried to show the efficiency and relative simplicity of
digital signal analysis as carried out by modern converters and specialized
processors. Their use for instrumentation purposes will continue to grow because
manufacturers are increasingly offering “standard” microcontrollers with added
signal analysis features. We thus have mechanisms with input/output that sometimes
have defects on DSPs. As well, the increased capacities of FPGAs allow us to set up
filters with order that are too high and coefficients coded on 8 or 12 bits. In this way,
they can function at fairly high sampling frequencies, but we should not forget
integrated digital filters that work with coefficients and data with significant word
capacities.
 Real-time Data Acquisition and Processing Systems 265

6.6. Bibliography

ANALOG DEVICE, Practical Analog Design techniques, Compte rendu du séminaire 1995.
ANALOG DEVICE, Sigma-delta ADCs and DACs, Note d’application AN-283.
AZIZ P.M. et al., “An overview of sigma-delta converters”, IEEE signal processing
magazine, January 1996.
BAUDOING G., Les processeurs de traitement de signal, famille 320C5x, Dunod.
DE FATTA D.J. et al., Digital Signal Processing: A System Design Approach, Wiley.
HARRIS Semiconductor, A brief introduction to Sigma Delta Conversion, Note d’application
AN9504, 1995.
HERSCH R.D., Informatique industrielle, Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes.
IFEACHOR E.C. et al., Digital Signal Processing: A Practical Approach, Addison Wesley.
KUC R., Introduction to Signal Processing, McGraw-Hill.
KUMAR M.S., Digital Signal Processing: A Computer Based Approach, McGraw-Hill.
MARVEW C. et al., A Simple Approach to Digital Signal Processing, Texas Instruments.
MOTOROLA, Principles of Sigma-Delta Modulation for Analog to Digital conversion, Note
d’application APR8/D, 1990.
PARKS T. et al., Digital Filter Design, Wiley.
SENN P. et al., “Convertisseurs analogique numérique CMOS à haute résolution pour les
circuits VLSI audio”, L’écho des Recherches, no. 153, 1993.
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 Chapter 7

The Contribution of Microtechnologies

7.1. Introduction

7.1.1. The vehicle: a system of complex, interdependent parts

Optimizing the performances and respecting qualitative and quantitative rules of

a complex system comprising a vehicle, its drivers and its passengers means
acquiring and exploiting a large amount of dedicated data. These include the
following:
– data having to do with passive security features, such as airbags, seatbelts with
pretensioners, de-mistifiers, door closing indicators, levels, and quality of wheel-to-
ground contact;
– data having to do with active security, including automatic driving and
monitoring, anti-collision radar, ABS, and turning adjustment;
– passenger comfort data, such as temperature control, hygrometric degree and
air quality;
– data relevant for control and transmission, including parametrization by
cartography, electronic steering and steering wheel functions, servo-control of oil
and water temperatures, and anti-pollution devices.

Chapter written by François BAILLEU and Olivier VANCAUWENBERGHE.

268 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In this sense, these shared acquisition and analysis structures are superior to
equivalent centralized systems in at least three ways:
– in terms of reliability, because of redundancy and reduction of connective
wiring;
– response time;
– flexibility.

These shared structures are based on data capturing, carried out as closely as
possible to their source, accompanied by a local conditioning and pre-analysis. The
goal of these operations is to make a quick decision, most often of the reflexive
kind. The exchanges with the central unit, made through a serial transmission bus,
are then reserved for slowly changing data analysis (door closing indicator, trunk,
hood, tire pressure, different alarms, to name a few features). Some of these features
require fairly complex calculations.

7.1.2. Microtechnologies and microsystems

The “neurons” of these shared systems must have perception mechanisms

(sensitive elements) and eventually must be able to respond to the environment.
They have the ability to analyze local information (conditioning, digitization,
communication, auto-test and autocalibration, among others). They have access to
an energy source (energy supply unit, cell and battery units, telesupply, latent energy
microsource, to name several). These are very small in dimension, and are called
microsystems (Figure 7.1). Ideally, microsystems are the natural result of extending
microelectronic methodology to the collective manufacture of sensitive elements,
called actuators and to the hybrid or monolithic integration of relevant electronics.

In practice, depending on a manufacturer’s abilities, microsystems are the final

result of a goal of fulfilling market needs within economic constraints.

Sensitive
cells Auto
Communication
Servo-control

test

Information
Signal
analysis

Auto-
Actuators calib .

Figure 7.1. A microsystem or intelligent system

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 269

This is certainly true of the automotive sector, in which electronic innovation is a

priority. Research costs must be absorbed incrementally even if they lead to fairly
high production expenses. If the vehicle proves to be popular, the market for the
product may extend to medium and low-end buyers, meaning lower production costs
even if research costs climb, since these will be absorbed over a larger number of
sales.

According to this schema, the first generation of a microsystem depends on the

following:
– sensitive elements;
– more or less miniaturized actuators;
– an electronic mechanism made of discrete components;
– a programmable circuit that can be a microcontoller.

The above may be assembled on a primed circuit or on a CMS. This constitutes

an intelligent mesosystem. Later, when the innovation has been absorbed and
diffused, the sensitive elements and actuators must be optimized, miniaturized and
integrated in hybrid or monolithic manner with the electronics. Then the ensemble
can be called a microsystem. This new system can benefit from the inherent
advantages of microelectronic or non-microelectronic technologies, such as:
– miniaturization;
– reliability;
– low production costs;
– insertion compatibility with traditional microelectronic units.

7.1.3. Appropriate architectures for electronic microsystems

The transition from intelligent mesosystems to microsystems is facilitated by

using electronic architectures, adapted to these specific development steps.

These architectures must be linked to significant material adaptability (primed

circuits, CMS, hybrid circuits, specific monolithic circuits, etc.). It should be
unnecessary to question, at each change of technology, the underlying principles of
these architectures. In other words, the many forms of electronics must remain
identical in terms of system description.
270 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

These properties help us use the experience gained from previous versions and
apply it to the newer technologies. They lead to higher profits for the manufacturer
and better quality for the consumer through lower production and advertizing costs.

7.1.4. Which examples should be chosen?

To support the concepts presented in this long introduction, we will emphasize

two strategies that are completely symmetrical. These concern microtechnology and
electronic microsystems.

The technological aspects will be developed using the highly representative

example of the car. We will explain how pressure microsensors that integrated with
its MOS electronic device work, and will briefly describe how they are
manufactured.

The electronic aspects will be discussed, along with some of the relevant
architectures for the conditioning of signals coming from three different sensitive
elements (capacitive and pressure piezoelectric cells, and capacitive acceleration
cells). These are important because of their diversity and complementarity.

All the examples we have chosen come from the automotive field.

7.2. Microtechnologies

Car motors have been affected by microtechnological advances since the 1970s,
when monitoring pressure sensors appeared, and since the 1980s, with the
development of accelerometers that released airbags. Today, apart from these two
applications, microsystems are no longer employed in this general way. However,
within the next decade their use may increase greatly, both in the replacement of
older technologies and in new applications.

The general history of new automotive microsystems can be summarized as

follows:
– 1960-1970: development and commercialization of first pressure sensors with
a layer of silicon;
– 1970-1980: large-scale production by photolithography, extended use of
micromachining, and Si/glass sealing;
– 1980-1990: new micromachining applications, related to both surface and
scale, as well as development of new functions (for example, inertial
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 271

electromechanical microsystems (IEMS), temperature sensors, electromagnetic field,

flow);
– 1990-2000: monolithic or hybrid integration of microsensors and electronics;
– 2000-2010: large-scale use of microsystems for automotive applications in the
following systems:
- security (airbags, night vision, anti-collision radar, etc.),
- motor control (combustion, cylinder pressure, etc.),
- transmission control (rotation speed, road condition information, etc.),
- comfort control (humidity, microphone for vocal instructions, etc.).

These and other microsystems have developed because of the growing use of
electronics, which has the higher calculation power necessary for the car of the
future. In order to use the increasingly miniaturized electronic systems throughout a
car, we also must be able to send these systems adequate information through
sensitive elements or very small, even miniature, sensors.

However, a harsh environment can present a problem with using sensors in a car.
High temperatures, shocks, vibrations, humidity, conditions that cause corrosion,
electromagnetic interferences and radio frequencies can cause problems. This type
of environment makes more demands on design and manufacturing. As well,
production volume must be high (usually one million units or more) in order to
absorb research and manufacturing costs and follow the market demand for new
vehicles. The lifespan of vehicles must be at least 10 years/250,000 km and their
prices must remain low. Generally, cars need the hardy qualities of military vehicles,
at mass-market prices. These qualities (high production volume, low prices,
reliability, and durability) are inherent to microsensors and microsystems.

The mass manufacture of many units at the same time, all with the same Si
layers, functioning like integrated units, leads to very high production volume,
overall low price and high reproducibility. The reliability of these microsystems is
due to:
– expertise in manufacturing processes;
– using materials (especially silicon) with well-known (mechanical, thermal,
electronic) properties;
– relatively simple assemblies with few units and few or no mobile parts.

Microtechnologies allow for integration within the same casing, even in

monolithic form (that is, on the same Si layer) of the sensor and the electronic
272 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

mechanism of analog and/or digital analysis. These capacities can even extend to
monolithic integrated circuits merging DSP and Si microsensors.

There are drawbacks to microsensors and microsystems. They are relatively

costly and time-consuming to develop, and must be of high quality to be used in
cars. This is why pressure microsensors take almost 40 years to develop and refine
before they can be integrated monolithically and used in automotive applications.

In summary, microsystems are used in cars to reduce sensitive cell size, to lower
their production costs, to improve their performances, and to integrate them
simultaneously with their electronics and/or other microsensors. This is to enlarge
the application of the cells, leading to the creation of an “intelligent car”.

The technology behind the manufacturing of microsystems mostly comes from

microelectronics. At each stage of the manufacturing of integrated circuits, the
specific stages have been developed to build microstructures into the silicon, mainly
by micromachining. Assembling and housing sensors can be complicated in
comparison to integrated circuits because the sensor must be in contact with the
external environment it measures. However, new technologies are being developed
using materials other than silicon to extend the application field of microsystems.

As an example for introducing the different steps and technologies of

microsystem manufacturing, we will discuss the main points of the steps of
producing a piezoresistive Si pressure microsensor that is integrated with its type
MOS electronics. For reasons of clarity, the manufacturing processes we discuss
have been simplified and modified.

The Si pressure microsensor we describe has been schematized according to Figure

7.2. This is made of a thin Si layer of some piezoresistive microns that convert the
mechanical signal (deformation of the layer due to pressure) into an electrical signal.
The resistances change and a tension appears on a Wheatstone bridge.

Figure 7.2. Design of the principle (not to scale) of a piezoresistive microsensor in micro-
machined silicon, integrated monolithically with a MOS transistor
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 273

Si:P
1. Type P Si substrate
Si:N

Si:P 10. Annealing and pacification layer

2. Type N Si epitaxy

3. Field oxidation 11. Photo 4: contact holes

4. Photo 1: definition of active zones

12. Metal layer (Al)

13. Photo 5: metallization definition

5. Grid oxidation
6. PolySilicon layer

14. Pacification: Si3N4 layer

7. Photo 2: Grid definition

Si:N

Si:P

15. Photo 6: Definition of diaphragm

8. Photo 3: Source & drain definitions

and piezoresistances
Si:N
9. Arrangement
Si SiO2 PolySi
Si:P
Si:P+ Si3N 4 Al
16. Anistropic marking with
electronic stoppage

Figure 7.3. Principle of creating a piezoresistive pressure silicon

microsensor integrated with its MOS electronics
274 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 7.3 shows all the necessary steps needed to produce this integrated
pressure microsensor with its electronics. As the succession of steps show, the
principle of producing integrated circuits and microsystems is to repeat, as many
times as is necessary, the following two basic steps:
– remove or modify the thickness of the structure or material layer;
– use photolithography to establish the geometry of shapes.

The devices are made on an Si layer by successive stacking of layers with

bidimensional patterns that are different but aligned with each other. By repeating
these patterns all along the layer, many units can be made in parallel, all with the
same specifications.

To illustrate this concept of mass manufacturing, Figure 7.4 shows how

accelerometers and pressure microsensors are manufactured with Si layers.

a)

b)

Figure 7.4. Mass manufacture of a) micro-accelerators and b) pressure microsensors

by using silicon (a: courtesy of ESIEE; b: courtesy of Auxitrol)

In the following sections, we will discuss, in order:

– technologies derived from microelectronics (section 7.2.1);
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 275

– technologies specific to Si microstructures (section 7.2.2);

– technologies developed for using materials other than Si in microsystems
(section 7.2.3).

Our discussion will be limited to the general principles and essential points of
these technologies. For a more detailed discussion, the reader can consult more
specialized texts, including:
– for microelectronics [SZE 81], [GHA 94];
– for microstructures [SZE 94], [RIS 94], [GAR 94], [ELW 98] and [FUK 98].

7.2.1. Technologies derived from microelectronics

7.2.1.1. Si substrate
Integrated circuits and silicon microsensors are mass-produced in
monocrystalline substrate in the form of a disc (see Figure 7.3, step 1 and Figure
7.4). The Si layers are made from a monocrystalline bar obtained by Chzochalski’s
method. The bar is sawed, then polished to obtain a finished mirror.

According to the technologies used by different companies, the Si layers can be

of varying diameters and different compositions. The diameters of layers vary from
four inches or 100 mm in a research laboratory to 200 mm, even 300 mm in the
production of integrated circuits. Their thickness is usually between 300 mm and
500 µm. For integrated circuits, the layers are of type 100. For certain
microstructures, we can use other types, often the 110. As well, the Si layers are
doped with either type P or N in a regular and homogeneous way throughout their
volume. The doping levels can vary from 1013 atoms/cm3 to 1019 atoms/cm3,
typically between 1014 and 1016 atoms/cm3.

The Si substrate provides:

– mechanical and thermal support;
– active material for semiconductor devices;
– active material for microsensors and microactuators.

7.2.1.2. Si epitaxy
The Si monocrystalline substrate can be continued by the ordered or epitaxial
layering of a thin Si layer (see Figure 7.3, step 2). Epitaxy helps control the active
layer in which the devices are made. In addition, epitaxy enables the stacking of Si
276 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

layers of different dopings, since these cannot be created by diffusion or

arrangement (see section 7.2.1.7).

Si epitaxy proceeds by a Chemical Vapor Deposition, or CVD by silane

pyrolysis (SiH4) or chlorislaine decomposition (SiH4-nC1n):

SiH4 s Si + 2 H2 SiH2Cl2 u Si + 2 HC1

The Si atoms deposited on the surface must then organize themselves following
the substrate atoms in order to form a perfect crystalline film. In general, this step is
difficult to perfect technologically, and therefore is rather costly. In this case, we can
use mechanisms to attain better performances. For these reasons, Si epitaxy is used
mainly in bipolar and BiCMOS technologies, and optionally in some CMOS
industries.

7.2.1.3. Si thermal oxidation

The widespread use of Si as a material in integrated circuits is due to several
factors, including its abundance, thermal and mechanical properties, and in
particular, its natural oxide, SiO2.

When the Si layer is exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere at a high temperature,

Si oxidizes on the surface, forming a layer of SiO2 according to one of the two
following reactions:
– dry oxidation: Si + O2 s SiO2
– wet oxidation: Si + 2H2O s SiO2 + 2H2

Wet oxidation occurring with water steam (H2O obtained by H2 with O2) is faster
and helps us obtain thicker oxides. It can provide lateral isolation between the
different mechanisms of a circuit (see Figure 7.3, step 3).

Dry oxidation with O2 is slower and results in layers of oxide that are thinner but
of better quality. These oxides are used as grid dielectrics in MOS transistors, the
building blocks of very high density integrated circuits such as VLSI-ULSI (Figure
7.3, step 5).

As microsystems, SiO2 is used as an isolation layers or for chemical properties

different from that of Si.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 277

7.2.1.4. Photolithography
In order to manufacture integrated circuits and microsystems on a significant
scale, the patterns that make up mechanisms are transferred to the wafer by
photolithographic techniques whose main steps are shown in Figure 7.5.

In the manufacture of our pressure microsensor integrated with its MOS

electronic unit, there are at least five steps of photolithography necessary to carry
out across the sensor and circuit (Figure 7.3, steps 4, 7, 8, 11 and 13).

For each of these steps, a glass mask with opaque patterns in chrome has been
designed from a computer-generated layout.

7.2.1.5. Polycrystalline silicon layer

As soon as grid oxidation occurs with dry oxidation, a layer of Si is deposited to
form the metallic grid of the MOS transistor (Figure 7.3, step 6). Because this
silicon is deposited on the amorphous SiO2, the resulting layer is composed of a
mosaic of small, random crystals. This polycrystalline silicon is called polysilicon
(PolySi).

This PolySi layer is deposited by a technique called Low Pressure CVD by silane
pyrolysis. It is also possible to deposit PolySi with types N or P doping by
introducing certain gases: phosphine (Ph3) and diboraine (B2H6) respectively.

7.2.1.6. Etching
To transfer defined photoresin patterns on the Si wafer, photoresine acts as a
protective mask for the parts of the wafer we want to retain (thick oxide in step 4
and PolySi in step 7). The rest of the wafer that is not protected is removed by
etching.

Two types of etching are currently used. These are listed below:
– Moist etching, an operation in which a liquid agent marks the different layers
selectively, in relation to both photoresine and lower existing layers (see Figure 7.3,
steps 4, 11, and 15, SiO2 marking by HF; step 13, Al marking).
– Dry etching, an operation in which a plasma is used to mark the layer by
physical effect (chemical reaction and conversion of the layer) or by a combination
of two effects of reactive pulverization called Reactive Ion Etching (RIE) (see
Figure 7.3, step 7 for PolySi etching; step 13 shows Al etching).
278 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

a. Starting structure: thick oxide

for lateral isolation between
circuit components

b. Photoresist application to the

spin coater

UV exposing
c. Aligning the glass mask with glass mask
chrome pattern
the chrome patterns
and
UV exposing

d. Development of exposed
photoresist. The patterns of the
mask are transferred
into the photoresine

e. Patterns are transferred on to

the wafer. By SiO2 etching not
protected by photoresist

f. Removal of the photoresist

Figure 7.5. Details of photolithography steps. Definitions of active zones for a circuit’s MOS
transistors and for a pressure microsensor (see also Figure 7.3, step 4)

Dry etching gives better control of the dimensions of etched patters, as well as
high reproducibility. Because of this, it is used in VLSI and ULSI technologies.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 279

7.2.1.7. Doping
With conductors, we can modify and control their electric conductivity with the
addition of miniscule amounts of impurities. This is called doping. When a
semiconductor is doped type N, the current transfer is made by electrons, while with
a semiconductor doped type P, the charge carriers are the positive holes. By
juxtaposing zones of different dopings, we can make semiconductive electronic
mechanisms such as PN junction diodes, bipolar transistors and MOS, thyristors,
and optoelectrics such as light transmitting diodes, lazers, photodetectors and many
others.

There are two doping techniques:

– The first technique is called ionic insertion (see Figure 7.3, step 9). The doped
atoms are first ionized in an ion source, then extracted and accelerated
electrostatically with energies of between a few keV to several MeV. They are then
incorporated into the Si wafer (in a way analogous to a bullet being shot into a wall).
The ionic insertion is a relatively violent physical phenomenon that creates many
defects in the Si crystal. Therefore, an annealing at a high temperature
(800 – 1,100°C) is necessary to repair the crystal and activate the doping. However,
ionic insertion allows for very good control of the quantity, dose and profile of the
dopage incorporated into the Si, respectively by measurement of incident current,
selection of mass and ion energy. This explains why, despite its relatively high costs,
insertion is widely used in VSLI and ULSI technologies.
– Predisposition is the second doping technique. During predisposition, the
dopants are incorporated into the Si surface by placing the wafers in a high
temperature environment that contains the dopants. To incorporate the dopants more
deeply into the Si, the predisposition is followed by a diffusion annealing.
Historically, predisposition was the first doping technique that made integrated
circuits possible, and it is still used in certain industries, usually for microsystems.
While predisposition is a very simple technique compared to ionic implantation, its
drawback is its poor reproducibility, especially if the surface and/or the operating
conditions are not well-controlled.

Once introduced, the doping profile can be modified by using the following
steps. At high temperatures (T > 800°C), impurities diffuse significantly in the Si.
Depending on the situation, this diffusion can be desirable to obtain an adequate
profile for the diffusion annealing and/or oxidant (see Figure 7.3, step 10). Or this
diffusion may be an inevitable interference that we try to limit as much as possible
following a strict thermal regime.
280 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

7.2.1.8. Deposit of thin metallic and dielectric layers

In our example of a pressure microsensor and its MOS electronics, the
mechanisms are made entirely in the Si at the end of step 10 in Figure 7.3. These
mechanisms need to be protected from the exterior environment (from humidity or
contamination) in order to ensure linkages and to have electronic access.

This protection or passivation is made with deposits of thin layers of dielectrics

such as SiO2 (Figure 7.3, step 10) and Si3N4 (Figure 7.3, step 14), or even other
inorganic isolating materials (TiN and others), or organic materials such as
polymides.

There are two main techniques of depositing dielectric layers:

– Low-pressure CVD deposit (LPCVD) or carried out by a plasma (Plasma
Enhanced CVD).
– Pulverization, in which a target of the material to be deposited is eroded by
argon ions generated in a plasma. The atoms of the target are pulverized and settle
on the circuit wafer.

To ensure the connections between the different parts of the circuit (or
microsystems), and the environment, the metallic lines are defined by the wafer
(Figure 7.3, steps 12 and 13). Several levels of metallic interconnections are
sometimes necessary for complex circuits, in which case an electric layer is inserted
between each level of metal for isolation.

Different metals can be used:

– for interconnecting lines, aluminum (Al) and its alloys (Al-Si-Cu), and more
recently, copper (Cu);
– for local metallic contacts, tungsten (W) and metallic compounds such as
silicides (TiSi2 and others).

The main depositing techniques for metals are the following:

– Pulverization, which has already been explained.
– Evaporation under vacuum, in which a vapor of atoms of metal is generated in
a vacuum tank. The atoms condense on the “cold” substrate so that the water vapor
condenses on a cold pane of glass.
– A small number of CVD deposits may also be used.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 281

7.2.2. Technologies specific to microstructures

In our example of a pressure microsensor and its integrated MOS electronics, we

stopped at step 14 of Figure 7.4 showing the creation of a circuit facing the Si wafer.
Now a deformable membrane is necessary.

7.2.2.1. Double face photolithography

Step 15 of Figure 7.3 is a step of “double face” photolithography. It allows us to
align the back facing patterns with the front facing patterns. This leads to the next
step of creating an Si membrane with correctly placed piezoresistances, thus
ensuring maximum sensitivity.

7.2.2.2. Volume micromachining

Liquid anisotropic etching was the first technique developed for making Si
microstructures.

This kind of etching has Si erosion speeds that are highly dependent on the
directions of the crystalline planes. This means the planes <100> and <110> are
etched much more rapidly than the planes <111>, which stay almost intact. The
chemical agents that stimulate this anisotropic etching are inorganic alkalines such
as KOH or organic solutions like EDP (ethylene diamine pyrocatechol), to name a
few of the best-known. Table 7.1 gives these two anisotropic etching agents the
etching speed of SiO2. Figure 7.6 shows the details of the different steps of the
process and the resulting microstructures.

Solution Temperature Etching speed in µm/h

alkaline (°C)
Si <100> Si <110> Si <111> SiO2

KOH: H2O 80 66 132 0.33 ≤ 0.008

EDP 110 51 57 1.25 0.004

Table 7.1. Main features of liquid anisotropic etchings for Si and SiO2 (from [GAR 94])
282 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

SiO 2

+
Etch-stopping
Couche d' arrêt Player
a. Si (100) wafer before P+
etching
Si (100)

b. Defining zones in the

SiO2 to be etched by
double face
photolithography

c. Intermediary time
structure of the etching.
The planes (111)
determine the Si volume
54.74°
to be etched
Planes {111}

d. Structure at end
of etching

e. Final structure after

removing the masking
SiO2 with HF V groove

Membrane Hole

Figure 7.6. Details of anisotropic etching steps

To determine the Si zones to be etched, an SiO2 layer can be used as a mask.

However, in certain conditions, other materials must be used as masking, such as
Si3N4 or metals like chrome, which are not at all affected by KOH or EDP.
According to the patterns established by double face photolithography, different
structures can be micromachined and these are shown by Si <100> liquid anisotropic
etching in Figure 7.7.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 283

Closed membrane Beam

Bridge Suspended membrane

Membrane
with central mass

Figure 7.7. Examples of structure made possible by liquid anisotropic etching of Si (100)

To form the Si membranes, bridges and beams, we must not etch the entire
thickness of the wafer. Instead the etching must be controlled, then stopped to leave
the desired fine layer of Si.

The simplest way of controlling the anisotropic etching is to stop it after a certain
time period, but because the structures of Si wafers are inherently inhomogeneous,
requiring different etching speeds from one point to another, this technique is not
sufficiently reproducible and reliable. In practice, four etch-stopping techniques are
used. We will discuss them here.

Etch-stopping on an Si layer that has been highly doped with boron or Si:P+ (see
Figure 7.6 for how the membrane is made). The liquid anisotropic etching speed
drops quickly for the Si doped with boron, with concentrations above 3 1019
atoms/cm3. The problem of layers that have been stopped with Si:P+ is that the high
boron concentration induces significant voltage constraints in the Si, modifying the
mechanical properties of the membrane. It also stops the creation of semiconductive
mechanisms in the layer, even if these are simple piezoresistances.

Electrochemical etch-stopping at PN junctions (Figure 7.3, step 15). The Si

wafer is plunged into an electrochemical cell containing KOH or EDP. By adequate
polarization of the contact potential of the junction (0.6 V), the N zone of the Si is
protected by electrochemical potential. The anisotropic etching stops at the PN
junction. This technique avoids the problems of mechanical constraints associated
with high boron dopings and is compatible with certain procedures relating to
integrated circuit technologies.
284 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Etch-stopping at SiO2 or Si3N4 protected by the opposite facing layer (see Figure
7.6d before HF piercing). The membranes or multi-layered beams of SiO2/Si3N4,
SiO2PolySi/ SiO2 and so on can be created in opposite layer after the volume of the
subjacent Si wafer has been etched.

Etch-stopping at the SiO2 layer buried in an Si wafer on an isolator (Silcon On

Insulator, SOI). Using different techniques, it is possible to make Si wafers in which
an Si monocrystalline layer is separated from the rest of the substrate by a layer of
buried SiO2. These SOI wafers allow for the creation of Si microcrystalline
microstructures and their electronics. These have high design flexibility and very
good performance value, both mechanically and electronically. However, they need
a technological network of integrated SOI circuits in which to develop.

7.2.2.3. Surface micromachining

Large-scale micromachining by liquid anisotropic etching of Si is not always
compatible or easy to integrate with the manufacture of electronic circuits. At the
beginning of the 1980s, a micromachining technique was developed using only
manufacturing processes such as depositing, etching, all parts of VLSI technologies.

The main principles of this surface micromachining technique is shown in Figure

7.8. It depends on etching a sacrificial layer, usually SiO2, to free a mobile and/or
deformable microstructure that is usually PolySi. By using several sacrificial
structures and structures stacked on top of each other with adequate patterns defined
by photolithography, it is possible to make microstructures with one, two or three
consecutive layers. We see that it is also possible to use SOI wafers in which the
buried oxide and the surface Si constitute the structural layer.

Accelerometers and above all other inert sensors (like the microgyrometer shown
in Figure 7.9) can be created on the surface of the Si wafer with their electronic
command and analysis integrated monolithically. In general, the principle of
detection and/or excitation is capacitive, the different Si or PolySi levels being
conductors. These microstructures are called micro electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS).
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 285

SiO 2
a. Si layer before
micromaching with SiO2 layer
(Type 2 µm)
Si

b. Photo SiO2: Establishing the

anchorage points of the PolySi PolySi
structural layer
SiO 2
c. PolySi deposit
(type 1 to 2 µm)
d. PolySi annealing
(1,000°C, 1h to eliminate Si
residual constraints)

e. Photo PolySi: establishing

the mobile and/or deformable
microstructure and access to
SiO2 for etching

f. HF etching of sacrificial
SiO2; Bridge or membrane;
Bridge or Beam for
beam for comb structure
membrane comb structure

Figure 7.8. Surface micromachining using sacrificial layers

Figure 7.9. Microgyrometer made by surface micromachining (source: IEF [VER 99])
286 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

7.2.2.4. Micromaching by deep anisotropic dry etching

Recently, following the example of VLSI etching technologies, dry etching
techniques have been developed that are used with or instead of moist etching.

In particular, deep anisotropic etching devices have appeared (Deep Reactive Ion
Etching (DRIE)). With these, a dense plasma and specific operating conditions
(having to do with the nature of gases, wafer temperature, etching sequencing) are
conducive to high-speed etching Si carried out vertically and very deeply (Figure
7.10, example a). The form of these etched structures no longer depends on patterns
defined by photolithography; and this leaves complete freedom in designing the
microdevice (Figure 7.10, example b). In using the masking layers and adequate
stopping layers, the Si wafer can be locally etched, either partially or completely, as
is shown in the examples of Figure 7.10.

b. Etched microstructures in Si on a
thickness of 40 µm

a. Test structure for deep anisotropic etching of c. Supported and pierced membrane of
holes 15 µm in diameter at a depth of 150 µm 15 µm thickness created by etching
across the entire Si wafer

Figure 7.10. Examples of deep anisotropic dry etching (source: ESIEE)

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 287

7.2.2.5. Heterogenous assemblies

In general, microstructures created in or on an Si wafer are not part of a device.
This means that in our example of a pressure microsensor, if we want to an absolute
pressure sensor, we must close the cavity created by the anisotropic etching of the Si
by making this cavity into a sufficiently large empty space. For pressure
microsensors with Si membranes of capacitive type, we assemble a counter-
electrode on a rigid support that is linked with the Si wafer.

Depending on the application field, different heterogenous assembling

technologies can be used for the complete assembling and usage of the microsensor.
The main features are summarized in Table 7.2.

Bonding Temperature Bonding the Si wafer with

low a layer of polymer resin,

by collage
130-350°C polymides, epoxy, etc.

by forming an eutectic or
400°C a layer of gold or other metal
metal alloy

a thin layer of phosphorus

by glass, Si low temperature 100-600°C glass, with boron or fritted
with Pb

a substrate of sodium glass

average under polarization of
anodic glass-Si
350-800°C
400 to 700 V

average
direct Si-Si another Si wafer
≥ 300°C

Table 7.2. Principle characteristics of heterogenous assembling technologies

and Si welding (from [GAR 94] and [SZE 94])

From these five technologies, the glass-Si anodic bonding was developed
specifically within the framework of microsystems.

The glass-Si anodic bonding helps us assemble an Si wafer with a sodium glass
wafer that can be micromachined, or it can have metallic patterns for the electrodes.
After having connected the two wafers, the ensemble is placed at a moderate
temperature (350-500°C), at which the sodium ions become mobile in the glass. By
288 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

applying a voltage of between 400 and 700 V according to the temperature, the
sodium ions leave the interface zone. This produces a significant electrical field and
generates high electrostatic pressures that are sufficient to establish very close
contact between the two wafers, even when their flatness is not perfect. The bonding
takes several minutes, usually with the formation of a very fine layer of SiO2 as a
connecting layer. Today, the reliability and reproducibility of anodic bonding means
it can be used in industrial settings, especially in the assembling of Si pressure
sensors. However, the use of high voltages is not always compatible with the
presence of integrated circuits on the same wafer.

Direct Si bonding is a more recent development that makes it possible to put

together two Si wafers without an intermediate layer. The two Si wafers are cleaned
according to correct procedures and then brought into contact. At this stage, the
wafers have already been adhered using weak Van der Waals forces. They are then
transferred to a furnace set at a relatively high temperature (700˚C) to carry out the
final bonding, which probably occurs due to Si-O bonds. Direct Si- Si bonding is
especially useful for constructing Si microstructures and is one of the techniques
used in making SOI layers. Its disadvantage is that the high temperature required for
the bonding process means integrated circuits cannot be present on the layers.

7.2.3. Beyond silicon

To end this discussion on microsystems, we will briefly mention other possible

technologies:
– these can be based on materials other than Si, either in the substrate or in the
thin layers. If Si is still used, it is usually as a mechanical substrate with the
possibility of the electronic circuit being integrated with it;
– techniques other than integrated circuit technologies can be used, such as
techniques used with more “macroscopic” materials.

In addition, other substrates can be used. Some of these are listed below:
– silicon-carbon (SiC) can be used in creating microsystems in harsh
environments (high pressure, high temperature, corrosion);
– gallium-arsenide (GaAs) and, less often, indium phosphide (InP). Both are III-
V mixed semiconductors used for HF and electronic devices and circuits.

New microsystem functions can be created by using active materials, often

deposited in thin layers, such as:
– piezoelectric materials like ZnO, AIN and PZT;
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 289

– mechanical materials like metals (Cr and W, among others) and shape memory
alloys (Ti/Ni and others);
– magnetic materials (NiFe, CoFe and others);
– thermoelectric materials (SiGe, Bi2Te3);
– inorganic chemical materials (SnO2, metallic oxides and others) and organic
chemical materials (polymide, polypyrroles and phtalocyanines).

Lastly, a range of micromachining techniques enable us to make microstructures

and microdevices. Some of these are:
– the LIGA process, a micronic scale molding technique;
– lazer-beam micromachining;
– micromachining by focalized ion beams (Focused Ion Beam Milling (FIBM));
– micromachining by electrostatic discharges (Electro-Discharge Machining
(EDM) [FUK 98]).

7.3. Electronic architectures and the effects of miniaturization

7.3.1. Overall trends

Before beginning the description of selected architectures, we will remind the

reader of certain general ideas that will help in understanding the reasons for our
selection.

First of all, whatever the mechanical, physical, chemical or biological variables

to be measured, and whatever conversion mechanisms are used, the output signals of
the sensitive elements are almost always electrical – voltage, current, charge,
variation resistance or capacity – with a marked tendency towards capacitive
variation, linked to miniaturization.

Moreover, the robust architectures, as regards the material variability, must have
the following characteristics.
– they must not be significantly affected by the length of their connections to the
sensitive cells and by the majority of the interference capacities. This suggests that
low impedance inputs of the virtual mass type;
– they must be sensitive to the single performances of a minimum number of
components, especially to the sensitive element. This means that a feedback loop
must be used systematically in order to reduce significantly the influence of the
component variability that is part of the direct chain. Then we proceed to
290 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

measurement by zero method. In the absence of nonlinearities, the output signal or

electrical image of the quantity to be measured is then proportional to the relation
between the value of the measured quantity and a reference value. The
proportionality coefficient is a stable electrical quantity.

The architectures must proceed to an early digitization of the measurement

signal. This means the A/N conversion is incorporated into the feedback loop that is
part of the basic structures of - modulators.

This last concept is only valid for transducers with a relatively slow response
speed (limited to around 10 kHz). As for the how the process is carried out, this
value rarely is an obstacle. In a vehicle, however, this limitation prohibits the use of
a - modulator in applications requiring a dynamic measurement of the steering
wheel angle. Conversions of the “flash” or “weighted” types that occur outside the
loop are, in this case, preferred.

In addition, these architectures must be dynamically reconfigured so that

functioning modes, such as measurement, calibration and autotest, may be changed
on demand or automatically.

Calibration is a programming operation whose purpose is the storing of

numerical values specific to each microsystem. Initially carried out collectively in
order to reduce cost prices, this procedure can be renewed, for certain microsystems,
throughout the life of the vehicle.

Autotest, either total or partial (we will look at the accelerometer for an example
of this difference), must be at all times superimposed on the measurement, which
itself must remain fully operational.

In the case of a disfunctioning microsystem (an intelligent mesosystem), the

central computer of the vehicle must be informed of the problem in order to proceed
to the implementation of a degraded functioning mode for the ensemble. An airbag
failure, for example, must be signaled to the driver, who can then adjust to this new
situation.

On a completely conceptual order, the electronic architectures must either

overcome the effects of miniaturization or use them. This is especially true of
electronics associated with sensitive cells for inert variables (acceleration, angular
speed, to name a few), with capacitive detection. The electrostatic forces brought
about by the processing of the measurement signal are of the same order as for cells
of mechanical origin.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 291

As for noise, miniaturization degrades the signal-to-noise ratio of sensitive cells

in relation to that of larger cells. The noise of sensitive cells in microsystems
remains low and requires low noise architectures to conserve reasonably good
resolutions.

Lastly, taking into account these important objectives: material flexibility; low-
cost integration of analog and digital parts on the same chip with CMOS or
BICMOS technology; low sensitivity to supply voltages; and good low noise
frequency functioning. Without a doubt, switching capacity techniques are the best
means of carrying out these architectures.

7.3.2. Conditioning electronics for capacitive cells that are sensitive to absolute
pressure

A capacitive cell sensitive to pressure has two capacities. One is variable

according to the pressure Cmes(P), and the other, Cref, is not. A possible process
(see Figure 7.11) consists of linking two identical counter-electrodes that are both of
millimetric dimensions. These are then diffused in a silicon substrate of reversed
doping to a thickened, electrically conductive membrane to the right of one of them.
This membrane is connected to the substrate by means of a spacer, of thickness do,
made of isolating material that surrounds the counter-electrodes. The holes formed
by this are empty of atmosphere, and constitute a capacitive cell that is sensitive to
absolute pressure. This is because, being far from the spacer, the thin membrane
deforms under the effect of pressure. Independent input signals can be applied to the
counter-electrodes that are, practically speaking, electrically isolated from the
substrate by well-polarized PN junctions. The output signal can be extracted from
the membrane. This type of sensitive cell is used in measuring barometric pressure
for regulating motors.

Pressure Pressure

Counter-electrodes

Figure 7.11. Capacitive pressure sensor with a differential structure

292 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

7.3.2.1. Measurement principle

εo ⋅ S
In the absence of pressure: Cref = Cmeso =
do

An approximation of the piston plan (see Figure 7.12a) Cmes(P) is expressed:

Cmes(P ) =
Cmeso
P
1−
P max

where Pmax is the pressure at which the thin membrane touches the substrate; P is
in principle always below Pmax.

⎡ Cref ⎤ P
The voltage: Vs = Vref ⎢1 − ⎥ = Vref
⎣ Cmes ( P ) ⎦ P max

is then a “good” expression of the pressure to be measured.

However, this model is not very realistic, since it does not take into account the
embedment effect that immobilizes the thin membrane, keeping it to the limits of the
enclosure. This gives us the new expression of Cmes(P) (see Figure 7.12b):

Cmes(P ) = Coffset +
Co
with: Coffset + Co = Cref [7.1]
P
1−
P max

P P

Figure 7.12. Effect of pressure on the membrane: two models

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 293

We will keep the formula shown in [7.1] as the definitive expression of the
capacity dependent on the pressure. To obtain a measurement voltage linearly linked
to the pressure, it must be capable of calculating:

⎡ Cref − Coffset ⎤ P
Vmes = Vref ⎢1 − ⎥ = Vref [7.2]
⎣ Cmes(P ) − Coffset ⎦ P max

switching capacity techniques allow us to easily carry out the above formula.

We note here that this technique is based on analysis of analog signals sampled
periodically (Figure 7.13). It requires discrete time circuits made of capacities,
switches, and amplifiers sequenced at the sampling frequency Fe by a clock f (in
general of ½ cyclic ratio) of period T.

Figure 7.13. Discretization of an analog signal

7.3.2.2. The analog version

The electrical schema with two supply sources (+Vcc, -Vee) is represented in
Figure 7.14. Equation [7.2] simply uses the analysis of this structure by expressing,
step by step, the sharing of charges and their relations with reference voltages to the
common point of energy supplies. As well, f and Φ are two complementary clocks
and are non-recoverable. They are assumed to be active at high states (switch
closing demand):
– high state of f: ] nT, (n + 1/2)T [; low state of f: ] (n + 1/2)T, (n + 1)T [
– low state of Φ : ] nT, (n + 1/2)T [; high state of Φ : ] (n + 1/2)T, n(n + 1)T [
294 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 7.14. Switching capacities structure, analog version

Here, the amplifier is ideal (infinite gain in open loop and infinite pass band); the
charges are always calculated on the plaques that can be part of electrostatically
isolated systems. To be able to apply the Z conversion, Cmes(P) will be assumed to
be invariant in time [BAI 94-1].

In the architecture shown above, the two capacities {Cref – Coffset} and Coffset
are very easily produced. This is done by dividing the counter-electrode from the
capacitive structure that is insensitive to pressure into two electrically independent
parts (see Figure 7.11). There are two subsystems: S1, which has the three capacities
Coffset, {Cref – Coffset}, Cmes(P); and S2, which is made of C2.

7.3.2.2.1. Switching capacities integrator: the first phase (see Figure 7.15)
The switch that short-circuits C2 only has an initialization function. In normal
functioning, it stays permanently open.

Interval ] (n – 1/2)T, nT [:

(QS1 )( n −1 / 2)T = − (Cref − Coffset )Vref − Coffset ⋅ VS ((n − 1 / 2 )T )

(QS 2 )(n−1 / 2)T = −C 2 ⋅ VS ((, n − 1 / 2 )T )

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 295

Figure 7.15. Precharge

7.3.2.2.2. Switching capacities integrator: second phase (see Figure 7.16)

Figure 7.16. Transfer

296 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Interval ] nT, (n + 1/2)T [:

(Q S1 )nT + (QS 2 )nT = (Q S1 )(n+1 / 2)T + (QS 2 )(n+1 / 2)T

Or, after explicit development:

− Cmes( P)(V S (nT )) − C 2 ⋅ V S (nT ) = −Coffset ⋅ V S ((n − 1 / 2)T )

− C 2 ⋅ V S ((n − 1 / 2 )T ) − (Cref − Coffset )Vref

Interval ] (n +1/2)T, (n+1)T [: V S ((n + 1 / 2 )T ) = V S (nT )

Also, the recurrent equation of the system is expressed as:

⎛ Cmes(P ) ⎞ ⎛ Coffset ⎞
VS ((n + 1)T )⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ = VS (nT )⎜⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ C2 ⎠ ⎝ C 2 ⎟⎠
[7.3]
⎛ Cref − Coffset ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟Vref
⎝ C2 ⎠

From the transfer function in “Z”, we deduce the recurrence equation:

VS (Z ) Cref − Coffset
= H (Z ) =
Vref ( Z ) C 2 + Cmes ( P) + (C 2 + Coffset )Z −1

It is easy to establish the stability condition of such a system, knowing that:

Coffset < Cmes (P ) [7.4]

a constraint which is always satisfied when the substrate is maintained at a constant

potential.

If the value of C2 conditions the response time of the device, the sensitivity of the
sensor, on the other hand, is completely independent of the choice, since the relation
that links the voltage VS to the pressure is expressed in stabilized regime:

⎛ Cref − Coffset ⎞
VS ((n + 1)T ) = VS (nT ) n⇒∞ = Vref ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vref ⋅ (1 − P P max) [7.5]
⎝ Cmes − Coffset ⎠

Here, we see the advantage of the feedback loop that eliminates the variability
influence of the components inside the loop. It also enables the use of a zero method
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 297

that generates a signal in the form of a product of a stable value of the chosen
electrical variable, here voltage, using the relation between the measured variable
value and the reference value. By taking VS from Vref, we get Vmes (equation [7.2]).
This subtraction operation, not shown in the schema, is easily carried out with a
switching capacities amplifier. The voltage Vmes can then be digitized with an A/N
converter used at the end of the chain.

7.3.2.3. Basic first order - modulator with a one-bit quantifier

Figure 7.17. - modulator used for pressure measurement

Let us look again at the example shown above, substituting the discrete analog
feedback {-VS(nT)(Cmes – Coffset)} with a quantified feedback: {0, –Vref(Cmes –
Coffset)}, driven by a conditional clock (see Figure 7.17). As we will see, we keep
the advantages of the zero method by proceeding to digitization by using some of
the properties of first order - modulators with one bit [BAI 96].

Our discussion will be in two stages:

– first, in order to clarify principles, we will discuss a qualitative approach based
on a hydraulic analogy;
– then we will present a quantitative approach based on recurrent equations that
show the advantages of this technique in terms of precision and “precision/response
time” compromises.

7.3.2.3.1. The qualitative approach

Employing one-bit - modulators for pressure measurements with the help of
capacitive sensors makes use of a hydraulic analogy. With this analogy, we can
298 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

easily understand the relevant principle. In effect, we compare (see Figure 7.17) the
capacities Cref – Coffset and Cmes – Coffset to the tub vref at a liquid level. The
integrator then becomes a tub, and the comparator (a one-bit quantifier) is a
measurer of the logical output level (SL = 0/1). In this direct mode, at each clock
cycle, (f) the tub is refilled with the help of Cref - Coffset, which is always smaller
than Cmes – Coffset. When the liquid level in the tub rises above a certain level, it is
partly emptied with the help of Cmes – Coffset by means of commanded
commutators, especially by the conditional cycle SL(f). During N clock cycles, the
number of times it makes use of Cmes – Coffset:

i = N −1
∑ SL(i)
i =0

thus also expressing the maintenance of a constant level in the tub:

i = N −1
N ⋅ V r e f ( C r e f − C o ffs e t ) − ∑ {S L ( i ) ⋅ V r e f ( C m e s − C o ffs e t )} = 0
i=0

i = N −1
The mean 1
N ∑ SL(i) represents this quantity with a fractional number between
i =0
{0 and 1}, which can be linked to the numerical pressure measurement:

i = N −1 i = N −1
Cref − Coffset
∑ ∑ SL(i)) =1 − Cmes − Coffset = P max
1 1 P
numberd = (1 − SL(i )) = [7.6]
N N
i =0 i =0

to the near quantification noise.

There can be errors when this schema is being carried out. These can occur when
the result of the transferred charges in the integrator by charge injection (of liquid,
for example) due to the clocks, by the interference capacities that are part of the
circuit is not zero “numberd”. To eliminate this systematic error, we can proceed to a
new sequence in reverse mode. In this case, the tub is emptied at each clock cycle
(f) by Cref – Coffset and is refilled, under the effect of the conditional clock SL (f)
with the help of the capacity Cmes – Coffset. By alternating the two modes, we see:

P P
numberd = + err.........numberi = − err [7.7]
P max P max

The error is naturally eliminated by the addition of the two direct and reverse
modes. It disappears easily through a simple decimation filtering.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 299

Quite often, we must be content with a lower quality correction, with the goal of
simplifying the architecture. The cause of errors can be assimilated to a capacity that is
added to or subtracted from Cref - Coffset. This means it is enough to add or subtract a
physical capacity of the same value to find the quantity “number” we need to find.

⎡ {( Cref − Coffset ± Cerr ) ∓ Cerr} ⎤ P

number = 1 − ⎢ ⎥ = numberd − err =
⎣⎢ {Cmes − Coffset } ⎦⎥ P max

7.3.2.3.2. The quantitative approach

In this discussion, we have not discussed interference effects. By using the
schema shown in Figure 7.17, sequenced in direct mode, we get successively:
– interval ] nT , (n + 1 / 2)T [:

(Q S )nT = − C 2 ⋅ V S ( nT ) − SL ( nT ) ⋅ Coffset ⋅ Vref + ( Coffset − Cref )Vref

– interval ] (n + 1 / 2)T , (n + 1)T [:

(QS )(n+1 / 2)T = −C2 ⋅ VS ((n + 1 : 2)T ) − SL((n + 1/ 2)T ) ⋅ Cmes((n + 1/ 2)T ) ⋅ Vref
SL((n + 1/ 2)T ) = SL(nT )

In this expression, Cmes is a variable that constantly varies over time according
to the measured pressure but slowly with the recurrence frequency of the clock f
(Fe), or “over sampling” frequency chosen to avoid problems of spectrum folding.
That is why a certain degree of leeway is possible in selecting the associated
sampled variable; so we write: Cmes ((n+1/2)T) = Cmes(nT).

Interval ] (n + 1)T , (n + 1 + 1 / 2)T [: V S ((n + 1 / 2)T ) = V S ((n + 1)T )

and:

C 2 ⋅ V S (( n + 1)T ) = C 2 ⋅ V S ( nT )
[7.8]
+ ( C ref − C offset ) V ref − SL ( nT ) ( C m es ( nT ) − C offset ) V ref

C r e f − C o ffs e t P (nT )
w ith : = 1−
C m e s ( n T ) − C o ffs e t P m ax

To create number (nT), we can set up, at each clock cycle, the accumulation of
consecutive N values of SL:

1 ⎧i = N −1 ⎫ 1 ⎧i = N −1 ⎫
number (nT ) = ⎨ ∑ (1 − SL(n − i )T ) ⎬ = ⎨ ∑ SL ((n − i )T ) ⎬ [7.9]
N ⎩ i =0 ⎭ N ⎩ i =0 ⎭
300 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The above equation becomes:

⎛ ⎛ C 2 ⋅ V S (( n + 1)T ) ⎞⎞
⎜ ⎜ − ⎟⎟
1 ⎜ i = N −1 ⎛ P (( n − i )T ) ⎞ 1 ⎜ ( C mes − Coffset ) nT ⎟⎟ [7.10]
number ( nT ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟+
N ⎜ i = 0 ⎝ P max ⎠ Vref ⎜ C 2 ⋅ V S (( n − N + 1)T )) ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ( C mes − Coffset ) ( n − N )T ⎠⎠

so that Cmes((n - i)T) is very close to Cmes(n – i - 1)T), which is even coherent with
the principle of “oversampling”.

Formula 7.10 shows, in a certain way, the increase in resolution produced by the
averaging operation. However, since it contains two unknowns, this equation, like
equation [7.8], does not have any predictive value. To obtain this value, we must
eliminate an unknown by expressing VS according to SL. They are connected by the
nonlinear relation:

VS (n + 1) > 0 ⇒ SL(n + 1) = 1
VS (n + 1) < 0 ⇒ SL(n + 1) = 0

This implication, added to equation [7.8], completely describes the behavior of

the - modulator, but does not help us precisely quantify the resolution increase
suggested by equation [7.10].

A double approximation, based on linearization on a range of limited pressure

and the introduction of quantification noise, resolves this problem.

For a stabilized value of the observed measurement capacity, the average voltage
of integrator output <VS>, is established at:

⎛ 2(Cref − Coffset ) − (< Cmes − Coffset >) ⎞

< V S >≈ Vref ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [7.11]
⎝ 2C 2 ⎠

This approximate expression (the rigorous equation is not linear) comes from the
simple observation of the output voltage of the integrator for diverse values of
(Cmes – Coffset) (see Figure 7.18). The relation between VS(nT) and SL(nT) is then
established easily. By combining equations [7.6] and [7.9], equation [7.11] becomes:

C 2 < VS > 1
≈< SL > −
Vref < Cmes − Coffset > 2
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 301

Figure 7.18. Chronogram of voltages for diverse pressure values

In instantaneous value, this is translated into:

C2 ⋅ VS ((n + 1)T )
= (SL((n + 1)T ) − δS ((n + 1)T ) ) −
1
Vref (Cmes((n + 3 / 2)T ) − Coffset ) 2
[7.12]
C2 ⋅ VS ((n + 1)T ) ⎡ ⎤⎡ 1⎤
⎥ ⎢(SL((n + 1)T ) − δS ((n + 1)T ) ) − ⎥
P max
≈⎢
(Cref − Coffset )Vref ⎣ P max− P((n + 3 / 2)T ) ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦

where hS(nT) represents the instantaneous error resulting from quantification.

Actually, the only logical values of the comparator output (with a one-bit quantifier),
SL(nT), are “0” or “1”, while the fraction of the first member has a spectrum of
continuous values.

Then, after taking into account the results and rearrangement, equation [7.8]
becomes:

⎛ Cref − Coffset ⎞
SL (( n + 1)T ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + δ S (( n + 1)T ) − δ S ( nT )
⎝ Cmes ( nT ) − Coffset ⎠ [7.13]
⎛ ⎞
⎟ − (δ S (( n + 1)T ) − δ S ( nT )
P ( nT )
S L (( n + 1)T ) = ⎜
⎝ P max ⎠

This equation also assumes, in an approximate way, that Cmes((n+1)T) is very

close to Cmes(nT). This assumption, which is coherent with the “oversampling”
principle, is the recurrence equation of a first order - modulator.
302 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

It is usual to link this recurrent equation two transfer functions in Z:

– The transfer function of the corrected useful signal:

⎡ P (Z ) ⎤
SL (Z ) = Z −1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ P m ax ⎦

⎡ P (Z ) ⎤ i2πf [7.14]
SL (Z ) = H SL (Z ) ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ H SL (e ) = e −i2πf
⎣ P m ax ⎦ Fe Fe

⎛ C r e f − C o ffs e t ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
w ith : ⎜ ⎟ (Z ) = ⎜1 − ⎟ (Z )
⎝ C m e s − C o ffs e t ⎠ ⎝ P m ax ⎠

– The transfer function of the quantification error:

brSL ( Z ) = (1 − Z −1 )δ S ( Z ) [7.15]

Why digital filtering is necessary

For a usual range of relation values P(t)/Pmax (1/4, 3/4), which covers all the
cases encountered experimentally, and as far as the input signal is itself noisy and
variable, the instantaneous quantification error hS(nT) has, very approximately, the
properties of a sampled white noise, with a spectral density that can be of the
magnitude of:

∆2 Fe Fe
dspbrS = with: − ≤ f ≤ [7.16]
12 Fe 2 2

with ∆, the quantification step (which is equal to 1, since we evaluate on the basis of
the capacitive ratios and, by extension, the pressure ratios included between {0,1})
and that the quantifier has one bit. A noise power corresponds to this density:

∆2
PbrS =
12

Relations [7.13] and [7.15] show that the - modulator carries out the discrete
differentiation of the quantification noise of the comparator. This operation
transforms the “white noise” of the one-bit quantifier to a colored noise concentrated
in high frequencies (Figure 7.19). It is characterized by a spectral density of power:

∆2 ⎛ πf ⎞ Fe Fe
dspbrSL = 4 sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ with: − ≤ f ≤ [7.17]
12 Fe ⎝ ⎠
Fe 2 2
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 303

One bit N
√ dspr SL(kT) SL ((k-N+ 1)T) registers
SL-SL Fe stack

Σ -∆
capacitor
measurement
modula tor UAL Ν√ dspr
number
Fe
N-1
Σ SL((k-i) T)) = N.numbe r(kT)
i=0
Stack of N
Fe M bits
registe rs:
M
=N
2
UAL
N.numbe r(k-N+ 1)T)

Fe
p Fc = p N 2 <num ber> Ν 2√ dspr
N <number>

Pressure measurement by me ans of Σ -∆ modula tor

Evolut ion of noise spectral densitie s

N 2.dspbr numbe r (f/ Fe)
4
dspbr S L =
∆2
12 F e ( )
4 sin 2
πf
Fe

3.5
Noise spectral density of the
output of N modulator

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
N 2.dspbr
< numbe r > (f/F e) Freque ncy in f/Fe for N= 10

Figure 7.19. Effect of digital filtering on quantification noise

The effects of this transformation of quantification noise are the following:

– a multiplication by almost two of the quantification noise power;
304 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– a drastic reduction of the amplitude of the spectral density of the quantification

noise power at low frequencies (Figure 7.19). It is advisable to follow the -
modulator with low pass digital filtering.

One bit
Η SL SL(kT) SL ((k-N+1)T) N registers
Fe stack

Σ-∆
capacitor
measurement
modulator UAL ΝΗ number
Fe
N-1
Σ SL((k-i)T)) = N.numbe r(kT)
i=0
Stack of N
Fe M bits
registers
M
=N
2
UAL
N.numbe r(k-N+ 1)T)

Fe
pFc = p N 2 <number> N 2H <number>
N

Pressure measurement by me ans of Σ -∆ modulator

Evolution of the transfer function

1

0.8
H SL ( )
ei2πf
Fe
transfert function

0.6 i2πf
H number
(e Fe)
0.4
i2πf
0.2 H < number >
(e Fe)

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Frequency in f/F e for N=10

Figure 7.20. Transfer functions

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 305

This filter must combine three fundamental features:

– It must ensure a pass band that is compatible with performance expectations.
– It must guarantee a signal-to-noise ratio compatible with expected precision.
– It must allow for the slowest possible output sampling in accord with the pass
band.

With this modulator, the choices of an oversampling frequency Fe and the

numbers of samplings N constitute the only required parameters.

The first filter is a simple averaging filter that helps establish the number. Its
schema of principle is shown in Figure 7.20. It has a shift register that contains an
adder and its accumulator on M bits: 2M = N at each instant kT N, consecutive values
of SL (SL(kT) to SL(k-N+1)T). These are sequenced at the oversampling frequency
Fe. This filter is regulated by the recurrent equation shown below, deduced from
equations [7.9], [7.10] and [7.13]:

1 i = N −1 ⎛ P (( n − i )T ) ⎞
num ber (( n + 1)T ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟ .....
N i = 0 ⎝ P m ax ⎠
{δ S (( n + 1)T ) − δ S (( n − ( N − 1))}
... −
N

to which we can link the transfer function for the corrected useful signal of the
quantification error:

Z −1⎛1− Z −N ⎞⎛ P ⎞
num ber ( Z ) = ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎟ ⎝ P m ax ⎟⎠
(Z )
⎜ −1
N ⎝ 1− Z ⎠
⎛ P ⎞
= H num ber ( Z ) ⎜ ⎟ (Z )
⎝ P m ax ⎠

and the transfer function for the quantification noise:

(1 − Z − N ) 1 ⎛1− Z −N ⎞
brnumber ( Z ) = δS ( Z ) = ⎜ ⎟ brSL ( Z )
N N ⎜⎝ 1 − Z − 1 ⎟
⎠

For the useful signal, this filter presents a frequency response more or less in
cardinal sinus:

i 2 πf ⎛ sin c ( πfN ) ⎞
( )
sin(x)
H number (e Fe ) ≅ e −i πf ( N + 1) ⎜ Fe ⎟ with: sin c( x) = [7.18]
Fe ⎜ ⎟
⎜ sin c ( πf ) ⎟ x
⎝ Fe ⎠
306 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The module of the above equals the unity at zero frequency, which has
Fe
transmission zeros at all the ± and presents a pass band: {–Fe/2N to Fe/2N},
N
shown in Figure 7.20.

As for the quantification noise, it is characterized by a power spectral density:

2
⎛ π fN ⎞
∆2 ⎛ πf ⎞ ⎜ sin c ( Fe
)
⎟ with: − Fe ≤ f ≤ Fe [7.19]
d sp b rn u m b er = 4 sin 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Fe ⎠ ⎜ sin c ( π f ⎟
12 Fe ) ⎟ 2 2
⎝ Fe ⎠

At each step of the filtering, the signal-to-noise ratio is already improved by a

fraction of the factor N, as is shown by the closer relations [7.17] and [7.19].
However, the output signal must be sampled at the oversampling frequency Fe, since
the spectral density of the noise still extends throughout the band {–Fe/2 ⇔ + Fe/2}
(see Figure 7.19).

The second filter is an averaging filter of the same type as described above, but it
has as input number and for output <number>:

1 ⎛ i = N −1 ⎞
< n u m b er ( n T ) > = ⎜ ∑ n u m b er (( n − i ) T ) ⎟ T h erefo re:
N ⎝ i=0 ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎪⎧ i = N − 1 j = N − 1 ⎛ P (( n − i − j ) T ) ⎞ ⎪⎫ ⎤ [7.20]
1
⎢ 2 ⎨ ∑ ∑ ⎜ ⎟⎬ − 2 × ⎥
⎢ N ⎪
⎩ i=0 J =0 ⎝ P m ax ⎠ ⎪
⎭ N ⎥
< n u m b er (( n + 1) T ) > = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎪⎧ j = N − 1 j = N −1
⎪⎫ ⎥
⎢⎨ ∑ δ S (( n + 1 − j ) T ) − ∑ δ S (( n − ( N − 1) − j ) T ) ⎬⎥
⎣ ⎪⎩ j = 0 j=0 ⎪⎭ ⎦

Its schema principle includes the accumulator presented above, and (N - 1)

identical registers. It thus constitutes a “pipeline” structure sequenced to the
oversampling frequency for reasons already shown. The result is accumulated with
the help of a second adder. The ensemble is regulated by the following recurrent
equations:
2
Z −1 ⎛ 1 − Z − N ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞
< num ber ( Z ) > = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎝ P m ax ⎟⎠
(Z )
N 2 ⎜⎝ 1 − Z − 1 ⎠
⎛ P ⎞
= H < num ber > (Z ) ⎜ ⎟ (Z )
⎝ P m ax ⎠
2
1 ⎛1− Z −N ⎞ 1 ⎛1− Z −N ⎞
br< number > ( Z ) = ⎜ ⎟ brnumber ( Z ) = 2 ⎜ ⎟ brSL ( Z )
N ⎜ 1 − Z −1 ⎟ N ⎜⎝ 1 − Z −1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎠
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 307

For the useful signal, this filter presents a frequency response approximately in
squared cardinal sinus:

2
i 2 πf ⎛ sin c ( π fN )⎞
H num ber ( e Fe (
) ≅ e − i 2 π fN )
⎜
Fe ⎜
⎜ sin c ( π f
Fe ⎟
⎟
) ⎟
[7.21]
⎝ Fe ⎠

which clearly attenuates the useful signal (see Figure 7.20) outside the pass band
≈ {–Fe/2N ⇔ + Fe/2N}.

As for the quantification noise, it has a power spectral density:

4
2 ⎛ sin c ( N πf )⎞
4 sin 2 ( πf )⎜ Fe ⎟ Fe Fe
dspbr< number > ≅ − ≤f≤ [7.22]
Fe ⎜ ⎟
12 Fe ⎜ sin c ( πf ) ⎟ 2 2
⎝ Fe ⎠

At this filtering level, the signal-to-noise ratio gains another factor √N in relation
to the previous step. This is because its non-zero spectral density (see Figure 7.19) in
more or less concentrated from: ~ {–Fe/2N to Fe/2N}; that is, a band N times more
narrow than before the previous filtering.

After all calculations have been made, we get:

π
P br< num ber > ≅ P brS [7.23]
3
N 2

The output sampling frequency can be greatly reduced without, however,

reaching the limits of NYQUIST: pass band: {–Fe/2N to Fe/2N}; sampling
frequency: Fc = Fe/N. In fact, because of the low reliable attenuation outside the
pass band of this filtering, a reduction of this order of the sampling frequency can
cause irreversible damage (linked to the spectrum replenishment) to the useful
signal.

7.3.3. Electronic conditioning for piezoresistive cells sensitive to differential pressure

A simple thin membrane chamber manufactured in a silicon substrate constitutes

a pressure sensitive cell. It is sensitive to absolute pressure if the membrane delimits
an empty space, or to differential pressure if the substrate has been pierced. The
308 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

piezoelectric elements, arranged as a Wheatstone bridge, are placed on the edge of

the membrane and are subject to maximum constraints for a given pressure shift
(Figure 7.21).

Doped silicon
Silicon “substrate”
constraint gauge

Figure 7.21. Piezoresistive cells sensitive to differential pressure

The temperature range that can support this type of device can be increased by
placing the piezoresistive elements in oxide shells. This eliminates any escape
currents. These sensitive cells are used in electronic speed boxes or they are used to
measure oil pressure (20-50 bars, more than 200 degrees).

Figure 7.22 shows a principle schema of how a - modulator adapts to a one-

bit quantifier measuring the disequilibrium voltage of the gauge bridges. The
integrator, the comparator, and the CMOS switches are of the same type used in the
previous application. The scale factor is fixed by the relation: K.Cref/Cref. This
helps us measure the low disequilibrium voltage of the bridge, with the help of a
reference voltage that is higher by two orders of magnitude, all without using a
preamplifier [ANA 95], [BAI 97].

However, the sequencing differs from that used in the capacitive pressure sensor,
since here we measure a differential pressure that can be positive, negative, or zero.
From this we see that at each clock cycle (f), the quantity of charge Cref ⋅ Vref,
must be brought to or sampled by an integrator according to the state of the
comparator. According to the principle schema, the state “SL = 1” of the comparator
is a sampling and counting order, while the state “SL = 0” constitutes a carrying and
deducting order. As well, during N clock cycles of the clock f, the balance of
charge transfers is established as:
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 309

Vref

KC
SL
SL
number
SL
C SL

SL
number = KVb - Va
SL Vref

Figure 7.22. Application of - modulator for the measurement of low voltages

K ⋅ N ⋅ Cref (Vb − Va) − p(SL=1) ⋅ Cref ⋅Vref + n(SL=0) ⋅ Cref ⋅Vref = 0

⎛ Vb − Va ⎞ [7.24]
N ⋅ number = p(SL=1) − n(SL=0) = K ⋅ N ⎜ ⎟ ; with: p(SL=1) + n(SL=0) = N
⎝ Vref ⎠

“Number” is a measurement of the voltage of the bridge disequilibrium in

relation to the quantification noise and to the charge injection errors of the clocks.

By linking the results to the constraint effects created by the differential pressure
of the membrane, we get:

⎛ δR ⎞
N ⋅ number = K ⋅ N ⎜ ⎟ = K ⋅ N ⋅ ⋅ ∆P [7.25]
⎝ 4R ⎠

to the quantification noise and to close to the charge injection errors of the clocks.

The factor is the result of the combination of piezoelectric properties of the

gauges and the elasticity of the membrane.

It is notable that in equation [7.24], as in equation [7.25], only the factor “K”
remains; the values of Vref and Cref have no effect from a metrological point of
view. The improvement of the modulator the proceeds by introducing two
functioning modes, “direct” and reverse”, which, as in the previous application,
310 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

eliminate the effect of injection. And by using a reconfigured mode (shown by the
dotted line in the schema), the scale factor K can be measured precisely (the exact
value of other capacities are without importance from a metrological point of view).
Then K can be stored for subsequent measurements. This functioning mode can be
activated at any time; the modulator is able to performing autocalibration. By
reducing the impact of interference effects, integration, in the form of symmetrical
architecture, leads to very good performances (16 bits of resolution for a pass band
of 1,000 Hz, an oversampling frequency of 2 MHz for a first order modulator, to cite
two examples).

7.3.4. Electronic conditioning for cells sensitive to acceleration

Accelerators are being used more and more inside of vehicles. Recently, airbags
have been equipped with similar microsystems; these are the basis of the inflation
that occurs in case of accidents. As well, accelerometers functioning as
inclinometers are used for controlling the suspension of some vehicles. These
mechanisms also function in automatic shock absorption systems, used more or less
often according to the state of the road or the car.

Even though these capacitive structures are mostly used in low-precision

piezoresistive structures, they are can also be adapted to servo-control accelerometers.

7.3.4.1. Direct applications of first-order - modulators to 1 bit quantifiers

Figure 7.23 shows the schema for the principle of adapting a - modulator to a
one-bit quantifier for measuring acceleration with a differential capacitive sensor
that has been optimized to function in open loop. This means that from zero
frequency to the “pseudo-frequency” of resonance of the system of a buffered spring
connected to a mass, the response will be almost flat and is regulated by the
equation:

m
d 2 − d1 = γ [7.26]
k

where is the acceleration and m the seismic mass. The distances d2 and d1 measure,
are, respectively, the gaps (polegaps) that separate the seismic mass from the lower
and higher counter-electrodes.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 311

Counter-electrode γ
Suspension arm

SLn Ø Counter-electrode

d1 C1 SL = SLn
Ø

Ø
d2
Seismic
mass
γ ∫ SL = SLp
C2
Vref

SLp Ø
N.number= n - p = N ( C1–C2
C1+C2 )
Figure 7.23. Schema principle of a modulator for an accelerator

This kind of device is much smaller when it is micromachined on silicon. It has a

mass of several micrograms to several nonograms, a pole gap of several microns,
lateral dimensions of several hundred microns, and reduced stiffness. A fluid such as
atmospheric air pressure is an excellent accelerator buffer of the range of between 0
and 100 g. Moreover, the seismic mass, along with the counter-electrodes, makes up
two flat capacities:

ε S ε S
C1 = o and C 2 = o [7.27]
d1 d2

where S represents the surface of the seismic mass as relates to the counter-
electrodes, and i0 the permittivity of the void. These two capacities are not
independent and are linked by the relation:

1 1 d + d2 d 2
+ = 1 =2 o = [7.28]
C1 C 2 εoS ε o S Co

where d0 represents the distance of the seismic mass to one or the other of the
counter-electrodes in the absence of acceleration, and C0 represents the
corresponding capacity. The introduction of relations [7.2] and [7.28] to the interior
312 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

of the expression in [7.26] suggests that a measurement principle has been

completely adapted to the potentialities of the - architecture. So we get:

d 2 − d1 m d −d C − C2 2d ⋅ k ⎛ C1 − C 2 ⎞
= γ = 2 1 = 1 ⇒γ = o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [7.29]
2d o 2d o ⋅ k d 2 + d1 C 2 + C1 m ⎝ C 2 + C1 ⎠

The modulator that enables this acceleration measurement is identical to the

device which produced the pressure measurement with the help of the capacitive
cell, and is close to the modulator that modified the clock regulator. By using the
hydraulic analogy again, we understand the measurement process. If the tub level is
too low, it must be replaced with the help of C1 under the effect of the conditional
clock SLn f. In the opposite case, it is emptied with the help of C2 under the effect
of the complementary clock SLp f ( SLn = SL p ). On N count rates, the balance of
calls to C2, p, subtracted from C1, n, equals:

n+ p = N
N N
nC1 ⋅ Vref − pC 2 ⋅ Vref = 0 with
∑ ∑
[7.30]
n= SLn (i )..... p = SL p (i )
0 0

to the quantification noise and to near to the clocks’ charge injection errors.

Also:

⎛ C − C2 ⎞ ⎛ d − d1 ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
n − p = N ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = N ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = N ⎜⎜ ⎟γ
⎟ [7.31]
⎝ C1 + C 2 ⎠ ⎝ d1 + d 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 kd o ⎠

with the same error sources as in [7.30].

All techniques used for eliminating the effects of injection by a combination of

direct and reverse modes, as well as the control of the combination of pass
band/precision by digital filtering discussed above in detail in capacitive pressure
sensor applications, are rigorously reusable without any prior adaptations.

7.3.4.2. Producing an accelerometer in true open loop by eliminating the effects of

electrostatic forces
Here, we are close to the formula in [7.3]. It ignores the impact of electrostatic
forces whose results are not zero by principle with the functioning mode of the -
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 313

architecture. An acceptable compromise can be attained by reducing the extent of

the voltage applied to the electrodes (Vref). This is because the electrostatic forces
decrease with the square of the electrodes.

However, when we must try to find linearity and a very good signal-to-noise
ratio in order to conserve the functioning of the open loop of the capacitive sensitive
cells, we must use other architectures that in principle eliminate this problem.

Miniaturization aggravates this problem. In fact, if all the dimensions, including

the pole gap, develop at the same rhythm, the mechanical force decreases at a fixed
acceleration rate along with the seismic mass volume, while the electrostatic force
remains constant.

ε ⋅ L2 ⋅ V 2
Fe = ∞ V 2 ⇔ Fm = ρ ⋅ L3 ⋅ γ ∞ L3 ⋅ γ
2⋅d 2

ρ = massic density

These forces are of the same order of magnitude for the potential value
compatible with the microelectronics in the ranges of acceleration measurements
usual when the pole gap has an order of several micrometers for mass dimensions of
the seismic mass, which are millimetric. These values are typical of cells that can be
produced through current silicon microtechnologies.

It is always desirable to eliminate electrostatic forces. Doing so means bringing

the seismic mass to a certain potential in relation to two counter-electrodes in order
to cancel the effects of the forces (see Figure 7.24).

f f
Fe1 + Fe 2 = 0

f Q2 f f Q2 f
Fe1 = 1 ⋅ n 21 ⇔ Fe 2 = 2 ⋅ n12 [7.32]
2εS 2εS

where Q1 and Q2 are the shared charges on the surfaces of the seismic mass in
relation to the two counter-electrodes. The equation is fulfilled under two specific
conditions:

Q1 = Q 2 or Q1 = −Q2 ⇒ Q = 0 [7.33]
314 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Only the second condition can lead to a relevant measurement of the technique
of the switching capacities. We will know if the verification of the sum of the
charges contained by the mass is actually zero.

+ Q + Q
Fe2 Fe2
Vin-x Vin-x
Seismic mass Seismic mass
n21 Fe1 -Vin-x n21 Fe1 -Vin-x
+ +
r r r r r r r
Fe1 + Fe2 = 0 Q=0 Fe1 + Fe2 + Fm = 0

C1
Measurement Measurement
of r of

∫ ∫
γ ∆V x Fm + ∆V x
∆Q A m ∆C A
r −
Fe
C2
dimensional factors

Figure 7.24. Illustration of the two principles of acceleration measurement

We can interpret these results by using dimensional parameters, the potentials

Vin, –Vin, and x, the two counter-electrodes, and the seismic mass. We do this by
assuming as a hypothesis that the seismic mass displaces in parallel position to itself.
So we get (see Figure 7.24);

εS εS
Q = Q1 + Q 2 = ( x − Vin) + ( x + Vin) = C1 ( x − Vin) + C 2 ( x + Vin)
d1 d1
[7.34]
⎛ C − C2 ⎞
⇒ Q = 0 ⇔ x = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟Vin
⎝ C1 + C 2 ⎠

Since Vin is stable, the potential x of the seismic mass of the effects of the
electrostatic forces constitutes an acceleration measurement, since from equation
[7.31], we get:

⎛ C − C2 ⎞ ⎛ d − d1 ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
x = Vin ⋅ ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = Vin ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = Vin .⎜⎜ ⎟γ
⎟ [7.35]
⎝ C1 + C 2 ⎠ ⎝ d1 + d 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 kd o ⎠
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 315

The circuit shown in Figure 7.25 ensures the required functionality [LEU 90].

+ Vin
C
f

C1 Vcc
Vcc
m - -
C C
2 4

+ +
-Vin
C Vee x
30 Vee

Figure 7.25. Schema principle of the analog architecture

for eliminating effects of electrostatic forces

During the intervals ] nT, (n + 1/2)T [, the switches switched by the clock f are
closed. All the nodes of the charge amplifier, the counter-electrodes, and the seismic
mass are brought to the same potential. The seismic mass is subject only to
mechanical forces.

During the intervals ](n + 1/2)T, (n + 1)T [, the node “+” of the charge amplifier
does not change in potential, but the output voltage varies according to the
disequilibrium measurement of the shared charges on the surface of the seismic
mass, since:

(C1 + C 2 ) x n + (C 2 − C1 )Vin
V I ( n +1 2) − x n = [7.36]
C3

The integrator accumulates the effects of these disequilibriums, then cancels

them in static regime, thanks to the feedback loop; at the same time it eliminates the
electrostatic effects. We then have:

⎛ C − C2 ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
x n → ∞ ( nT ) = V in ⋅ ⎜ 1 ⎟ = V in . ⎜ ⎟ static [7.37]
⎝ 1
C + C 2 ⎠n→ ∞ ⎝ 2 kd o ⎠
316 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

With this result, we must take note of two phenomena:

– This system includes a feedback loop. This means it is subject to stability
conditions that impose certain constraints on the capacity values:

C4 ⎛ C1 + C 2 ⎞
0< ⎜ ⎟<2
⎜ ⎟
Cf ⎝ C3 ⎠

– In variable regime, equation [7.36], for practical purposes, is satisfied in so far

as the sampling frequency remains as fast as the variation speed of acceleration. In
other words, the sampling frequency must be high in relation to the pass band of the
sensitive cell.

Here we again see the inherent advantage of feedback structures. These help us
obtain a measurement quality (apart from response times) that is not sensitive to
component variability, with the exception of the sensitive cell itself.

7.3.4.3. Servo-control of an accelerometer using balanced mechanical forces

through electrostatic forces
In the previous solutions, the analog or digital measurement representing the
acceleration of an approximate scale factor contained the quotient:

m /(do ⋅ k )

The value of the stiffness “k” is a parameter that is highly sensitive to dispersive
effects related to dimension reduction and to certain thermal steps of manufacturing
processes. In addition, this value can vary according to conditions of usage.
Although the small pole gap “d0” is not identical to a sample taken from the same
series, but its value remains stable. The seismic mass is, however, a well-identified
physical object of some size even in the most miniaturized sensitive cells and is
time-invariant. “d0” and “m” can thus be memory-stored objects.

The theoretic static scale factor now depends on only two parameters if the
measurement method is based on the balancing of the mechanical force by the
electrostatic forces.

7.3.4.3.1. Analog solution

In the cell with two counter-electrodes (Figure 7.24), the equation expressing this
principle:
f
f
Fm + ∑
f
Felec = 0 ⇒ γ stat =
∑ Felec
m
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 317

expresses at equilibrium:
f f f
Fm + Fe1 + Fe 2 = 0 ⇔ C1 + C 2 = C 0
C 0 (Vin − x) 2 f C (V + x) 2 f f [7.38]
n 21 + 0 in n12 + m ⋅ γ stat ⋅ n 21 = 0
2d 0 2d 0

In addition:

m ⋅d0 m ⋅ d 02
x th e o r e tic a l = sta t = s ta t [7.39]
2 C 0 ⋅ V in 2 i ⋅ S ⋅ V in

The measurement structure is a looped electromechanical system in which the error

signal is the gap between the values of two capacities C1 and C2 (see Figure 7.24).

The switching capacities circuit (Figure 7.26) fulfills the desired functionality; the
potential difference “b” brings about the gap between the two capacities C1 and C2.

Figure 7.26. Principle schema of the analog architecture of equilibrium forces

Under the effect of constant acceleration, the signal this circuit transmits is
expressed as:

m ⋅ d0
x rea l = sta t
2 C 0 V1 C ⋅ d 02 k
1+ [7.40]
2 A
2 b ⋅ V1⋅ C 0 sta t
V1 = V in + b 2
318 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This relation shows the dependence between the static scale factor and the stiffness
that occurs when the loop gain is not infinite. However, to further develop this
analysis, the dynamic characteristics of the sensitive cell must be taken into account.
The seismic mass is subject to the linking of four forces: the effects of suspension
stiffness; acceleration; viscous absorption; and the result of electrostatic forces.

In the absence of “small signal” electrostatic forces, the function of the harmonic
transfer of the sensitive cell is expressed as:

Y (ω ) m 1
= H (ω ) = [7.41]
Γ (ω ) k λ m 2
1+ i ω− ω
k k

where Y (ω ) , Γ(ω ) and H (ω ) are respectively the harmonic expressions of the

displacement of the seismic mass, of acceleration, and of the transfer function; and
“ ” is the coefficient of viscous absorption.

As soon as the sampling frequency Fe is high enough, the results of the

discretization can be ignored. The transfer function describing the “small signal”
behavior of the entire system is easily determined by explicitly inserting H( ) into
the block schema (see Figure 7.27):

X rea l (ω ) m ⋅d0 1
=
Γ (ω ) 2 C 0 ⋅V1 ⎛ C ⋅ d 02 ⎞⎛ m ⎞ [7.42]
1+ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 b ⋅V1 ⋅ C 0 ⎠ ⎝ H (ω ) A (ω ) ⎠

V 1 = V in + b 2

This expression shows that the error analysis operator, A( ) cannot be chosen
independently of the sensitive cell. To clarify this point, we will look at two cases:
the cell with dominant absorption and the cell with optimum absorption.

Figure 7.27. Block schema

 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 319

7.3.4.3.2. Analog solution: sensitive cell with dominant absorption

In this kind of cell, the stiffness “k” is very low, so that the transfer function of
the cell is close to:

m
H (ω ) ≅
m
iλω (1 + i ω)
λ

To avoid any instability in the looped system, the error analysis operator is a
limited-gain amplifier. Expression [7.42] then becomes:

X rea l ( ) m ⋅ d0 1
=
d( ) 2 C 0 ⋅ V1 ⎛ C ⋅ d 02 ⎞⎛ (1 + i ( m λ ) ) ⎞
1+ i⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2b ⋅V ⋅ C 2 ⎟⎝ A ⎠
⎝ 1 0 ⎠
V1 = V in + b 2 [7.43]
C ⋅ d 02 2
A<
2 b ⋅ V1 ⋅ C 02 m

The signal to mechanical noise ratio of this type of sensitive cell is potentially
the best. But these cells are also the most fragile because of the low stiffness of the
seismic mass suspension; and they also withstand miniaturization poorly.

7.3.4.3.3. Analog solution: sensitive cells with optimum absorption

The response of these cells is nearly flat up to their pseudo-pulsation resonance R:

m
H (ω ) ≅
k
k
0 < ω < ΩR =
m

The error analysis operator can then be an integrator with a limited transition
pulsation “ T”. Expression [7.42] then becomes:

X rea l ( ) m ⋅ d0 1
=
d( ) 2 C 0 ⋅ V1 ⎛ C ⋅ d 02 ⎞⎛ k ⎞
1+ i⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ 2b ⋅V ⋅ C 2 ⎟ ⎝ T ⎟⎠
⎝ 1 0 ⎠
V1 = V in + b 2 [7.44]
⎛ C ⋅ d 02 ⎞
<⎜ ⎟ kΩ R
T ⎜ 2b ⋅V ⋅ C 2 ⎟
⎝ 1 0 ⎠
320 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Micromachined accelerometers used to measure high accelerations typically

have this kind of behavior.

Figure 7.28. Chronogram and digital architecture for a sensitive cell

with dominant absorption

7.3.4.3.4. Digital solutions

Structures derived from - modulators can also be used in servo control
accelerometers. Figures 7.28 and 7.29 are shown in block schemas with two
structures of this kind. The first is suitable for accelerometers with dominant
absorption; the second is for accelerometers that are close to optimum absorption
[ZIM 95], [BAI 94b].

C 0V 2 ⎛ T − τ ⎞ p − n
γ= ⎜ ⎟( ) …… [7.45]
2d 0 ⋅ m ⎝ T ⎠ N
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 321

with:

p+n = N
N −1 N −1
n ( kT ) = ∑ SL (( k − i )T ).......... p ( kT ) = ∑ SL (( k − i )T )
i=0 i=0
N ⋅ numberγ ( kT ) = p ( kT ) − n ( kT )

C 0 ⋅ V 2 ⎛⎜ τ n − τ n' ⎞
⎟
γ =
2 ⋅ d 0 ⋅ m ⎜⎝ T ⎟
⎠

Truth table for the operator: R for rapid, L for slow

τ ≥0⇔γ ≥0 τ' >0 ⇔γ <0

∆ Cn > 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 > 0 ⇒ τn+1 = τn + δ R ∆ Cn < 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 < 0 ⇒ τ'n+1 = τ'n +δ R

∆ Cn > 0 ∆ Cn − ∆ Cn−1 < 0 ⇒ τn+1 = τn + δ L ∆ Cn < 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 > 0 ⇒ τ'n+1 = τ'n +δ L
∆ Cn < 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 > 0 ⇒ τn+1 = τn −δ R ∆ Cn > 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 > 0 ⇒ τ'n+1 = τ'n −δ R
∆ Cn < 0 ∆ Cn − ∆ Cn−1 < 0 ⇒ τn+1 = τn −δ L ∆ Cn < 0 ∆ Cn −∆ Cn−1 < 0 ⇒ τ'n+1 = τ'n −δ L

[7.46]

Accelerometers, and more generally inert systems, have been the subjects of
much research; the final performances of these microsystems are very sensitive to
using electronics within technological parameters. However, it would be outside the
scope of this chapter to treat this topic in depth, since here we are limiting our
discussion to initiation technologies
322 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

V
Øm
Ø2 VC
Øm 1

Øm SL
+

Operator for the determination

Ø2 C1 n
Øm Vcc

of the cyclic ratio

m – SL
–
Øm
Ø’2 C2 Measurement
Øm SL
+
+
Øm ∆Cn –
Ø’2 Vee ∆Cn-1
V C2
V – SL

∆C = C2 – C1

Superposition of the servo-control signal and measurement

VC1 T

b b b
γ γ γ=0

τn τ’n+1
VC2 –b –b –b

VC1
τ’n b τ’n+1 b b

γ –b γ –b γ=0 –b

VC2 T

Figure 7.29. Digital architecture and chronogram of a sensitive cell with optimum absorption

7.3.5. Energy sources in microsystems

In a certain number of microsystem applications, energy sources can prove

problematic. This is the case with nomad systems and even more with abandoned
systems without their own sources.
 The Contribution of Microtechnologies 323

Much research has been undertaken on electronics with low consumption levels,
microsources (electrothermal, electrodynamic and photovoltaic), Hz and optical
telesupplying, among other areas.

Up to now, this research has not had much impact in the area of automotive
technology devoted to the battery. However, telesupplying has already appeared in
mobile parts microsystems responsible for chassis-road connections (such as tire
pressure), remote control, and engine immobilization.

7.4. Bibliography

[ANA 95] Analog Devices, 1995.

[BAH 95] BAHER H., AFIFI E., “A fourth order switched capacitors cascade structure for
Σ∆ converters”, International journal of circuit theory and applications, vol. 23(1),
p. 3-21 (1995).
[BAI 94a] BAILLIEU F., BLANCHARD Y., Signal analogique et capacités commutées,
Dunod, 1994.
[BAI 94b] BAILLIEU F., MARTY J., MOREAUX C., DELPOUX A., BLANCHARD Y.,
ZIEMMERMANN L., EBERSOHL J.PH., LÉ HUNG F., “Low cost differential + – 2G
capacitive accelerometer: Technology and electronics design based on fuzzy logic”,
Proceedings of EUROSENSOR VIII, 1994.
[BAI 96] BAILLIEU F., BLANCHARD Y., LOUMEAU P., PETIT H., PORTE J., Capacités
commutées et applications, Dunod, 1996.
[BAI 97] BAILLIEU F., “Les microsystèmes, des microtechnologies et une nouvelle
approche de l’électronique”, Forum ADEMIS, 1997.
[ELW 98] ELWENSPOEK M., JANSEN H., Silicon Micromachining, Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
[FUK 98] FUKUDA T., MENZ W. (ed.), “Micro Mechanical Systems: Principles and
technology”, volume 6 from Handbook of Sensors and Actuators, Elsevier, 1998.
[GAR 94] GARDNER J.W., Microsensors: Principles and Applications, Wiley, 1994.
[GHA 94] GHANDHI S.K., VLSI Fabrication Principles: Silicon and Gallium Arsenide,
Wiley, 1994.
[LEU 90] LEUTHOLD H., RUDOLPH R., “An ASIC for high resolution micro
accelerometer”, Sensors and actuators, A21/A23 (1990).
[NAG 86] NAGARAJ K., VLACH J., VISWANATHAN T.R., SINGHAL K., “Switched
capacitor integrator with reduced sensitivity to amplifier gain”, Electronics letters, vol. 22
(1986).
[RIS 94] RISTIC L., Sensor Technology and Devices, Artech House, 1994.
[SZE 81] SZE S.M., VLSI Technology, Wiley, 1981
324 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[SZE 94] SZE S.M. (ed.), Semiconductor Sensors, Wiley, 1994.

[VER 99] VERJUS F., QUEMPER J.M., BOUROUINA T., BELHAIRE E., DUFOUR-
GERGAM E., PÔNE J.F., GILLES J.P., “FEM analysis of resonance frequency matching
by Joule heating, Application to a vibratory micro-gyroscope”, Eurosensor XIII,
September 12-15, 1999, The Hague, The Netherlands.
[WAN 98] WANG B., KAJITA T., SUN T., THEMES G., “New high-precision circuits for
on-chip capacitor ratio testing and sensor read-out”, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems, March 1998.
[ZIM 95] ZIMMERMANN L., EBERSOHL J.PH., LÉ HUNG F., BERRY J.P., BAILLIEU
F., REY P., DIEM B., RENARD S., CAILLAT P., “Airbag application: a microsystem
including a silicon capacitive accelerometer, CMOS switched capacitors electronics and
true self test capability”, Sensors and Actuators, A 46/47 (1995).
 Chapter 8

Instruments and Measurement Chains

In general, studying a physical phenomenon is done with a computerized system

and a central computer guiding a range of measurement devices. Each of these
devices is connected to a type of sensor, as well as to one or more buses for the
exchange of information. Between the operator and the computer is the user
interface. The idea of a measuring device should be understood in a broad sense,
whether the device exists separately (battery or mains operated) or is part of a
measurement card in a rack or a computer. In this chapter, our goal is to present an
overall view of the principle measurement instruments, their functioning principles
and the kinds of measurement that can be obtained by using them. Then connecting
buses will be discussed, as well as ways to create a measurement chain; that is, an
instrumentation system.

8.1. Measurement devices

In this section, we will discuss standard measurement devices and their recent,
digital, developments. Recently digitization is done throughout the system before the
overall measurement process begins. This means it is carried out increasingly with
sensors.

Chapter written by Bernard JOURNET and Stéphane POUJOULY.

326 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

8.1.1. Multimeters

8.1.1.1. Measurement principles

Generally speaking, a multimeter links a voltmeter, an amperemeter and an
ohmeter. We limit ourselves to these three kinds of measurement because they can
be organized easily around the same unit: the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
The three measurements listed above are often based on the numerization of one
voltage. The measurement results are converted and displayed in the form of digital
values. The ADC unit and its display constitute what we call the ideal voltmeter,
“idVm”, shown in Figure 8.1.

ADC VX idVm
VX

Figure 8.1. Principle of the multimeter and voltage measurement

Analog-to-digital converters generally operate by successive approximations, but

there are some converters that operate on the multiple ramp system.

Displays are carried out with a certain number of numerals or digits. We find
devices called “3 ½ digits” or “6 ½ digits”. In this designation, the ½ digit is the first
character to be displayed, with 0 or 1 or even 2 (it is a half digit because it does not
take all the possible values). The whole number (here a 3 or a 6) represents the
following digits. Thus, the displayed number (without taking into account possible
decimal points) can have values of between 0 and the maximum displayable or
number of points. A 3 ½ multimeter can display from 0 to 1,999 and is called a 2
million point device. The HP34410A multimeter made by Agilent TechnologiesTM is
a 6 ½ digit or 2 million point multimeter.

8.1.1.2. Input resistance influence

The first source of errors in measuring voltage comes from the non-infinite
resistance of the voltmeter. We can design a digital voltmeter by joining the ideal
voltmeter (idVm) to an input resistance Rin. A systematic measurement error appears
when the equivalent Thevénin resistance of the dipole we want to study is relatively
high compared to the input resistance of the multimeter.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 327

RS

VX RIn iVm

Figure 8.2. Influence of input resistance

Here, the measurement error (in percentages) is expressed by the following

formula.

100 R S
δm = [8.1]
R S + Rin

The input resistance is typically 10 M but can reach much higher values. For
example, on the HP34401 multimeter, we can choose on the ranges of 0.1 V, 1 V
and 10 V as an input impedance of 10 M or even above G , whereas on the 100
and 1,000 V ranges it is worth 10 M .

8.1.1.3. Intensity measurements

An intensity measurement is obtained by converting the intensity into a voltage
through a shunt resistance. The voltmeter then measures the voltage to the resistance
limits.

R sh R in idVm

Figure 8.3. Principle of the multimeter: intensity measurement

The important parameter to consider in estimating the quality of the

measurement is the voltage drop to the limits of the shunt resistance.

8.1.1.4. Resistance measurements

The measurement of a resistance is usually obtained in a multimeter by crossing
it with a known current and measuring the voltage at its limits. It is important to
have a good calibrated current source.
328 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

I0
RX RIn idVm

Figure 8.4. Principle of the multimeter: resistance measurement

A problem occurs when measuring low resistances. In this case, the resistance of
the measurement wires is of the same order of magnitude and introduces a
significant error (drop of potential in the wires). Here we use the “4 point” method.

I0
RX RIn idVm

Figure 8.5. Multimeter principle: resistance measurement by the 4 point method

8.1.1.5. Two types of multimeters

In situations of variable voltage and intensity measurements, two types of
multimeters are used: averaged response multimeters (sensitive to the averaged
response of the corrected signal) and root mean square (RMS) multimeters with
true, effective responses that are sensitive to the square of the signal. Multimeters
sensitive to the averaged value are calibrated to display the effective value for a
sinusoidal signal. This means that with other signals there is a measurement error to
correct; this is done by taking the form factor into account.

One basic feature to consider is the passband of the device, which for
multimeters is a fairly general base. For the HP34401A multimeter, the passband has
100 kHz of voltage and 5 kHz of intensity (for an accuracy below 1%).

The measurement of the effective value takes into account the effective value of
the alternating current Vf-ac and that of the direct current Vf-cc. We especially need to
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 329

separate the two in cases of an end face alternative value of a component remaining
high. In this case, we get the true effective value.

V f = V f −cc 2 + V f − ac 2 [8.2]

Signals having high comb factors (relation between the comb value and the
effective value) set at relatively high frequencies pose error risks, due to the
presence of fairly high harmonics.

8.1.1.6. Measurement accuracy

Other measurement error sources are often due to ground loops, to
thermoelectric effects due to contacts between different kinds of metals, to problems
of common mode rejection (isolation of the LO limit in relation to the ground) and
to sector noise in the case of a device in the sector.

Of course, the fact that a digital value is displayed is not a sign of absolute
accuracy. Measurement accuracy is not directly accessible with a device, as was the
case with magnetoelectric instruments with moving coils indicating the class of the
instrument. It is necessary now to refer to the device’s instructions for information
concerning accuracy, taking into account a percentage of the measurement, of the
range, and even the number of digits. Accuracy is expressed as:

± (% of the measurement +% of the range) [8.3]

Still using the example of the HP34401A multimeter, to measure the direct
voltage on a caliber 1 V, the accuracy for a year is given as 0.0040 + 0.0007 or
0.0047% full-scale maximum. This means an accuracy of 4.7 · 10-5 V for a 1 V
measurement.

Accuracies are less precise measuring resistances or currents than in measuring

voltages, and are less precise measuring variable signals than direct signals.

8.1.2. Frequency meters

A frequency meter is organized around an accuracy time base and a counter. A

good time base has a quartz oscillator for a reference. This oscillator can be at
ambient temperature (we speak of room temperature crystal oscillator (RTXO)).
This gives a stability of up to 2.5 ppm. It can be temperature compensated
330 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

(temperature compensated crystal oscillator (TCXO)); in this case the stability

drops to 0.5 ppm. The oscillator also can be stabilized in a temperature-controlled
enclosure, and here we speak of an oven controlled crystal oscillator (OCXO). The
stability of an OCXO can reach values of 0.01 ppm.

Impulses
Port Counter Display
Control

Figure 8.6. Synoptic of a counter frequency meter or periodmeter

Whether frequency or periods are being measured, one synoptic can be given for
the instrument being used. This synoptic is shown in Figure 8.6. In this figure, the
synoptic counts the number of impulses during the high state period of the control
signal.

To measure the frequency of a periodic signal means we refer to the definition of

the frequency by counting the number of times the signal is reproduced during an
interval of known time (which can be a second or some other established interval).
In this case, the signal we want to measure is found after it is formatted as an input
“Impulses”. The time base gives the “Control” signal shown in Figure 8.6. This is
the frequency meter functioning mode.

For measuring high frequencies, we can introduce a frequency divider to

determine the number of times a reference signal (a clock) is reproduced identically.
This mode is used for measuring very low frequencies. In this case, the time base
(clock) creates the “Impulse” signal and the input signal, which serves as the
“Control” signal shown in Figure 8.6. This is functioning in periodmeter mode.

Reciprocal counting functioning combines the advantages of the two other

modes. A counting window is opened by the input signal, and it stays open during a
time TCK that is set by the time base. During the period TF of this window, a first
counter sets the number Np of events of the input signal. A second counter
determines the number NCK of periods of the time base (clock). Since
TF = NCK .TCK = Np .T, we get the signal’s period:

TCK .N CK
T= [8.4]
Np
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 331

The input impedance is usually 1 M in low frequencies or 50 beyond

50 MHz. We find a direct DC coupling on inputs or an AC coupling that suppresses
the direct component.

Here we mention a little-known but useful instrument of the same type. It is an

analyzer of time intervals or frequencies that helps to visualize the temporal
developments of frequencies, of periods, and phases of signals. It carries out a
measurement by counting the time interval between each zero crossing of the input
signal. We can then follow the behavior of a signal whose frequency develops over
time. We can also note the stability and dynamic behavior of different components
or systems such as a VCO (variations of the frequency according to temperature),
and the dynamic behavior of a phase-locked loop.

8.1.3. Oscilloscopes

8.1.3.1. Introduction
Today, since oscilloscopes are usually digital oscilloscopes, we will only discuss
this type. The synoptic of a oscilloscope is shown in Figure 8.7.

After selecting the coupling mode as input (DC for direct current and AC for the
part of the signal without a direct current), the principle chain is connected to a
preamplifier (G), a sample and hold (Samp.B), an analog-to-digital converter and a
memory storage device. The converter usually has an 8-bit accuracy.

The criteria which fix the frequency of the oscilloscope are the analog pass band
of the input stages and the sampling frequency. Rise time is also a possible criterion
but is seldom used anymore.

Sampling can be carried out either in real time (or in single-cycle mode) or
repetitively (in sequential or random mode). In the first case, in order to respect
Shannon’s theorem, we must have fs > 2.BW where fs represents the sampling
frequency and BW the length of the signal band. In the second case, we must
implement a reconstruction procedure and we have f s > k R .BW where kR is equal to
2.5 for a sinusoid, around 4 for a transient regime, or even 10 when there is no
reconstruction. We find oscilloscopes with sampling frequencies of up to 20 MEch/s
(as with series HP54600 made by Agilent TechnologiesTM) to 2 GEch/s (the
HP54615 and Infinium).
332 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

AC
CH1
G Samp. B CAN Mem.

DC

AC
CH2
G Samp. B CAN Mem.

DC

Clock Clock/
Samp.

External
trigger
Time µPr.
base

Figure 8.7. Synoptic of a digital oscilloscope

After the analog-to-digital conversion, the data are stored in a memory unit that
currently can be up to 1 Mega-samplings. Recent instruments almost always have an
interface (serial or IEEE488) that facilitates data transfer to a calculator.

There are several visualization modes for signals: by points or vectorial (the
points obtained are linked). We can also carry out an averaging of the data to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio on in general 8, 64 or even 256 acquisitions. The
visualization of modulated signals (amplitude or angular modulation) can cause
some problems with display. This is due to the fact that multiple frequencies occur
during reconstruction. With such cases we must be careful to avoid taking a
vectorial display so as not to place too much importance on falsely correlated
phenomena. A single-cycle sampling can be most practical here, since the passband
is strictly limited by Shannon’s theorem.

8.1.3.2. Input impedance and measurement

The standard model of an oscilloscope’s input impedance is shown in Figure 8.8.
The input resistance of an oscilloscope is generally equal to 1 M (normalized
value). With oscilloscopes that have high bandwidths (above around 500 MHz), we
can also choose an input impedance of 50 .
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 333

Rin Cin

Figure 8.8. Model of an oscilloscope’s input impedance

The input capacitor has a capacity with an order of magnitude of 15 pF, but this
value is not normalized (and varies from around 10 to 20 pF). If we carry out the
measurements with a standard coaxial cable (with a line capacity of 100 pF/m), the
capacitor brought to the measurement point is therefore of 15 pF + d*100 pF where
d is the cable length. For a coaxial cable of 1 m this can come to 115 pF, which can
prove to be counter-productive. To resolve this problem, we can use measurement
probes.

The model of the probe used with the input stage of an oscilloscope is shown in
Figure 8.9. For this model, we can establish the corresponding transfer function that
links the voltage analyzed by the oscilloscope (written as Vin) to the voltage to be
measured (written Vm).
Rso
Oscilloscope

Vm Cso Rin Cin Vin

Figure 8.9. Modelization of the measurement probe used with an oscilloscope

Vin Rin 1 + jR so C soω

= [8.5]
Vm Rin + R so R so Rin
1+ j (C so + Cin )ω
R so + Rin

Regulating the probe to obtain an all-pass filter means adjusting the capacitor Cso
so that:

R so C so = Rin C in [8.6]
334 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The impedance brought to the measurement point is then:

R so + Rin
Z eq = [8.7]
1 + jRin C in ω

This impedance is equivalent to a resistance Rso + Rin in parallel with a capacitor

Rin
of the capacity C ' = C in and is therefore lower than Cin, the total capacity
R so + Rin
of the coaxial cable, which is itself smaller that that of a impedance cable of about
50 .

So, with Rin = 1 M ; Rso= 9 M ; Cin = 12 pF. In this case, Cso must be adjusted
to 1.33pF, which gives an input impedance probe + oscilloscope equivalent to 10
M in parallel with 1.2 pF. The capacity of the cable being used for the probe is
often around 7 to 8 pF, which gives the ensemble a capacity below 10 pF! But of
course, even the smallest disturbance brought to the assembly is obtained to the
detriment of an attenuation by 10 of the voltage to be measured. There are also
active probes that present very high input impedances and very low disturbance
capacities (the measurement element is a MOS transistor).

8.1.3.3. Measurements done by an oscilloscope

Once the signal displayed on a screen is digitized, it is relatively easy to introduce
measurement functions into an oscilloscope. These functions have different aspects. In
voltage measurements, we most often find measurements of peak voltage, of effective
or average voltage, the final value (high or low), or a squared signal. With temporal
measurements we find the period, the frequency, the rise time and fall time of a signal.
Related to these measurement functions we also find mathematical functions that are
applied to signals: sum; difference; product; FFT (fast Fourier transform, the
calculation of the coefficient differential or integrant).

8.1.4. Spectrum analyzers

There are mainly two methods of carrying out a frequency analysis of a signal.
With low frequencies (up to a few 100 of kHz), we used an analyzer based on the
calculation of the Fourier transform of the signal, which has been digitized
beforehand. For radiofrequencies, high frequencies and microwaves, we use a
sweeping analyzer (a technique using several 100 kHz up to 100 GHz).

8.1.4.1. Sweeping analyzers

The principle of a sweeping spectrum analyzer is more or less the same as that of
a heterodyne radio receptor.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 335

Instead of regulating a tunable filter to cover the signal we want to measure, it is

better to pass the spectrum through a fixed filter. We then combine (or multiply) the
signal with another signal that carries out a frequency sweeping. The frequencies
obtained by structure (sum of frequencies) are detected when they are equal to the
central frequency of the selective filter (also called the intermediate frequency (IF)).
The principle is shown in Figure 8.10.

In
Att. G det
IF
LO
Ramp Local
generator osc.

Figure 8.10. Schema principle of the sweeping spectrum analyzer

We see that the most important unit in this process is the mixer, the signal to be
studied having been applied after formatting on the RF input and the sweeping
signal having been formatted on the LO input. Since the signals we apply on the RF
input of a mixer must come up to certain levels, the input has an attenuation stage
and an amplifier. It can have several successive conversion stages before optimally
adapting the frequency range of the signal to be studied to the frequency of the
selective filter. Each stage has a mixer, a local oscillator and an intermediary
frequency filter. With recent instruments, we use a digital filter for the last IF stage
that facilitates high stability in the filter, even at very low resolutions like 1 Hz. In
this case, the final section is digital, including the peak detection and the display
control.

After the selective filter, there is a peak detector for finding the amplitude of
selected lines, then a filtering before beginning the visualization process. Recently,
in some microprocessing variations, the signal is digitized after the video filtering
and a microprocessor controls the local oscillator and display functions.

The main parameters to regulate are the central frequency, the frequency span,
the resolution (length of the selective filter or resolution bandwidth, written as
BWres) and the sweep rate, written as SWr. However, we should remember that the
higher the response, the more selective the passband filter. We have to “wait” for the
output signal to go through transient regime before being able to correctly carry out
peak detection. So, if we want to improve resolution (that is, separate the close
lines), we must increase the sweep time so that the span parameters, sweep rate and
resolution cannot be regulated independently. The resolution values usually can be
336 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

regulated by sequences 1, 3 (100 Hz, 300 Hz, 1 kHz, etc.). We can give an
approximate formula between sweep rate and resolution:

BW res 2
SW r = [8.8]
kF

where kF is a kind of form factor dependent on the type of filter used (for a Gaussian
filter we have kF ≈ 2).

For the adjustments concerning detected amplitude, we find the reference, that is
the maximum value displayed at the top of the screen, the unit chosen for the display
and the scale (quantity displayed by division). The unit of amplitude can be in volts
(or its sub-multiples), in dB (with different variants dB, dBv, dBm, and so on,
according to the reference chosen for the calculation of decibels). We see that
display in dB (logarithmic) is the most widely used, taking into account the very
wide gaps possible between amplitudes of different peaks.

Sweeping can be done by a analog VCO, but today it is more often carried out by
frequency synthesis devices with frequencies that are calculated according to the
span and number of measurement points. With these devices it is possible to average
the measurements carried out at each of the frequencies; this increases the signal-to-
noise ratio.

Spectrum analyzers with sweeping functions have another important option:

tracking generators. These are generators that supply a sinusoidal signal, of constant
amplitude, that varies linearly over the course of time (but are synchronized on
sweeping by the frequency of the analyzer itself). We can, for example, apply this
signal to the quadrupole input. The spectrum measurement of the output signal of
this quadrupole directly shows the response curve in amplitude of the quadrupole
being studied.

8.1.4.2. FFT analyzers

The schema principle for this instrument is shown in Figure 8.11.

In
Att. ADC FFT

analog num.
FS

Figure 8.11. Schema principle for a spectrum analyzer using FFT

 Instruments and Measurement Chains 337

The signal is first attenuated or amplified (according to its amplitude), then

filtered to avoid spectrum aliasing. Then the signal is sampled and digitized (with an
ADC sample and hold) to a frequency written as FS. Lastly, the system calculates the
Fourier transform of the number obtained by a rapid algorithm called the FFT.
Shannon’s criterion must also be respected, so we get:

FS > 2Fmax [8.9]

One important advantage of the FFT analyzer is its rapidity, since it establishes
all the components of the spectrum in frequency in one time; the measurement speed
is, at equal resolution, well above that of a sweep analyzer. Another advantage is
that it also allows us to obtain a good resolution even at low frequencies (as low as
Hz), which would be impossible with a sweep method.

It is important to remember one of the problems basic to the calculation principle

of the Fourier transform. The calculation is applied to the digitized signal on a finite
interval of time. This means it is seen in a certain temporal window. The obtained
result is thus the convolution product of the Fourier transform of the signal, which
itself is the product of the Fourier transform of the window. A simple rectangular or
uniform window will then appear from the sinus functions (x)/x at each peak with
relatively high lobes (Gibbs phenomenon) that risk flooding lower neighboring
peaks. We then have the possibility, according to the quality criterion selected, of
using different forms of windows to improve our results.

The windows proposed by FFT analyzers are the following: uniform; Barlett (or
triangular); Hanning (in cosine); Hamming; Blackman; Kaiser; and Flattop. Each
type of window has certain advantages (such as fewer secondary lobes, a good
respect for the maximum value, among others), but these are to the detriment of the
length at half-maximum or to the measurement accuracy of the amplitude. Here, we
give the expressions of some of these windows, by the function w(n), defined as
0 ≤ n ≤ N – 1, and which is zero outside, n representing the number of the sample
[OPP 74].

Uniform: w(n) = 1 [8.10a]

2n N −1
w(n) = for 0 ≤ n ≤
N −1 2
Bartlett: [8.10b]
2n N −1
w(n) = 2 − for ≤ n ≤ N −1
N −1 2
338 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1⎡ ⎛ 2πn ⎞⎤
Hanning: w(n) = ⎢1 − cos⎜ ⎟⎥ [8.10c]
2⎣ ⎝ N − 1 ⎠⎦

⎛ 2πn ⎞
Hamming: w(n) = 0.54 − 0.46 cos ⎜ ⎟ [8.10d]
⎝ N −1 ⎠

⎛ 2πn ⎞ ⎛ 4πn ⎞
Blackmann: w(n) = 0.42 − 0.5cos ⎜ ⎟ + 0.08cos ⎜ ⎟ [8.10e]
⎝ N −1 ⎠ ⎝ N −1 ⎠

⎡ 2 2⎤
⎛ N −1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ N − 1 ⎞⎤ ⎥
I 0 ⎢ω a ⎜ ⎟ − ⎢n − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
Kaiser: w(n) = [8.10f]
⎡ ⎛ N − 1 ⎞⎤
I 0 ⎢ω a ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

The Kaiser is defined from the Bessel function of order zero, of the first type.
The parameter a allows us to adjust the compromise between width of the central
lobe and amplitude of the secondary lobes.

8.1.4.3. Principles of possible measurements

Here we give some of the main applications of spectrum analyzers.

Of course, we must mention direct spectral studies of a signal, for example the
signal delivered by an oscillator or modulated signals of type AM or FM. These help
us establish the spectral dimension around the carrier. Some spectrum analyzers
even include demodulation functions (one example is the ESA1500 made by Agilent
TechnologiesTM).

When we study the output signal of an amplifier, the spectrum analyzer allows a
certain number of measurements. The measurement of harmonic distortion rate is
worth mentioning here. This is an indicator of the relation of the energy contained in
all the harmonics and the energy contained in the fundamental; the results are
usually shown in percentages. The measurement is limited to a few harmonics, with
the analyzer offering the possibility of choosing the number (here we cite the
example of the FFT analyzer SR760 made by Stanford Research SystemsTM).

∑ Vi 2
2,..i..
THD = [8.11]
V1
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 339

A very important measurement concerns the power spectral density (PSD). This
is the amplitude normalized to 1 Hz of passband (expressed as V / Hz or in
dB / Hz ). This measurement gives us a result independent of the span (an example
of this type of signal analyzer is the HP89410 made by Agilent TechnologiesTM).

The study of oscillators requires another type of measurement carried out with a
spectrum analyzer: the measurement of phase noise. This measurement lets us
encode the spectral purity of an oscillator, or the sharpness of the line corresponding
to the oscillation frequency. If the resolution of the spectrum analyzer filter is
written as BW and if we carry out the measurement at a distance fx of the central line
or carrier fc, the phase noise is then:

L( f )(dBc / Hz ) = P( f x )(dBm) − P( fC )(dBm) − 10 log( BW / 1Hz ) [8.12]

Figure 8.12 shows the principle of the measurement of phase noise done with a
spectrum analyzer. The measurement is carried out with a gap f in frequency in
relation to the central frequency of the oscillator (or of the carrier in a transmission
system).
f

B Bϕ (dBc / Hz ) = B + 10 log BW

Figure 8.12. Measurement of phase noise done by a spectrum analyzer

8.1.5. Network analyzers

8.1.5.1. S parameters
With high frequencies (radio frequencies or hyper frequencies), it is imperative
to take into account the propagation effects on the transmission lines, and even, in
some cases, on the components. In the case of lines (bifilar, coaxial, microstrip, and
waveguide), we define the incident and reflected waves as a line plane (V1, Vr) the
v
reflection coefficient ρ = r , the characteristic impedance RC, the reduced
vi
Z
impedance z = .
RC
340 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

νi
We define the incident traveling wave by a = and the reflected traveling
RC
vr
wave by b = .
Rc

Remembering that fundamental formulae link and z:

z −1 1+ ρ
ρ= and z = [8.13]
z +1 1− ρ

The chart allows to go to z, as well as the reverse, according to the previous

formulae. This is Smith’s chart.

The matrix S is made of scattering parameters or S parameters representing the

way energy enters into a multiport system and is shared at output at the level of
these ports:

(b ) = [S ](a ) [8.14]

or also:

bi = ∑ Sij a j [8.15]
j

⎛b ⎞
S ii = ⎜⎜ i ⎟
⎟ is therefore the reflection coefficient of the port (i) when the
⎝ ai ⎠ a j =0
ports (j) are matched to Rc .

⎛b ⎞
Sij = ⎜ i ⎟⎟ is the transmission coefficient of the port (j) towards the port (i)
⎜a
⎝ j ⎠ ak = 0
all the ports (k ≠ j) being matched to Rc .

8.1.5.2. Measuring S parameters

Measuring the S parameters of a quadrupole is done with a network analyzer
called a vectorial analyzer when it carries out an amplitude and a parameter phase
measurement. We say that we are using a system that helps us compare amplitude
and phase of two incident waves, as two inputs written as R and A.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 341

8.1.5.2.1. Measuring Sij

Att. ∆Φ R

S
Att. (j) Q (i) A

Figure 8.13. Measurement of a reflection coefficient

At first, an all pass replaces Q. The attenuators and the phase shifter are adjusted
to regulate R = A. Then we place Q, R is unchanged and A’ = Sij*A so that we get
A'
S ij = , and from this the module and the phase of the transmission coefficient.
R'

8.1.5.2.2. Measuring Sii

We replace Q with a reflectometer bridge, characterized by its matrix S:

⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜0 0⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
S =⎜
1 1⎟
0 [8.16]
⎜2 2⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜0 0⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

Att. ∆Φ R

S
Att. (1) (3) A
(2)

(i)
Q

Figure 8.14. Measurement of a reflection coefficient

Port (3) is matched, so a3 = 0. Port (2) is in open circuit. We adjust R = A as

1
before, and we have R = A = a1 . Then we place the port (i) of the relevant
4
342 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

1
quadrupole at port (2) of the reflectometer. R = R’ and A' = S ii a1 and so
4
A'
S ii = , from which we get the module and the coefficient relection phase.
R'

Because of coupling possibilities between the paths R and A, and of defects at

the connector levels, as well as defects of the bidirectional coupler, it is necessary to
proceed to calibration, that is to pre-measurements, with all the elements perfectly
known (open circuit, short-circuit, adapted charge and all pass). The instrument
deduces from the error vectors, taking into account the error sources and making
corrections during later measurements.

It is very important to define the components’ measurement plans as clearly as

possible during calibration.

The S-parameter test set is an essential part of a network analyzer and can be
integrated either to the device itself or in casing. This unit ensures all successive
connections of the source, of the quadrupole, of the reflectometer to ports (i) and (j)
alternately, and allows us to determine the four parameters S ii , Sij , S ji and S jj .

The results obtained can be shown on the analyzer screen unit in the form of a
Smith chart, mainly for the reflection coefficients or in the module and phase form
for the transmission coefficients. From the transmission coefficients Sii we establish
the input impedance at the level of port (i).

8.1.6. Impedance analyzers

8.1.6.1. Method using a self-equilibrated bridge

This method, or at least its principle, can be described by the somewhat
simplified schema shown in Figure 8.15.
R

ZX

V1
V2

Figure 8.15. Measurement of impedance, self-equilibrated method

 Instruments and Measurement Chains 343

The impedance to be measured ZX is obtained by the transfer function of the

assembly:

V
Z X = −R 1 [8.17]
V2

There is also a four-point method for very low impedances, which is quite
similar to that used for multimeters.

DUT
R
A

V1
V2

Figure 8.16. Measurement of impedance, self-equilibrated four point method

We get a high accuracy (up to 0.05%) during resistance, conductance, inductances,

capacity, quality factor and loss angle measurements. This method has its upper limit
at around 100 MHz. It is this method that is used by the HP4192A analyzer
manufactured by Agilent TechnologiesTM that functions from 1 MHz to 13 MHz.

8.1.6.2. RF 1-V method

This method is used from around 1 MHz to 2 GHz, with an accuracy of about
0.8%. The range covered is relatively large, from 0.1 to 50 k .

In a way similar to the voltamperometric method of measuring resistances, we

find test plates of the “long shunt” type for high impedances, or “short shunt” for
low impedances (see Figure 8.17).

V2
V1 DUT

Figure 8.17. Impedance measurement by RF 1-V method

344 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The impedance to be measured is given by the following formula:

V2
Z=R [8.18]
V1

This method is used by the HP4291B analyzer made by Agilent TechnologiesTM.

8.1.6.3. Measurement with a network analyzer

Measurement of impedances can also be done with a network analyzer at high
frequencies, from 1 MHz, but more appropriately above 1 to 2 GHz. However, these
methods are not recommended for high impedances, since the measurement
accuracy is around 3% for impedances close to 50 .

The methods described below are in accord with E1A512 recommendations.

8.1.6.3.1. Measurement by reflection

This method measures the S11 parameter and deduces the impedance from it by
the basic relation linking impedance with the reflection coefficient.

1 − S11
Z X = RC × [8.19]
1 + S11

8.1.6.3.2. S parameters method

It is also possible to deduce the impedance of a complete measurement of S
parameters (two port method).

P1 P2

DUT

Figure 8.18. Measurement of impedance with a network analyzer

(1 + S11 )(1 + S22 ) − S21 S12

Z X = RC × [8.20]
2 × S 21
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 345

With all these methods it is important to closely observe the quality of the fixture
systems of the components being tested (in particular for CMS components) and
then proceed to a calibration step of the measurement system. This last step controls
all stages leading up to and including measurement planning.

8.1.7. Synchronous detection

Using a synchronous amplifier (called a lock-in amplifier, which carries out

detection by synchronous modulation) helps us eliminate 1/f noise in circuits, as
well as noise close to f = 0, on the condition that the direct or slowly varying useful
signal x(t) can be modulated in amplitude to the source by a reference signal r(t).
Synchronous detection allows for a reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio.

x(t) + noise multiplier

s(t) selective passband
modulation ampli. (FR) filter
a(t) m(t) x(t)
r(t) +
r(t) very reduced noise
reference
signal phase shifter

synchronous amplifier

Figure 8.19. Schema principle of synchronous demodulation detection

In fact, with the useful signal spectrum x(t) concentrated close to f = 0, the
modulation of x(t) by the reference signal of the frequency fr leads to the creation of
a signal s(t) whose spectrum is that of x(t) but is shifted from f = 0 to f = ± fr. The
signal s(t) is then filtered by an amplifier tuned to the frequency fr, which eliminates
all the noise found outside the passband of the tuned amplifier. A synchronous
detection using a multiplier, a phase shifter and a passband filter restores the useful
signal x(t).

To illustrate this method, let us consider a signal x(t) provided with a white
noise. We suppose that the reference signal is purely sinusoidal. Figure 8.20 shows
the spectrums obtained at the output of the different analysis units shown in Figure
8.19.
346 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Figure 8.20. Schema principle of detection by synchronous demodulation

We see that this type of detection helps us measure the phase shifting between
two signals of the same frequency, as well as the separation of real and imaginary
components from a signal in the complex ensemble.

One of the important parameters of the lock-in amplifier is the time constant,
which is directly linked to the cut-off frequency of the passband filters. These filters
eliminate the 2 fr component, and also help reduce noise by diminishing the
bandwidth. For example, the SR510/SR530 amplifiers made by Stanford ResearchTM
have two passband filters. The first has time constants that are adjusted from 1 ms to
100 s for the first stage, and from 1 s to 0.1 s for the second stage. The bandwidth of
the amplifier is of 100 kHz.

To improve measurement accuracy, we find the input of band reject filters set to
the frequency of the sector. We then double this frequency.

There are also digital lock-in amplifiers (one example is the SR810/830 made by
Stanford ResearchTM). With these instruments, the synchronous detection is carried
out digitally. The signal is sampled (after antialiasing filtering) at the maximum
frequency of 256 kHz, then a DSP carries out the demodulation, that is, the “digital”
multiplication of the signal sampled by the reference signal. The signal is then
filtered. As an example, the DSP can carry out 16 million multiplications and
additions per second on 24 bits. The time constant is adjustable from 10 µs to 30 ks,
the input passband going from 1 mHz to 102 kHz.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 347

8.2. Measurement chains

8.2.1. Introduction

Previously we have seen the description of a number of measurement

instruments which are currently in use. The user/instrument interface is reduced in
many cases to its simplest expression; that is, to some buttons and a display. We can
see why the microcomputer has become, over the years, an essential tool in a
measurement chain. Linked to an acquisition card or driving an instrumentation bus,
a computer gives its user numerous control and analysis capabilities.

In the field of instrumentation, we will look at the most up-to-date solutions

available to the consumer. Figure 8.21 summarizes data acquisition systems.

Conditioning (SCXI)
Card E/S
internal

VXI
ISA,PCI,PCMCIA Sensor
or
Actuator

IEEE488

Serial

Figure 8.21. Measurement chains connected to a microcomputer

Depending on the type of measurement and the environment in which the system
functions, the designer can choose between different options. There is no one
solution to any given problem, since today there are so many possibilities from
which to choose. The new communication interfaces available to the public are
reflected in the field of instrumentation, and so offer new possibilities. The serial
bus USB is one of the latest examples.
348 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

8.2.2. Communication buses PC/instruments

Communication buses connecting microcomputers and instruments fall mainly

into two categories: parallel and serial buses.

8.2.2.1. The parallel bus IEEE488

Parallel transmission is the most usual way to transfer data between two devices
in binary form. The high number of lines that are required, as well as the connecting
technology needed, make this option relatively expensive, and its usage is limited to
shorter distances.

However, this kind of transmission is quite suitable for measurement banks or

for distances of several meters. For these applications, the IEE488 bus, a standard
instrumentation bus widely used today, was developed.

There are many devices (those previously mentioned) and almost 250
manufacturers (among them Agilent TechnologiesTM, TektronicsTM, National
InstrumentTM) that offer interfaces and programs for this bus.

At the international level, the IEEE488 bus has different names:

– HPIB (Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus);
– GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus);
– IEEE BUS, ASCII BUS or PLUS BUS.

8.2.2.1.1. Specifications for the IEEE488 bus

The IEEE488 norm completely defines the electrical features and mechanics of
this bus, as well as the exchange protocols.

This is a parallel bus with asynchronous communication (bit-serial parallel

bytes), and is directed by a handshake system in which the slowest unit imposes its
rhythm. It can achieve a maximum transmission speed of 1 Mbit/s.

The ensemble can be linked by starfish or chain connections, or can use a

combination of the two. In all cases, for reasons of transfer speed, it is imperative to
respect the following criteria:
– the distance between two devices must not exceed 2 m;
– the total length of the bus must be below 20 m.

We can connect a maximum of 15 devices, including the PC controller, and half

of these devices must be powered on.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 349

8.2.2.1.2. Architecture of the IEEE488 bus

As shown in Figure 8.22, the instruments connected to the bus can have the
following functions:
– They can have control functions. This is usually the card inserted into the
microcomputer. Although many controllers also can be used in this way, they cannot
be used at the same time as controllers. The controller organizes exchanges,
configures the ensemble of devices, and ensures proper sequencing of operations
throughout the measurement chain.
– They can have “talker” functions. The instrument transmits messages
(continuation of binary words) to other instruments, most often towards the controller.
This is true of all measurement instruments (multimeters, oscilloscopes, etc.).
– They can have “listener” functions. The instrument receives messages from the
controller or from other instruments. This occurs during the configuration of a
measurement instrument, as well as with graphic tracers.

An instrument is usually both transmitter and receptor, but the transmission

direction is determined by the controller. Each device on the bus is identified by an
address that is sent on the bus for each new transfer.

Transmitter Receptor
Controller and/or and/or
receptor transmitter

EOI
REM Control line
SQR
ATN of the bus
IFC
NDAC Handshake
NRFD
DAV lines

8 bit data bus

Microribbon 57 connector
(24 contracts: 16 lines + 8 lines
of mass over twisted pairs

Figure 8.22. Architecture of the IEEE488 bus

The signals used for transmission are divided into three main levels, with
subdivisions according to functions.
– there are eight data lines. Each is a bidirectional bus ensuring word,
transmission, addresses and ASCII data;
350 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– there are three handshake lines:

- NDAC (No Data ACcept): the receiving device indicates if it will accept or
reject received data,
- NRFD (Not Ready For Data): this indicates if the device is ready to receive
data,
- DAV (DAta Valid): the transmitter confirms if the data presented over the
bus are valid;
– there are five control line for the bus:
- ATN (ATtentioN), or the control mode of the bus, depending on the mode of
the data,
- IFC (InterFace Clear) indicating the interface is in inactive mode,
- REN (Remote ENable) authorizes the instruments to function in remote
mode, meaning they are piloted by the bus,
- SRQ (Service ReQuest) warns the controller that an instrument needs its
attention,
- EOI (End Or Indentify) indicates the last byte in a message.

Electrical signals have levels compatible with TTL standards and work in
negative logic.

SRQ, NRFD and NDAC lines only use open collectors. For other lines, we find
both open collectors and three-state buffers that help us obtain transfer speeds above
250 Ko/s.

+5V
Input
14×3.3
+5V
=49.2mA
3kΩ
3.3mA max
0.4V
6.2kΩ
100pF
Output: max
level 0

Figure 8.23. Electric linkage over the IEEE488 bus

 Instruments and Measurement Chains 351

8.2.2.2. Serial buses

In this transmission mode, the data pass sequentially bit by bit over the same
conductor, their rhythm set by a transmitter clock. The main advantage of this
method is the limited number of wires connected to small connectors, meaning it
takes up less space. Serial buses are mostly used for transmission distances of
between several meters and around 1 km.

8.2.2.2.1. Transmission modes

A line is called simplex if the transfer is always in the same direction; it is a
duplex line for bidirectional communications. In a linked series, there are two data
transmission modes corresponding to the synchronicity of the receiver clock in
relation to that of transmission.

Asynchronous mode
The ensemble of bits to be transmitted is organized as a frame of about 10 bits
maximum. Each bit has a duration Tb in time. This frame contains the following
features:
– a low-level start bit;
– a message containing N bits, usually a type ASCII code, with N having
between 5 to 8 bits;
– a control bit (Checksum) more or less equal to the transmitted message;
– one or two high-level stop bits.

Rest
Start message
Stop
Transmission P
t
Reception Activation
(sampling)

Tb

Figure 8.24. Asynchronous serial transmission

Signal recuperation begins when the detection at the beginning ends as

transmission begins. Reading the transmitted bits is done by sampling each bit in the
middle of each basic period Tb. This process requires a good knowledge of the
format being used and of the transmission flow (1/Tb), expressed in bauds.
352 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Controlling the message reception can be done by using specialized components

of type UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) or more often by a
microcontroller.

This very simple transmission mode is widely used. However, it does not allow
for significant flows (lower than 19,200 bauds, with a corresponding Tb period of
52 µs). In the majority of cases, the transmitter is faster than the receiver, usually
because the receiver takes longer to analyze data. However, the reception buffer is
generally very limited. This means the signal receiver used with the transmitter must
use a handshake system. This system can be material (one example is the Data
Terminal Ready (DTR) protocol) or it can consist of software (such as the Xon Xoff
protocol).

Synchronous mode
Here, the transmitter and the receiver are synchronized, which means their
transmission and reception clocks of identical frequencies and phases. We then can
obtain very long and high speed message transmissions.

The transmission clock can be transmitted to the message or can also be

combined with it. In this case, we use transcoders that, in a logical manner, convert a
signal and the data to be transmitted from a clock. One of the most widely used of
these codes is the Manchester code. The transmitted signal comes from the XOR of
both clock and initial data signals. In this system, transmitted data can appear on
leading and trailing edges over all clock periods. It then becomes easy to produce a
receiver clock by synchronizing clocks by edge detection.

8.2.2.2.2. Electric interfaces

Whatever occurs in transmission and receiving operations, electric signals are
most often TTL compatible. This does not give good transmission conditions for
distances longer than 1 meter. We then have to use electric interfaces that change
and adapt the logical levels to be transmitted.

We can speak of two structures for driver connections and line receivers:
– Unbalanced structures, in which one conductor wire is used for transmitting a
logical signal, as well as a ground conductor wire that can be shared when several
transmission lines are necessary.
– Balanced structures, a mode in which two conductor wires are needed to
transmit a logical signal. As with the unbalanced structure, one ground conductor
wire is used. The major advantage of this structure is that it is relatively insensitive
to environmental noise. For this reason it is widely used in industrial applications.
As well, it allows larger flows than unbalanced structures do.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 353

At this time, there are four important standards used in serial transmission
systems. There are drivers and receivers of connected lines corresponding to each
norm. Figure 8.25 shows the type of wiring for each norm needed for the
transmission of logical signals (apart from the TIA/EIA485 norm, which permits
bidirectional transmission).

E R TIA/EIA232

E
T R
TIA/EIA423

R R

E T R TIA/EIA422
R R

T Line termination E TIA/EIA485

R

E T T E

R R
R
E

Figure 8.25. Standard transmission interfaces

As we can see by looking at Table 8.1, an essential element of buses is the

speed-distance product. Figure 8.26 summarizes this feature for different types of
serial and parallel transmission.
354 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

EIA/TIA232 EIA/TIA423 EIA/TIA422 EIA/TIA485

Structure Asymmetrical Asymmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical
Maximum line “Capa” line
1,200 m 1,200 m 1,200 m
length < 2,500 pF
Maximum flow 20 kbps 100 kbps 10 Mbps 10 Mbps
Maximum number
1 1 1 32
of transmitters
Maximum number
1 10 10 32
of receivers

Table 8.1. Essential features of serial transmission systems

The voltages we find are basically due to the line capacities used for carrying
signals.

Bit/s speed

100M

10M Ethernet

1M
IEEE488 RS422
100k RS485

10k
I 2C
1k RS232 RS423

100
1 10 100 1k 10k Distance m

Figure 8.26. Speed/distance for different communication buses

8.2.3. Internal acquisition cards

These are electronic cards placed in extensions of computers dedicated to

instrumentation. These are not only used for the acquisition of analog and/or logical
signals but can also deliver control signals or command variables.

Their use is relatively simple and their costs are moderate, considering their
capabilities and performances. The major advantage of these cards is their good
transfer speed for data in terms of measurement and control. This means we can use
real-time analysis.
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 355

In general, the number of inputs/outputs is fairly limited and can pose some
problems when a computer is not close to the process.

8.2.3.1. Description of inputs/outputs and associated conditioning

Depending on the process to be measured or controlled, it is vital to know:
– the nature of the information (analog or digital variables and their electric
characteristics);
– the type of analysis (amplification, scaled, filtering, analog-to-digital
conversion, memorization, etc.).

Figure 8.27 gives us a glimpse of a “universal” acquisition card showing a

number of inputs and outputs, as well as the electronics used for analysis.

CH0 AGC
CH1
MUX ADC Memory
CH2
CH3
AR filter
Tim0
Timer Clock
Tim1
Interface PC
control

PIO

Logic
IN/OUT

DAC Synthesis
CH4
Bus PC

Figure 8.27. Universal acquisition card

The main features of this kind of acquisition card are as follows.

– For analog input/output:
- bipolar or unipolar mode,
- analog-to-digital converter (ADC) of 8, 12, or 16 bits,
- digital-to-analog converter (DAC) of 8, 10, or 14 bits,
356 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

- a maximum sampling frequency of 1 Go/s,

- a programmable gain with ratios of 1, 2, 4, 8, and/or 1, 10, 100, or 1,000,
- number of channels covered by using a multiplexer (MUX),
- depth of maximum memory of about 100 Mo.
– For logical input/output:
- input/output levels TTL/CMOS,
- all or nothing input with the use of a optocoupler,
- input counting or period measurement.

If signal conditioning is still hard to carry out, we can use external signal
conditioning modules, such as the SCXI (Signal Conditioning eXtension for
Instrumentation).

8.2.3.2. Description of PC buses

According to the acquisition system to be inserted, transfers between the
instrumentation card and the microprocessor of the PC can be done another way.
There is a method called polling. In polling, the microprocessor is completely
dedicated to the task of acquisition, which limits overall analysis time. This method
uses interruptions. These interrupt the microprocessor only for the acquisition and
memorization of data, the rest of the time being devoted to control and applications.
By far the best-performing technique is the Direct Memory Access (DMA). In this
method, there are specific controllers that direct acquisitions and transfers towards
memory without the microprocessor and PC being involved. This leads to better
performances, since the PC deals solely with applications.

The cards developed for instrumentation use the standard principles of computer
extension cards.
– The first is the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus. Although it is older,
it is still used for instrumentation purposes. This is an asynchronous 16 bit bus set to
a rhythm of 8.33 MHz, with a transmission rhythm that does not exceed 1 to 2 Mo/s
because of cycles and interruptions. However, there are cards in ISA format that
allow for sampling of signals at frequencies of the order of several tens of Mech/s
that must be integrated with memory. The transfer towards the PC is then done
according to a lower rhythm and does not allow for a real-time analysis.
– The second is the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, which was
developed by Intel in 1993 and has been widely used since 1995. This is a 32 bit bus
set at 33 MHz, allowing for a theoretical maximum flow of 132 Mo/s. This is higher
than the flows allowed by the ISA bus, which explains its popularity for users
 Instruments and Measurement Chains 357

needing rapid acquisition cards. It also has “plug and play” features, eliminating the
cordless plugs needed for cards of the ISA formats. Again, differing from the ISA
system, the cards of PCI format integrate the DMA controller on the card itself, so
the bus can have autonomous control; thus, these are called master cards. There are
also “slave” cards that cannot integrate DMA functions in this way.

8.2.4. External acquisition cards: the VXI system

8.2.4.1. Functions of the VXI bus

The VXI system, developed from the VME, is widely used in modular
instrumentation. VXI is an abbreviation of “VMEbus eXtensions for
Instrumentation”. The specifications of this bus, which is dedicated to
instrumentation, detail the technical constraints for compatible VXI systems; we
find certain requirements in terms of chassis, signals used in load pockets, energy
feed and modules that can be connected.

This system was first developed in 1987 by five manufacturers of electronic

devices wishing to create a new standard for the industry. Their goal was to create
an instrumentation system with the advantages of the VME bus and increase the
capacities of the IEEE488 bus. They did this by increasing rapid activation between
devices.

8.2.4.2. Description of the VXI bus

The major advantage of the VXI is that it shares much of the format of the VME
bus. This means it can be easily used in industrial applications. The two A and B
card formats of the VME bus are kept, as well as the P1 connector and the center
row of the P2 connector as shown in Figure 8.28. In order to offer the largest
possible range of equipment, the VXI system allows for the addition of higher C and
D formats, as well as a P3 connector that is specific to the VXI system.

Specifications for the VXI bus completely describe the P2 and P3 connectors.
The P2 bus is made of several elements. It has a VME bus, a 10 MHz clock,
activation lines with ECL and TTL logical levels, an analog summation line, a
module identification line and a local bus. The P3 connector has supplementary lines
for a local bus structure, a clock line set at 100 MHz, and high performance
activation lines in ECL logic.

This design gives activation signals above 50 MHz and local data transfers of
100 Mb/s.
358 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

VXI VME
P1 A
3.9’× 6.3’
P1 P1 VME Computer bus
16 bit transfer, 16 Mo addressing
P1 Multi-master Arbitration bus
B 9.2’× 6.3’ Priority Interrupt bus, Utilities bus
P2
P2 Center rows adds:
VME 32 bit data & 4Go addressing
P1 P2 Outer rows adds:
C P2 10 MHz Clock bus, TTL&ECL Trigger
P2 9.2’× 13.4’ 12 Pin Local bus, Analog Sum bus
Module Identification bus
Power Distribution bus
P1 P3 adds:
D
P2
14.4’× 13.4’ P3 100 MHz Clock bus, ECL Star Bus
P3 ECL Trigger bus, 24 pin local
Power Distribution bus

Figure 8.28. Connector specifications

A system developed with a VXI bus foundation can support up to 256

instruments, of which one or several are control and arbitration modules. These
modules are usually found in the slot0 of the VXI chassis. Figure 8.29 shows the
standard VXI chassis with 13 modules. In the basket of the chassis are P1, P2 and P3
connectors. The chassis integrates a feed that supplies different voltages offered in
VXI specifications (+5 V, +12 V, +24 V, -2 V, -5.2 V, -12 V, -24 V) with different
available powers.

The VXI system is very complete and offers a standard of performance for the
field of instrumentation. However, it is still relatively expensive and therefore is
found only in top-of-the-line acquisition and automatic test systems.

Figure 8.29. VXI chassis

 Instruments and Measurement Chains 359

8.3. Bibliography

[ASC 99] ASCH G., Acquisition de données, du capteur à l’ordinateur, Dunod, 1999.
[COM 96] COMBES P.F., Micro-ondes, volume 1, Lignes guides et cavités, Dunod, 1996.
[COM 97] COMBES P.F., Micro-ondes, volume 2, Circuits passifs, propagation, antennes,
Dunod, 1997.
[COO 95] COOMBS C.F., Electronic Instrument Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
[DIE 99] DE DIEULEVEULT F., Electronique appliquée aux hautes fréquences, Dunod,
1999.
[IMH 90] The Impedance Measurement Handbook, Hewlett-Packard, 1990.
[OPP 74] OPPENHEIM A.V., SCHAFER R.W., Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall,
1974.
[SEI 99] Scientific and Engineering Instruments, Stanford Research Systems, 1998-1999.
[TMC 99] Test and Measurement Catalog 2000, Agilent Technologies, Dec. 1999.
[WHI 93a] WHITE R.A., Electronic Test Instruments – Theory and Applications, Prentice
Hall, 1993.
[WHI 93B] WHITE R.A., Spectrum & Network Measurements, Prentice Hall, 1993.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 9

Elaboration of Models for the Interaction

Between the Sensor and its Environment

9.1. Modeling a sensor’s interactions with its environment

The focus of this chapter will be to describe the relation between a sensor’s
output variables and the physical variable applied to its input, called the measurand.

This relation can also take into account the role played by other variables, a
priori external, that can cause variations in the output signal (some examples are the
sensor’s feed tension and the temperature).

9.1.1. Physical description of the model

The best approach is first to analyze what a sensor does and then to understand
and completely describe the physical processes of transduction. We then convert
these into mathematical forms by using physical laws. The result is an equation that
links output variables to input variables (creating a knowledge model).

This is a difficult task, requiring a complete understanding of all the phenomena

involved. In general, this process is long, especially for complex phenomena, but
this approach does have the advantage of being easily transposable to other, similar
systems.

Chapter written by Michel LECOLLINET.

362 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

9.1.2. Phenomenological approach

This is an experimental method that consists of collecting data. The values of the
output signals are compared to the values taken by the input variables under a set of
given conditions. The study of the structure of these data helps us collect results in
the form of mathematical relations (dependency models) that explain the
observations.

This experimental approach is improved by well-organized experiments, with the

goal of reducing the number of such experiments in order to keep a relevant
meaning. This approach does have the disadvantage of not being easily transposable
to other systems.

9.1.3. Adjustment

Sensor output
Sensor

Parametric Model output

model

Adjustment Deviation – +
algorithm

Figure 9.1. Data adjustment between a process and its model

In both cases, the method uses the following steps (see Figure 9.1):
– using either physical laws or a close observation of data, we establish a model
(equation) that has a certain number of unknown parameters;
– by setting an optimization criterion (the least squares, for example), we look
for parameter values that “at least” adjust the observed deviations between the
sensor’s output signal and the output signal of the model;
– the study of deviations between the data and the adjusted variables allows us,
for the first time, to verify the adequacy of the model and then, a second time, to
estimate the limits of this adequacy in terms of variability.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 363

9.2. Researching the parameters of a given model

9.2.1. The least squares method

Let us assume Y, X1, X2 are the variables represented by the output signal of a
sensor according to the input variables (signal, limiting quantity and so on). After a
physical analysis, we know that there is a mathematical relation between these
quantities, written as:

Y = f ( X 1, X 2 ,...θ 0 ,θ1,...,θ k ) [9.1]

where 0, 1, …, k represent the parameter relation.

We can also observe the measurements carried out with this sensor and make the
hypothesis that there is an expression such as the one in equation [9.1].

In both cases, the problem consists, apart from observations, of calculating the
values of the parameter model. For example, the relation between the input signal X
and the output signal Y can be a polynomial form of degree k:

Y = θ 0 + θ1 X + θ 2 X 2 + ... + θ k X k [9.2]

where we estimate the k+1 parameters from the n pairs of observations (x1, y1), (x2,
y2), …, (xn, yn).

If the number of pairs is equal to the number of parameters to be estimated, we

have a linear parameter system to be estimated, with n equations for n unknowns. If
the number of point pairs is lower than the number of parameters to be estimated,
the values of some of these parameters can be chosen arbitrarily to resolve the
problem.

The situation discussed here is when the number of points is strictly higher than
the number of parameters to be assessed. Under these conditions, the n equations
representing the n measurements cannot be resolved simultaneously. We then have
to analyze the system:

y1 = θ 0 + θ 1 x1 + θ 2 x12 + .... + θ k x1k + e1 [9.3]

y 2 = θ 0 + θ 1 x 2 + θ 2 x 22 + .... + θ k x 2k + e 2 [9.4]

y i = θ 0 + θ 1 xi + θ 2 xi2 + .... + θ k xik + ei [9.5]

364 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

y n = θ 0 + θ 1 x n + θ 2 x n2 + .... + θ k x nk + e n [9.6]

where the quantities e1,e2,….,en represent the deviations between the supposed or
theoretical model and the effected measurements. The value of each of these
deviations varies according to the optimization criterion adapted to analyze this
problem.

The criterion used here will be the least squares method of Gauss, who described
it as follows: “The estimator of the parameters 0, 1,…, k are the specific values that
reduce to minimum the sum of the squared deviations between the experimental
observations and the corresponding values predicted by the adopted theoretic
model.”

This means we must form the quantity

n
Q(θ à , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) = ∑e
i =1
2
i [9.7]

which is a function of 0, 1, …, k and find the values of these parameters that

minimize this function.

9.2.2. Application to estimate a central value

An example of a simple application of this principle may be provided by looking

for the estimator of the central value parameter of a series of measurements.

Let x1, x2, …, xn be the results obtained during n independent repetitions of the
measurement of the same variable under the same experimental conditions. We
make the hypothesis that these results are n specific numerical values of an expected
variable µ that we want to estimate (the expectation represents the ideal value that
the variable has under ideal conditions, that is, without random disturbance). The
obtaining conditions being identical, we can formulate the hypothesis that these
results have the same variance j2. The n measurement results are translated by the
system of the following n equations:

x1 = µ + e1 [9.8]

x 2 = µ + e2 [9.9]

x i = µ + ei [9.10]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 365

x n = µ + en [9.11]

Applying the Gaussian criterion leads to forming the quantity:

n n
Q( µ ) = ∑ i =1
ei2 = ∑ (x
i =1
i − µ)2 [9.12]

The graph representing the variation of Q(µ) according to µ is a parabola. (Figure

9.2).

300
Sum of squared

250
deviations

200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4
Parameter 6 8 10

Figure 9.2. Variation of the sum of squared deviations according to parameter

The minimum of this function is attained for the value µ̂ of µ , which is the
solution of the equation obtained by writing that:

dQ
=0 [9.13]
dµ

which immediately gives us:

∑x
i =1
i
µ̂ = [9.14]
n

In other terms, the estimator of the central value of the measurement results, in
the sense of the least squares, is simply the average arithmetic x of the values
obtained. We know that this estimator is not biased; that is, its expectation is equal
to µ. The variance of this estimator is then:
366 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

σ2
V ( µˆ ) = V ( x ) = [9.15]
n

9.2.3. Introduction to weighting

Let us look again at the example of finding the estimator of the central value
parameter of a measurement series.

Let x1, x2, …, xn be the results obtained during n independent repetitions of the
measurement of the same value. We now make the hypothesis that certain
experimental conditions have varied during the measurements, so that the variance
associated with each result varies from one measurement to another. This leads to:

V ( xi ) = σ i2 [9.16]

However, the expectation of each result is the same; thus, we let µ be the
expectation of this variable. The n measurement results are expressed by the same
system as before:

x1 = µ + e1 [9.17]

x 2 = µ + e2 [9.18]

x i = µ + ei [9.19]

x n = µ + en [9.20]

To take in consideration the fact that the measurements do not have the same
variance, we weigh each square of the deviance with a weighting (or weight)
coefficient gi. We then look at the expression:
n n
Q( µ ) = ∑
i =1
g i. ei2 = ∑ g (x
i =1
i i − µ) 2 [9.21]

The minimum of this function is attained for the value µ̂ p of µ, which is the
solution of the equation obtained by writing that:

dQ
=0 [9.22]
dµ
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 367

which gives us:

∑g x i i n
µ̂ p = i =1
n
= ∑w x i i [9.23]
∑g i =1
i
i =1

n
where wi is a normed weight such that ∑w
i =1
i = 1. [9.24]

The normalization condition imposed on wi automatically means that µ̂ p is an

unbiased estimator of µ. We can also try to determine the weights that minimize the
variance of µ̂ p . The variance of the weighted estimator is written:

V ( µˆ p ) = ∑ wi2σi2 [9.25]

We can try to determine the form of the weights that bring about the smallest
variance for ûp. Looking for the minimum of this function, taking into account the
constraint on the sum of the weights, gives us:

1
gi = [9.26]
σ i2

and

1
σ i2
wi = n
[9.27]
∑
i =1
1
σ i2

In other words, the weight obtained by imposing the minimum variance

condition of the estimator is inversely proportional to the result of the variance being
considered. Under these conditions, the expression of the variance of µ̂ p is written
as:

1
V ( µˆ p ) = n
[9.28]
∑σ
1
2
i =1 i
368 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

9.3. Determining regression line coefficients

We measure n pairs of joined values xi, yi that, in a plan brought to an axial

system (Ox, Oy), are represented by n points. A model explaining the form of the
scatter plot has a linear tendency that can be understood by two possible models:
– the proportional model Y = .X that depends on one parameter ;
– the affine model Y = 0 + 1.X that make use of two parameters.

With a sensor, the parameter factor of X is the sensitivity of the sensor, with the
scale gap being a constant parameter that is either optional when the instrument has
an expanded scale or is required in the case of an inopportune zero gap. We discuss
the two situations by presenting the following hypotheses:
– H1, with values xi that are perfectly known (E(xi) = xi and V(xi ) = 0);
– H2, with values of Y made without systematic errors;
– H3, with the variable Y measured with a constant variance, so V(yi) = 2
constant;
– H4, with independent measurements of Y, that is cov(yi, yj) = 0 when i ≠ j.

9.3.1. A proportional relation

The system representing n measured points is written:

y1 = θ .x1 + e1 [9.29]

y 2 = θ .x 2 + e 2 [9.30]

y i = θ .x i + e i [9.31]

y n = θ .x n + e n [9.32]

The terms e1, e2, …, en express the gaps between the observed values of Y and
the values predicted by the chosen model. Hypothesis H2 immediately shows that
each of these gaps is, on average, zero. So E(ei) = 0 whatever the index i of the
measurement.

By applying the Gaussian criterion, we form the quantity:

n n
Q(θ ) = ∑i =1
ei2 = ∑ (x
i =1
i − θ .x i ) 2 [9.33]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 369

The graph representing the variation of Q( ) according to is also a parabola.

The minimum of this function is reached for the value θˆ of , which is the solution
of the equation obtained by writing:

dQ
=0 [9.34]
dθ

which gives the normal equation:

n n

∑
i =1
θˆ.x i2 = ∑x y
i =1
i i [9.35]

whose solution is:

∑x y
i =1
i i
θˆ = n
[9.36]
∑
i =1
x i2

This estimator is expressed according to random variables. It is therefore a

random quantity. Building on the hypotheses previously formulated, this unbiased
estimator, that is, E( θˆ ) = θ .

In addition, the variance calculation is considerably simplified by hypotheses H3

and H4. Its expression is given by:

σ2
V (θˆ) = n [9.37]
∑i =1
x i2

For each measured point of the abscissa xi, we call the residuals ri the gap
existing between the measured value yi and Y of the corresponding value yˆ i = θˆ.x i
of the model:

ri = y i − yˆ i = y i − θˆ.x i [9.38]

n
If we look at the normal equation, we see that ∑ r .x
i =1
i i =0 [9.39]
370 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This property allows us, a posteriori, to verify the validity of the numerical
value of θˆ .

As well, the residuals help us obtain an unbiased estimator σ̂ 2 of the variance,

with which the measurements of Y are carried out, providing the chosen model
allows it:

∑r
i =1
i
2

σˆ 2 = [9.40]
n −1

Using the least squares line equation helps us calculate the interposed value of
Y that corresponds to an undetermined abscissa of the field validity of the model:

yˆ = θˆ.x [9.41]

The variance of this quantity is written:

σ 2x2
V ( yˆ ) = x 2V (θˆ) = n [9.42]
∑
i =1
x i2

It is possible to estimate this by replacing the variance j2 with its estimator. We

can see that the variance of is in origin zero (this is normal, the point being
absolutely fixed by the chosen model), and that it increases as the square of x for all
other abscissas.

9.3.2. Affine relations

We will look at the previous schema again by adapting it to the case of an affine
model in order to explain the measurements. The system representing the measured
n points is written:

y1 = θ o + θ 1 .x1 + e1 [9.43]

y 2 = θ o + θ 1 .x 2 + e 2 [9.44]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 371

y i = θ o + θ 1 .x i + e i [9.45]

y n = θ o + θ 1 .x n + e n [9.46]

The terms e1, e2, …, en express the deviations between the observed values of Y
and the values predicted by the chosen model. Hypothesis H2 leads us immediately
to the conclusion that each of the gaps are on average zero, so E(ei) = 0 whatever the
index i of the measurement. By applying the Gaussian criterion, we get the quantity:

n n
Q(θ 0 , θ 1 ) = ∑
i =1
e i2 = ∑ (x
i =1
i − θ 0 − θ 1 .x i ) 2 [9.47]

In a three-dimensional space brought to the axes 0 0, 0 1 and 0 Q, the surface

represented by the previous equation is an elliptic paraboloid that is intersected by a
vertical plane. The intersection is a parabola, while the intersection by a horizontal
plane (when it exists) is an ellipsis. As a general rule, the surface is not of a
revolution, which means the axes of the ellipsis are not parallel to the axes of the
coordinates.

Even though no relation exists between 0 and 1 (that is, they can vary
independently from one another), the minimum value of this surface is reached for
the value θˆ0 and 0 and the value θˆ1 of 1 that are the solutions of the usual
equation systems obtained when we write:

∂Q
=0 [9.48]
∂θ 0

∂Q
=0 [9.49]
∂θ 1

which gives us the normal equation systems:

n n
nθˆ0 + θˆ1 ∑
i =1
xi = ∑y
i =1
i [9.50]

n n n
θˆ0 ∑
i =1
x i + θˆ1 ∑
i =1
x i2 = ∑x y
i =1
i i [9.51]
372 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

whose solution is written:

n n n n ⎡ ⎤
∑ x ∑ y − ∑ x ∑ x .y
2
i i i i i n
⎢
⎢1
⎥
x (xi − x ) ⎥
θˆ0 = i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
2
= ∑ yi ⎢ − n ⎥ [9.52]
⎛ n ⎞ ⎢n
∑ (xi − x ) ⎥
2⎥
n
i =1
n ∑
i =1
x i2 − ⎜
⎜
xi ⎟
⎝ i =1 ⎠
⎟ ∑ ⎢
⎣ i =1 ⎦

n n n n
n ∑
i =1
xi . y i − ∑ ∑
i =1
xi
i =1
yi ∑ y .(x
i =1
i i − x)
θˆ1 = 2
= n
[9.53]
⎛ n ⎞
∑ (x − x)
n

∑ ∑
2
n x i2 − ⎜ xi ⎟ i
⎜ ⎟ i =1
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

For each of the solutions, the first form, directly deduced from normal equations,
is the fastest for carrying out calculations. This is because the different sums that are
part of it are calculated as input data arrives. However, the second form, which
requires a priori calculation of the average of the values of X and Y, interposes the
differences into these averages and is less sensitive to rounding errors of the
calculation systems.

These estimators are expressed according to the random variables. These are
therefore random quantities. Taking into account hypothesis H2, these are unbiased
estimators, which means that E ( θˆ0 ) = θ 0 and that E( θˆ1 ) = θ 1 .

Despite hypotheses H3 and H4, calculating the variance of each of these

estimators requires several precautions regarding the basic relations to be used. In
particular, the second form given for each estimator simplifies the calculations. We
get the following expressions:
n ⎡ ⎤
∑x i =1
2
i ⎢
2 ⎢1 x2
⎥
⎥
V (θˆ0 ) = σ 2 2
=σ ⎢ + n ⎥ [9.54]
⎛ n ⎞ ⎢n
∑ (xi − x )2 ⎥⎥
n
n ∑
i =1
x i2 − ⎜
⎜
⎝ i =1 ⎠
∑
xi ⎟
⎟ ⎢
⎣ i =1 ⎦

nσ 2 σ2
V (θˆ1 ) = 2
= n
[9.55]
⎛ n ⎞
∑ (x − x)
n

∑ ∑
2
n x i2 − ⎜ xi ⎟ i
⎜ ⎟ i =1
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 373

Also, we see that the obtained estimators are usually correlated, so their
covariance expression is as follows:
n
−σ 2 ∑x
i =1
i
−σ 2 x
cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) = 2
= n
[9.56]
⎛ n ⎞
∑ (x − x)
n

∑ ∑
2
n x i2 − ⎜ xi ⎟ i
⎜ ⎟ i =1
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

Later we will give an explanation for this correlation and why the covariance is
zero when the arithmetic mean of the values of X are zero.

For each measured point, we call residuals ri, the gap existing between the value
measured yi of Y and the corresponding value yˆ i = θˆ0 + θˆ1.xi of the model:

ri = y i − yˆ i = y i − θˆ0 − θˆ1 .x i [9.57]

The first of the normal equations shows that:

n

∑r
i =1
i =0 [9.58]

This property shows that the residuals are positive for some, negative for others,
and that overall, the sum cancels itself out: the line of the least squares goes from
“the middle” of the scatter of measured points and can be either above or below the
line.

The second of the normal equations give us:

∑ r .x
i =1
i i =0 [9.59]

A posteriori, these properties make it possible to verify the validity of the

numerical value of the estimators.

The residuals also help to obtain an unbiased estimator σ̂ 2 of the variance. The
residuals make up the measurements of Y, on condition that the chosen model is
pertinent:
374 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

∑r i =1
i
2

σˆ 2 = [9.60]
n−2

We see that the denominator, corresponding to the number of degrees of

flexibilities associated with this estimator, is formed by the number of measured
points, and diminished by the number of estimated parameters (here two, one for the
gradient, the other for the ordinate of origin).

The first of the normal equations shows that the point whose coordinates are:

n n

∑
i =1
xi ∑y
i =1
i
x= , y= [9.61]
n n

belongs to the least squares line. This point is linked to the measurements made by
the system and not to the adjusted line.

In other terms, the relation:

y = θˆ0 + θˆ1 .x [9.62]

is always satisfied.

This has two consequences. The first is that we can now calculate one of the
estimators (in practice, θˆ0 ) from knowing the other one (in practice, θˆ1 ), and the
values of x and y . The second is that it qualitatively explains the correlation
between θˆ0 and θˆ1 . Since the line must go through the point of the coordinates x ,
y being fixed for a data set, any attempt to modify the gradient, for example, can
only be done by rotation around this point.

Let us suppose that the average of X is strictly positive. Under these conditions,
the covariance between θˆ0 and θˆ1 is negative. We then see graphically that
augmenting the gradient means a diminishment of the ordinate source. This explains
the covariance sign. A completely similar conclusion can be obtained when the
average of X is negative. In the specific case when the average of X is zero, this
particular point is on the ordinates axis. The rotation of the line does not mean
source ordinate modification, and the covariance is zero.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 375

Using the least squares line equation allows us to calculate the interposed value
of Y corresponding to an indeterminate abscissa x of the validity domain of the
model:

yˆ = θˆ0 + θˆ1 .x [9.63]

The variance of this quantity is written as:

V ( yˆ ) = V (θˆ0 ) + x 2 .V (θˆ1 ) + 2 x cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) [9.64]

By replacing the variances of the estimators and the covariance between the
estimators with their respective expressions, we get the forms:

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ n( x − x )2 ⎥ ⎢ ( x − x )2 ⎥
2 ⎢1 ⎥ = σ ⎢1 +
V ( yˆ ) = σ + 2
⎥ [9.65]
⎢n ⎛ n ⎞ ⎥
2
⎢n 2⎥
∑ (x i − x ) ⎥
n
⎢
⎢
n ∑
x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑ xi ⎟ ⎥
⎟ ⎥
⎝ i =1 ⎠ ⎦
⎢
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎣ i =1

We see that the variance of varies according to the value of x (see Figure 9.3).
It presents a minimum of x = x , where its value is:

σ2
[V ( yˆ )]x = x = [9.66]
n

This is a logical result, since yˆ = y

We also see that for x = 0, we also find:

[V ( yˆ )]x =o = V (θˆ0 ) [9.67]

The estimated ordinate variance of the line of least squares increases according
to the lengthening function at x .
376 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

All these expressions can be evaluated by replacing the variance j2 with its
estimator, which has been obtained from the residual sum of squares.
Y

0 5 10 15

Figure 9.3. Approximate gap envelope around the least squares line

We can also reverse the least squares line method by calculating the abscissa
x̂ that corresponds to an ordinate :

yˆ − θˆ0
xˆ = [9.68]
θˆ 1

Applying the variance composition law to this expression leads to the following
conclusion:

V ( yˆ )
V ( xˆ ) = [9.69]
θˆ 2
1

There is a direct correspondence between the gap type of the abscissa and the
gap type of the ordinate throughout the gradient of the least squares line.

All these expressions can be estimated by replacing the variance j2 by its

estimator. This is shown in equation [9.60].

We should remember that the least squares criterion does not, when used alone,
allow us to test the validity of the chosen linear model.

An examination of the graph representing the distribution of residuals according

to the values of X allows us to make a zoom around the line. This shows that one or
several points are abnormally far from the model, a concavity or inflection that can
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 377

be explained by a too low polynomial degree, or in the opposite situation, by a

satisfactory distribution (random) of the points (Figure 9.4).

40
30
20
residuals

10
0
-10
-20
-30
x
Figure 9.4. Distribution of residuals according to the model being used

We call the coefficient signification R the square of the correlation coefficient

between the values of X and the values of Y, so:

2
⎡ n ⎤
∑
⎢ ( x i − x ).( y i − y )⎥
⎣⎢ i =1 ⎦⎥
R= [9.70]
⎡ n ⎤⎡ n ⎤
∑
⎢ ( xi − x ) ⎥ ⎢ ( y i − y ) ⎥
⎢⎣ i =1
2

⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ i =1
2

⎥⎦
∑

This coefficient can also be expressed in one of the following forms:

n n
θˆ1 ∑
i =1
( xi − x ) 2 ∑r
i =1
1
2

R= n
= 1− n
[9.71]
∑(yi=
i − y) 2
∑(y
i=
i − y) 2

We can easily see that if the experimental points are perfectly aligned, that is, if
the dispersion of the values of Y are completely explained by the chosen theoretical
model, the residuals are zero, so R = 1. However, if the values of Y are independent
of the values of X, that is, if the gradient of the model is zero, then R = 0. Aside
from these two extreme cases (which are rarely found in practice), we must be
378 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

careful to draw conclusions solely from the value of R, since different forms of point
scatters can lead to the same value of the correlation coefficient.

9.3.3. Weighting application

9.3.3.1. Calculation hypotheses

We will look again at adjustment problems with linear models by modifying
hypothesis H3 only. Now we are in a situation where the measurement uncertainty
of the variable Y can be different from one value to another, so that:

V ( y i ) = σ i2 [9.72]

This is the case when measurements are made with a type of constant relative
gap ji/yi. In these conditions, we use a weighting coefficient that converts the more
or less high proximity of the passage of the line near to the point according to the
uncertainty function that is being affected.

9.3.3.2. Weighting and proportional relations

The quantity we want to minimize is the sum of the squared gaps, each gap
having a weight gi:

n n
Q(θ ) = ∑ g e = ∑ g (y
i =1
2
i i
i =1
i i − θ .x i ) 2 [9.73]

The minimum of this function is reached for the value θˆ p of , which is the
solution of the equation obtained by writing that:

dQ
=0 [9.74]
dθ

which gives the normal equation:

n n

∑i =1
θˆ p g i .x i2 = ∑g x y
i =1
i i i [9.75]

whose solution is:

 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 379

∑g x y
i =1
i i i
θˆ p = n
[9.76]
∑i =1
g i x i2

Taking into account the hypotheses that have already been formulated, the
estimator is always unbiased, which means that E( θˆ p ) = θ .

In addition, the variance of θˆ p is given by the general expression:

∑g
i =1
i xi σ i
2 2 2

V (θˆ p ) = 2
[9.77]
⎡ n ⎤
⎢ ∑ g i x i2 ⎥
⎣⎢ i =1 ⎦⎥

This is the function of values that we can give to the weighting coefficients.

We can find the weighting values that allow us to obtain a minimal value for
V (θˆ p ) , that is, for the solutions obtained by writing:

∂V (θˆ p )
=0 [9.78]
∂p j

for all the values of j between 1 and n.

We come to the condition:

g1σ 12 = g 2σ 22 = ...... = g j σ 2j = ....g n σ n2 [9.79]

This means that we find the fact that the weight that minimizes the variance is
inversely proportional to the variance of the quantity it weights:

gi = 1 2 [9.80]
σ i

In these conditions, the gradient estimator and its variance respectively take the
following expressions:
380 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

∑σ
xi y i
2
i =1
θˆ p = n
i
[9.81]
x i2
∑i =1 σ i
2

1
V (θˆ p ) = n
[9.82]
x i2
∑σ
i =1
2
i

In the specific case of a variance being identical for each measurement, these
expressions result in the same relations as those shown for the non-weighted case.

For the measurement point of an abscissa xi, the estimated ordinate is yˆ i = θˆ.x i ,
and the residual is worth:

ri = y i − yˆ i = y i − θˆ.x i [9.83]

The normal equation shows that:

∑ g r .x
i =1
i i i =0 [9.84]

A posteriori, this property allows us to verify the validity of the numerical value
of θ̂ p .

Since the idea of weighting requires knowledge of weights, and therefore of

variances linked to each result, estimating a variance from the sum of squared
residuals is not relevant to this discussion.

9.3.3.3. Weighting and affine relations

Here we again look at the previous schema adapted to a situation of choosing an
affine model to explain measurements. The quantity to be minimized is the sum of
the squared gaps weighted by the weight gi, so

n n
Q(θ o , θ 1 ) = ∑
i =1
g i ei2 = ∑ g (y
i =1
i i − θ 0 − θ 1 .x i ) 2 [9.85]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 381

The minimum of this function is attained for the value θˆ0 p of 0 and the value
θˆ
1 p of 1, solutions of the equation obtained by writing:

∂Q
=0 [9.86]
∂θ 0

∂Q
=0 [9.87]
∂θ 1

which gives us the normal equation system:

n n n
θˆ0 p ∑g
i =1
i + θˆ1 p ∑g x =∑g y
i =1
i i
i =1
i i [9.88]

n n n
θˆ0 p ∑
i =1
g i x i + θˆ1 p ∑i =1
g i x i2 = ∑g x y
i =1
i i i [9.89]

for which the solution is written:

n n n n

∑ i =1
g i x i2 ∑
i =1
g i yi − ∑i =1
g i xi ∑g x y
i =1
i i i
θˆ0 p = 2
[9.90]
n n ⎛ n ⎞
∑g ∑ i g i x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑ g i xi ⎟
⎟
i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

n n n n

∑ ∑
i =1
gi
i =1
g i xi y i − ∑
i =1
g i xi ∑g y
i =1
i i
θˆ1p = 2
[9.91]
n n ⎛ n ⎞
∑g ∑ i g i x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑ g i xi ⎟
⎟
i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

Taking into account the previously formulated hypotheses, these estimators are
unbiased, that is:

E( θˆ0 p ) = θ 0 [9.92]

E( θˆ1 p ) = θ 1 [9.93]
382 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Whatever the weighting coefficients being used, this results in the

“autonormalization” of these.
n
By dividing the two members of the first normal equation by ∑g
i =1
i , we get:

y p = θˆ0 p + θˆ1 p .x p [9.94]

by positing:

n n

∑g x
i =1
i i ∑g y
i =1
i i
xp = n
and y p = n
[9.95]
∑g
i =1
i ∑g
i =1
i

which are respectively the weighted average of the values of X and Y. The point of
the coordinates x p , y p belongs to the least squares line. Consequently, it is possible
to obtain a new set of relations that give estimators by using a new axial system,
parallel to the initial axes but centered on the point of coordinates x p , y p . Here, the
line intersects the origin and we find a proportional form, with the same leading
coefficient, so:

∑ g y .(x )
n n

∑
i =1
g i ( x i − x p ).( y i − y p )
i =1
i i i − xp
θˆ1p = = [9.96]
∑ g (x )
n n

∑ g (x
i =1
i i − xp) 2

i =1
i i − xp 2

The value of θˆ0 p is expressed by:

θˆ0 p = y p − θˆ1 p .x p [9.97]

As was the case before, this second set of solutions, even though requiring a
prior calculation of the weighted averages of X and Y, produce values that are less
sensitive to calculation errors. This is because the expressions only relate to gap
values measured in relation to these averages.

These estimators are expressed according to random variables. This means they
are random quantities. Taking into consideration hypothesis H2, these are unbiased
estimators, so that E( θˆ0 ) = θ 0 and E( θˆ1 ) = θ 1 .
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 383

The following expressions give the variances of each estimator, as well as their
covariances.

∑g x
i =1
2
i i
1 x p2
V (θˆ0 p ) = = + [9.98]
∑ g ∑ g (x )
2 n n
n n ⎛ n ⎞
∑g ∑ ∑ − xp 2
g i x i2 − ⎜ g i xi ⎟ i i i
i ⎜ ⎟ i =1 i =1
i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
n

∑g
i =1
i
1
V (θˆ1 ) = = [9.99]
∑ g (x )
2 n
n n ⎛ ⎞n

∑g ∑ ∑ − xp 2
g i x i2 − ⎜ g i xi ⎟ i i
i ⎜ ⎟ i =1
i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

and
n
− ∑g xi =1
i i
− xp
cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) = = [9.100]
∑ g (x )
2 n
n n ⎛ n ⎞
∑g ∑ ∑ − xp 2
g i x i2 − ⎜ g i xi ⎟ i i
i ⎜ ⎟ i =1
i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

The variance values of the obtained estimators are functions of the values
attributed to weighting coefficients.

As before, we can show that the weights that minimize these quantities are
inversely proportional to the gap variance, so:

gi = 1 [9.101]
σ i2

Using the least squares line equation allows us to calculate the interposed value
of Y corresponding to an indeterminate abscissa x of the validity field of the model:

yˆ = θˆ0 p + θˆ1 p .x [9.102]

The variance of this quantity is written:

V ( yˆ ) = V (θˆ0 p ) + x 2 .V (θˆ1 p ) + 2 x cov(θˆ0 p , θˆ1 p ) [9.103]

384 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

By replacing the variance of the estimators and the covariance between the
estimators with their respective expressions, we get the form:

1 ( x − x p )2
v( yˆ ) = n + n [9.104]

∑ gi ∑ gi (xi − x p ) 2

i =1 i =1

9.3.4. The least measured-squares line: when two measured variables contain
uncertainties

The previous sections do not discuss the problem of determining line coefficients
when there are uncertainties only for variables represented as ordinates.

Practically, the quantities represented as X and Y are both likely to include

uncertainties. We can refer back to the previous examples if we wish to show that
the uncertainty of the variable represented on the axis of the abscissas, projected as
an uncertainty on the axis of the ordinates, is small compared to the uncertainty of Y
itself; that is:

V ( y i ) >> θ 12V ( x i ) [9.105]

If this inequality is not resolved, we can resolve the problem by using the method
developed by Williamson.

This is part of the framework of the general hypotheses that follow.

The measured variables X and Y are connected by a formal relation:

y = θ 0 + θ1 x [9.106]

We measure n pairs of values (xi, yi), each of these measurements being seen as a
random variable, with the following variances:

V ( xi ) = pi [9.107]

V ( y i ) = qi [9.108]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 385

It is not possible to bring in covariance a priori, since the variables X and Y are
results of different experimental processes.

The quantity to be minimized is the sum of the squared weighted distances

between each experimental point Mi of the coordinates (xi, yi) and the corresponding
point M’i of coordinates (Xi, Yi) belonging to the theoretic equation line Y = 0 + 1X,
so:

n ⎡⎛ x − X 2
⎞ ⎛ y i − Yi ⎞
2⎤
Q= ∑ ⎢⎜ i
⎢⎜⎝ p i
i
⎟ +⎜
⎟ ⎜ q
⎠ ⎝
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎥
⎥
[9.109]
i =1 ⎣ i
⎦

or again:

n ⎡⎛ x − X 2
⎞ ⎛ yi −θ 0 −θ1 X i ⎞
2⎤
Q= ∑ ⎢⎜ i
⎢⎜⎝ p i
i
⎟ +⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎠ ⎝ qi
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎥
⎥
[9.110]
i =1 ⎣ ⎦

which is also written:

n ⎡⎛ x − X 2
⎞ ⎛ vi ⎞
2⎤
Q= ∑ ⎢⎜ i
⎢⎜⎝ p i
i
⎟ +⎜
⎟ ⎜q
⎠ ⎝ i
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎥
⎥
[9.111]
i =1 ⎣ ⎦

by proposing:

vi = yi − θ 0 − θ 1 xi [9.112]

We again mark the variances of xi and yi as the denominators of this expression,

which weighted each square of the gap, as we have previously seen.

During a preliminary phase, it is necessary to determine the values Xi and Yi of

the point of the line, then make the adjustments in relation to these.

Williamson handles the problem by minimizing each quantity written inside the
bracket by proposing that:

∂Q
=0 [9.113]
∂X i
386 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We get:

n
Q= ∑ g .v
i =1
i
2
i [9.114]

by proposing:

1
gi = [9.115]
q i + θ 12 p i

We see that the proposed method means considering the squared gap, measured
parallel to the axis of the ordinates, between the experimental point and the
theoretical line. This quantity is modified by a weighted coefficient projected onto
the axis of the ordinates of the variance of yi, and then by the component projected
onto the axis of the ordinates of the variance of xi. This means that we come back to
the standard situation analyzed above: the calculation of vi as well as of gi requires
knowledge of the theoretical line that we are trying to measure. We thus
immediately know that resolving the problem requires going through an iterative
process or phase.

The first phase, in which we establish the estimators of 0 and of 1, is done in

the standard way by finding the solution of the equations system obtained by writing
that:

∂Q
n
∂v i
∂θ 0
= 2 g i vi
i =1
∑∂θ 0
=0 [9.116]

n
∂Q ⎛ ∂g ∂v ⎞
∂θ 1
= ∑ ⎜⎜⎝ vi2 ∂θ1i + 2 g i vi ∂θi1 ⎟⎟⎠ = 0 [9.117]
i =1

Taking into account the relations existing between vi and gi on the one hand, and
between 0 and 1 on the other, we get:

∂v i
= −1 [9.118]
∂θ 0

∂v i
= − xi [9.119]
∂θ 1
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 387

∂g i
= −2 p iθ 1 g i2 [9.120]
∂θ 1

We also get the system of normal equations:

∑g v
i =1
i i =0 [9.121]

n
∑ g i vi ( g i vi piθˆ1 + xi ) = 0 [9.122]
i =1

By replacing gi and vi with their expressions in the first of the normal equations,
and by proposing:
n n
∑ g i xi ∑ g i yi
xπ = i =1 and yπ = i =1 [9.123]
n n
∑ gi ∑ gi
i =1 i =1

we end up with the formula:

θˆ0 + θˆ1 .xπ = yπ [9.124]

This easily shows that the estimated line intersects with the point of the
coordinates xπ , yπ , a result we have already seen with more restrictive hypotheses.

As for the second normal equation, with the following:

x i′ = x i − xπ [9.125]

y i′ = y i − yπ [9.126]

and:
z i = x i′ g i q i − g i p iθˆ1 y i′ [9.127]
388 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This can be expressed as:

∑ g z ( y ′ θˆ .x ′ ) = 0
i =1
i i i− 1 i [9.128]

From this we immediately get the gradient estimator:

∑ g z y′
i =1
i i i
θˆ1 = n
[9.129]
∑ g z x′
i =1
i i i

This format is less satisfactory than it seems, since gi and also zi are functions of
θˆ1 and therefore of the solution!

Practically, we calculate by iteration from an initial value of 1 written as 0θˆ1

(obtained from a graphic estimation or by means of a brief preliminary calculation).
From this value we calculate the following quantities:

1
0 gi = [9.130]
qi + 0 θˆ12 . pi

∑ i =1
0 g i .x i
0 xπ = n
[9.131]
∑i =1
0 gi

∑ i =1
0 g i .yi
0 yπ = n
[9.132]
∑ i =1
0 gi

0 x i′ = x i − 0 xπ [9.133]

0 y i′ = y i − 0 yπ [9.134]
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 389

and:
0 z i = 0 x i′ . 0 g i .q i − 0 g i . p i . 0 θˆ1 . 0 y i′ [9.135]

We get a new value of the gradient estimator:

∑ i =1
0 g i . 0 z i . y i′
1θ 1
ˆ = [9.136]
n

∑ i =1
0 g i . 0 z i .x i′

which helps us calculate new values for g i , xπ , yπ , x i′ , y i′ , z i and thus for θˆ1 , etc.,
continuing up to the convergence towards the gradient value.

As with all iterative problems, it is important to start from a value close to the
solution, both to minimize the number of iterations and to guarantee the
convergence towards the desired value, even though here this last point is not an
issue.

Once we have θˆ1 , we get θˆ0 from the relation:

θˆ0 = yπ − θˆ1 .xπ [9.137]

This technique also helps us obtain the variances of the estimators:

n
V (θˆ1 ) = T 2 ∑ g .( x ′ q
i =1
i i
2
i + y i′ 2 p i ) [9.138]

1
V (θˆ0 ) = n
+ 2.( xπ + 2 z π ) z π T + ( xπ + 2 z π ) 2 V (θˆ1 ) [9.139]
∑g
i =1
i

expressions in which

1
T= [9.140]
n ⎡ x′.y′ ⎤
∑i =1
g i .⎢ i i + 4.( z i − z π ).( z i − x i′ )⎥
⎣⎢ θ 1
ˆ
⎦⎥
390 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

and:
n

∑ g .z
i =1
i i
zπ = n
[9.141]
∑g
i =1
i

All these relations restore values already seen when uncertainties only affect the
variable Y, whether in a constant way as a variable according to the measurement
index.

9.4. Example of a polynomial relation

Now we come to a situation where the adjustment model is written in the form of
a polynomial development of X. We get:

Y = f ( X ) = θ 0 . f 0 ( X ) + θ 1 . f1 ( X ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( X ) + θ k . f k ( X ) [9.142]

f 0 ( X ), f1 ( X ), f 2 ( X ), ..., f k ( X ) being polynomials of X, of 0, 1, 2,…, k

respectively.

We try to find the estimators of the parameters 0, 1, 2,…, k of the model from
the measurement of n pairs of values (xi , yi) when n > k + 1.

The ordinate form:

Y = f ( X ) = θ 0 + θ1 .X + θ 2 .X 2 + θ k .X k [9.143]

is a specific example of this model.

9.4.1. A simple example

This situation will be discussed in the following hypotheses, already formulated

for the line:
– H1: the values are perfectly known (E(xi) = xi and V(xi) = 0);
– H2: the measurements of Y are obtained without systematic errors;
– H3: the variable Y has the same variance whatever its value, so V(yi) = j2
constant;
– H4: the measurements of Y are independent, that is, cov(yi , yj) = 0 when i ≠ j.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 391

The measurement ensemble is expressed by the system of n equations:

θ 0 . f 0 ( x1 ) + θ 1 . f 1 ( x1 ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( x1 ) + θ k . f k ( x1 ) + e1 = y1 [9.144]

θ 0 . f 0 ( x 2 ) + θ 1 . f1 ( x 2 ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( x 2 ) + θ k . f k ( x 2 ) + e2 = y 2 [9.145]

θ 0 . f 0 ( x n ) + θ 1 . f1 ( x n ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( x n ) + θ k . f k ( x n ) + en = y n [9.146]

We can obtain a more compact expression by using the matrix formalism. By

introducing the following vectors:

⎡ y1 ⎤ ⎡ e1 ⎤ ⎡θ1 ⎤
⎢y ⎥ ⎢e ⎥ ⎢θ ⎥
y = ⎢ 2 ⎥ e = ⎢ 2⎥ θ = ⎢ 2⎥ [9.147]
⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ yn ⎦ ⎣e n ⎦ ⎣θ n ⎦

the above system is written:

A.θ + e = Y [9.148]

The matrix:

⎡ f 0 ( x1 ) f1 ( x1 ) ... f k ( x1 ) ⎤
⎢ f (x ) f1 ( x2 ) ... f k ( x 2 )⎥⎥
A=⎢ 0 2 [9.149]
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ f 0 ( xn ) f1 ( xn ) ... f k ( x n )⎦

is sometimes called the conditioning matrix of the system.

The sum of the squared gaps becomes:

n
Q= ∑ ei2 = e T .e [9.150]
i =1

where eT represents the transposed vector e.

392 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

This sum is minimum when the derivations of Q in relation to each of the model
parameters are simultaneously zero. This leads us to the system of normal equations:

n n n n
θˆ0 ∑ f 02 ( xi ) + θˆ1 ∑ f 0 ( xi ) f1 ( xi ) + .... + θˆk ∑ f 0 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) = ∑ yi f 0 ( xi ) [9.151]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

n n n n
θˆ0 ∑ f 0 ( xi ) f1 ( xi ) + θˆ1 ∑ f12 ( xi ) + .... + θˆk ∑ f1 xi f k xi = ∑ yi f1 xi [9.152]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

n n n n
θˆ0 ∑ f 0 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) + θˆ1 ∑ f1 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) + .... + θˆk ∑ f k2 xi = ∑ yi f k xi [9.153]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

In this system, θˆ0 , θˆ1 , ..., θˆk , solutions of this system, are the estimators of the
parameters θ 0 , θ1 , ..., θ k in the sense of the least squares.

By writing the vector of the estimator:

⎡θˆ1 ⎤
⎢ˆ ⎥
θ
θˆ = ⎢ 2 ⎥ [9.154]
⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣θˆn ⎥⎦

the system of normal equations takes the form:

AT .A.θˆ = AT .y [9.155]
From this we get the solution to the problem:

(
θˆ = AT .A AT .y)
-1
[9.156]
We see that the matrix:
⎡ n n n ⎤
⎢
⎢ i =1
∑
f 02 ( x i ) ∑ f 0 ( x i ) f 1 ( x i ) .... ∑ f 0 ( xi ) f k ( xi )⎥⎥
i =1 i =1
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢
A .A = ⎢
T ∑
f 0 ( xi ) f 1 ( xi ) ∑ f 12 ( x i ) .... ∑ f 1 ( x i ) f k ( x i ) ⎥⎥ [9.157]
⎢ i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎥
⎢ .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ i =1
∑
f 0 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) ∑ f 1 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) .... ∑ f k2 ( x i ) ⎥
⎥⎦
i =1 i =1
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 393

is a squared symmetrical matrix with lines and columns that are equal to the number
of estimated parameters.

We can calculate the matrix given the variances and the covariances of the
obtained estimators.

We get the following general result:

⎡ V (θˆ0 ) cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) .... cov(θˆ0 , θˆk )⎤
⎢ ⎥
cov(θ 0 , θ 1 )
ˆ ˆ V (θˆ1 ) .... cov(θˆ1 , θˆk ) ⎥
V( θˆ) = ⎢
⎢ .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢cov(θ 0 , θ k ) cov(θ 1 , θ k ) V (θˆk ) ⎦⎥
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ....

(
= AT .A ) -1 T
A .V(y).A. AT .A ( )-1
[9.158]
where V(y) is the variances-covariances matrix of y.

With hypotheses H3 and H4, this takes the form of:

⎡σ 2 0 ... 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ... 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0
σ 2 1 ... 0 ⎥⎥
V(y ) = ⎢
0 ⎥
=σ 2⎢
0 ...
[9.159]
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥ ⎢... ... ... ...⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 ... σ 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣0 0 ... 1 ⎦

and the variances-covariances matrix of the estimators takes the simpler form:

(
V (θˆ) = σ 2 AT .A
-1
) [9.160]

Near to the factor j2, this is simply the inverse matrix of AT · A. Even though it is
symmetrical, this matrix generally is expressed in non-zero terms outside the
diagonal principle. This becomes a general rule: the obtained estimators are
correlated.

As needed, it is always possible to obtain an estimator of j2 from calculating the

residuals r by using the relation:

∑r
i =1
i
2

σ2 = [9.161]
n− p
394 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

where p is the number of estimated parameters. When a polynomial form is

complete, p = n + 1.

We can use the coefficients obtained to calculate the value of the polynomial
corresponding to a given value of x, so:

yˆ = θˆ0 . f 0 ( X ) + θˆ1 . f 1 ( X ) + θˆ2 . f 2 ( X ) + θˆk . f k ( X ) [9.162]

If we introduce the vector:

⎡ f 0 ( x) ⎤
⎢ f ( x) ⎥
x=⎢ 1 ⎥ [9.163]
⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ f k ( x)⎦

we also get:

yˆ = x T .θˆ [9.164]

from which we have the variance of :

V ( yˆ ) = x T .V( θˆ ).x = σ 2 .x T . AT .A( )-1

.x [9.165]

This solution done with a least squares matrix contains the results already
obtained in the example of the line.

9.4.2. An example using weighting

Here, we look once more at a situation in which the values of Y are not
correlated but are obtained with a different variance for each measurement. Under
these conditions, hypothesis H3 is written:

V(yi) = σ i2 [9.166]

so that the variance-covariance matrix of y takes the form:

⎡σ 12 0 ... 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ 22
V(y) = ⎢
0 ... 0 ⎥
[9.167]
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 ... σ n2 ⎦⎥
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 395

The system describing the measurements always has the form:

A.θ + e = Y [9.168]

However, we need to know the sum of the squared gaps weighted by a weight
g i = 1 2 , so:
σi

n
Q= ∑g ei =1
2
i i [9.169]

Finding the minimum of this quantity leads us to the system of normal equations
which, in matrix form, is written:

AT .g.A.θˆ = AT .g.y [9.170]

From this we get the solution of the problem:

(
θˆ = AT .g.A ) −1
AT .g.y [9.171]

In these expressions, the weighting matrix g is the inverse of the variances-

covariances matrix of y:

g = [V(y)]−1 [9.172]

The matrix giving the variances and covariances of the obtained estimators is
written:

V (θˆ) = AT .g.A (
−1
) [9.173]

This matrix solution of the least squares contains the results already found in the
example of the line.

9.4.3. Examples with correlated variables

The matrix notation of the least squares provides the simpler calculation
solutions than the algebraic form.
396 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

For example, let’s look at the following example: we are measuring pairs of
values (xi, yi) whose representation in a system of axes Ox, Oy gives points that are
fairly well-aligned. We then use the following representation model:

y = θ o + θ 1 .x [9.174]

In relation to the examples analyzed above, we make the hypothesis that the
measurements of y are made with the same variance and are correlated. This occurs
fairly often in practice, if only because of the uncertainties introduced by the
measurement instrument.

If we suppose that the covariance between the values of y, taken two by two,
remain the same, the variance-covariance matrix of the vector y takes the form:

⎡σ2 ρσ 2 ... ρσ 2 ⎤ ⎡1 ρ ... ρ ⎤

⎢ 2 2⎥ ⎢ρ
ρσ σ 2
... ρσ ⎥ 1 ... ρ ⎥⎥
V(y) = ⎢ =σ 2⎢ [9.175]
⎢ ... ... ... ⎥ ... ⎢... ... ... ...⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ρσ ρσ 2 ... σ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ρ ρ ... 1 ⎦

by writing that is the correlation coefficient between the two measurements of Y.

Since the measurements have the same variance, it is not necessary to weight the
results; and the solution of the least squares retains the usual form:

(
θˆ = AT .A )
−1
AT .y [9.176]

However, the variance-covariance matrix of these estimators is obtained by using

the complete form:

(
V ( θˆ ) = AT .A )-1
(
AT .V(y).A. AT .A )
−1
[9.177]

which leads to the expressions:

⎡ n ⎤
⎢
⎢ ∑ 2
xi ⎥
⎥
V (θˆ0 ) = σ 2 ⎢ i =1
(1 − ρ ) + ρ ⎥ [9.178]
⎢ n ⎛ n ⎞
2 ⎥
⎢n
∑
⎢ i =1
x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑ xi ⎟
⎟
⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎝ i =1 ⎠ ⎦
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 397

nσ 2
V (θˆ1 ) = 2
(1 − ρ ) [9.179]
n ⎛ n ⎞
n ∑ x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑xi ⎟
⎟
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

n
−σ 2 ∑x i
cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) = i =1
2
(1 − ρ ) [9.180]
n ⎛ n ⎞
n ∑ x i2 − ⎜
⎜ ∑ xi ⎟
⎟
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠

All these values obviously depend on the correlation coefficient. When this takes
the value 0, we find the same results as obtained before.

When the correlation coefficient takes the value + 1, we get:

V (θˆ0 ) = σ 2 [9.181]

V (θˆ1 ) = 0 [9.182]

cov(θˆ0 , θˆ1 ) = 0 [9.183]

These paradoxical results can be explained as follows: when the correlation

coefficient equals + 1, the experimental points are rigorously aligned. As well, the
least squares line is parallel to the theoretical line. This means the gradient has no
random features, from which we get a zero value for its variance (as well as for the
covariance between the gradient and the ordinate of source). The only random
quantity is the ordinate of origin, which is equal to the variance of the values of Y.

The ordinate , which is on an interposed point of the abscissa x, is expressed by:

yˆ = θˆ0 + θˆ1 .x [9.184]

398 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

has a variance:

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎢1 ⎥⎪
⎪ n( x − x ) 2
V ( yˆ ) = σ 2 ⎨ ρ + (1 − ρ )⎢ + ⎥⎪
2 ⎥⎬
[9.185]
⎪ ⎢ n n ⎛ n ⎞ ⎪
⎪
⎪⎩
⎢
⎢
n ∑ x i2 − ⎜
⎜∑ xi ⎟ ⎥⎪
⎟ ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭

When = 0, we find the normal value, but when = + 1, we get:

V ( yˆ ) = σ 2 [9.186]

This variance is constant and equal to the measurement variance of Y.

We should remember that, for a measurement series, all the correlation

coefficients cannot be simultaneously negative.

9.5. A simple example

The least squares method also applies to situations when the model chosen to
represent the dependence between the variables X and Y results in a non-linear
normal equation system. Here, we can linearize the equation in several ways: by
changing the variable; by developing the function serially near to the representative
measurement points; or by working numerically and finding the function of the sum
of the squared gaps.

9.5.1. Linearizing the function

There are functions linking X and Y that lead to non-linear systems expressed in
parameters to be estimated, but which, by changing a variable, can be relevant to
this example. This means they can be analyzed by the standard methods. By way of
example, we cite the following cases:
– U = A.exp(BT) which refers to the linear example Y = 0 + 1 X by proposing
Y = In (U) and X = T, from which we derive 0 + In(A) and 1 = B.
– U = A + B.In(T), which refers to the linear example Y = 0 + 1X by proposing
that Y = U and X = In(T), from which we derive 0 = A and 1 = B.
– U = A.TB, which refers to the linear example Y = 0 + 1X by proposing that
Y = U and X = In(T), from which 0 = In(A) and 1 = B.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 399

T
– U= which refers to the linear example Y = 0 + 1X by proposing
A. X + B
that Y = 1 and X = 1 , from which we derive 0 = A and 1 = B.
U X

We should be aware of the fact that even if the values of the transformed variable
U have the same variance V(U), changing the variable usually involves unequal
variances for the values of the resulting variable Y, since the variance Y is expressed
as:

2
⎛ ∂Y ⎞
V (Y ) = ⎜ ⎟ V (U ) [9.187]
⎝ ∂U ⎠

Calculating the coefficients of the model thus involves weighted forms.

When changing variables proves impossible, we can resolve the system in an

approximate way by carrying out a limited development. So, for example:

Y = f ( X , θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) [9.188]

The equation transforms the relations between the values of X and the
measurements of Y. It depends on the values of k + 1 parameters 0, 1,… k.

We measure n pairs of values (xi, yi) so that V(yi) = ji2. Applying the principle of
the least squares gives us the function:

n
Q= ∑ g [y
i =1
i i − f ( x i , θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k )]2 [9.189]

with the weighting coefficient g i = 1 . [9.190]

σ i2

The estimators we are trying to find are the solution of the normal equations
systems:

∂Q
[
∂f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk )
]
n

∂θ 0
= ∑ − 2. g
i =1
i
∂θˆ0
y i − f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk ) = 0 [9.191]
400 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

∂Q ∂f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk )

[ ]
n

∂θ 1
= ∑ − 2. g
i =1
i
∂θˆ 1
y i − f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk ) = 0 [9.192]

∂Q ∂f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk )

[ ]
n

∂θ k
= ∑ − 2.g
i =1
i
∂θˆ k
y i − f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk ) = 0 [9.193]

In general, this system is not linear, which makes its resolution difficult. We can
resolve it from the initial values of the written solutions 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , …, 0 θ k and
giving each of them an increase e 0 , e1 , …, e k , so that:

θˆ0 = 0 θ 0+ e0 [9.194]

θˆ1 = 0 θ 1+ e1 [9.195]

θˆk = 0 θ k +e k [9.196]

We can then write:

k
∂f ( x i , 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , ,..., 0 θ k )
f ( x i , θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk ) = f ( x i , 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , ,..., 0 θ k ) ∑ j =0
∂θ j
[9.197]

The normal equations are then of the type (what we have written here is only that
of the index parameter j):

n
∂f ( x i , 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , ,..., 0 θ k ) ⎡ k
∂f ( x i , 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , ,..., 0 θ k ) ⎤
∑g i
∂θ j
⎢ y i − f ( x i , 0 θ 0 , 0 θ 1 , ,..., 0 θ k ) −
⎢
∑ ∂θ j
ej⎥ = 0
⎥
i =0 ⎣ j =0 ⎦
[9.198]

We find a linear system as ej. From this solution, and from the initial values
given to the parameters, we get a new set of values that can help iterate the
calculation.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 401

9.5.2. Numerical search for the minimum of the function of the sum of the
squared gaps

Another approach is to state that the quantity:

n
Q= ∑ g [y
i =1
i i − f ( x i , θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k )]2 [9.199]

is a function of the parameters of the model. This is an equation of a surface in an

axial system formed by the parameters and by Q. In a situation of an affine relation,
we have an equation of an elliptic paraboloid, so-called because its intersection with
a plane parallel to the axis OQ produces a parabola. Moreover, its intersection with a
plane parallel to the parameter plane is an ellipsis (when this intersection exists).

As a general rule, the form of this surface can vary, but close to the solution
(corresponding to a surface summit), we find an elliptic paraboloid.

The concept is as follows: from the initial values, we calculate a first value of Q.
We then give an increase to each of the values of the parameters and observe the
variation of Q. If Q increases, we move away from the surface summit, so that the
increases are in the wrong direction. In the opposite situation, the sense of
displacement is correct, and we continue until converging on the solution. To put it
another way, the representative point of the parameter values is displaced on the
surface until it joins its summit again.

Carrying out the method can be somewhat difficult when the number of
parameters is high. There are methods that allow us to systematize finding the
solution and the speed of the convergence towards this solution (the Maquard
method, for example).

Certain precautions must be taken if we use graphic methods. When using these
methods, the following conditions must be met:
– The departure point must be sufficiently close to the solution in order to have a
quick maximum convergence.
– The variations given to the parameters must not be so significant that
oscillation from one part to another of the solution occurs and no solution is
achieved.
– Due to the local curvature of the surface, the rapidity of convergence may be
different depending on whether the solution is reached by larger or smaller values.
402 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– Some functions that lead to a surface with a representation that presents

several minima. In this case, we must ensure that the found solution is well-
researched.

9.6. Examples of multivariable models

The principle of the least squares also applies to finding the parameters of a
multivariable model, that is, to describing the development of an explained variable
Z according to the explicative variables.

This is an example of the least squares plane when the relation between Z and
the variables X and Y is expressed as:

z = θ 0 + θ1 x + θ 2 y [9.200]

The problem consists of finding the estimators θˆ0 , θˆ1, θˆ2 of θ 0 , θ1, θ 2 from the
measurement of n triplets of the paired values xi, yi, zi which, in an n plane brought
to an axial system (Ox, Oy, Oz), is represented by n points.

The system of n equations transforming these measurements is written:

θ 0 + θ 1 x1 + θ 2 y1 + e1 = z1 [9.201]

θ 0 + θ1 x2 + θ 2 y 2 + e2 = z 2 [9.202]

θ 0 + θ1 xn + θ 2 y n + en = z n [9.203]

or again, by proposing:

⎡ z1 ⎤ ⎡ e1 ⎤
⎢z ⎥ ⎢e ⎥ ⎡θ 0 ⎤
z= ⎢ 2⎥
e= ⎢ 2⎥
θ = ⎢⎢θ 1 ⎥⎥ [9.204]
⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣θ 2 ⎥⎦
⎣zn ⎦ ⎣e n ⎦
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 403

and:

⎡ 1 x1 y1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 x2 y2 ⎥
A=⎢ [9.205]
⎢... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣1 xn yn ⎦

The previous system is written:

A.θ + e = z [9.206]

Looking again at the expressions in the examples of polynomial relations, we see

that the solutions given there are still valid, whatever these are for the vector of the
estimators or for the variance-covariance matrix.

Here we give as examples the expressions of the coefficients of the least squares
plane:

θˆ0 = num(θ 0 ) den

ˆ
[9.207]

θˆ1 = num(θ 1 ) den

ˆ
[9.208]

θˆ2 = num(θ 2 ) den

ˆ
[9.209]

with:
2 2 2
n n n n n n ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ n ⎛ n ⎞
den = n ∑ ∑
i =1
x i2
i =1
y i2 +2 ∑ x ∑ y ∑ x y − ∑ ⎝∑
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i i
i =1
x i2 ⎜
⎜
i =1
yi ⎟ − ⎜
⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝ i =1 ⎠
∑
xi ⎟
⎟ ∑
i =1
y i2 − n⎜
⎜ ∑
⎝ i =1
xi y i ⎟
⎟
⎠
[9.210]

n n n n n n n n n
num(θˆ0 ) = ∑ ∑ ∑
i =1
x i2
i =1
y i2
i =1
zi + ∑ ∑
i =1
xi
i =1
xi y i ∑
i =1
yi zi + ∑ ∑
i =1
yi
i =1
xi y i ∑x z
i =1
i i

2
n n n n n n ⎛ n ⎞ n
− ∑ ∑ ∑ x i2 yi yi zi − ∑ ∑ ∑ xi y i2 xi z i − ⎜
⎜ ∑
xi y i ⎟
⎟ ∑z i [9.211]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠ i =1
404 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

n n n n n n n n
num(θˆ1 ) = n ∑ y ∑ x z +∑ y ∑ z ∑ x y + ∑ x ∑ y ∑ y z
i =1
2
i
i =1
i i
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i i
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i i

2
n n n n n ⎛ n ⎞ n
−n ∑ xi y i ∑ yi zi − ∑ ∑ ∑ xi y i2 zi − ⎜
⎜
yi ⎟
⎟∑ ∑x z i i [9.212]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠ i =1

n n n n n n n n
num(θˆ2 ) = n ∑ ∑
i =1
x i2
i =1
yi zi + ∑ ∑ ∑
i =1
xi
i =1
yi
i =1
xi z i + ∑ ∑ ∑x y
i =1
xi
i =1
zi
i =1
i i

2
n n n n n ⎛ n ⎞ n
−n ∑x y ∑x z −∑ ∑y ∑
i i i i x i2 i zi − ⎜
⎜
xi ⎟
⎟∑ ∑y z i i [9.213]
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠ i =1

The multivariable forms also help us in cases where sensors have sensitivities
that vary according to a variable; that it is external to measurement (influence
variables).

Let us look, for example, at the response Y of a sensor to a variable X. If the

sensor is linear, its response can be modelized by the form:

y = θ 0 + Sx [9.214]

where S is the sensitivity of the sensor. If this sensitivity is itself a function of a

parameter t, which we write:

S = θ1 + θ 2t [9.215]

1 being the sensitivity of the sensor when t = 0 and 2 describing the development
of the sensitivity according to t. We then get:

y = θ 0 + (θ 1 + θ 2 t ).x = θ 0 + θ 1 .x + θ 2 .x.t [9.216]

We recognize the plane equation, the variable y being described according to the
function of the variable x, and xt.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 405

9.7. Dealing with constraints

9.7.1. Presentation of the method

The least squares method consists of finding the minimum of the parameter
function of the model Q( 0, 1…. k) formed by writing the sum of the squared gaps.
This minimum is reached when:

∂Q ∂Q ∂Q
dQ = .dθ 0 + .dθ 1 + .... + .dθ k = 0 [9.217]
∂θ 0 ∂θ 1 ∂θ k

In the absence of any constraint (that is, of an exterior relation between

0, 1…. k), the differential elements dθ 0 , dθ1 , ..., dθ k can be chosen arbitrarily and,
for the above relation to be resolved, it must be enough that:

∂Q
=0 [9.218]
∂θ 0

∂Q
=0 [9.219]
∂θ 1

∂Q
=0 [9.220]
∂θ k

This is the standard normal equation system.

Now we come to a situation with a constraint relation between the parameters 0,

1… . k ,that is, they are connected in an equation that we can write as:

g (θ 0 , θ1 , ..., θ k ) = C [9.221]

where C is a constant. Under these conditions, it is clear that we can no longer

arbitrarily choose the differential elements dθ0 , dθ1 , ..., dθ k since they are linked by
the equation:

∂g ∂g ∂g
dg = .dθ 0 + .dθ 1 + .... + .dθ k = 0 [9.222]
∂θ 0 ∂θ 1 ∂θ k
406 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The result is that we can express one of the elements (for example, d k)
according to the others:

1 ⎛ ∂g ∂g ∂g ⎞
dθ k = − ⎜ .dθ k −1 ⎟⎟
∂g ⎜ ∂θ .dθ 0 + ∂θ .dθ 1 + .... + ∂θ [9.223]
⎝ 0 1 k −1 ⎠
∂θ k

By bringing back this value to equation [9.217], and by writing that the quantity
as a factor of each differential element is zero, we end up with:

∂Q ∂Q ∂g 1
− =0 [9.224]
∂θ 0 ∂θ k ∂θ 0 ∂g
∂θ k

∂Q ∂Q ∂g 1
− =0 [9.225]
∂θ 1 ∂θ k ∂θ 1 ∂g
∂θ k

∂Q ∂Q ∂g 1
− =0 [9.226]
∂θ k −1 ∂θ k ∂θ k −1 ∂g
∂θ k

The solution of these gives the estimators θˆ0 , θˆ1 , ..., θˆk −1 .

The last estimator θˆk is obtained by applying the constraint relation, so:

g (θˆ0 , θˆ1 ,..., θˆk ) = C [9.227]

9.7.2. Using Lagrange multipliers

We can systematize our search for solutions by applying the method of Lagrange
multipliers.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 407

Let us look at the system formed by the sum of the squared gaps and the
constraint condition:
n
Q(θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) = ∑e
i =1
2
i [9.228]

g (θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) = C [9.229]

Then we form the quantity:

Q L (θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) = ∑e 2
i + λ [g (θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k ) − C ] [9.230]

where is the Lagrange multiplier. We thus add an unknown and the system giving
the solution of the problem is formed by writing the following k + 2 equations:

∂Q L ∂g
+λ =0 [9.231]
∂θ 0 ∂θ 0

∂Q L ∂g
+λ =0 [9.232]
∂θ 1 ∂θ 1

∂Q L ∂g
+λ =0 [9.233]
∂θ k ∂θ k

∂Q L
= g (θ 0 , θ 1 ,..., θ k − C ) = 0 [9.234]
∂λ

We can either resolve the system of unknown k + 2 equations or extract the value
of the multiplier of one of the equations and bring it to the others in order to
decrease the order of the system. This methodology is applicable to situations where
several constraint relations exist simultaneously.

9.8. Optimizing the search for a polynomial model

9.8.1. System resolution

When looking for model parameters:

Y = θ 0 . f 0 ( X ) + θ 1 . f 1 ( X ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( X ) + ... + θ k . f k ( X ) [9.235]
408 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We have seen that the resolution of the least squares method with the help of
matrix formalism works by means of matrix inversion:

⎡ n n n ⎤
⎢
⎢ i =1
∑ f 02 ( x i ) ∑
i =1
f 0 ( x i ) f 1 ( x i ) .... ∑f
i =1
0 ( xi ) f k ( x i )⎥
⎥
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢
A .A = ⎢
T
i =1
∑
f 0 ( xi ) f 1 ( xi ) ∑f
i =1
2
1 ( xi ) .... ∑
i =1
f 1 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) ⎥
⎥ [9.236]
⎢ .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢
⎢ ∑
f 0 ( xi ) f k ( xi ) ∑f 1 ( xi ) f k ( x i ) .... ∑ f k2 ( x i ) ⎥
⎥
⎣ i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎦

We see that the calculations are considerably simplified if all the terms outside
the principle diagonal are zero; that is, if:

∑f
i =1
j ( x i ). f h ( x i ) =0 [9.237]

This condition is a condition of orthogonal polynomials fj (X) and fh (X) on the

defined ensemble by measurements. As a general rule, polynomials do not contain
this orthogonality condition. We then make the hypothesis that the polynomial form:

Y = θ 0 . f 0 ( X ) + θ 1 . f 1 ( X ) + θ 2 . f 2 ( X ) + ... + θ k . f k ( X ) [9.238]

is rewritten in the equivalent form:

Y = Φ 0 .P0 ( X ) + Φ 1 P1 ( X ) + Φ 2 .P2 ( X ) + ... + Φ k .Pk ( X ) [9.239]

Here we impose orthogonality throughout the ensemble of experimental points

on the polynomials P0 (X), P1 (X), P2(X),…Pk(X), taken two by two. This basic
change results in a change of the parameters that describe the model.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 409

The least squares resolution remains unchanged, the only modification being the
matrix to be inversed, which takes the following form:

⎡ n n n ⎤
⎢
⎢ i =1
∑
P02 ( x i ) ∑i =1
P0 ( x i ) P1 ( x i ) .... ∑ P ( x ) P ( x )⎥⎥
i =1
0 i k i

⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢
B .B = ⎢
T
i =1
∑P0 ( x i ) P1 ( x i ) ∑
i =1
P12 ( x i ) .... ∑i =1
P1 ( x i ) Pk ( x i ) ⎥ [9.240]
⎥
⎢ .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎢ ∑
⎢ P ( x )P (x )
0 i k i ∑ P (x )P ( x )
1 i k i .... ∑ Pk2 ( x i ) ⎥
⎥
⎣ i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎦

or, taking into account the condition of orthogonality imposed on the polynomials:

⎡ n ⎤
⎢
⎢ i =1
∑P 2
0 ( xi ) 0 .... 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢ n ⎥
⎢
B .B = ⎢
T 0 ∑P
i =1
2
1 ( xi ) .... 0 ⎥
⎥ [9.241]
⎢ .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ n ⎥
⎢
⎢
0 0 .... ∑ Pk2 ( x i )⎥
⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦

The matrix is diagonal and the resolution of the problem no longer poses a
problem. This is because the equations of the system are independent. We thus
obtain the general form of the equation:

∑ y P (x )
i =1
i j i
Φ
ˆ =
j n
[9.242]
∑i =1
P j2 ( x i )

The general form of the variances is:

σ2
V (Φ
ˆ )=
j n
[9.243]
∑i =1
P j2 ( x i )
410 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The orthogonality has the secondary effect of making the estimators non-
correlated, so that:

cov(Φ
ˆ ,Φ
j
ˆ ) = 0 ∀h ≠ j
h [9.244]

9.8.2. Constructing orthoganal polynomials using Forsythe’s method

In books dealing with this subject, we find many polynomial forms that have
orthogonal characteristics. We can start here with trigonometric polynomials with
orthogonality features used to calculate the coefficients of the Fourier development
of a periodic function. There are also Lagrange and Legendre polynomials that
present constraints on the values situated on the axes of abscissas (these values are
between -1 and +1 and/or equidistant values of x).The polynomials used by Forsythe
do not have that constraint. They are written:

P0 ( x) = 1 [9.245]

P1 ( x) = ( x − α 1 ).P0 ( x) [9.246]

P2 ( x) = ( x − α 2 ).P1 ( x) − β 2 P0 ( x) [9.247]

P j ( x) = ( x − α j ).P j −1 ( x) − β j P j − 2 ( x) [9.248]

In these expressions the coefficients gj and j are expressed by:

n n

∑
i =1
x i .P j2−1 ( x i ) ∑P
i =1
2
j −1 ( x i )
αj = n
and β j = n
[9.249]
∑
i =1
P j2−1 ( x i ) ∑
i =1
P j2− 2 ( x i )

We immediately notice the recurrent nature of these expressions. The polynomial

of degree j and the coefficients are expressed according to the polynomials (already
known) of degree j – 1 and j – 2.

In order to make these calculations more exact, Forsythe recommends

establishing norms for numerical values of xi of between –2 and +2. Not following
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 411

this recommendation nevertheless leads to polynomial values and to coefficients that

are completely acceptable. In the case of a line adjustment:

Y = Φ 0 .P0 ( X ) + Φ 1 P1 ( X ) [9.250]

The calculations are carried out using the following sequence.

a) Calculation of f0

The polynomial P0 (X) is, by definition, worth 1.

∑y i
ˆ )=σ
2
i =1
Consequently, Φ
ˆ =
0 = y and V (Φ j [9.251]
n n

b) Calculation of f1
n

∑x
i =1
i
We have P1 ( X ) = ( x − α 1 ) with α 1 = =x [9.252]
n
n

∑ y (x
i =1
i i − x)
σ2
Consequently, Φ
ˆ =
1 n
and V (Φ
ˆ )=
j n
[9.253]
∑ (x
i =1
i − x) 2
∑ (x
i =1
i − x) 2

Finally, the relation is expressed in the form:

y = y + Φ1 ( x − x ) [9.254]

This can be attained if we remember the fact that the least squares line intersects
the coordinate point ( x , y ) .

9.8.3. Finding the optimum degree of a smoothing polynomial

The recurrent nature of the Forsythe polynomials has the advantage of easily
increasing the degree of the adjustment polynomial.
412 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Generally, we can show that the sum of the squares of the residuals Rk after an
adjustment of the degree k, is expressed according to the sum of the squares of the
residuals Rk-1 that correspond to an adjustment by the polynomial of degree k – 1 by
the relation:

n
R k = R k −1 − Φ
ˆ2
k ∑P
i =1
2
k ( xi ) [9.255]

This quantity decreases as k increases. In other words, the fact of increasing the
degree of the adjustment polynomial acts to constrain the polynomial from coming
closer to the experimental points. This can carry the risk of being unnecessary
because these points have a variance that defines an uncertainty field. Therefore, it is
physically sufficient that the polynomial goes into the interior of the uncertainty
field without intersecting the experimental points. In addition, this constraint has no
effect on the measured points. Outside these points, no constraint applies, even if the
polynomial might oscillate with an amplitude well above that of the desired
adjustment gain.

There are two simple methods for determining the optimum degree of the
smoothing polynomial.

The first method calculates, after adjusting the degree k, the quantity:

Rk
[9.256]
n − (k + 1)

This is an estimator of the variance linked to the variable Y until this estimation
is coherent with a predetermined value.

The second method traces the graphic representation of the development of Rk

according to the function of k (see Figure 9.5). This graph presents, in general terms,
a gradient rupture showing that the degree increase of the polynomial degree no
longer tells us much about the model’s experimental adequacy. This break occurs
for an adjustment degree that coincides with the optimum degree of the polynomial.
According to the conditions in the figure, this rupture will be more obvious in a
system of Cartesian axes, which are systems of semi-logarithmic or logarithmic
axes.
 Elaboration of Models for the Interaction Between the Sensor and its Environment 413

250

Sum of squared residuals 200

150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15
Polynomial degree

Figure 9.5. Representation of the sum of squared residuals showing

an optimum polynomial degree equal to 3 (the polynomial of degree 2
here introduces no real reduction of the residuals)

9.9. Bibliography

[FOR 77] FORSYTHE G.E., “Generation and use of orthogonal polynomials for data fitting
with a digital computer”, J. Soc. Indus. Appl. Math., vol. 5, no. 2, 1957.
[JAF 96] JAFFARD P., Méthodes de la statistique et du calcul des probabilités, Masson
Editions, 1996.
[NIE 98] NIELSEI L., “Least-squares estimation using Lagrange multipliers”, Metrologia,
vol. 35, no. 2, 115-118, 1998.
[SAP 90] SAPORTA G., Probabilités, analyse de données statistiques, Technip Editions,
1990.
[WIL 45] WILLIAMSON J.H., “Least square fitting of a straight line”, Can. J., Phys; vol. 46,
1845-1847, 1968.
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 Chapter 10

Representation and Analysis of Signals

10.1. Introduction

Generally, a physical phenomenon is observed through a signal carrying

information. We want to extract this information and to convert it so it can be
exploited. The signal processing tools and methods used in measuring a physical
variable and the associated instrumentation depend on the exploitation that is carried
out. An instrumentation chain consists of analog or digital electronic devices,
according to the objectives for the analysis of the measured signals and the
properties of these signals. Actually, rapid variations of high frequency signals are
sometimes difficult to observe with a digital measurement chain; a purely analog
measurement chain is preferable in this case. However, the development of
microprocessors has meant that very sophisticated functions can be used in the
processing algorithms. This means that a digital processing chain helps to solve
much more complex problems than are possible for an analog processing chain.

The goal of this chapter is twofold. We will first present some basic
mathematical tools necessary for analyzing analog and digital signals that are
present in instrumentation chains. Then we will provide some examples of signal
processing methods that can lead to adaptations, according to the applications being
considered. In this chapter we will especially emphasize mathematical tools for
digital signal processing and time-frequency representations that are useful for
extracting continuous information in signals that may not be stationary, a usual
situation in practice. Any reader wanting to gain a more in-depth knowledge of basic
signal representations may consult, for example, the following books: [CHA 90];

Chapter written by Frédéric TRUCHETET, Cécile DURIEU and Denis PRÉMEL.

416 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[COT 97]; [COU 84]; [DEL 91]; [GAS 90]; [MAX 89]; [MAX 96]; [PIC 89, 93, 94,
95]; and [ROD 78]. In addition, some methods of analog processing are discussed in
Chapters 4 and 5.

10.2. Analog processing chain

10.2.1. Introduction

Sensors used to observe a physical phenomenon provide a signal that carries

information. This signal follows, in this case, a continuous time law and thus it is a
purely analog instrumentation chain throughout. It can undergo various processing by
purely analog electronic devices, including: amplification; filtering; modulation-
demodulation; clipping, correlation; synchronous demodulation. The synoptic
schema of this kind of processing chain in shown in Figure 10.1.

Physical Shaping
Analog
phenomenon Sensor and amplification
to be observed processing
of the signal

Visualization, signal processing

Figure 10.1. Analog measurement chain

In certain applications, for example, in control systems, the signal obtained after
processing can be reinjected into the process input in the form of a control law that
will eventually modify the behavior of the observed physical phenomenon. For
example, in active vision, the analyzed signal can serve to follow the trajectory of an
object; and, if necessary, correct the position, the direction and the settings of the
sensors that are following the scene.

Signals can be analyzed in the time domain or in the frequency domain. The
following section gives some definitions that are often used in the analysis of analog
signals.

10.2.2. Some definitions and representations of analog signals

10.2.2.1. Deterministic signals

A signal can be described by a mathematical model. For example, a sinusoidal
signal is determined by its magnitude, its pulsations or its frequency, and its phase at
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 417

time origin. Practically, a deterministic model is only partially known, and its
unknown parameters introduce random behaviors that are more or less
unpredictable. A deterministic signal has little importance in real situations, since it
does not carry information, apart from its presence or absence. However, this kind of
signal can act as an excitation signal that indirectly obtains information about a
physical variable through the interaction that this signal can have with the physical
system being analyzed. A signal carrying information of uncertain nature is a
random signal. Some statistical properties of this signal allow us to describe it
simply or even to evaluate our knowledge of this signal by relating it to a known
model.

In practice, a sensor is activated from a given time t0, very often chosen as a time
origin. The signals which are observed and processed are then considered as zero
signals up to the time t0 = 0. These are called causal signals. In addition, signals are
observed during a finite period T. By commodity, especially of calculation, we very
often represent an observed signal by a periodic signal; or we construct a periodic
auxiliary signal from the observed signal. The rest of this section will provide some
fundamental descriptions of signals and present some of their usual features.

An analog signal represented in the time domain by a scalar function x(t) of the
continuous variable t can be characterized in different ways. Subject to the existence
of integrals, we have the following definitions:
T
1
– mean value mx = x(t ) = lim
T → +∞ 2T ∫ x(t ) dt ;
−T
T

T → +∞ ∫
2
– energy E x = lim x(t ) dt ;
−T
2
– instantaneous power p x ( t ) = x ( t ) ;
T
1
∫ x(t )
2 2
– mean power Px = x (t ) = lim dt ;
T → +∞ 2T
−T
– mean power of the signal fluctuations around its mean
2 2 2
σ x2 = x(t ) − m x = x(t ) − m x .

The time representation of a signal in its form x(t) is the most natural. It directly
shows the magnitude variation of the signal according to time. However, there are
other representations. The remainder of this section will discuss the frequency
representation that indicates the variation frequency of the signal magnitude. This
418 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

representation is ensured by the Fourier transform. A more general discussion of

representations is given in section 10.6.

10.2.2.1.1. The Fourier transform

Under certain conditions, always verified by physical signals, a signal has an
equivalent representation that is a function X(f) of the frequency f or even a
continuous function X( ) of the pulsation called the Fourier transform. This is
defined by:

+∞
X(f ) = ∫ x(t ) exp(− j 2πft ) dt [10.1]
−∞
and:
+∞
X (ω ) = ∫ x(t ) exp(− jωt ) dt [10.2]
−∞

A sufficient condition of existence of this representation is that the energy of the

signal must be finite. For clarity, from now on, X(f) = TF[x(t)] represents the
function defined by equation [10.1] and X( ) will represent the function defined by
equation [10.2]. The inverse Fourier transform is expressed by the relation:

+∞ +∞
1
x(t ) = ∫ X ( f ) exp(j 2πft ) df =
2π ∫ X (ω ) exp( jωt ) dω [10.3]
−∞ −∞

If x(t) is a real signal, its Fourier transform is a complex function of even module
and odd argument: X(-f)= X*(f). In addition to the linearity of the Fourier transform,
we see several other properties: the time reversal property:
TF[x(-t)] = X(-f); the conjugation property TF[x*(t)] = X*(-f ); and the delay
theorem TF[x(t-k)] = exp(-j2ヾfk)X(f). The convolution product of two signals x(t)
and y(t), denoted by (x*y)(t) is defined by:

+∞
( x ∗ y )(t ) = ( y ∗ x)(t ) = ∫ x(u) y(t − u) du
−∞

and this expression may be written more easily in the frequency domain than in the
time domain. Indeed, we have TF[(x*y)(t)] = TF[x(t)]TF[y(t)]. This property, which
is also called the Plancherel theorem, is very useful for the linear filtering of signals
and for calculating correlation functions.
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 419

10.2.2.1.2. Correlation and spectral density

The energy of the signal x(t) is also expressed in the frequency domain:

+∞ +∞ +∞
1
∫ ∫ ∫ X (ω )
2 2 2
Ex = x(t ) dt = X(f ) df = dω
2π
−∞ −∞ −∞

This means the energy of a signal does not depend on the chosen representation.
2
The function Φ xx ( f ) = X ( f ) is called the energy spectral density of the signal
x(t) and is a frequency representation of the energy. This quantity is, by definition,
always real and positive. The inverse Fourier transform of fxx(f), written xx(k), is
called the energy autocorrelation function of the energy signal x(t). By writing that
2
X ( f ) = X ( f ) X * ( f ) and by using the property X * ( f ) = TF[ x * (−t )] we deduce
from this:

+∞ +∞
γ xx (τ ) = ∫ Φ xx ( f ) exp( j 2πfτ ) df = ∫ x(t ) x (t − τ ) dt
*

−∞ −∞

xx(k) expresses the resemblance between x(t) and x*(t-k) and produces the
continuous autosimilarities in the signal. If the signal x(t) is real, its autocorrelation
function is real, even, and maximum at the time origin.

These results can be applied to two signals x(t) and y(t). First of all, we have:

+∞ +∞
* *
∫ x(t ) y (t ) dt = ∫ X ( f )Y ( f ) df
−∞ −∞

This relation constitutes the Parseval theorem. The quantity

Φ xy ( f ) = X ( f )Y ( f ) is called the cross-energy spectral density of the signals x(t)
and y(t). The inverse Fourier transform of this quantity, written xy(k), is the energy
cross-correlation function of the signals x(t) and y(t). Then we have the relation:

+∞ +∞
γ xy (τ ) = ∫ Φ xy ( f ) exp( j 2πfτ ) df = ∫ x(t ) y * (t − τ ) dt
−∞ −∞

which constitutes the Wiener-Kintchine theorem. If the signal y(t) is also obtained
by a linear filtering of the signal x(t), then we have Φ yx ( f ) = G ( f )Φ xx ( f ) or
2
Φ yy ( f ) = G ( f ) Φ xx ( f ), G(f) being the frequency response of the filter. These
relations correspond to the interference formula.

We will now discuss a specific example dealing with periodic signals.

420 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.2.2.1.3. Periodic signals

Obtaining a spectral representation of a signal requires knowing this signal
throughout its entire time domain. Practically, we only know the signal x(t) on a
finite time support, for example [0,T[. Outside this interval, we consider that the
signal is equal to zero in order to calculate the previously introduced quantities. It is
also possible to define an auxiliary periodic signal xT(t) that is equal to x(t) on the
interval [0,T] and is of period T. Always under certain conditions, the representation
of xT(t) in the form of a Fourier series is:

+∞ 1T
xT (t ) = ∑ cn exp( j 2πn t T ) with c n = ∫ x(t ) exp(− j 2πn t T )dt
n =−∞ T 0

where 1/T is the fundamental frequency and cn the amplitude of the harmonic of
rank n. With this new representation, integrating the signal is done on a finite
interval, but we have to calculate an infinite number of coefficients. This is why
another representation will be defined later for the analysis of digital signals that are
defined by a finite number of harmonics (see section 10.6).

By introducing the distribution formalism [ROD 78], we can extend the

definition of the Fourier transform to periodic signals, and connect this to Fourier’s
serial decomposition. Actually, by introducing the impulse signal that is expressed
by TF[exp( j 2π t T )] = δ ( f − 1 T ) , we firstly get:

+∞
XT ( f ) = ∑ c nδ ( f − n T )
n =−∞

The mean power PT of the periodic signal xT(t) is written in the form:

+∞ +∞ +∞
1 T /2 2 2 2
PT = ∫ x(t ) dt = ∑ c n = ∫ ∑ c n δ ( f − n T ) df
T −T / 2 n =−∞ −∞ n = −∞

+∞ 2
The function ΦT ( f ) = ∑ cn δ ( f − n T ) is the power spectral density of the
n =−∞
periodic signal xT(t). The inverse Fourier transform of this quantity is the power
autocorrelation function of this signal. It is defined by:

1 T /2 +∞ 2
γ T (τ ) = ∫ xT (t ) xT* (t − τ ) dt = ∑ cn exp( j 2πnτ T )
T −T / 2 n =−∞
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 421

and is also periodic.

10.2.2.2. Random signals

In many applications, we are only interested in statistical properties of first and
second orders of random signals: mean, correlation, power and signal-to-noise ratio.
This section presents these ideas.

Strictly speaking, a random signal is stationary if all its statistical properties are
invariant by changing the origin of time. If we limit this property only to the first
and second statistical times, we say that the signal is in a wide sense stationary. This
last feature is commonly accepted as the starting hypothesis for processing methods
that use the statistical properties of the signal to be analyzed. The random process
fluctuates and the observed signal corresponds only to a special realization of the
random process x(t, u) called trajectory. In absolute terms, in order to know the
statistical variables of the process, we must carry out the same experiment many
times. This is obviously not possible in most situations and we usually assume that
the nature of the information conveyed by the time behavior of the signal is the same
as that which is conveyed by carrying out the process a number of times. The
stationary random process is called ergodic if all the statistical means coincide
asymptomatically towards the time means, in particular that is if:

+∞
1 T n
E[ x n (t , u )] = ∫ x n f ( x) dx = lim ∫ x (t , u ) dt = x (t , u )
n
−∞ T →+∞ 2T −T

where f(x) is the probability density of the random signal x(t, u). The correlation
function of a stationary signal is defined by:

γ xx (τ ) = E[ x(t , u ) x * (t − τ , u )]

For this kind of signal, xy(k) does not depend on the time t. Moreover, if the
signal is ergodic, we get:

1 T
γ xx (τ ) = lim ∫ x(t , u ) x (t − τ , u ) dt
*
T →+∞ 2T −T

In practice, the random signal is observed on a finite time support and we

therefore exploit windowed time information.

The power spectral density fxx(f) of a stationary signal is the Fourier transform
of the autocorrelation function (the Wiener-Khintchine theorem):
Φ xx ( f ) = TF[γ xx (τ )] . For stationary and ergodic signals, the time means and the
422 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

statistical means coincide, the quadratic mean is directly related to the power
spectral density, and we have:

+∞
= E ⎡ x ( t , u ) ⎤ = γ xx ( 0 ) = ∫ Φ xx ( f ) d f
2 2
Px = x ( t , u )
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
−∞

As an example, we look at a signal that is both stationary and ergodic: that of a

white noise w(t) characterized by a zero mean and a uniform spectral density: fww(f)
= c. Its autocorrelation function is thus γ ww (τ ) = c δ (τ ). A white noise is often used
in a random process with a power spectral density that is constant up to a frequency
much higher than the maximum frequency intervening in modelization of the signal
or of the system being studied – even higher than the passband of the process chain.

The cross-correlation function of two random signals x(t, u) and y(t, u), which
are jointly stationary and ergodic, is defined by:

1 T
γ xy (τ ) = lim ∫ x(t , u ) y (t − τ , u ) dt = E[ x(t , u ) y (t − τ , u )]
* *
T →+∞ 2T −T

and their cross-power spectral density is shown by fxy (f) = TF[ xy(k)]. The signals x(t,
u) and y(t, u) are said to be uncorrelated if their correlation is zero (whatever k may
be). If the signal y(t, u) is obtained by a linear filtering of the signal x(t, u), the
interference formula is written Φ yx ( f ) = G ( f )Φ xx ( f ) or
2
Φ yy ( f ) = G ( f ) Φ xx ( f ), G(f) being the filter’s frequency response.

Many analog circuits allow us to carry out, in an approximate manner, the

functions described above. Recent developments in digital signal processing have
led to methods that are more sophisticated than those obtained with analog
electronics. The following section will discuss the tools and representations of
digital signals.

10.3. Digital processing chain

10.3.1. Introduction

Digital functions process series of numbers that usually come from sampling an
analog signal, the amplitude being quantified. Figure 10.2 shows part of a synoptic
of a digital instrumentation chain. We note by xb(t) the sampled and hold signal and
xq[n] the digital signal.
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 423

ADC
x (t ) x b (t ) x q [n] y[n] y (t )
E/B Q Digital
ADC
processing

Figure 10.2. Digital processing chain

In an instrumentation chain, in addition to the principal elements that make up

the analog chain seen above, we add an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and if,
after digital processing, we want to observe or exploit the signal in an analog form, a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC). An ADC converter has a sampling/holding
function (S/H) and a quantizer (Q). The sampling/holding function takes
instantaneous samples of the time signal x(t) and keeps them constant to the input of
the quantizer during a period necessary in order to convert the sampled signal into a
digital signal. The study and processing of digital signals require us to first bear in
mind some basic concepts, including the sampling theorem and quantization.

10.3.2. Sampling and quantization of signals

10.3.2.1. The Fourier transform and sampling

Periodic sampling is the acquisition of values or samples of the analog signal x(t)
at time tn = nTe, Te being the sampling period. The choice of the sampling period
depends on the spectral content of the signal x(t). The informational content will
remain intact if we theoretically have the capability to exactly reconstruct the analog
signal x(t) from the sampled signal x[n] = x(nTe). The sampling theorem establishes
a criterion for the preservation or alteration of the quantity of information contained
in the sampled signal and expresses the conditions for a good restitution of the
original signal.

10.3.2.1.1. The discrete time Fourier transform

The Fourier transform of the sampled signal x[n] is defined by:

X TD ( f ) = ∑ x[n] exp(− j 2πfn) [10.4]

n

or also:

X TD (ω ) = ∑ x[n] exp(− jωn) [10.5]

n
424 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In the following presentation, XTD(f) will be the function defined by equation

[10.4] and XTD( ) the function defined by equation [10.5]. We point out that the
variable f intervening in the definition of XTD(f), which is the Fourier transform of
the sampled signal, is without dimension. While it is involved in the definition of
X(f), the Fourier transform of an analog signal x(t) has a dimension: if the variable t
represents the time and is expressed in seconds, then f is expressed in Hertz. The
function XTD(f) is periodic (of period 1) and is expressed, as we will see, according
to X(f). To establish this result, we first of all introduce the impulse
train δ Te (t ) = ∑ δ (t − nTe) then the ideal sampled signal:
n
x e (t ) = x(t ) δ Te (t ) [10.6]

If the signal x(t) is continuous, we have:

xe (t ) = ∑ x[n] δ (t − nTe ) [10.7]

n

Thus, the signals xe(t) and x[n] are equivalent. First, taking the Fourier transform
of equation [10.7], we establish that:

Xe( f ) = ∑ x[n] exp(− j 2πfnTe ) = X TD ( fTe )

n

Xe(f) is thus periodic of period Fe = 1/Te. Starting from Fourier series δ Te (t ) , by

taking the transform of this decomposition, we establish that:

∑ δ ( f − n Te ) = δ 1 Te ( f )
1 1
TF[δ Te (t )] =
Te n Te

This tells us that the Fourier transform of an impulse train is still an impulse
train. The Fourier transform of equation [10.6] is then written:

1
Xe( f ) = ( X ∗ δ 1 Te )( f )
Te

The impulse function being the neutral element of the convolution product, we
have deduced from this fact that:

∑ X ( f − n Te )
1
X e ( f ) = X TD ( fTe ) =
Te n

The Fourier transform of the sampled signal is obtained from that of the analog
signal by periodic replication. Figure 10.3 illustrates this point for a bandlimited
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 425

signal; that is, that B exists so that X ( f ) = 0 ∀ f ≥ B or that all the frequency
representation of x(t) is inside the band ]–B, B[. Two examples are then considered:
B < Fe 2 or B ≥ Fe 2 .

X(f ) cas B < Fe 2 Te X e ( f )

−B 0 B f − Fe 2 0 Fe 2 Fe f

cas B ≥ Fe 2 Te X e ( f )

−B 0 B Fe f
Figure 10.3. Sampling and aliasing

If BTe < 0.5 , X ( f ) and X ( f − n Te ) do not overlap for all n ≠ 0; X(f) can
then be obtained from Xe(f) by simple multiplication by the frequency response H(f)
of a ideal lowpass filter defined by:

⎧T if − Fe 2 ≤ f ≤ Fe 2,
H( f ) = ⎨ e
⎩0 otherwise.

The original signal x(t) can then be reconstructed from the ideal sampled signal
xe(t) or then from the sampled signal x[n]. After filtering the signal xe(t) by the
lowpass filter, the information is intact.

If BTe ≥ 0.5, the supports of X(f) and of X ( f − n Te ) (n ≠ 0) overlap, which

leads to a spectrum aliasing, as shown in Figure 10.3. Thus we cannot come back to
X(f) from Xe(f). This brings us to a representation of the sampling theorem.

10.3.2.1.2. Sampling theorem

An analog bandlimited signal x(t) exists with B so that X ( f ) = 0 ∀ f ≥ B )
can be reconstructed from the samples x[n] = x(nTe ) without loss of information if
the sampling frequency Fe is higher than 2 B.
426 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.3.2.1.3. Interpolation
The interpolation formula is obtained by going back to the time domain of the
relation X ( f ) = H ( f ) X e ( f ) . We then have x(t ) = (h ∗ xe )(t ) , with:
+ Fe / 2
h(t ) = Te ∫ e
j 2πft
df = sinc(Fe t )
− FE / 2

where sinc( x ) = sin(πx) πx . By using the properties of the impulse function, we

deduce from it that:
x(t ) = ∑ x (nTe ) sinc((t − nTe ) Te )
n

The duality of the time representation of a signal with its frequency

representation helps establish an equivalent theorem for the sampled signals in the
frequency domain. Sampling the Fourier transform of a signal of finite support
signal (for example, x(t ) = 0, ∀t ∉ [0, T [ ) does not lead to any information loss if the
Fourier transform is sampled with a step ∆f ≤ 1/T (see section 10.6).

These results lead us to several remarks concerning practical implementation.

First of all, the interpolation formula requires that we calculate an infinite sum of
terms. Practically, only a finite number of terms can be calculated, and the
reconstruction of the signal x(t) can only be approximated.

Secondly, the sampling condition Fe ≥ 2B cannot always be achieved and the

inputs of the digital measuring devices must have anti-aliasing filters. This kind of
filter guarantees the sampling condition independently of the applied input signal.
The transition band of this lowpass filter is not inconsiderable (see Figure 10.4), and
thus we must always take it into account when choosing a sampling rate.

H ( f ) (dB)

0 B Fe / 2 f
Passband Transition
of the filter band

Figure 10.4. Choice of the pass-band of an anti-folding filter

 Representation and Analysis of Signals 427

10.3.2.2. Quantization
We are only looking at real-valued signals. Representing numbers on a calculator
requires approaching their values by whole numbers coded on a given number of
bits. The quantization models the operation that carries out this approximation. The
input-output non-linear characteristic represents the nature of the approximation
(Figure 10.5).
xq
xqi +1
xqi q

s0 xi xi +1 xb

Figure 10.5. Input-output characteristic of a quantizer

We write x qi as the output values of the quantizer. With the example shown in
Figure 10.5, all the quantization steps are equal: quantization is then uniform and
x qi +1 = x qi + q , q being the quantization step. The quantity s0, shown in Figure
10.5, models a threshold that characterizes the nature of the quantization. Two
examples are current today: quantization by truncation (s0 = q) and quantization by
rounding off (s0 = q/2).

Quantization of a discrete time signal introduces a precision limitation. Even if

the quantization operation is nonlinear, by commodity to lead the calculations, we
modelize the quantization operation by a linear relation: x q (t ) = x(t ) + η q (t ) where
the signal q(t) which represents the quantization noise is presumed to be
independent of x(t). In many applications, if we do not know a priori the statistical
properties of this noise, we presume that its values are uniformly distributed
throughout their extreme values. Consequently, we regard the quantization noise as
being a random signal of uniform probability density function f(a). In the case of a
rounded off quantization discussed here, the extreme values are –q/2 and q/2 (see
Figure 10.6).
428 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

f (a)
x (t ) + x q (t ) 1/ q

+
ηq (t )
q q a
−
2 2

Figure 10.6. Modelization of quantization noise

Using these simplified hypotheses, we can calculate the statistical properties of

the second order of the quantization error and a signal-to-noise ratio. The error mean
statistic is zero and its variance or its power is:

+∞
1q2 2 q2
σ η2 = ∫ a 2 f (a) da = ∫ a da =
−∞ q −q 2 12

If the input signal is a triangular signal that is not clipped, the quantization noise
is a sawtooth signal of period T with a power expressed by:

+T / 2 2
1 ⎛ − qt ⎞ q2
Pη = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dt =
T −T / 2 ⎝ T ⎠ 12

We find the same result as before. If the input signal has any form, the power of
the quantization error must be calculated by considering both its probability density
and time representation. However, if the quantization step and sampling period are
sufficiently low, it is justifiable to conserve the uniform law hypothesis. With this
hypothesis, for a sinusoidal signal of maximum amplitude A and a quantization
operation on n bits with a dynamic [-A, A], the quantization step is q = 2A/2n and the
error variance σ η2 = A 2 (3 × 2 2 n ) .The power of the signal being equal to A2/2, the
signal-to-noise ratio is RSB = 3 × 22n–1. In decibels, this becomes a widely used
relation in technical documentation [AZI 96]:

RSB = 10 log(3 / 2) + 20 n log 2 = 1.76 + 6.02 n

We must keep in mind that the signal-to-noise ratio increases by 6 dB each time
we increase the converter capacity by one bit. In Chapter 6, we described the
principles of sigma-delta converters that can significantly increase the signal-to-
noise ratio with a looped system. In the remainder of this chapter, no more
distinction will be made between x[n] and xq[n].
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 429

The concepts of correlation and spectral density relating to analog signals seen in
section 10.2 can easily be generalized to discrete time signals; the time integrals are
then replaced by sums.

10.4. Linear digital filtering

Only digital filters will be considered in this chapter. For information on

producing analog filters, we direct the reader to Chapter 5, and for details of
mathematical tools, to the general texts cited at the beginning of this chapter. We
will now discuss analysis tools used for digital filters.

10.4.1. The z transform

We call the z transform of the sequence of x[n], the complex function defined by:

X ( z ) = TZ{x[n]} = ∑ x[n] z − n
n

We can show that this series converges if the complex number z belongs to a ring
of complex plane that is delimited by two concentric circles centered on the origin of
the radius R min and R max , that is, for z ∈ D x =]Rmin , Rmax [ (see Figure 10.7). If
the signal is causal as well, the convergence domain becomes D x = ]R min , +∞[ . For
certain signals, the z transform converges in z = Rmin ; for example, the z transform
of the unit impulsion unit x[n] = δ [n] where δ [n] is the Kronecker symbol
( δ [n] = 1 for n = 0 and δ [n] = 0 for n ≠ 0 , exists whatever the value of z and the
convergence ring is the entire complex plane: D x = [0,+∞[ ).

Some properties of the z transform are:

– delay: TZ{x[n − p ]} = z − p X z ( z ) ;

– differentiation: TZ{n x[n]} = − z

dX z ( z )
;
dz
⎧ ⎫
– convolution: TZ⎨( x ∗ y )[n] = ∑ x[k ] y[n − k ]⎬ = X (z) Y ( z ).
⎩ k ⎭
430 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

R max

R min

Figure 10.7. Convergence domain

The inverse z transform is:

1 n −1
x[n] = ∫ X ( z ) z dz
j 2π C

where C models a closed contour directed in the direct trigonometric direction

belonging to the convergence ring and surrounding the origin. The direct calculation
of this integral uses the residual theorem [BEL 87] and is often difficult. We prefer
to carry out a simple partial expansion to cause, as much as possible, basic z
transforms for which we know the corresponding signals, with the help of tables.
We deduce the signal x[n] from linearity. We point out here that knowledge of the
convergence domain is required, since two different signals can give the same z
transform, as we will see. Actually, the z transforms of the causal signal
x[n] = 1 if n ≥ 0 and x[n] = 0 otherwise, and of the anticausal signal y[n] = –1 if
n ≤ –1 and y[n] = 0 otherwise are equal: X ( z ) = Y ( z ) = (1 − z −1 ) −1 but with
different convergence domains: D x = ]1,+∞[ and D y = [0,1[ .

10.4.2 Filtering applications

We are going to apply certain properties of the z transform for digital filtering.
The kind of digital processing described here concerns linear time and invariant
systems, that is, linear filters, for which the input signal x[n] is related to that of the
output y[n] by the constant-coefficient difference equation:

p q
y[n] = ∑ ai x[n − i ] − ∑ b j y[n − j ] with p > 0 and q > 0 [10.8]
i =0 j =1
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 431

This kind of filter is causal. This relation is written in the form of a discrete
convolution equation:

y[n] = ∑ h[k ] x[n − k ]

k

The causality of the filter means that h[n] = 0 for n < 0. When the coefficients bj
are not all zero, the filter is called recursive and its impulse response is infinite (IIR).
However, when the coefficients bj (j = 1, …q) are zero, the coefficients
ai (i = 0, …p) are the p + 1 non-zero coefficients of the impulse response of the filter
and we say that the filter has a finite impulse response (FIR).

By taking the z transform from the relation shown in equation [10.8], and by
using the delay property of the z transform, we deduce that:

⎛ q ⎞ p
Y ( z )⎜1 +
⎜ ∑ b j z − j ⎟⎟ = ∑ ai z − i X ( z )
⎝ j =1 ⎠ i =0

then the transfer function of the system:

−1 −p
Y ( z ) a 0 + a1 z + … + a p z
H ( z) = =
X ( z) 1 + b1 z −1 + … + bq z −q

This transfer function is a rational fraction. The filter is then called a rational
filter. The roots of a 0 + a1 z −1 + … + a p z − p = 0 are called zeros of H(z) and the
roots of 1 + b1 z −1 +…+bq z − q = 0 poles of H(z). In the specific example when all the
coefficients of ai and bj are real, we have the property H ( z ∗ ) = H ∗ ( z ) . The poles
and zeros of H(z) are then real or complex and conjugate. If the unit circle
( z = exp( j 2πf ) ) belongs to the convergence domain, the transfer function of the
filter H(z) allows for the expression of the complex gain G(f). We then have
G ( f ) = H (exp( j 2πf ) ) . The unit circle can be either graduated according to angle or
frequency (between –1/2 and 1/2).

Causality and stability

The impulse response of a linear filter expresses generally as a sum of exponential
signals. The stability condition ∑ h[n] < +∞ is expressed by the fact that the unit
n
circle must belong to the convergence ring. The convergence ring of a causal linear
filter being of the form ]Rmin ,+∞[ , the stability thus imposes R min ≤ 1 which means
that the poles of the transfer function are inside the unit circle.
432 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The stable rational and causal filters constitute a specific class of filters called
dynamic filters. Minimum phase filters are dynamic filters with zeros that are also
inside the unit circle. These filters are especially useful because their inverse is also
a minimum phase filter. The inverse filter is also stable.

Stability of FIR and IIR filters

The transfer function of a causal FIR filter being of the form
H ( z ) = a 0 + a1 z −1 + … + a p z − p , this filter is always stable whatever the ai
coefficients. However, the transfer function of a recursive filter being a z rational
fraction, the stability of this filter requires that all its poles are inside the unit circle.

Synthesis of digital filters

The synthesis of a digital filter consists of determining its transfer function or its
impulse response from specifications defined in the time or frequency domain. The
specifications can, for example, be represented by the frequency specifications of a
lowpass filter shown in Figure 10.8.

Synthesis consists of finding a filter that fulfills the specifications. Choosing an

FIR or IIR filter depends on the implementation constraints. The advantages or
disadvantages of each structure must be considered in the choice. For example,
linear phase filters are used with FIR filters. For a frequency specification, the
required calculation charge for an FIR filter is generally much higher than that
needed for a recursive filter. The synthesis of FIR filters is not discussed in this
chapter. We advise the interested reader to consult [BEL 87], [FON 81], [LAB 88]
and [OPP 75].

G( f )

1+ δ1

1
1− δ1

δ2

0 f1 f2 f

Figure 10.8. Example of a lowpass filter specifciation envelope

 Representation and Analysis of Signals 433

10.4.3. Synthesis of IIR filters

We here present two synthesis methods for IIR filters. The first method involves
approaching the transfer function of an analog filter by a discrete time transfer
function. The second method calculates the coefficients of the filter by an
optimization process. Analog filters are usually Butterworth, Bessel, Tchebycheff or
elliptic filters.

10.4.3.1. Methods using an analog reference filter

The impulse invariance method consists of making a digital filter with an
impulse response which coincides with the impulse response of a given analog filter
at sampling times. This method has several disadvantages, It requires long
calculations, introduces distortions in frequency responses due to spectrum aliasing,
and does not conserve the DC gain. This is why we prefer to carry out a direct
transform of the transfer function Ha(p) of the analog filter according to a transfer
function Hn(z) of the digital filter by directly replacing p with a function f(z). The
most often used transform is the bilinear transform which, at every M(z) point of
affix z, makes the M’(p) point correspond to the affix p by the passing relation:

2 1 − z −1
p=
Te 1 + z −1

This transform is justified by the approximation of the integral of a signal with

the trapezoidal method, so:

( n+1)Te ( n +1)Te
y ((n + 1)Te ) = ∫ x(t ) dt = y (nTe ) + ∫ x(t ) dt
−∞ nTe

can be approximated by: y ((n + 1)Te ) = y (nTe ) + (x((n + 1)Te ) + x(nTe )) .

Te
2
Te 1 + z −1
In this way, the transfer function corresponds in an integration in the
2 1 − z −1
Laplace domain of the transfer function 1/p. With this transform, we link a point of
the imaginery axis of affix p = jω a with ω a ∈] − ∞,+∞[ and the point of

artg(ω a Te / 2) and ω n ∈ ]− π Te , π Te [ . This

2
z = exp( jω n Te ) with ω n =
Te
transform introduces a frequency response distortion due to its non-linearity. If a is
low compared to the sampling frequency, n is close to a, so the distortion
introduced by the bilinear transform for the low frequencies is low. If Te increases,
the non-linear relation that links a and n involves a frequency deformation of the
434 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

axis and, consequently, a specification deformation. A scale factor k in part

compensates the distortion in order to fit the frequency response of the analog filter
with the frequency response of the digital filter within a given frequency range. The
transform is then as follows:

1 − z −1
p = k
1 + z −1

A suitable choice of the factor k is to impose the same frequency responses

ω a = ω oa and ω n = ω on . For this, it is enough to choose k = ω oa tg(ω onTe / 2 ) . If
c is the cut-off frequency of the analog filter, the choice ω oa = ω on = ω c helps
conserve the cut-off frequency. The choice k = 2/Te helps to conserve the behavior at
low frequencies. With the bilinear transform, a low-pass or pass-band analog filter is
converted to a digital filter of the same type; only the characteristic frequencies are
modified. But the linear property of the phase of a filter will not be conserved. We
mention here that there are other transforms capable of carrying out synthesis [LAB
88].

10.4.3.2. Methods of synthesis by optimization

The synthesis methods discussed above introduce a distortion of the frequency
response. The development of computer-based techniques have led to the
development of synthesis methods which make use of optimization algorithms of a
cost function. This approach consists of imposing a priori the structure of the digital
filter (of a recursive filter, for example), then adjusting the coefficients of this filter
to approach as closely as possible an impulse response, a frequency response, or
satisfy specifications established by, for example, a specification envelope.

Several criteria can be chosen to carry out approximation in the best possible
way. In general, these criteria lead to resolving a non-linear optimization issue with
constraints. This means we need a method to determine the coefficients of the filter;
these coefficients will optimize the criterion with the goal of determining the
optimal filter in a given family. For example, we look for the coefficients of a filter
with a given structure that will minimize the distance between the frequency
response of this filter and the required frequency response for the frequencies
fi (i = 1, …N).

The least squares method, initially conceived to study the movement of planets,
is widely used and is basic to many estimation techniques. As we will see, its
popularity is due to the fact that the choice of a quadratic parameter criterion leads to
an explicit solution of the parameters we want to find. The principle of this method
will now be discussed.
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 435

We try to minimize the mean-squares gap Q between the given coordinate points
( xi , y i ) (i = 1, … , N ) and the values ( x i , g i (θ)) given by a model that depends
on the parameters vector = [ 1, …, p]T. This gap is written:

N
Q= ∑ yi − g i ( 2
) = y − g( )
2

i =1

with y = [ y1 , … , y N ]T . To simplify the presentation, we assume that g( ) is real.

If the model is affine in its parameters g(θ ) = Gθ + c , the mean-squares gap is

then quadratic in its parameters: Q = (y − Gθ − c) T (y − Gθ − c) /2. The optimal
value θ̂ of , which minimizes Q, is again said to be estimated in the least squares
sense. It is obtained by writing that the gradient of Q, written ∇ Q (θ) in = ˆ is
zero. Now, ∇ Q (θ) = −G T (y − Gθ − c ) ; so, if the matrix G T G is reversible, there is
one solution: θˆ = (G T G ) −1 G T (y − c) . If the model is not quadratic in its
parameters, Q is not quadratic in its parameters. We then can come back to problem
that can be processed by the least squares method by a first order Taylor
approximation g( ) at θ̂ k :

∂g
g (θ) ≈ c + G∆θ , with c = g(θˆ k ) , G = θˆ k
and ∆θ = (θ − θˆ k )
∂θ T

We then apply the previous results with this linearized function to obtain the new
estimated value of . After calculations, we get θˆ k +1 = θˆ k + ∆θˆ with
∆θ = (G T G ) −1 G T (y − c). This new recursive formula is also expressed according
to the gradient ∇ Q (θ) of the criterion Q and of its approximate Hessian formula
~
H Q (θ) (in this formula, the terms on which the second derivatives depend are
~
ignored). So we have ∇ Q (θˆ k ) = −G T (y − c ) and H Q (θˆ k ) = G T G ; the estimated
value of is updated according to the recursive formula
~ −1 ˆ
θˆ k +1 = θˆ k − H Q (θ k ) ∇ Q (θˆ k ). However, the decrease of the criterion Q is not
guaranteed. This is why we introduce a coefficient k that allows the algorithm
~ −1 ˆ
converge, at least to a local minimum: θˆ k +1 = θˆ k − λ k H Q (θ k ) ∇ Q (θˆ k ). This is
called a Gauss-Newton algorithm and can be obtained by a second order Taylor
approximation of the criterion. There are methods that avoid the inverse calculation
of the approximate Hessian formula. The algorithms are based on a first order
Taylor approximation of the criterion, only using a gradient but converging more
slowly. For more details on optimization methods, we direct the reader to [MIN 83]
and [WAL 94].
436 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.5. Examples of digital processing

The goal of this section is to use several concepts discussed earlier to solve
common signal processing problems that lead to finding an optimal filter. Even
though signals can be complex, in the remainder of this section, in order to simplify
formulae, we will suppose that they are real.

10.5.1. Matched filtering

From observing a signal drowning in noise, we want to learn from linear filtering
if this effective (noiseless) signal, whose waveshape is known, is present or absent.
The matched filter that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio at its outset at the time of
our decision. This problem is found, for example, in radar applications when we
need to determine the presence or absence of a target from measuring the received
signal.

Let us suppose that s(t) is the effective signal of known waveshape that we
assume is buried in an additive noise b(t). A digital version of an matched filter is
then introduced, and an analog filter can be used in a similar way. The impulse
response of the filter is noted h[n] and its frequency response H(f). The time we
decide if the effective signal is present (P) or absent (A) is written as t0 = n0Te, with
Te the sampling period. The process performed by the matched filter is shown in
Figure 10.9.

b[n ]

+
s[n ] y[n ]
x[n ] P
Filter y[ n 0 ]
h[n ]
+ ty=(t )t 0 = n 0 T e A

Figure 10.9. Detecting a signal buried in additive noise

We also assume that the noise b[n] is white, of a power j2b. The mean power of
the output noise of the filter is then Phb = E[((h ∗ b)[n])2 ] = σ b2 ∑ h[k ] 2 . The
k
instantaneous power of the effective output signal of the filter is:
2
⎛ ⎞
p hs [n o ] = ((h ∗ s )[n 0 ]) 2
=⎜
⎜ ∑ h[k ]s[n o − k ] ⎟
⎟
⎝ k ⎠
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 437

and the signal-to noise ratio of the filter at the time of detection no Te is
RSB[n0 ] = phs [n0 ] Phb . From the Schwartz inequality we get:
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
p hs [n0 ] ≤ ⎜⎜ ∑ h[k ]2 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ∑ s[n0 − k ]2 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ∑ h[k ]2 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ∑ s[k ]2 ⎟⎟
⎝k ⎠⎝ k ⎠ ⎝k ⎠⎝ k ⎠

the inequality being satisfied if and only if h[k ] = c s [n0 − k ] , which leads to
1 γ ss [0]
RSB[n0 ] ≤
σ 2 ∑ s[k ]
k
2
=
σ b2
where γ ss [n] is the energy autocorrelation of
b
the effective signal s[n]. The maximum output signal-to-noise ratio therefore only
depends on the energy of the effective signal s[n] and on the noise power b[n]. The
impulse response of the optimal filter ( h[n] = c s [n0 − n] ) is a reversed and shifted
duplicate of the signal s[n]. This filter is said to be matched to the signal s[n]. Its
response to the effective signal s[n] is y s [n] = c ∑ s[n0 − k ]s[n − k ] and again, to a
k
close multiplicative coefficient, the energy autocorrelation of the effective signal:
y s [n] = cγ ss [n − n0 ] . The matched filter is a correlator. For example, the response
of the matched filter to a rectangular impulse is a triangular signal. The choice of n0
depends on the application and on a causality constraint related to a real-time
process. This causality constraint can be strictly fulfilled if the effective signal s[n]
has a finite time structure.

10.5.2. Optimum filtering

Now we will look at the problem of estimating a signal x(t) by causal linear
filtering from a signal y(t) that is correlated with x(t). We consider here a digital
filter. The signal y(t) is then sampled at the frequency Fe = 1 Te and we want to
know the estimation of x[n] = x(nTe ) according to samples y[k ] ( k ≤ n ). We write
xˆ[n] as the estimated value of x[n].

10.5.2.1. Wiener filtering

The Wiener filter is a causal linear filter that minimizes the mean square error
P[n] = E[( x[n] − xˆ[n]) 2 ] . We first adjust the causal filter so that it is at the finite
impulse response of length M. We write h[n](n = 0, … M–1) the non-zero
coefficients of the impulse response. We then look for xˆ[n] in the form
M −1
xˆ[n] = ∑ h[k ] y[n − k ] . The optimal filter is the one whose impulse response
k =0
minimizes P[n]; so it verifies the relations:
438 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

∂P[n]
= −2 E[ y[n − k ](x[n] − xˆ[n])] = 0 , ∀ k = 0, … , M − 1
∂h[k ]

If the signals are stationary, these relations are rewritten according to the
M −1
correlation functions of the signals x[n] and y[n]: γ xy [k ] − ∑ h[i]γ yy [k − i] = 0 ,
i =0
∀k = 0, …, M − 1 . The causal FIR optimal filter thus satisfies the equations:

γ xy [k ] = (h ∗ γ yy )[k ] ∀k = 0, … , M − 1 [10.9]

and it is necessary to know the correlation functions.

We can show that this relation can also apply to a causal filter that is not
necessarily of finite impulse response:

γ xy [k ] = ∑ h[i ]γ yy [k − i ] = (h ∗ γ yy )[k ] = 0 ∀k ≤ 0 [10.10]

i ≤0

and that it is also validated with an analog filter [LIF 81]; [MAX 89]; [PIN 95].
Equation [10.10] is called the Wiener-Hopf equation.

An optimal linear filter without constraints satisfies the relation

(h ∗ γ yy )[k ] = γ xy [k ] ∀k . In taking the Fourier transform of this relation, we
deduce that the frequency response of the optimal filter (digital or analog) without
constraints is then expressed according to the spectral densities of the signals:
H ( f ) = Φ xy ( f ) Φ yy ( f ) .

In the specific case where y (t ) = (h0 ∗ x)(t ) + b(t ) with b(t), which is a white
noise independent of x(t), we get:

H 0∗ ( f )Φ xx ( f ) 1 1
H( f ) = =
2
H 0 ( f ) Φ xx ( f ) + Φ ww ( f ) H 0 ( f ) 1 + Φ ww ( f ) Φ xx ( f )

which means that 1/H0 (f) is weighted by a coefficient which is all the closer to 1
since the noise is low.

The causality constraint leads to an mean square error above that obtained with
an optimal filter without constraints. The resolution, shown in equation [10.10] (or
its equivalent with an analog filter), leads to the Wiener filter; and this is fairly
complicated [LIF 81]; [PIN 95]. This is why often we prefer using a causal linear
filter with finite impulse response, in order to solve equation [10.9].
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 439

10.5.2.2. Matched filtering

To obtain the best estimation possible of the signal x[n], we take into account all
previous available observations y[1],...y[n] (y[1] being the first sample). We thus
choose for M the highest value: M = n. The length of the impulse response of the
filter depends on the time and is equal to n. The filter thus defined is called adaptive
because its impulse response is time variant. To further explain this filter, we
propose: y n = [ y[n] y[1]]T , h n = [h[0] h[n − 1]]T , γ n = [ γ xy [0] … γ xy [n − 1]]T
and Γ n the squared and symmetrical Toeplitz matrix of n dimension where the
element of the ie line and je column is Γ ij = γ yy [i − j ] . The relation in equation
[10.9] with M = n, is then written Γ nh n = γ n and this leads to h n = Γ n−1γ n and then
xˆ[n] = γ Tn Γ n−1y n . The disadvantage of this formula is that it requires inverted a
matrix of dimension n that increases over time. The next section shows how to avoid
calculating the inverse of this matrix.

10.5.2.3. Kalman filtering

If the signals are described by an internal representation, the Kalman filter allows
us, as we will see, to obtain a recursive formula for the estimation problem seen
above. This algorithm avoids inversing a matrix with dimensions that increase over
time; also, it is no longer necessary to know the correlation of signals and this
applies to time variant systems.

To introduce the Kalman filter, we still keep in mind the previous problem, but
add that the system is described by state space representation:

⎧ x[n + 1] = ax[n] + v[n],

⎨
⎩ y[n] = cx[n] + w[n],

the noises v[n] and w[n] being white and uncorrelated to each other and to the initial
state x[0]. We respectively write Rv and Rw as the covariances of v[n] and w[n]. The
signal x[n] is called autoregressive of order one. We can generalize this to a filter of
a higher order by introducing a state vector of equal dimension to the order of the
filter.

The best causal linear estimator (in the sense of mean square error) of x[n]
according to all available observations y[1], …, y[n] is now written as xˆ[n n] and its
quadratic error P[n n] = E[( x[n] − xˆ[n n]) 2 ] . From what has been previously
shown, we now have: xˆ[n n] = h Tn n y n with h n n = Γ n−1γ n .

We now introduce a new observation y[n + 1] and look for the estimator. We
will establish that xˆ[n + 1 n + 1] can be obtained in a recursive manner in two steps.
For that, we write xˆ[n + 1 n] as the best linear estimator of x[n + 1] according to all
previous observations y[1], ···, y[n]: xˆ[n + 1 n] = h Tn +1 n y n . This quantity is called a
440 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

one-step prediction. To establish the equations of the predictive filter, we write that
h n +1 n minimizes P[n + 1 n] = E[( x[n + 1] − xˆ[n + 1 n]) 2 ] , which leads to:

∂P[n + 1 n]
= E[y n (ax[n] + v[n] − h Tn +1 1y n )] = 0
∂h n +1 n

Taking into account the statistical properties of noises, this relation is rewritten
Γ nh n +1 n = aγ n . We deduce from this that h n +1 n = ah n n , then xˆ[n + 1 n] = axˆ[n] .
By expressing x[n + 1] according to x[n] in the expression P[n + 1/n] and in
considering the statistical properties of v[n], we deduce that
P[n + 1 n] = a 2 P [n n] + Rv .

Next, in order to produce the recurrence relation, we decompose xˆ[n + 1 n + 1] in

two terms, the first corresponding to the past and the second corresponding to the
present: xˆ[n + 1 n + 1] = β Tn y n + k n +1 y[n + 1] . We express x[n + 1] and y[n + 1]
according to x[n] in the formula P[n + 1/n + 1], then write that the optimal estimator
corresponds to the cancellation of the gradient of this quantity with respect to β n .
We deduce from this that β n = a (1 − k n +1c)Γ n−1γ n which leads to
xˆ[n +1 n + 1] = xˆ[n + 1 n] + k n+1 ( y[n + 1] − yˆ[n + 1 n]) where yˆ[n + 1 n] = cxˆ[n + 1 n]
is the one-step prediction of y[n + 1]. So we correct xˆ[n + 1 n] with a term that
depends on the prediction error of the measurement. We then write that the
derivative of P[n + 1/n + 1] with respect to kn+1 must also be zero. After
calculations, we get:

⎧⎪k n +1 = c P[n + 1 n] (c 2 P[n + 1 n] + R w ) −1 ,

⎨
⎪⎩ P[n + 1 n + 1] = (1 − k n +1c) P[n + 1 n].

These relations no longer require a matrix inversion or signal correlation.

By following a similar line of reasoning, we show that these equations can

extend to vectors and a time variant linear system. The equations of the system are
then as follows:

⎧x[n + 1] = A n x[n] + B n u[n] + v[n]

⎨
⎩y[n] = C n x[n] + w[n]

with x[n] ∈ ℜ p , y[n] ∈ ℜ q , and A n , B n , C n the known matrixes, u[n] a known

input, v[n] and w[n] the white noises of covariance R v [n] and R w [n] known. We
also assume that the noises are uncorrelated to each other and to the initial state x[0].
By applying what we see with the matched filter and adding a term when looking for
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 441

an optimal estimator to take into account u[n] (we are then looking for xˆ [n n] in the
form xˆ [n n] = h Tn n y n + α n ), we obtain the recurrence relations that are those of the
Kalman filter. Finding the estimator is carried out in two steps. The first prediction
step leads to:

⎧⎪ xˆ [n + 1 n] = A n xˆ [n n] + B n u[n]
⎨
⎪⎩P[n + 1 n] = A n P[n n]A Tn + R v [n]

and the correction step to:

⎧ xˆ [n + 1 n + 1] = xˆ [n + 1 n] + K n +1 (y[n] − C n +1xˆ [n + 1 n]),

⎪
⎪
⎨ ( )
−1
K n +1 = P[n + 1 n]CTn +1 C n +1P[n + 1 n]CTn +1 + R w [n + 1] ,
⎪P[n + 1 n + 1] = (I − K C )P[n + 1 n].
n +1 n +1
⎩⎪

This algorithm must be initialized. If we have the first and second order of the
initial state x[0], we can choose xˆ [0 0] = E[x[0]] for initialization and
[ ]
P[0 0] = E (x[0] − xˆ [0])(x[0] − xˆ [0]) T ; we then show that this estimator is non-
biased. Otherwise, we can choose xˆ [0 0] = 0 and P[0 0] = αI with a being rather
high. There are other ways (least squares, Bayesian approach) to obtain these
equations and we direct the reader to [AND 79], [JAZ 70] and [SCH 91]. We note
here that if the state noises and observations are Gaussian, the obtained estimator is
the best estimator without imposing a linearity constraint. The Kalman filter is
relatively robust and is being used more and more frequently. For non-linear
systems, the previous equations can be applied after a first order approximation of
the system around the current estimated state.

10.6. Frequency, time, time-frequency and wavelet analyses

As we have seen before, a signal coming from a sensor can be represented in

several ways. There are actually almost an infinite number of representations. The
best-known and most natural is time representation x(t). Another representation that
is currently being used is frequency representation, written X( ), the passage of one
representation to another being ensured by the Fourier transform given in equations
[10.2] and [10.3]. The particular benefit of frequency representation is linked not
only to the relevance of its content but also to its properties for certain operations as
the convolution product or cross-correlation products. The time representation of a
signal directly indicates the variation in the time of the amplitude, while the
442 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

frequency representation demonstrates the frequency at which these variations have

taken place. Even if these two representations are equivalent, since for the physical
signals we assume the Fourier transform always exists and is perfectly reversible,
the nature of the information that is directly accessible differs radically. The
essential feature of these two representations is their global nature, which is
expressed by the infinite length of the integration field: x(t) integrates all the time
information while X( ) contains all frequency information.

Generally, to make the presentations of different transforms uniform, we assume

that a representation is obtained by projecting a time signal on an analysis signal that
somehow is a basic tile or atom of the time-frequency plane:

+∞
Tx (t , ω ) = x,ψ t ,ω = ∫ x( s ) ψ t*,ω ( s ) d s
−∞

This projection operation is linear, so that projecting one linear combination of

signals is the linear combination of projections.

We can define the orders of magnitude of the dimensions of this atom from the
variance of the energy of the analysis function and from its Fourier transform so
+∞ 2 2
that, for an analysis function of normed energy, we have σ t 2 = ∫− ∞ s ψ t ,ω ( s ) d s
1 +∞ 2
and σ ω 2 = ∫− ∞ θ Ψ t ,ω (θ ) d θ . These variables are shown in Figure 10.10.
2
2π
ω

σω

σt
t
Figure 10.10. Tiling of the time-frequency plane

It is easy to demonstrate that the surface of the atom (for an analysis function
normalized to 1) cannot be below a limit given by the Heisenberg-Gabor inequality:
σ t σ ω ≥ 1 2 . This result fixes the resolution limits of the time-frequency
representations. It is important to note that this limit is attained for an analysis
function of the Gaussian model:

ψ t ,ω ( x ) = π −1 / 4 exp(− ( x − t ) 2 2)
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 443

For the Fourier transform (frequency representation), the analysis function only
depends on the pulsation and the atom is a band of infinite length and of zero height
parallel to the time axis: ψ .,ω ( s ) = exp( jωs ) , Ψ .,ω (θ ) = δ (ω − θ ) , σ t = ∞ and
σ ω = 0. In addition, we can use the same expression for the time representation:
ψ t ,. ( s ) = δ (t − s) and Ψ t ,. (θ ) = exp(− jθ ). The atom being analyzed in this case is a
band of zero thickness parallel to the frequency axis σ t = 0 and σ ω = ∞.

In general, the atom of analysis contains the essential of the representation

energy. It therefore represents the time-frequency resolution of the energy. Time and
frequency representations correspond to specific degenerated examples of time-
frequency representation. Most processed signals processed in instrumentation are
generally not the most appropriate. A true time-frequency representation is
necessary. These methods are currently done from the standard toolbox of a signal
processor. In the following sections we present the tools that help us obtain the most
current time-frequency representations: the sliding window Fourier or short-term
transform; the wavelet transfer; and bilinear transforms (in particular, the group of
Wigner-Ville transforms). We will see that the wavelet transform leads more often
to a time-scale representation than to a time-frequency representation. Our
presentation will be schematic; the reader wanting a deeper knowledge of these
questions may consult the works of Patrick Flandrin [FLA 93] and Stéphane Mallat
[MAL 99].

These various representations can also be used with digital signals and a certain
number of efficient processing algorithms have been developed. In this regard we
emphasize the importance of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) and the discrete
wavelet transform.

10.6.1. Frequency analysis

Frequency analysis of a signal is given by its frequency representation. This can

be obtained, under a set of conditions specific to signals processed in an
instrumentation chain (see the beginning of this chapter), by the Fourier transform or
by one of its variants such as the cosine transform or Hartley transform (these last
two are real).

10.6.1.1. Continuous transforms

The most important of these transforms is the Fourier transform whose definition
and main properties were discussed in section 10.2.2. There are many variants of the
444 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Fourier transform. Among them, the Hartley transform stays within the domain of
real functions, since its nucleus is real: ψ .,ω ( s ) = cos ωs + sin ωs . It is defined by:

+∞
H (ω ) = ∫ x(t ) (cos ωt + sin ωt ) d t
−∞

The inversion is obtained the same way because the analysis function is real and
forms an orthogonal base:

1 +∞
x(t ) = ∫ H (t ) (cos ωt + sin ωt ) d ω
2π −∞

The Hartley transform can easily be linked to the Fourier transform by the
intermediary of its even part H p (ω ) = (H (ω ) + H (−ω ) ) 2 and of its odd part
H i (ω ) = (H (ω ) − H (−ω ) ) 2 which are respectively the cosine transform and the
sinus transform: so we have X (ω ) = H p (ω ) − jH i (ω ) . The Hartley transform is
usually deduced from the Fourier transform, its real part providing the even part, and
its imaginary part, the odd part. Although this transform is not much used today, it
can be advantageous because the analysis is real and the inversion formula is
identical to direct transform. The cosine transform, seldom used as a frequency
analysis tool, has a particular importance in another context; its discrete version is a
good approximation of the Karhunen-Loève transform [BEL 87].

10.6.1.2. Discrete Fourier transform

In practice, we often calculate a discrete transform rather than a continuous
transform, either because the signal to be analyzed is sampled, or because computer-
based methods seem more practical than usual analog methods. In both cases, it is
useful to examine the consequences of this technique for interpreting results in terms
of frequency representation of the signal (see [DUV 91], [KUN 84] and [PRO 92]).

Calculating a discrete Fourier transform (DFT) means not only sampling (of
period Te) but also windowing the signal. Windowing is a constraint due to the
material impossibility of carrying out an infinite number of calculations. A sampling
in the frequency domain becomes necessary.

Signal windowing is imposed by the choice of the transform length, that is, by
the number N of samples retained for the calculation. The width of the window is
then T = NTe . The truncated signal is written x f (t ) = x(t ) rect T (t ) where rect T (t )
is the carried function equal to 1 on the observation horizon and to 0 elsewhere. The
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 445

1
Fourier transform of the truncated signal becomes X f (ω ) = ( X ∗ Rect T )(ω )
2π
with, if the observation horizon is centered at the origin in time,
Rect T (ω ) = T sinc ( ωT 2 ) . The frequency representation X ( f ) of the analog
signal is thus convoluted with a cardinal sinus.

In such a fashion that the transform is reversible and non-redundant, the

sampling in the frequency domain should retain N samples per period. The positions
of the samples also correspond to the zeros of the cardinal sinus function. Under
these conditions, the discrete Fourier transform of a discrete signal of length N is a
discrete signal of length N that is written:

N −1
X [ n] = ∑ x[k ] exp(− j 2πk n N ) [10.11]
k =0

and we have X [n] = X f TD (n N ) . The reversed transform is expressed by:

1 N −1
x[n] = ∑ X [n] exp( j 2πk n N )
N k =0

Applying an inversion formula leads to a periodic signal x[n] of period N

identical to the initial signal of a period. We see from what follows that x[n] and its
transform are periodic. This transform is also used as a frequency analysis tool for
digital signals. The properties of the discrete Fourier transform are very close to
those of the discrete time transform. Plancherel’s theorem is applied by considering
the circular convolution z[n] that is only represented for the periodic groups x[n] and
y[n] or periodized with the same period N:
N −1
%
z[n] = ∑ x[k ] y[n − k ] = x ∗ y[n]
k =0

and Z [n] = X [n] Y [n] . The Fourier transform of the circular correlation:
N −1
γ xy [n] = ∑ x[k ] y * [k − n]
k =0

is R xy [n] = X [n] Y * [n] . Plancherel’s theorem becomes:

N −1
1 N −1
∑ x[n] ∑
2 2
Ex = = X [ n]
n=0 N n=0
446 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.6.1.3. Algorithm of the fast Fourier transform

Calculating the DFT ([BEL 87]; [KUN 84] and [TRU 97b]) by the direct
application of equation [10.11] requires N2 complex multiplications and N ( N − 1)
complex additions. This is a complex algorithm O( N 2 ) . In 1965, Cooley and Tukey
developed a method that lead to a series of rapid algorithms that could be adapted to
a large number of unitary transforms, such as Hadamard, Haar, Fourier, cosine and
Hartley. These algorithms, which are of complexity O( N log N ), have the generic
name of FFT. These are recursive algorithms based on the implementation of a basic
transform on two data, so that these algorithms have maximum efficiency if the total
number of data are of a power of N = 2 m .

The basic operation, called the butterfly operation, is simply a DFT on two
samples, one of even range and the other of odd range:

⎧
⎪ X [n] = X 1p [n] + exp(− j 2πn N )X 1i [n]
⎨
⎪⎩ X [n + N / 2] = X 1 [n] − exp(− j 2πn N )X 1i [n]
p

For a complete transform, there are mN / 2 butterfly operations. Since

m = log 2 N , the total number of operations is ( N / 2) log 2 N complex
multiplications and N log 2 N complex additions. We estimate the gain G of the fast
algorithm in relation to the direct calculation by only considering that the most
complex operation is the complex multiplication that represents four real
multiplications and two real additions. We then have G = 2 N log 2 N (Figure
10.11).

100
50

10
5

m
2 4 7 10

Figure 10.11. FFT gain according to m

 Representation and Analysis of Signals 447

10.6.2. Sliding window or short-term Fourier transform

10.6.2.1. Continuous sliding window Fourier transform

As we saw in the introduction to this section, the representation given by the
Fourier transform has a zero time resolution. The simplest way to improve the
precision of the analysis is to proceed to a windowing of the function to be analyzed
before carrying out its frequency analysis. This is what occurs during the sliding
window Fourier transform (SWFT), otherwise called the short-term Fourier
transform [FLA 93]. If the windowing function is written g (t ) , the analysis function
of the representation becomes ψ t ,ω ( s ) = g ( s − t ) exp( jωs ) and:

+∞
T fg x(t , ω ) = x, ψ t ,ω = ∫ x( s) g ( s − t ) exp(− jωs ) d s
*

−∞

This transform is reversible if the resolution relation of identity is verified,

which, in this case, is equivalent to a normality condition of the energy of the
+∞
∫− ∞ g (t )
2
envelope function: d t = 1 . In these conditions, the reconstruction is
ensured by:
+∞ +∞
1
x(t ) =
2π ∫ ∫ T fg x(s, ω ) ψ s,ω (t ) d s d ω
−∞ −∞
+∞ +∞
1
=
2π ∫ ∫ T fg x(s, ω ) g (s − t ) exp(− jωt ) d s d ω
−∞ −∞

We see that the reconstruction can, in a more general way, be conducted with the
+∞
help of a function ’ satisfying ∫−∞ψ (t ) ψ ′ * (t ) d t = 1 . This representation
conserves the energy; and we have a theorem analogous to that of Parseval’s:
+∞
2 1 +∞ +∞
∫ ∫ T fg x(t , ω ) T fg x(t , ω ) d t d ω
*
E x = ∫ x(t ) d t =
−∞ 2π −∞ −∞

Each atom of the time-frequency representation is defined following the method

shown in the introduction. The tiling of the time-frequency plane (see Figure 10.12)
thus obtained is regular, the dimension of the tiles is constant at all points of the
plane. Intuitively it is clear that, in these conditions, the resolution will not be
optimum. In fact, an atom in a low-frequency domain will contain only a low
number of time oscillations and will thus be badly estimated, while an atom in a
high-frequency domain contains many more time oscillations than is necessary for a
good estimation. This leads to a sub-optimal time localization in this situation.
448 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We have seen the importance of choosing a Gaussian window that helps in

obtaining a minimal surface for the basic tile ( σ t σ ω = 1 2 ). The transform
obtained in this case is sometimes called a Gabor transform and the analysis
functions are called gaborets: ψ t , ω ( s ) = π −1 / 4 exp(− ( s − t ) 2 2) exp( jωs ) . Figure
10.13 shows the time-frequency representation given by the Gabor transform with a
phase-modulated signal. In this model, the intensity represents the module of the
SWFT. The modulating sinusoidal signal is clearly identifiable, which is not the case
when the frequency representation of this signal is that given by the Fourier
transform (see Figure 10.14).

σω

σt

Figure 10.12. Tiling of the time-frequency plane by SWFT

50
pulse

100

150

200

250
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
time

Figure 10.13. Time-frequency representation of a phase modulated signal

 Representation and Analysis of Signals 449

X( f )

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

0 50 100 150 200 250 ω

Figure 10.14. Fourier transform of a phase modulated signal

10.6.2.2. Discrete sliding window Fourier transform

The representation given by the SWFT is continuous and the tiling of the time-
frequency plane is obviously very redundant. A time sampling (of step t0) and
frequency (of step 0) limits this redundancy. However, a discrete base cannot be
constructed and an exact reconstruction is impossible.
x(t ) = ∑ ∑ T fg x[n, m] ψ nm (t ) with ψ n,m ( s ) = exp( − ( s t o − n) 2) exp( jmω o s ) (πt o )
2 2 14
n m
but the analysis does not allow us to find the coefficients of this discrete
+∞
representation: T fg x[n, m] ≠ ∫−∞ x(t )ψ n*,m (t ) d t .

10.6.3. Wavelet transforms

A tiling of the time-frequency plane at a constant overvoltage can bring about an

optimum resolution of the representation throughout the plane. This idea led to the
development of the wavelet transform (see [DAU 92], [GAS 90], [MAL 99] and
[TRU 97a]). The analysis function has a time area inversely proportional to its
spectral area. We easily obtain this result by dilating and translating a mother
function: ψ a,b (t ) = ψ ((t − b) a ) a or Ψ a,b (ω ) = a Ψ (aω ) exp(− jωb) . The
variable a, which has the dimension of the inverse of a frequency is called a scale
variable, and b is the translation factor. The term in 1 a conserves the energy of
the analysis function despite variation of scale.

If ∆t and ∆ are the dimensions of the time-frequency atom of the representation

of the scale a = 1, it is easy to show that for whatever scale a, these become
450 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

σ t = a∆t and σ ω = ∆ω a . This means that the surface of the atom being analyzed
remains constant throughout the scales but that the tiling of the plane respects the
conditions of an optimum analysis: a time spread that is inversely proportional to the
frequency. This is called a time-scale representation.

10.6.3.1. Continuous wavelet transforms

The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) of the signal x(t ) is written:

+∞
1 ⎛t − b⎞
Toc x(a, b) = x, ψ a , b = ∫ x(t )
a
ψ * ⎜⎜
⎝ a ⎠
⎟⎟ d t
−∞

1/a

a
t

Figure 10.15. Time-frequency tiling for the wavelet transform

and the admissibility condition or identity resolution:

+∞ +∞
dadb
∫ ∫ ψ ab (t ) ψ ab (t ) = δ (t − t ' )
*

−∞ −∞ a2

which, after the Fourier transform, becomes:

+∞ 2
Ψ (ω )
∫ ω dω = 1
−∞

This condition is not very restrictive and a function of normalized energy and of
zero mean (Ψ (0) = 0 ) suitably located around the source will generally be
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 451

admissible. We see that, as was the case with SWFT, reconstruction is possible with
another function ψ ' (t ) if it verifies the condition:

+∞
Ψ (ω ) Ψ '* (ω )
∫ dω = 1
−∞ ω

If this admissibility condition is met by the function analysis, the transform is

reversible using the following formula:

+∞ +∞
dadb
x(t ) = ∫ ∫ Toc x(a, b)ψ a, b (t ) a2
−∞ −∞

The time-scale representation conserves the energy:

+∞ +∞ +∞
dadb
∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
Ex = x(t ) d t = Toc x(a, b)
−∞ −∞ −∞ a2

We can cite two examples of functional analyses used for the continuous wavelet
transform. One is called the Mexican hat: ψ (t ) = 2(1 − t )2 exp(− t 2 2) ( 3π 1 4 ) .
This is simply a second derivation of the Gaussian and the Morlet wavelet formula
ψ (t ) = exp(− t 2 2) exp( jω o t ) π 1 4 which itself came from gaborets; however,
gaborets are not, strictly speaking, admissible (see Figure 10.16).

t
t

Figure 10.16. Mexican hat and Morlet wavelet (real part)

Practically, this transform is never calculated analytically and must be estimated

digitally. In all cases this means it is sampled. This being the case, the analysis is
continuous and thus redundant. However, contrary to the situation of discrete
SWFT, the discrete wavelet transform allows for an exact reconstruction; the bases
for this do exist.
452 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

10.6.3.2. Discrete wavelet transforms

Discretizations in time and frequency are often done by a discrete dyadic
analysis that aids in constructing orthogonal bases. In these situations, the relation
between two successive scales is 2 and the translation step will be arbitrarily unitary
with the scale a = 1 a = 2 i and b = n2 i . From this, we have the discrete wavelet
transform (DWT):

+∞
Tod x(i, n) = x,ψ i,n = ∫ x(t ) 2 −i / 2ψ * (2 −i x − n) d x
−∞

Y. Meyer [MEY 90] and S. Mallat [MAL 99] propose an especially efficient
calculation algorithm from this transform and its inverse in the general field of
multiresolution analysis (MRA). We will present a very general overview.

A multiresolution analysis of a function x(t ) of L2 (R) is made of projections

Ai x(t ) of this function by a series of infinite spaces of approximations Vi enclosed in
each other and filling L2 (R). These subspaces are constructed by a simple dilation of
a subspace Vo that is invariant by translation throughout the entire step. Each
subspace Vi is completed in its immediately higher container by an orthogonal
subspace Wi so that the approximation Ai −1 x(t) can be expressed according to the
immediately larger approximation of the projection Di x(t) of the function on Wi:
Ai −1 x(t ) = Ai x(t ) + Di x(t ) . The following properties must be verified:

⎧
⎪... ⊂ V1 ⊂ V0 ⊂ ... ⊂ Vi ⊂ Vi −1 ⊂ ...,
⎪
∪ ∩
⎨ Vi = L ( R), Vi = {0}, Vi −1 = Vi ⊕ Wi , Vi ⊥Wi , ∀i ∈ Z ,
⎪i∈Z
2

i∈Z
⎪
⎩ x (t ) ∈ Vi ⇔ x ( 2 t ) ∈ Vi −1, ∀i ∈ Z , x(t ) ∈ V0 ⇔ x(t − k ) ∈ V0 , ∀k ∈ Z .

Orthonormed bases of the subspaces Vo and Wo are made of two families of

functions obtained by translating the integer step of two functions ϕ (t ) and ψ (t )
called, respectively, the scale function and the wavelet function. The bases of other
subspaces are made by dilation of the mother functions.

The ϕ i ,n (t ) = 2 −i / 2 ϕ (2 i t − n) with n integer form an orthonormal basis of Vi :

we see that these functions are not admissible wavelets. ψ i , n (t ) = 2 −i / 2 ψ (2 i t − n)
with an integer forms an orthonormal basis of Wi ; we see that these functions are
admissible wavelets.
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 453

All Wi spaces are, by construction, 2 by 2 orthogonal, the direct sum of all these
subspaces is equal to L2 (R) . This means the ensemble of ψ i,n for i and n integers
forms an orthonormal basis of L2 (R) . We therefore have a discrete wavelet basis
and coefficients d ni of the projection of x(t) on the subspaces Wi constituting the
discrete wavelet transform of x(t): Ai x = ∑ x, ϕ i ,n ϕ i ,n , Di x = ∑ x,ψ i,n ψ i,n ,
n n
a ni = x, ϕ i , n and d ni = x,ψ i ,n = Tod x(i, n) .

A0x

A1 x D1 x

A2x
D2 x

ϕ ψ

Figure 10.17. Schema for multiresolution analysis

The calculation algorithm of these coefficients, proposed by Mallat, is recursive.

It makes use of linear digital filtering operations. We define two filters by their
impulse responses h[n] and g[n] : h[n] = ϕ 0,n , ϕ −1,n and g[n] = ψ 0,n , ϕ −1,n .
Taking into account the subspaces and their bases, these two filters form a pair of
quadratic mirror filters: G ( z ) = − z −1 H (− z −1 ) and g[n] = (−1) n h[1 − n] . By
~
representing these returned filters h [n] = h[−n] and g~[n] = g[− n] , we show that the
454 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

algorithms of analysis and reconstruction use the filtering operations and processes
of over-and under-sampling presented in Figures 10.18 and 10.19.

a nj −1 anj
h 2

d nj
g 2

Figure 10.18. Recursive algorithm of a multiresolution analysis

anj anj −1
2 h +
d nj
2 g

Figure 10.19. Recursive algorithm of a MRA

The iterated application of the analysis algorithm helps determine as many

wavelet coefficients as necessary – provided we use an initial approximation of the
signal to be analyzed. This first approximation is not, in general, precisely accessible
and often we must be content with assimilating the digital signal deduced from
sampling x(t) following a n0 .

We can show that, in the case of 1 – D, the choice of an orthogonal

multiresolution analysis leading to linear-phase filters with finite impulse responses
does not work: if the filters are linear-phase, they will be IIR; if they are FIR, then
the phase-linearity will not be respected. We see that it is possible to satisfy the two
constraints if we use non-orthogonal multiresolution analyses. We can, in particular,
by choosing biorthogonal bases, obtain perfect reconstruction analyses that are well-
localized in the time-scale, space linear-phase, leading to filters with finite impulse
responses. In this situation, the function analysis is different from the reconstruction
function and the interpretation of the time-scale analysis will be less clear.

By way of example, we cite two families of filters used in orthogonal

multiresolution analyses. The first is phase-linear and the filters are IIR. The
analysis functions are constructed by the orthogonalization of a base of functions
B-splines, the parameter is of the order N of these splines [TRU 97a]. If N = 0, we
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 455

find the Haar analysis (very badly frequentially localized); if N = 3, we obtain

Battle-Lemarié wavelets; and the higher N is, the better the frequency localization is.
Doppler signal analysis on 5 scales is discussed later as an application example (see
Figure 10.20). The signals presented are the approximations to different scales
constructed from the transform coefficients. We can clearly see the development of
the resolution in the time-frequency plane consecutive to a constant overvoltage
analysis; the time localization decreases when the frequency analysis decreases.

Cubic splines
0.4
0.2
Signal

0
-0.2
-0.4
50 100 150 200 250
0.2
D1p

-0.2
50 100 150 200 250
0.2
0
D2p

-0.2
-0.4
50 100 150 200 250
0.2
0
D3p

-0.2
-0.4
50 100 150 200 250
0.4
0.2
D4p

0
-0.2

50 100 150 200 250

0.2
D5p

0
-0.2
50 100 150 200 250

Figure 10.20. Example of analysis of a Doppler signal by cubic spline wavelets

The second family has been developed by I. Daubechies [DAU 92] and is made
of an FIR filter. The analysis functions have a finite structure (2N), and the family is
parametered by N. As size increases, the analysis function becomes regular, and
456 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

analysis becomes better localized in the time-scale plane. We see that the linear-
phase condition can be met in this context for a sufficiently large structure
( N > 10 ).

Lastly, we point out that the discrete wavelet transform is not invariant in
translation.

10.6.4. Bilinear transforms

In some applications, the relevant variable is not the signal itself but its energy.
In such cases, we may want time-frequency representations of this variable. Energy
is by its nature a quadratic variable and transforms produce these representations
using bilinear combinations of the signal (when it is real). These transforms are
called bilinear transforms. In the following sections, we discuss several of these, the
best known being the group of transforms of the Cohen class: the spectrogram; the
scalogram; the Wigner-Ville transform; and the pseudo-Wigner-Ville transform.

10.6.4.1. The spectogram

The simplest way to obtain an energetic time-frequency representation is to use
the results of signal representations. The spectrogram is a bilinear transform
obtained from the sliding window Fourier transform, which gives a real positive
representation:

2
+∞
T fg x(t , ω ) T fg * x(t , ω ) = ∫ x( s ) g * ( s − t ) exp(− jωs ) d s
−∞

We can see that, when a signal is of limited duration, the transform does not
preserve the width of the structure, which has been enlarged by the analysis window.
As well, the spectrogram is a non-reversible transform, so some loss of information
is at the source of this phenomenon. However, in spite of this problem, this
representation is one of the most widely used and the range of apodization windows
used for calculating the Fourier transform (such as Blackman, cosinuisoidal,
Gaussian, Hamming, Hanning and Kaiser) influence the choice of a window
function.
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 457

10.6.4.2. The scalogram

The same simple concept is applicable to the wavelet transform. The scalogram
is the equivalent of the spectrogram for a time-scale representation:

2
+∞
ψ ((t − b) a ) d t
* 1 *
Toc x(a, b)Toc x ( a, b) = ∫ x(t )
−∞ a

The representation is equally positive and real; it also is non-reversible.

10.6.4.3. The Wigner-Ville transform

The Wigner-Ville transform (WVT) is a bilinear transform that makes possible
another energetic time-frequency representation of the signal [FLA 93]:

+∞
W x (t , ω ) = ∫ x(t + τ 2) x * (t − τ 2) exp(− jωτ ) d τ
−∞

If we see that the autocorrelation is in fact the mean of the instantaneous

correlation x(t + τ / 2) x * (t − τ / 2) , we observe that the Wigner-Ville transform is
the Fourier transform of this instantaneous correlation. The Wigner-Ville transform
can thus be interpreted as a sliding window Fourier analysis in which the window is
simply the signal itself reversed in time. It is a natural auto-adaptation of the
analysis window. Consequently, with a low structure function, the representation
preserves the structure, and there is no time spread. In addition, we see that the
instantaneous correlation of a real signal is an even function, so the Wigner-Ville
transform is also real. This transform is reversible and satisfies the marginal
properties:

+∞ 2
∫−∞ W x (t , ω ) d t = X (ω )

and:

+∞ 2
1 2π ∫−∞ W x (t , ω ) d ω = x (t )

always preserving the total energy:

458 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
1 1
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
Ex = W x (t , ω ) d t d ω = x(t ) d t = X (ω ) d ω
2π −∞ −∞ −∞
2π −∞

However, the Wigner-Ville is not positive and its energetic interpretation is

therefore limited. It corresponds more to a quadratic superimposition principle that
generates the intermodulation terms in the representation. These terms, which are
called interferences, disrupt the smoothness of the time-frequency plane:

W x + y (t , ω ) = W x (t , ω ) + W y (t , ω ) + 2 Re[W xy (t , ω )]

with W xy (t , ω ) = ∫−∞ x(t + τ 2 ) y * (t + τ 2) exp(− jωτ ) d τ . These interferences are

+∞

oscillatory terms that are concentrated in the time-frequency plane in the middle of
the segment that joins the representation centers of x(t) and y(t). The phenomenon is
illustrated in the figure below that shows the Wigner-Ville transform of the sum of
the two signals localized in time (100 and 350) and in frequency. We will see that
the interferences also affect the negative frequency terms.

50

100
pulse

150

200

250
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
time

Figure 10.21. The Wigner-Ville transform of a sum of two signals

We can decrease the number of these disturbance terms in this way: we use the
analytic signal deduced from the real signal by presetting to zero the negative
frequency components of the Fourier transform of the signal. Another way to
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 459

attenuate the interferences is to smooth the oscillations of the Fourier transform with
a lowpass filter.

Discretizing the Wigner-Ville transform produces a supplementary constraint;

the discrete transform obtained is periodic of period ヾ, so in order to avoid spectrum
folding, the sampler must work at a period that is half the signal sampling period
required by Shannon’s theorem: W x [n, ω ] = 2∑ x[ n + k ] x * [ n − k ] exp(− j 2ωk )
k
10.6.4.4. The pseudo-Wigner-Ville transform
As indicated in the previous section, filtering the WVT can attenuate the
interference terms and also improve the smoothness of the time-frequency
representation. The new transform obtained is called the pseudo-Wigner-Ville
transform (PWVT). This frequency smoothing is equivalent to a time windowing so
that the PWVT is obtained by a sliding window Fourier transform of instantaneous
autocorrelation:

+∞
PW x (t , ω ) = ∫ g (τ ) x(t + τ 2) x (t − τ 2) exp(− jωτ ) d τ
*
−∞

The filtering window is usually positive and real, so we can propose:

g (τ ) = h(τ / 2)h * (τ / 2) which allows us to introduce a windowed version of x(t):
x g (t + τ ) = h * (τ ) x(t + τ ) and the PWVT is written:

+∞
PW x (t , ω ) = ∫ x g (t + τ 2) x *g (t − τ 2) exp(− jωτ ) d τ
−∞

This transform is simply the WVT of a windowed signal, and so, contrary to the
spectrogram, the PWVT preserves the structure of a compact signal. The other side
of this advantage is that the sampling, as is the case with the WVT, must be at the
double frequency of the minimum required by Shannon for x(t) to avoid spectrum
folding.

10.7. A specific instance of multidimensional signals

Processing multidimensional signals is a vast subject which requires long

developments that are incompatible with the strongly synthetic nature of our
presentation. Here, we will limit ourselves to the few paragraphs that follow,
providing some facts and possible research paths.
460 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Multidimensional sensors, especially those producing images (2D) are being

used more and more in instrumentation. CCD technology is important in these
developments (see [GON 92] and [HOR 93]). However, the processing capabilities
brought by the miniaturization of electronic components, and the wide availability of
microprocessors, have also contributed to the use of these methods. Data furnished
by ultrasonic sensors, thermal sensors, magnetic probes and olfactory sensors are
spatialized. Three-dimensional (3D) images are also produced by topographical
systems used widely in medical contexts, but also in industrial settings (X rays,
PET-scan, ultrasounds, scanners and MRI, to give some examples). We will discuss
nD+1 for time sequences of spatial signals: time, by its irreversible nature, appears
as a variable. These developments have repercussions on processing methods, and
the simple transposition of techniques developed for standard time signals are
insufficient for processing the specific properties of multidimensional data.

Among the fundamental difference between the two types of signals, we must
first note the impossibility of good planning for data nD. This has obvious
consequences for transposing recursive algorithms; the causality constraints, strictly
speaking, disappear but implementing the algorithms must take into account the
order in which the operations are possible (see the problem of recursive 2D filters).
This absence of a natural order of data reading emphasizes the need to use
algorithms that respect this symmetry; the problem of phase linearity of the filters
used for imaging is a good example of this constraint.

Multidimensional signals are often intrinsically low. CCD sensors, for example,
furnish finite dimension images that are known in advance, with the signal to be
processed usually available in its whole in the image memory. The problems must
be taken into account and a processing can never be completely invariant for
translation. Image sensors often work through spatial sampling of data before they
are measured. As such, we can say, in many instances, that the primary signal is
digital and the means of processing the signal must be approached in this
perspective.

We also find the usual problems of multidimensional signal processing

sometimes transposed: finding differences becomes looking for contours, and the
concept of segmentation [COC 95] is at the heart of imaging problems.

In certain cases, 1D processing tools can be transposed directly and naturally.

We mention here separable filters in which the impulse response is simply the
product of two monovariable functions. Here, the 2D filtering operation is
conducted twice in the form of 1D filtering following lines, then columns. The
Gaussian filter is a good example of a separable filter. Correlation function
calculations are also separable, as well as time-frequency analyses (Fourier,
wavelets, etc.).
 Representation and Analysis of Signals 461

However, there are operations and techniques which specifically deal with
multidimensional processing [KUN 93]. There are non-separable filters, geometric
transforms, segmentation methods by active contour [BLA 97], mathematic
morphology [COS 89] and Markovian field modelization [GUY 93], among others.
Here, we briefly mention the specific case of signal sequencing processing; n spatial
dimensions more than time. Specific tools are used in this case, since the time
dimension has particular properties.

10.8. Bibliography

[AND 79] ANDERSON B.D.O., MOORE J.B., Optimal Filtering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 1979.
[AZI 96] AZIZ P.M., SORENSEN H.V. and SPIEGEL J.V.D., “An Overview of Sigma-Delta
Converters”, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, January 1996.
[BEL 87] BELLANGER M., Traitement Numérique du Signal, Masson, Paris, 1987.
[BLA 87] BLAKE A., ZISSERMAN A., Visual Reconstruction, MIT Press, Cambridge-MA,
1987.
[CHA 90] CHARBIT M., Eléments de Théorie du Signal: les Signaux Aléatoires, Ellipses,
Paris, 1990.
[COC 95] COCQUEREREZ J.P., PHILIPP S., Analyse d’Images: Filtrage et Segmentation,
Masson, Paris, 1995.
[COS 89] COSTER M., CHERMANT J.L., Précis d’Analyse d’Images, CNRS, Paris, 1989.
[COT 97] COTTET F., Traitement des signaux et acquisition de données, Dunod, Paris, 1997.
[COU 84] DE COULON F., Théorie et Traitement des Signaux, Dunod, 1984.
[DAU 92] DAUBECHIES I., Ten Lectures on Wavelets, SIAM, Philadelphia, 1992.
[DEL 91] DELMAS J.P., Eléments de théorie du signal: les signaux déterministes, Ellipses,
Paris, 1991.
[DUV 91] DUVAUT P., Traitement du signal – Concepts et Applications, Hermès, Paris,
1991.
[FLA 93] FLANDRIN P., Temps-fréquence, Hermès, Paris, 1993.
[FON 81] FONDANECHE P., GILBERTAS P., Filtres Numériques, Principes et
Réalisations, Masson, Paris, 1981.
[GAS 90] GASQUET C., WITOMSKI P., Analyse de Fourier et Applications – Filtrage,
Calcul Numérique et Ondelettes, Masson, Paris, 1990.
[GON 92] GONZALES R.C., WOODS R.E., Digital Image Processing, Addison-Wesley,
1992.
[GUY 93] GUYON X., Champs Aléatoires sur un Réseau, Masson, 1993.
462 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[JAZ 70] JAZWINSKI A., Stochastic Processes and Filtering Theory, Academic Press, San
Diego, 1970.
[HOR 93] HORAUD R., MONGA O., Vision par Ordinateur, Hermès, Paris, 1993.
[KUN 84] KUNT M., Traitement Numérique des Signaux, Dunod, Paris, 1984.
[KUN 93] KUNT M., GRANLUND G., KOCHER M., Traitement Numérique des Images,
Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, 1993.
[LAB 88] LABARRERE M., KRIEF. J.P., GIMONET B., Le Filtrage et ses Applications,
collection sup’aéro, 1988.
[LIF 81] LIFERMANN J., Les principes du traitement statistique du signal: les méthodes
classiques, Masson, Paris, 1981.
[MAL 99] MALLAT S., A Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing, 2nd ed., Academic Press, 1999.
[MAX 89] MAX J., Méthodes et Techniques de Traitement du Signal et Applications aux
Mesures Physiques, vol. 1 and 2, Masson, Paris, 1989.
[MAX 96] MAX J., LACOUME J.L., Méthodes et Techniques de Traitement du Signal et
Applications aux Mesures Physiques, 5th ed., Masson, Paris, 1996.
[MEY 90] MEYER Y., Ondelettes et Opérateurs I, Ondelettes, Hermann, Paris, 1990.
[MIN 83] MINOUX M., Programmation mathématique : théorie et algorithmes, vol. 1,
Dunod, Paris, 1983.
[OPP 75] OPPENHEIM A.V., SCHAFER R.W., Digital Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1975.
[PIC 89] PICINBONO B., Théorie des signaux et des systèmes avec problèmes résolus,
Dunod, Paris, 1989.
[PIC 93] PICINBONO B., Signaux aléatoires, tome 1: Probabilités et variables aléatoires,
Dunod, Paris, 1993.
[PIC 94] PICINBONO B., Signaux aléatoires, tome 2: Fonctions aléatoires et modèles avec
problèmes résolus, Dunod, Paris, 1994.
[PIC 95] PICINBONO B., Signaux aléatoires, tome 3: Bases du traitement statistique du
signal avec problèmes résolus, Dunod, Paris, 1995.
[PRO 92] PROAKIS J.G., MANOLAKIS D.G., Digital Signal Processing, 2nd ed.,
Macmillan, New York, 1992.
[ROD 78] RODDIER F., Distributions et transform de Fourier, McGraw-Hill, Paris, 1978.
[SCH 91] SCHARF L.L., Statistical Signal Processing: Détection, Estimation, and Time
Series Analysis, Addison Wesley, 1991.
[TRU 97a] TRUCHETET F., Ondelettes pour le signal numérique, Hermès, Paris, 1997.
[TRU 97b] TRUCHETET F., Traitement linéaire du signal numérique, Hermès, Paris, 1997.
[WAL 94] WALTER E., PRONZATO L., Identification de modèles paramétriques, Masson,
Paris, 1994.
 Chapter 11

Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion

11.1. Introduction

Generally, sensors are used to acquire relevant information about an environment

for purposes of knowledge and control. In this chapter, the “control” aspect refers to
a sensor’s capacity to respond to specification needs of surveillance and command.
The development of this capacity leads to the creation of an acquisition chain in the
sensor itself which, although it is an essential element, becomes just one basic
element in the overall system.

Actually, beyond obtaining an “image” or “cartography” of an environment,

resolving the problem requires diagnostics. This can include, for example, a
classification of the situations, then a decision leading to an action taken on the
environment. Here we refer to the environment in the broadest sense, not only the
external elements but also the internal elements of the sensors themselves.

As for the term “diagnostics”, usually rather broadly defined, it refers to

classification issues that focus on three important problems:
– finding weak or degraded system modes;
– signal segmentation (or sometimes detecting a specific transient element in a
signal);
– signature classification or, in a broader sense, formula recognition.

Chapter written by Patrice AKNIN and Thierry MAURIN.

464 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Different steps appear in the conception and implementation of a diagnostic or

control system; they require choices and optimizations associated with evaluation
criteria.

Choosing the right sensor is obviously of crucial importance; the quality of the
obtained cartography depends on it. The image of the environment must have
sufficient precision and reliability to be used in subsequent processing. To meet this
requirement, a network of sensors called a multisensor is the best way to increase
and improve the overall performance of an observation system.

The first solution consists of using redundancy, by multiplying the number of

sensors of the same modalities (with the same variables being observed) working in
parallel. Three sensors, observing the same variable, after a “majority vote” decision
make up the basis of this approach, which increases reliability.

On the other hand, increasing the relevance and the quality of the cartography
usually leads to linking sensors of different modalities (different observed
variables). For example, in a situation where we want to predict the presence of ice
on roads, knowing the temperature and the hygrometric degree of the best
predictions will not help us learn anything about the temperature.

Once defined by the transducer or transducers used for learning about the
physical phenomenon or, more generally, the environment, we must go on to
analyze the information they provide to extract the variables that are relevant to the
diagnostic task. The term “information” is used here in its broadest sense, since it
can refer to signals, images, numerical or symbolic content, to mention a few
usages. The work of parameterization generates and chooses variables, which then
help us decide:
– if a system is or is not functioning in degraded mode;
– if a transient is or is not present in a signal;
– if the perceived object belongs or does not belong to a specific class.

If the information is available from precise, complete measurements, the

decision phase will effectively integrate techniques for combining data, and the
decisions made will lead to reconfiguration actions, of moving or changing sensors,
even to an active modification of the environment.

We can see that a pragmatic approach is necessary, centered on sensor choice,

variables, decision and data fusion techniques. The nature of the problem is
summarized in Figure 11.1 and encompasses three disciplines: signal processing;
artificial intelligence; and statistics.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 465

Figure 11.1. Diagnostic processing chain

This chapter will present these themes in the following order:

– representation space, parametrization and selection;
– Bayesian and non-Bayesian classifications;
– probabilistic and possibilistic fusion.

We cannot cover all existing techniques in depth, but rather offer a range of
solutions with comparisons between these solutions whenever possible. We direct
the interested reader to reference works for more detailed implementation
techniques.

11.2. Representation space: parametrization and selection

11.2.1. Introduction

The goal of parameterization (see Figure 11.1) is to find a set of variables

extracted from raw data that have both a high descriptive potential of signals and a
high insensitivity to certain transformations recorded as invariants of the problem
(homotheties if the gains are modified, translation if offsets appear; or possibly
symmetries). This variable set constitutes the representation space.

In diagnostics, where we must generally classify the observed situations into

different categories, other constraints guide the choice of this space: the observations
belonging to the same class must be grouped as much as possible in the
representation space. Inversely, the observations coming from different classes must
be situated in regions separated from each other. In spite of a good level of initial
expertise with a given application, sometimes a certain number of variables
considered as “obvious” turn out to be relatively irrelevant to the expected
diagnostic.

The choice of a representation space also requires a thorough consideration of

the practical problems of constructing test bases, which are necessarily of limited
size. This is related to the “curse of dimensionality” described by the mathematician
Bellman [BEL 61] who showed that the number of observations required for
developing and perfecting a program grow exponentially with the dimension p of the
466 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

representation space. Practically, we often must limit p in the representation space

by using feature selection so that the n observations at our disposal can carry out a
reasonably good tiling of the space. This limitation leads to diagnostic algorithms
that require less calculation time, an especially important parameter for reactive
systems.

The work is thus divided into two stages: parameterization, then variable
selection, but these stages are in fact joined. After a brief summary of the
parameterization currently in use, the following sections will offer a range of
variable selection methods.

11.2.2. Signal parametrization

Generating descriptive variables is greatly influenced by whether or not we

understand and can control the type of physical phenomenon being observed and the
type of sensor being used.

When there is significant a priori knowledge, heuristic parameterizations are

often used; these are chosen for their known relevance. These parameterizations can
group together variables of very different types, such as peak-to-peak values, useful
values, Kurtosis factors, mid-height widths, power spectral densities or wavelet
transforms [ZWI 95]. In the case of image information, these variables can be
contrast measurements, entropy measurements, first or second order histograms,
measurements of local curves or air [THE 99]. These heuristic parameterizations
compress the initial information of a certain number of features judged relevant by
the expert.

Unfortunately, this kind of expertise is not always possible – especially for a new
problem – and it is often difficult to predict in advance which variable will be
important. Compressing information a priori cannot really be done, at least in the
same terms. It is better to use more complete modelizations of initial information
which will help in processing unknown degraded modes or a new class of objects.

Processing signals and images can be done using many different techniques,
among them being: AR, MA and ARMA modelization; Fourier descriptors; time-
frequency analyses; polynomial approximations; splines; and Prony models. All
these techniques provide, for each observation, a variable set, such as coefficients of
ARMA filters, serial Fourier coefficients, or polynomial coefficients. The
dimensions of this variable set are usually significant, but before trying to select
from among these variables, certain expressions must be represented.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 467

The observation basis will be written X. This includes n lines corresponding to n

observations x1, x2, ..., xn and p columns corresponding to p variables X1, X2, ..., Xp
obtained after signal parameterization:

variable
↓
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡x11 x1 p ⎤ ← observation
⎢ x ⎥ ⎢x ⎥
X=⎢ ⎥=⎢
2
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
21
[
⎥= X ,X
⎥ 1 2 Xp ] [11.1]
⎢ x ⎥ ⎢x x np ⎥⎦
⎣ n ⎦ ⎣ n1

For each of these observations of value in RP, we have one desired output yi of
the decision system. This output corresponds to a class designation and takes values
of between 0 and K – 1 for a problem general to K classes Ω0, Ω1, ..., ΩK–1:

Y = [y1, y2 ...yn ]t with yi ∈ {0, 1 ... K -1} [11.2]

First and second order statistics will later be utilized. The center of gravity in the
scatter plot is a vector of p components:

[ ] with [ ] 1 n
m = m1 , m2 ... m p mi = E X i = ∑ x ki [11.3]
n k =1

The covariance matrix will be written V:

⎡σ1 2 σ 12 σ1 p ⎤
n
⎢σ 21 ⎥
∑
1
V=⎢ ⎥ with σ ij = ( xki − mi )( xkj − m j ) [11.4]
⎢σ n
2⎥ k =1
⎣ p1 σp ⎦

This matrix of dimensions p × p is symmetrical and positive. Its values are

therefore real positive or negative. They will be written as i.

The total variance of the scatter plot is represented by:

1 n 2
σ2 = ∑ x −m [11.5]
n k =1 k

We can also show that this total variance is equal to the trace of V [SAP 90]
p
σ 2 = ∑ σ k2 [11.6]
k =1
468 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We see that this quantity is independent of the coordinates system chosen and
that in the particular axial system made of vectors specific to V, this total variance is
expressed by:
p
σ 2 = ∑ λk2 [11.7]
k =1

In order to suppress irrelevant variables that may appear, or variables that are
over-coordinated between themselves, and also to limit the curse of dimensionality
(see section 11.2.1), we must choose a subset of a variable set X1, X2, ..., Xp. The
following sections will present in some detail several good selection methods in a
supervised context in which a database, which we assume to be exhaustive, is
available for designing a diagnostic system.

11.2.3. Principle component analysis

This method of information analysis was first proposed by K. Pearson in 1901.

Basically, principle components analysis or PCA determines the pr axes of a
subspace or RP that best represents the basic data X after projection. The
“representivity” criterion is an inertia type criterion:

1 n 2
J=
n
∑ x i − proj(x i ) [11.8]
i=1

In PCA, we try to make J minimum, so that the projected scatter plot is as

undeformed as possible; that is, the variance of the projected scatterplot is then
maximum.

We can easily show [SAP 90] that the subspace we are looking for is generated
by the pr vectors proper to Ui of the variance-covariance matrix V (see equation
[11.4]) related to its first pr proper values i ranged in decreasing order. The axes
defined by these proper vectors are called inertia axes or principle axes.

xi
+ subspace
X +
+ +
++ proj( x i )
+ + +
+ +
+ +

Figure 11.2. Two-dimensional illustration of the PCA

 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 469

From the example of the 2D illustration in Figure 11.2, we can easily see that
1D space that least deforms the initial scatterplot is the linear regression line that
merges with the first inertia axis. In any dimension space, the PCA determines
through linear combinations the initial p variables Xi of the new centered variables
Ui of the maximum and uncorrelated variance between them.

The PCA can be used for two purposes: to reduce the representation space of the
data by projecting the data in a space of reduced dimensions, or simply to aid in
visualizing the observation bases of large dimensions. In analyzing data, it is
important to visualize the correlations between the initial variables and the variables
coming from the PCA that “summarize” a large part of the basic inertia. The
correlation between the initial variable Xi and the principle component Ui is
calculated with the following expression [LEB 97]:

λ j U j (i)
R( X i ,U j ) = [11.9]
σi

where Uj(i) is the ith component of the vector related to i.

The visualization of these correlations is traditionally done with correlation

circles in which each initial Xi variable is represented by a coordinate point:

(R( X i ,U j ), R( X i ,U k ))
This visualization helps us understand the links between each Xi variable with
the principle inertia axes (the principle plane j = 1, k = 2 is the most used). These
points are contained in a center circle 0 and of radius 1, whatever i and j are:

−1 ≤ R( X i ,U j ) ≤ 1

Looking at the example in Figure 11.3, we observe that Xi is correlated to the

first principle axis, Xj is anticorrelated to the second principle axis, and Xk has no
strong correlation with these two axes.
470 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

2nd principle axis

1

Xk Xi
1st principle axis
-1 0 1

Xj
-1

Figure 11.3. PCA correlation circle

The PCA is a relatively powerful data analysis method, allowing many ways of
visualizing information [SAP 90]. With the PCA, we can verify the independence of
descriptive signal variables. It offers a new representation base made by a linear
combination of initial variables. The axial hierarchy is established by using an
inertia criterion that favors variables presenting the highest variances.

If we want to reduce the number of initial variables by using the PCA, we then
face the problem of choosing the pr dimension of the representation subspace.

λi

principal axis
1 2 3 ... p numbers
k
∑ λ i2
i =1 σ2
threshold

k
pr

Figure 11.4. Choosing a dimension of the projection subspace using a PCA

 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 471

Usually this choice is made by visualizing the range of values belonging to the
matrix of variance-covariance ranged in decreasing order. By using equation [11.7],
each value raised to the square “explains” part of the total variance of the cloud of
data points X. Choosing a threshold percentage of the curve represents the
accumulated sum of the squares of the values that help us obtain the value of pr (see
Figure 11.4). The existence of a break in the value set also helps us set the threshold.

As we can observe, this choice is made without taking into account the class Y
labeling that is available to us. This is doubtlessly the biggest drawback to using the
PCA as a method for selecting variables for diagnostic purposes. Actually, nothing
shows that the retained variables will be the most relevant ones for separating
classes. With the example shown in Figure 11.5, the basis of data X is divided in two
groups (corresponding, for example, to the class of correct modes and to the class of
faulty modes). The principle axis Il (the one possessing the highest inertia) is not
evidentially the most important axis for distinguishing between the two classes;
choosing the axis Id seems much better.

These considerations lead to implementing other technologies that take into

account class labeling.

I1 density
X
Ω1
Ω0
+ + I1
+ o
+ ++ + oo density
+ + o
+ ++ o
o
+ + + ++ o o o
+ + o
+ + + + o o
+ + oo
oo Id
Id

Figure 11.5. Principle inertia axis and class separation

11.2.4. Discriminate factorial analysis

The work of Fischer and Mahalanobis (1936) first explored this statistical
method. Discriminate factorial analysis (DFA) is both a descriptive method and a
method of classifying data. In this section, we will only discuss the first method.
472 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

nΩ 0 X
Ω0
mΩ
0 + + o Ω1
VΩ 0 + + oo o o
+ + o
mΩ0 + o
+
o m Ω1
+ + o o
+ m o o o
+ + o
+ + o nΩ 1
nΩ 2 x x x
x x mΩ mΩ
mΩ x 2
x 1
x x
Ω2
2
VΩ 1
VΩ 2

Figure 11.6. Centre of gravity and variance matrix internal to classes

To present the basic principles of DFA, some equations must be represented. For
each i of X, it is possible to define a center of gravity and a variance-covariance
matrix by using equations [11.3] and [11.4]. These are expressed, respectively, mΩi
and VΩi. nΩi is the number of observations of X belonging to the class i (see Figure
11.6).

Using the variance-covariance matrices belonging to each class, we can represent

the idea of an interclass variance matrix:

1 K -1
Vin = ∑ nΩ VΩ [11.10]
n i=0 i i

The interclass variance matrix produces the average of the matrices proper to
each class. It can be interpreted as an overall measurement of the concentration of
classes around their center of gravity. If all the classes were reduced to their center
of gravity, their matrix trace of interclass variance would be zero.

Inversely, the interclass variance matrix measures the dispersion of the centers of
gravity of classes:

1 K -1
( )( )
t
Vex = ∑ nΩi mΩ i − m mΩ i − m [11.11]
n i=0

The closer the K centers of gravity are to each other, the weaker the interclass
matrix traces are.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 473

Analogous to Huygen’s theorem in mechanics, we show that the total variance is

equal to the average of the variances plus the variance of the averages [GAI 83]:

V = Vin + Vex [11.12]

We can easily understand the importance of these two matrices for diagnostic
problems. The DFA tries to find a projection into the subspace of Rp that minimizes
Vin (concentrated classes) while maximizing Vex (classes far from each other). The
main result of this method [SAP 90] is that the subspace we are looking for is
generated by the pr vectors belonging to the matrix Vin-1Vex linked to its first values
ranged in decreasing order. The choice of pr is made in exactly the same way as with
the PCA method. However, we can show that the ranking of Vex is at most K-1 [GAI
83]; this means we must limit pr to pr≤ K-1.

A more detailed analysis also shows that the DFA is nothing less than a PCA on
the K centers of gravity of classes having a non-Euclidian metric (the Nahalanobis
distance: ||u||2 = ut Vin-1u [GAI 83]).

Xj

σ Ω 0 ( j)
o Ω0
oo o o
o o m
m Ω0 ( j) +
+ + o Ω0
o o o
m Ω + ++ o o o
1
m Ω1 ( j) o
++ ++
+ ++
+ + Ω1
σ Ω1 ( j) Xi

σ Ω i (i) σ Ω 0 (i)
m Ω1 (i) m Ω0 (i)

Figure 11.7. Illustration of the Fischer criterion

A simplified version of this method, called the Fischer criterion, consists of

measuring the compactness of classes not on the principle axes of the matrix Vin−1Vex
474 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

but on the source axes by making the hypothesis that they are orthogonal. For a
problem of two classes, for example, we calculate the quantities:

(m Ω (i) − m Ω (i ))
2

F (X ) =
0 1
i [11.13]
n σ +n σ
2 2
Ω0 Ω (i) Ω1 Ω (i)
0 1

The larger this quantity, the better we can discriminate it from the axis i. For
example, in Figure 11.7, the variable Xi is more discriminate than the variable Xj.

This sub-optimal method does not allow us to combine the initial variables to
obtain new, more relevant variables. Selecting variables using this criterion is
therefore very simple to do; a version of equation [11.13] can be extended to a
situation in which K classes also exist [DOC 81]. We should avoid using this simple
method when the complete variance-covariance matrix structure is not close to being
a diagonal structure.

DFA is often more useful than the PCA for diagnostic problems and for formula
recognition. This is because it takes into account the fact that elements of the
observation base appear in classes. However, the interclass variance matrix used is
an averaged matrix that only imperfectly represents the internal variance matrices of
each class, especially if the classes are very disparate. Added to this theoretical
difficulty is a practical one that occurs during the estimation of matrices Vin and Vex,
mainly if the observation basis contains few examples.

11.2.5. Selection by orthogonalization

The selection method described in this section uses the linear regression
formalism. With the representations proposed in section 11.2.1, choosing a linear
regression model imposes the following matrix relation between the input and
output variables:

Y = XP + ε [11.14]

P contains the regressors obtained by orthogonal projection of Y on the

information base X. This projection is carried out in the least squares sense in order
to minimize the modelization error ε. We remember that the output vector Y contains
the class labeling of the base examples.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 475

The relevance of each variable – that is, of each X column – is estimated by

measuring the output vector in a space of dimension n, with n being the number of
base examples [CHE 89]. The lower the angle between Xi and Y, the better this
variable “explains” the output. In the example shown in Figure 11.8, the variable X3
is the most relevant.

Figure 11.8. Illustration of the OFR method for n=3 and p=5

The selection method by orthogonalization (or the Orthogonal Forward

Regression (OFR)) works by a classification of initial variables, from the most
relevant to the least relevant. However, so as to not count the same information
several times, we iteratively eliminate the variables remaining to be classed. The
Gram-Schmidt iterative orthogonalization procedure is used for this.

During the first iteration, we choose the variable Xi1, the most colinear to Y:

⎡
( )
t 2 ⎤
⎢ X k .Y ⎥
( )
2
cos X i , Y = max ⎢ ⎥
1
1≤ k ≤ p ⎢ X 2 2
k Y ⎥
⎣ ⎦

During the second iteration, we first orthogonalize all the remaining variables, as
well as the output so it is perpendicular to Xi1

Xi tY Xi t X k
Y (2 ) = Y − 1
and X k (2 ) = X k − 1

Xi t Xi Xi t Xi
1 1 1 1

with 1 ≤ k ≤ p and k ≠ i1
476 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The procedure ends at the iteration p, when all the variables have been classed.

The choice of the reduced dimension pr of the representation subspace is carried

out, as with the PCA method, by choosing a threshold for the estimation of the
contributions of the subspaces successively constructed. This contribution is written:

( )
j 2
o( j) = ∑ cos X (k)
ik , Y
( k)
k =1

The OFR method is very simple to implement. The underlying linearity

hypothesis is quite complex, but the variables retained by the method are pertinent
[STO 97]. In addition, the curve visualization o(j) (see Figure 11.9) easily gives us
an idea of the significance of the non-linearities of the problem as formulated; if the
problem is completely linear, o(p) = 1. Observing a sufficiently high value of o(p)
(0.75 < o(p) < 1, for example), a posteriori justifies using this method.

The reader will find very complete developments in the variable selections in
texts such as [DUD 73], [FUK 72], [KIT 86], and [KRI 82].

o(j) modelization error

1
threshold

j
0
1 2 3 ... p
choice of p r

Figure 11.9. Choice of reduced dimension in the OFR method

11.3. Signal classification

11.3.1. Introduction

From the parameterization/selection phase, we use observations belonging to an

optimized representation space, from which we implement the diagnostic
procedures. The labeling of a base being assumed known, section 11.3 will only
present techniques of supervised classification.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 477

After having introduced the Bayesian classification approach, first we will

discuss in some detail a Bayesian parametric method, then k methods and Parzen
nuclei.

The last two methods to be presented come from the domain of Bayesian
classification; they are first of all decision trees and neuron networks, of either
multilayered perceptron types or radial base functions.

11.3.2. Bayesian classification

11.3.2.1. Optimum Bayes classifier

Statistical classification has a long history that dates back to the work of Thomas
Bayes (1763). His formula helps in calculating the probability of creating a class by
knowing the observation x is created in a given space. The Bayes formula, given
below, is a consequence of definitions and properties of conditional probability
laws. Its practical importance is significant:

p ( x Ωi ) p ( Ωi )
p ( Ωi x ) = (Bayes formula) [11.15]
( )
∑ p x Ω j p (Ω j )
K-1

j =0

p(Ωi|x) is the a posteriori probability that the observation represented by x that

belongs to i, p( i) is the a priori probability of the class i and p(x|Ωi) is the
probability that the observation equals x knowing that it belongs to the class i.

Applying the Bayes formula assumes that the range of classes is complete, or
that – since we are dealing with classification – each observation only belongs to
one class and that the group of classes entirely covers the representation space Rp.

Example: what is the probability that every person measuring 1.60 meters in height
is a woman?
Responding to this question brings us back to estimating the following
conditional probability: p( F｡x = 1.60). If the person is chosen randomly from a
population, and if we suppose that this population is half women and half men,
applying the Bayes formula gives us:

p (1.60 Ω F ) × 0.5
p ( Ω F 1.60 ) =
p (1.60 Ω F ) × 0.5 + p (1.60 Ω H ) × 0.5
478 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

With this simplified model of the distribution of the heights of men in France, a
Gaussian centered at 1.75 meters, and a deviation of 0.15 meters, and for women a
Gaussian centered at 1.65 meters and a deviation of 0.15 meters, applying the Bayes
formula finally gives us:

1.61 × 0.5
p ( Ω F 1.60 ) = = 60.9%
1.61 × 0.5 + 2.52 × 0.5

If now, we choose a person from among, say, a national legislative body, and not
from among the French population, the probabilities change, if we assume that this
legislative body is composed of 10% women and 90% men. Applying the Bayesian
rule in this case gives us:

1.61 × 0.1
p ( Ω F 1.60 ) = = 14.8%
1.61 × 0.1 + 2.52 × 0.9

We notice that the answer to the question is significantly influenced by the

probabilities of classification. With the formula, we can even calculate that a
legislator has 50% chance of being a woman, if this legislator is less than 1.20
meters tall. Of course, these models are very simplified.

To construct a classifier, we must complete the Bayes formula with a decision

rule. The decision rule of Bayes leads to an optimum classifier and is expressed as
follows:

x ∈ Ωi such that
j =0...K-1 ⎣
(
Max ⎡ p Ω j x ⎤
⎦ )

The final choice of class is carried out by comparing the a posteriori

probabilities of belonging to all the classes and by choosing the highest one. By
observing that the denominator of equation [11.15] is the same for all the conditional
probabilities, irrespective of class, the Bayes rule can also be formulated in the
following way:

x ∈ Ωi such that
j =0...K-1 ⎢⎣
( ⎥⎦ )( )
Max ⎡p x Ω j p Ω j ⎤ (Bayes rule) [11.16]
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 479

p(x Ω 0 ) p(Ω 0 ) Optimum Bayesian

threshold
( )
p x Ω1 p (Ω 1)
A1 A0
x

Non-optimum
threshold

A1 ’ A0 ’
x

Figure 11.10. Illustration of the Bayesian decision rule for two classes

Figure 11.10 shows the Bayesian rule in one dimension. On the first curve, we
see that the decision threshold is placed at the equality point of probabilities a
posteriori, as the Bayes rule shows. The line of this threshold (respective to the left),
the observation will be modified to class 1 (respective to class 0). The poorly
modified observations of class 0 (respective to class 1) are regrouped in the area A0
(respectively in the area A1). With a threshold differently arranged, as in the second
curve in Figure 11.10, the sum of these two areas can only increase (see areas A’0
and A’1). This explains that the Bayes rule must also be called a minimum cost rule.

This decision rule gives an equivalent weight to all classification errors.

Practically, we perhaps penalize certain errors more harshly (for economic or
security reasons, for example). We direct the interested reader to more specialized
texts for variants of the Bayesian decision: [DUB 90] and [THE 99].

The Bayesian classifier cannot always be used directly; it requires knowing the
probabilities of belonging to classes, as well as the internal probabilities densities of
classes. To resolve these difficulties, many classification methods have been
developed. Some of these, including derivation methods, parametric and non-
parametric methods, will be discussed at the end of this chapter. The Bayesian
decision rule still has great theoretic importance; it provides a standard for
comparison for all these methods.
480 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

11.3.2.2. Parametric Bayesian classification

This method provides a model for probability densities and a priori probabilities
with parameters that we adjust with a learning base. The most up-to-date model is
that of the classes distributed according to the Gaussian multidimensional laws:

⎛ 1 ⎞
p ( x Ωi ) =
1
( ) ( )
t
exp ⎜ − x − mΩi VΩi −1 x − mΩi ⎟
( 2π ) ⎝ 2 ⎠
p/2 1/ 2
VΩi

The parameters mΩi and VΩi are determined on the learning base. Lacking
complementary information, the probabilities will be chosen equal:

nΩi
p ( Ωi ) = [11.17]
n

In this specific case of a parametric model, applying the rule of Bayes’ decision
(see equation [11.16]) will lead to [DUB 90]:

⎡
( ) V ( x − m ) + Log ( V ) − 2Log ( p (Ω ))⎥⎦⎤
t
−1
x ∈ Ωi such that Min ⎢ x − mΩ Ωj Ωj Ωj j
j=0...K-1 ⎣ j

The first term expresses the removal of the observation to the center of the class j
with a Mahalanobis metric. The second term is a corrective term linked to the
dispersion of of the class j. The final term takes into account the a priori probability
of the class j in the decision rule. If the classes are equiprobable and of the same
dispersion, the Bayes rule is reduced to an attempt to find the minimum distance
between the classes’ centers.

11.3.2.3. Method of the k-nearest neighbor

This non-parametric method was introduced by Fix and Hodges in 1951. Instead
of using a probability density model, here we try to locally estimate these features
by observing the nearness of each observation. We determine the volume v centered
on x which incorporates k observations of the learning base. Once we have
determined this volume, we count the number ki of the neighbors belonging to each
class. The probability density of the class i is then estimated locally by:

K -1
pˆ ( x Ωi ) =
ki
i = 0...K–1 with ∑ ki = k
nΩi × v ( x) i =0
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 481

Choosing a specific metric influences the form of the volume v; the volume is a
sphere with a Euclidian distance, a cube with a Manhattan distance (||u|| = ∑|ui|) and
an ellipsoid with a Mahalanobis distance.

If we choose, a priori, a probability like the one in [11.17], the Bayes decision
rule then becomes very simple:

x ∈ Ωi such that Max ⎡ k j ⎤⎦

j=0...K-1 ⎣

The observation is allocated to the class that is most represented among the
closest k neighbors. We can demonstrate that the error rate of the method tends
towards that of the Bayesian classifier if k tends to infinity (the error is two times
higher if k = 1) [KRI 82].

Unfortunately, this method, which is very easy to use, takes a long time to
calculate; with each new observation to be classed, we must calculate the distances
between each observation and all the observations of the learning base.

11.3.2.4. Parzen nuclei

A dual method of the method described above was developed more recently by
Rosenblatt in 1956 and Parzen in 1962. It fixes a given volume around the
observation and counts the number of examples of the learning base that it contains,
class by class. The simplest volume is a hypercube of side h with a volume hp. In
this way, we directly estimate the probability densities with the formula:

pˆ ( x Ωi ) =
ki ( x )
i = 0...K − 1 [11.18]
nΩi × h p

Applying this method often leads to obtaining very noisy probability densities,
the results of densities that are too low in the learning base in certain zones of the
representation space. Parzen proposed smoothing these densities by using nuclei
[PAR 62]; these “gently” modify the term ki(x) shown in equation [11.18], instead of
an all-or-nothing counting:

ˆp(x Ω i ) =
1 ⎛ x − xk ⎞
∑ ϕ⎜
⎝ h ⎠
⎟ [11.19]
nΩ × h p x k ∈ Ωi
i

l is the nuclei function we must verify: ϕ( x) ≥ 0 and ∫ ϕ (x )d x = 1 .

p
R
482 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Finally, by the bias of this function, each observation of the class I intervenes in
estimating p(x|Ωi), not those situated in the immediate proximity of x. Gaussian
nuclei are most often used. The adjustment parameter h then plays the role of the
gap type of the nuclei; the more h increases, the more the density estimation will be
smoothed.

By supplementing a choice concerning a priori probabilities (for example, in

equation [11.17]), the decision rule in equation [11.16] can then be applied for
modifying the class.

11.3.3. Decision trees

The first work on this non-Bayesian method dates from the 1960s. According to
experts, tree classification brings about a series of interleaved tests with a learning
phase that helps define the structure. These tests operate successively on each
descriptive variable and divide the representation space into the most homogeneous
regions possible relative to the classes. Figure 11.1 gives an example of a tree
structure in a situation with two dimensions and three classes.

observation x2
x =[x1 ,x 2 ] intermediary terminal
segment segment

x 2 >0.5 + + + o
yes n + + o
0.5 + o
+
x 1 <1 x 1 >0.3 + +
o o + +
0.2
x
x1
class Ω1 class Ω0 x 2 >0.2
o 0.3 x 1 x
x x

class Ω1 class Ω2

Figure 11.11. Example of a decision tree in two dimensions

There are many ways to construct this type of tree [GUE 88]. Their construction
principles are often the same. Using the complete learning group, we must look for
all the variables, with the best thresholds separating the base into two groups that are
as homogenous as possible relative the classes. We then have the threshold – and its
linked variable – which produces the best among the best separations. We then
develop the two branches obtained. With each of them, we apply the same procedure
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 483

as before, but applied to the part of the learning base that corresponds to the
threshold as defined above.

Each branch develops this way up to the point when the observations verify all
the tests that already belong to the same class. This sub-group is then termed “pure”.

To measure the efficiency of a separation, entropic criteria or “rate of impurities”

criteria can be used. For example, the impurity measurement of a group E can be
obtained by using equation [11.20] where p(Ωi|E) corresponds to the proportion of
representatives of the class i in the group E. We can verify that the impurity
measurement of a pure group is zero:

I(E) = ∑ ∑ p ( Ωi E ) × p ( Ω j E ) [11.20]
i j ,i ≠ j

In our case, the placing of a threshold α on a variable xi leads to measuring the

linked impurities of the two subsets issues from the test:

I(α ) = ∑∑ p ( Ωr xi > α ).p ( Ωs xi > α ) + p ( Ωr xi ≤ α ) .p ( Ωs xi ≤ α ) [11.21]

r s
r ≠s

For classification, the procedure is very simple; we carry out a new observation
on the majority class represented in the extremity of the branch where the
observation is located.

The main importance of this method is that the order of the tests allows us to
take a decision in an optimized way according to the zones of the space where the
observation is located. Modifying a particular class only requires a low number of
tests, and only a few variables need be introduced; but for other classes, the set of
tests can be longer. Overall, the calculation time required is low.

What is more, knowing all the descriptive variables is not necessary if the
observation is in a zone where the modification is simple. Here, the parametrization
time is less (but in industrial control settings, the cost of certain controls is quite
high).

The problems with implementing decision trees lie in choosing the development
level of each branch. If the sub-groups obtained are not pure, the tree structure can
be developed up to the point where each extremity only contains a single
observation! The correct classification rate is then 100% for the learning base but of
course, the generalization capacity of the tree is poor.
484 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In the domain of decision trees, current research is being done on “pruning”

techniques applied to trees whose branches are too long, while looking for more
efficient subtrees [LEB 97].

11.3.4. Neural networks

Neural networks (NN) have undergone important developments since the mid-
1980s. The work of Rumelhart and Le Cun [RUM 86] is fundamental to this new
trend, since with it we can implement efficient and fast algorithms for learning
multilayered NNs. However, as early as the 1940s, McCulloch and Pitts had begun
working on elementary NNs.

The “biological analogy” is the source of the name, but today, NNs are no longer
seen as simple mathematical operators. Rather, their popularity is due more to their
universal approximate and inexpensive qualities [BIS 95] than to their potential to
reproduce the functioning of the human brain!

Several families exist. In this chapter, we will discuss the most widely used,
supervised-mode structures: the multilayer perceptron (MLP) and the Radial Basis
functions network (RBF). We direct the reader to other texts dealing with other, less
widely used networks [HAY 94] [HEY 94].

11.3.4.1. Basic neurons

Neural networks are assemblies of basic blocks; we will discuss two types of
these. The first type is a basic neuron called a “scalar product”.

⎧1 Scalar Non-linear
⎪ product activation
⎪⎪ x 1 Output
x ⎨ x2 x, w φ
⎪ S = φ ( x, w )
⎪
⎪⎩ x p w weight

Figure 11.12. “Scalar product” type of basic neuron

This neuron carries out two operations. The first operation is the scalar product
between the input vector and a vector w called the weight (we see that the input
vector includes a constant so that an adjustable bias may be introduced).
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 485

The second operation is an activation throughout of a non-linear function with

many variances: a threshold function (Rossenblat’s perceptron, 1960); linear
(Adaline de Widrow’s model, 1960); and a hyperbolic tangent. The sigmoidal
function is also a widely used function (see Figure 11.13).

This “scalar product” neuron carries out a linear separation of the input space in
two regions, whether or not the activation function being used is linear or non-linear.

An example is given in Figure 11.13 in two dimensions. Here we see the line of
the plane for which S = 0.5 and which defines two half-planes. The neuron output is
indicated in gray. We can understand the importance of using this type of operator in
a classification problem of two classes; for example:

S < 0.5 ⇒ x ∈ Ω0 and S > 0.5 ⇒ x ∈ Ω1

x2 w 0 + x 1w1 + x 2 w2 = 0
φ (u )
1
u
0
x1

g
1 S=0
S=
1 + e ( 0 1 1 2 2)
− w +x w +x w SS=0,5
= 0.5

Figure 11.13. Linear separation in two dimensions

The second type of neuron is called a basic “distance” neuron. This time, the
neuron (or nucleus) calculates the distance, with a metric A, between the input vector
and a center C, before injecting the result into the activation function, which is
usually Gaussian. The possible partition of the space is then quadratic. An example
is given in Figure 11.15 in two dimensions.
486 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Non-linear
⎧ x1 Distance
activation
⎪ x
⎪ Output
x ⎨
2
x − C A φ
⎪
⎪ x p
⎩
(
S =φ x−C A )
C center

Figure 11.14. Basic “distance” neuron

Figure 11.15. Quadratic separation in two dimensions

The space partitions remain in a rudimentary form when one neuron is

introduced. More complex partitions necessarily occur when several neurons are
linked in a network.

11.3.4.2. Mulilayered perceptrons

The linkage most often used is called a multilayered perceptron. This structure
combines the neurons of the “scalar product” into several interconnected layers, as
shown in Figure 11.16.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 487

Figure 11.16. Architecture of multilayer perceptrons

x2

x1

x2 x1
x2
x1

x2
x1
x2
x1

x2
x1

Figure 11.17. Partition examples in two dimensions

with mulitlayer perceptrons

Regulating the weights of all the layers is done in supervised mode, thanks to the
retropropagation algorithm of the gradient which uses the derivation of the
prediction error of the outputs calculated on the group of the learning base, and
propagated in layers from the output to the input [HEY 94].

The parameters of the network’s architecture that require adjustment are the
number of layers and the number of neurons per layer. This means that the space
488 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

partitions brought about by using these networks are no longer simple hyperplanes
(2D lines), but much more complex forms.

Figure 11.17 gives examples in two dimensions of possible partition speeds with
two or three layers and one output.

11.3.4.3. Radial base function networks

This second architecture, called a radial base function network, connects basic
“distance” neurons to an input layer and the “scalar” product” neurons to an output
layer (see Figure 11.18).

Figure 11.18. Architecture of a radial base function network

Adjusting this kind of network is more complicated than with multilayer

perceptrons [OUK 99]. Adjustments must deal with the number and position of the
nuclei of the first layer, the widths of the Gaussians linked to these nuclei, as well as
the weights of the output layer. The type of distance must also be selected
(Euclidian, Manhatten, Mahalanobis, among others).

Even with few nuclei, the partitions of the space are of widely varying speeds,
depending both on the type of distance being used and the weights of the output
layer. Figure 11.19 gives several examples of partitions that are possible with three
nuclei.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 489

Figure 11.19. Partition in two dimensions with radial base function networks

Choosing a type of neural network must obviously be done by considering the

general form of the classes in the representation space, combining linear separations
(see Figure 11.17) adapted to multilayer perceptrons, and combining quadratic forms
(see Figure 11.19) that are adapted to radial base function networks.

11.3.4.4. Neural networks and classification

Contrary to the Bayesian approaches, NNs used for classification purposes tend
to a posteriori directly approach the probabilities of belonging to classes. At the
moment of learning, the outputs representing the classification of base examples.

For situations in which there are more than two classes, two approaches are
possible. Even if the network has as many outputs as there are classes, each output
in the end represents the a posteriori probability of belonging to the class i knowing
x: p(Ωi|x). This approach is called global classification. The retained class will be the
one with the highest associated output.

Let us assume that we subdivide the global problem of K classes into two classes
and construct sub-classifiers dedicated to each sub-problem. Several subdivision
techniques are possible [PRI 94]; the simplest is shown in Figure 11.20, where K
sub-classifiers are represented by the separation of each class among the
K – 1 others. In this simple subdivision instance, the retained class will also be the
one with the highest output of the associated sub-classifier.

Figure 11.20. Global approaches and by partition of a K class classification

490 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The partition approach is very useful in practice. Following the aphorism “divide
and rule”, the complete problem is divided and an individualized adjustment of each
sub-classifier is possible according to the relative difficulty of its sub-problem.
Learning sub-classifiers are independent of each other, which often improves
convergence speeds. This approach even allows personalized selection of input
variables for each sub-classifier, since some variables prove to be relevant for the
separation of a specific class [OUK 98].

We should remember that the partition approach can be used for all types of
classifiers and not only for neural networks.

After having presented some supervised classification methods (Bayesian and

non-Bayesian), in section 11.4 we will discuss some issues dealing with information
fusion.

11.4. Data fusion

11.4.1. Introduction

Up to now, we have discussed information coming from sensors, and sensors

themselves, without taking into account their intrinsic qualities. Statements such as
“variable No. 1 is more certain than variable No. 2”, “it is more certain”, “sensor A
breaks down more often than sensor B” express these intrinsic qualities.

The first objective of data fusion is to help manipulate this kind of knowledge,
always taking into account the changing nature of a dynamic environment. Data
fusion may be seen as a process which helps us integrate information coming from
multiple sources so as to produce more specific and relevant data about an entity, an
activity or an occurrence.

11.4.1.1. Modelizing imperfections and performances

A key point here is the characterization and modelization of knowledge in terms
of imprecision and incompleteness, as well as the level of the sensor and of the
diagnostics.

Imprecision characterizes a quantity. “The security distance between two

vehicles on the highway must be large” or “The distance must be around 200 meters
to 100 km per hour” are both imprecise statements of information. A quantification
of this imprecision on the content of the information, of the knowledge, or of the
measurement is obviously necessary.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 491

Uncertainty characterizes a quality. “The road might be icy” is a uncertain

statement that qualifies the information in relation to its truth. Information can be
both imprecise and uncertain as in the statement “The road may be icy about 10 km
from here”.

Incompleteness characterizes the fact that knowledge, information or a fact is

either not inaccessible or not especially accessible. The absence of a hygrometric
measurement to estimate the presence of road ice or the masking of obstacles in a
radar view are examples of incomplete information.

Finally, these are performances of an overall system that matter. Among them,
reactivity plays a basic role in “real time” systems when the reaction time of the
system to a change in the environment is a very significant parameter. Thus, with the
car, a system that detects obstacles must be able to react to a pedestrian in its field of
vision; that is, to provide information to the driver in less than 100 ms. The
reliability of the system is also a factor of utmost importance. In our example we
give an example of limiting or cancelling the false alarm rate.

How can we improve performances of these systems? In particular, how can we

improve the reliability of information, the quality of the “cartography”, diagnostic
and decision-making precision, all the time respecting cost and reactivity
constraints?

11.4.1.2. Different fusion techniques and levels

Several levels of fusion can be defined according to the nature and semantic of
the information processed. This means that we would not process the values coming
form a tachymeter the same as we would symbolic knowledge such as that relative
to signalization panel for vehicles.

There are three main types of this fusion.

– low-level fusion of basic data. An example of this is image retiming;
– numerical fusion. This has to do with quantified data or information. An
example of this is infrared laser telemetry used in radar;
– symbolical fusion, used in knowledge and forms of expertise. An example of
this is the introduction of expert advice that has a strong added semantic value.

Whatever its level, the issue is to know what should be fused. What are the
sensors or information sources? How these should be fused, and which techniques
should be implemented?

Among data fusion techniques, we can very generally distinguish three large
classes:
492 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– standard probabilistic techniques (Bayesian fusion) and non-standard

techniques (the evidence theory of Dempster-Shafer);
– least-squares techniques (PPV, PDAF, optimization);
– techniques that are not part of the above two (flow and principle possibilities
theory).

All these theories (probabilistic, evidence theory, possibilities theory) modelize

the knowledge of a source of information on a basic referential composed of the
group of important hypotheses. The models that manipulate the data, as well as the
fusion techniques used, depend on the type of imperfections that we need to take
into account. This means the fusion will not be the same with imprecise data or with
uncertain data; the formal scope will be different.

We point out two stages in fusional processing of data: the fusion itself and the
decision. As with our discussion in earlier sections, here we will only speak of the
decision or the diagnostic procedures concerning the hypotheses (class homologues)
constructed on the data or measurements (signal homologues).

We will only discuss in detail three techniques of fusion that present a gradation
in possible modelization of the imprecision and uncertainty [HEN 88]. These
techniques also can be used in low level data processing as well as in symbolic
processing.

11.4.2. The standard probabilistic method

Data fusion very often uses the Bayesian method of decision (see section 11.3.2).
Here we use a well-established formalism that has theoretical and experimental
advantages [PEA 88].

The problem consists of determining the configuration of the environment

observed in K configurations (hypothesis or occurrences) possible. More exactly, we
must decide on the most possible hypothesis, taking into account the imprecisions of
different redundant and/or complementary measurements. Using the same equations
as in the earlier sections, we write i the ith hypothesis among the K listed and x the
measurement or observation carried out.

11.4.2.1. Modelization, decision and hypothesis choice

In a situation with one sensor, choosing a hypothesis is made by opting for one
that maximizes its a posteriori probability p(Ωi|x) [11.16]. In other words, having
observed the measurement x provided by the sensor, we choose the most probable
hypothesis – the one that gives the highest vale of p(Ωi|x). If we assume the group of
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 493

K hypotheses to be exhaustive in providing configurations of the environment, we

can use the Bayes formula (equation [11.15]), written again below, to calculate the
p(Ωi|x)

p ( x Ωi ) p ( Ωi )
p ( Ωi x ) =
∑ p ( x Ω ) p (Ω )
K-1

j j
j =0

In this approach, we modelize the sensor by the probability p(x|Ωi) that the
observation equals x, knowing that the hypothesis i is verified. We then speak of
the likelihood that the measurement x is conditional to the hypothesis i. A
Gaussian distribution is often used to modelize the sensor’s measurement.

For example, let us assume a detection system using an ultrasonic sensor with
binary response, is triggered in the presence of obstacles in its field of vision: x = 0
(no triggering) or x = 1 (triggering). Assuming that we have two hypotheses:
Ω0 = no obstacles, Ω1 = presence of an obstacle. So, let us lastly assume that the
sensor has a false alarm rate of 1% (p(1|Ω0) = 0.01) and a non-detection rate of 5%
(p(0|Ω1) = 0.05). The sensor will then be modelized by the matrix of the conditional
probabilities shown in Table 11.1. The importance of choosing an example with two
hypotheses with a measurement that can take only two states is that it allows us to
calculate the group of related conditional probabilities.

p(x|Ωi) Ω0 Ω1
x=0 0.99 0.05
x=1 0.01 0.95

Table 11.1. Matrix of conditional probabilities p(x|Ωi)

Let us now assume that an a priori knowledge of the environment in which the
vehicle moves helps us to estimate the probability of the presence of an obstacle up
to 0.1% (p( l) = 0.001, thus p( 0) = 0.999). Constructing the conditional probability
matrix using the Bayes formula gives us Table 11.2.

p(Ωi|x) Ω0 Ω1
x=0 0.999 5.10-5
x=1 0.913 0.087

Table 11.2. Conditional probability matrix p(Ωi|x)

494 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We then observe that the decision rule (equation [11.16]) which chooses the
hypothesis giving the highest value of p(Ωi|x) leads to retaining, whatever the
observation, the “non-obstacle” hypothesis! We see how Bayesian information
fusion can modify this result.

11.4.2.2. Multisensor Mayesian fusion

Suppose we now have two independent sensors that verify:

p ( x1 , x2 Ωi ) = p ( x1 Ωi ) × p ( x2 Ωi )

The decision is made this time by choosing the hypothesis that a posteriori
maximizes the conditional probability. We know that x1 and x2 are calculated with
equation [11.22]. Under these conditions, the two sensors both have an information
fusion coming from them both:

p ( x1 Ωi ) × p ( x2 Ωi ) × p ( Ωi )
p ( Ωi x1 , x2 ) = [11.22]
∑p(x ) p(x ) p (Ω )
K-1

1 Ωj × 2 Ωj × j
j =0

Now we look at the above example but use two identical ultrasonic sensors. This
time, we will obtain the conditional probability matrix shown in Table 11.3.

p(Ωi|x1,x2) Ω0 Ω1
(x1,x2) = (0,0) 0.999 0.001
(x1,x2) = (0,1) 0.995 0.005
(x1,x2) = (1,0) 0.995 0.005
(x1,x2) = (1,1) 0.1 0.9

Table 11.3. Conditional probability matrix p( i|x1,x2)

The decision rule shown in equation [11.16] chooses the same conclusion as
before (no obstacle), except when there is concomitant triggering in the two sensors
(x1, x2) = (1, 1). The effective fusion of information of the two sensors modifies the
result significantly.

Applying this method is simple but assumes:

– a priori knowledge of probabilities p( i) that can be re-actualized during
processing);
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 495

– statistical independence of the measurements provided by the sensors;

– knowledge of their probability model p(x|Ωi).

This poses a problem. The measurement of these probability laws is on one hand
far from being easy, and on the other hand can lead to different results in a learning
context than in a reality context. It also assumes that we have an exhaustive
knowledge of the group of possible hypotheses.

If Bayesian fusion analyzes sensor imprecisions, it does not allow us to take into
account their reliability or, more generally, the uncertainties in their model.

In addition, if we have a sensor incapable of distinguishing between two

hypotheses 0 and 1, its probabilistic model will be p(x|Ω0 or 1). Using the
Bayesian approach to fusion means equally distributing the probabilities between the
two hypotheses and then choosing p(x|Ω0) = p(x|Ω1). In conditional cases, only the
probability values that are a priori p(Ωi) will decide the hypothesis choice, the
sensor response no longer intervening in this choice. To avoid this difficulty, the
Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence introduces masses that allow us to characterize
the confidence degree of a measurement, of a model, of a hypothesis, and of a group
of hypotheses.

11.4.3. A non-standard probabilistic method: the theory of evidence

This theory is based on the work of A.P. Dempster and was formalized by G.
Shafer [SHA 76]. It uses as a starting point the group E made of K hypotheses i
considered as exclusive and exhaustive. It also assumes that one of these hypotheses
corresponds to each observed situation. The group E is called the frame of
discernment.

11.4.3.1. Mass sets of a source

To take into account the uncertainties of the information provided by a sensor
and its possible inability to perceive certain hypotheses, we introduce the group 2E
of all the possible combinations of the hypotheses, combinations made by the
intermediary of the connector “or”, which is also written ∪. The group consists of
2K– 1 elements Ai . Thus, with a group E of three hypotheses Ω0, Ω1 and Ω2 (see
Figure 11.21), we construct the following group 2E:
A0 = Ω0 A1 = Ω1 A2 = Ω2
A3 = Ω0∪Ω1 A4 = Ω0∪Ω2 A5 = Ω1∪Ω2
A6 = E = Ω0∪Ω1∪Ω2
496 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

A0 , A1 and A2 are called singletons.

A6=E A3

A00=ž
A =Ω0 A11=ž
A =Ω11

A4 A5
A22=Ω
A =ž 22

Figure 11.21. Ensemble of hypothesis combination for

a 3D discernment frame

The theory of evidence introduces a mass function m(.) representing the

likelihood of hypothesis combinations. This function is defined for the group 2E and
is of value in the interval [0,1]. It verifies:

m ( ∅ ) = 0 with ∅ the empty group

2K − 2 [11.23]
∑ m ( Aj ) = 1
j =0

In the previous example, m(A3) will represent the likelihood that can be
attributed to the hypothesis Ω0∪Ω1, without discernment possible between Ω0 and
Ω1.

We call elements focal, Ai having a non-zero mass. We say that if all the focal
elements are singletons, then the function m(.) corresponds to a probability.

Practically, the mass sets generated each time the sensor is tested easily allows
us to express the indiscernability between hypotheses. When there are three
hypotheses, if m(E) = 1, then m(A0) = m(A1) = m(A2) = 0. This extreme situation
expresses total uncertainty: the sensor is incapable of discerning between the
different hypotheses of the discernment frame.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 497

The major advantage of this theory is that it allows for conjoint evaluation of
hypotheses, modelization of uncertainties and the indiscernability between
hypotheses – all factors that the Bayesian theory cannot handle well. Uncertainty
cannot be expressed in Bayesian theory, except by an equidistribution of
probabilities for the different hypotheses.

11.4.3.2. Example of mass set generation

Using the theoretical framework discussed above helps us quantify the related
uncertainty to a sensor’s functioning. For each measurement x delivered, a
distribution of masses, which take into account the uncertainty of its functioning,
will be represented. Later in this chapter, we will systematically express equations in
one dimension to simplify them (x = x). Obviously, all the results shown can be
extended, for a given representation space, into any dimension.

Let us look at a binary response sensor C1, x = 0 (no triggering) or x = 1

(triggering) in the context of two hypotheses: 0 = no obstacle, 1 = obstacle. The
sensor is assumed to function perfectly. When x = 1, we use, for example, the
following mass set:

mC1(Ω0) = 0.2 mC1(Ω1) = 0.8 mC2(Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0

The value mC1(Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0 characterizes the certainty as to the sensor’s C1

functioning. The distribution of the two other masses and mC1(Ω0) et mC1(Ω1)
characterize the precision of the measurement x = 1.

Let us now assume a second sensor C2 whose functioning is less reliable. We

introduce, to characterize this uncertainty, a coefficient g to the interval value [0, 1].
We then attribute to the mass mC2(Ω0 ∪ Ω1) the value 1 - α. With α = 0.9 and still
using the example of a response x = 1, we will use the following mass set:

mC2(Ω0) = 0.18 mC2(Ω1) = 0.72 mC2(Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0.1

The value mC2(Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0.1 characterizes the uncertainty of the sensor’s
functioning. The distribution of the two other masses mC2(Ω0) mC2(Ω1) remains, in
our example, in the same proportions as before.

It is important to remember that the mass sets are not fixed entities and they can
be changed at each new measurement.

The fusion itself of the mass sets coming from several sensors will be discussed
in section 11.4.3.4.
498 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We can also adjust the modelization of a sensor of its functioning is assumed to

be certain in a given environment and uncertain in another environment. This means
we can know perfectly the conditional distribution function p(x|Ωi) of the
measurements in the framework of hypothesis 0 and imperfectly in the framework
of 1. We then construct two different mass sets following the underlying
hypothesis [APR 91]. These mass sets can also be fused.

11.4.3.3. Credibility and plausibility

For a given mass set, we should bear in mind that m(Ai) does not express the
likelihood of Ai particularly well. The group of elements of 2E included in Ai also
contributes to our knowledge of Ai. In Figure 11.21, we see that the likelihood of A5
must take into account the mass m(A5) but also the masses m(A1) and m(A3), since
A1 ⊂ A5 and A3 ⊂ A5. For that, we introduce the credibility function defined on the
group 2E and of interval value [0, 1], such as:

Cr ( A ) = ∑ m ( B)
B⊆ A
[11.24]

The credibility expresses the minimum likelihood veracity of hypothesis A.

On the contrary, it is good to have an idea of the maximum likelihood that is

possible for the veracity of hypothesis A. For that, we introduce the plausibility
function represented for the group 2E of interval value [0, 1], such that:

Pl ( A ) = 1 − Cr ( ¬A ) = ∑
B ∩ A ≠∅
m ( B) [11.25]

where ¬A represents the complementary group of A for the group 2E . We see that if
the only elements Ai having a non-zero mass (focal elements) are the singletons,
then:

Cr ( Ωi ) = Pl ( Ωi ) = m ( Ωi ) = p ( Ωi )

Finally, we should remember that generating a mass set linked to an information

source is a complex task, requiring a priori knowledge of the nature of the source
and its environment. This generation should take into account uncertainties and the
underlying hypotheses of the context, as discussed in section 11.4.3.2.

11.4.3.4. Fusion of mass sets

Fusion by the Dempster-Shaffer combination rule [11.26] allows us to reinforce
the increase associated with hypotheses whose sources are in accord, and to
attenuate the increases associated with hypotheses whose sources are in disaccord. If
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 499

we have two sources, and thus the mass sets mC1 and mC2, the fusion is expressed by
the following rule:

1
m( Ak ) = m C1 ( Ak ) ⊕ mC 2 ( Ak ) = ∑ mC ( Ai ) m C 2 ( Aj ) [11.26]
1 − H Ai ∩ A j = Ak 1

1/(1-H) represents a normalization coefficient in which H characterizes the

degree of conflict between the sources and is expressed by the relation:

H= ∑ m C1 ( Ai ) mC 2 ( A j )
Ai ∩ Aj =∅

H = 0 shows that the two sources are never in contradiction. This normalization
allows the mass set obtained by fusion to verify the definition [11.23]. This rule
generalizes when there are several or many sources and/or sensors, always
respecting the properties of commutability and associability that are indispensable to
all fusion mechanisms (see [JAN 96] and [SHA 76]).

Below we will define the decision rule constructed from the fused mass set.

11.4.3.5. Decision rule

The decision phase is based on the definitions given in section 11.4.3.3. We will
retain the singleton hypothesis 1 as the most plausible among the K singletons of
the discernment frame:

Ωi such that Pl ( Ωi ) = max

k =0...K-1
{Pl ( Ωk )} [11.27]

11.4.3.6. Example
Let us look again at the example of the two binary response sensors working in
the framework of two hypotheses 0 = no obstacles; 1 = an obstacle. Assuming
that they independently analyze the same scene with different modalities, one of the
sensors is ultrasonic, the other infrared. The ultrasonic sensor is assumed to have
reliable functioning. The infrared sensor’s functioning is assumed to be less well
known ( ≠ 1). Once the mass set and response functions of the sensors are set up,
and taking into account the value attributed to for the infrared sensor, it is possible
to fuse the sets coming from the two sensors and to make a decision by retaining the
most possible hypothesis. Assuming that the ultrasonic sensor provides the response
xus = 1 (an obstacle is present). We then construct the mass set:

mus (Ω0) = 0.2 mus (Ω1) = 0.8 mus (Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0

500 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We assume that the infrared sensor provides the response xir = 0 (no obstacle)
and that the reliability of its functioning is characterized by g = 0.9. We then
construct the following mass set:

mir (Ω0) = 0.72 mir (Ω1) = 0.18 mir (Ω0 ∪ Ω1) = 0.1

The two sensors give contradictory results but the mass fusion allows us to
decide. Applying the rule in [11.26] and the representation [11.25] provides the
result given in Table 11.4 that chooses the “presence of an obstacle” hypothesis.

Ω0 Ω1 Ω0 ∪ Ω1
US xus = 1 0.2 0.8 0
IR xir = 0 0.72 0.18 0.1
Fusion 0.42 0.58 0
Plausibility 0.42 0.58 0

Table 11.4. Specific example of the fusion of two mass sets

We see that the mass set of the infrared sensor with uncertainties (and which
responds to “no obstacle”) cannot counterbalance the response of the ultrasonic
sensor. We also see that, in this simple situation, plausibility is directly equal to the
mass set resulting from fusion.

Tables 11.5 and 11.6 show the results of the fusion obtained for the two previous
sensors in all possible response configurations.

mus / mir Ω0 Ω1 Ω0 ∪ Ω1
x=0 0.75 / 0.72 0.25 / 0.18 0 / 0.1
x=1 0.2 / 0.2 0.8 / 0.7 0 / 0.1

Table 11.5. Mass sets of two sensors

mus ⊕ mir = Pl Ω0 Ω1 Ω0 ∪ Ω1

(xus , xir) = (0,0) 0.9 0.1 0

(xus , xir) = (0,1) 0.53 0.47 0
(xus , xir) = (1,0) 0.42 0.58 0
(xus , xir) = (1,1) 0.09 0.91 0

Table 11.6. Fusion of two mass sets

 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 501

We notice that in cases where there is contradiction, the ultrasonic sensor does
not impose its choice because of the distributions of the masses on singletons.

Simple situations with two hypotheses, shown in the examples, imperfectly

illustrate the complexity of the credibility-plausibility approach. In this theoretic
framework, working out more complex cases (in terms of number of hypotheses)
helps us imagine very elaborate decision strategies that can lead to rapid choices of
non-singleton elements of the hypotheses’ spaces.

An extension of these fusion methods is also possible with a non-exhaustive

discernment frame [JAN 96]. A possible problem is the constraint on the mass sum,
which must be equal to 1; this can be the case when we have very little information
from the source.

To open up the range of fusion possibilities by limiting constraints, we can,

while still using the methods described above, use the theory of fuzzy groups and
extend it to fusion: the theory of possibilities.

11.4.4. Non-probabilistic method: the theory of possibilities

The theory of possibilities was introduced by D. Dubois and H. Prade [DUB 87].
It is based on the fuzzy subgroups of L.A. Zadeh [ZAD 65] [ZAD 78]. It allows us
to leave the probabilistic framework of many fusion approaches. It is particularly
well-adapted to a situation where we know very little about the information sources
(sensors, experts, etc.).

Modelization of imprecise or uncertain information is based on the functions

represented in the observation space and the interval value [0, 1]. These are called
ownership functions; they express the available knowledge of the different
propositions or hypotheses of the discernment frame.

an ownership function µΩi(x) will be linked to the hypothesis i. This function is

represented on the group of values possible for the variables. The value µΩi(x1)
characterizes the veracity of the hypothesis Ωi for the observation x1. Figure 11.22
shows, in a 1D case, examples of ownership function for two hypotheses.
502 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

µ Ω1 (x) µ Ω2 (x)
1

x
0

Figure 11.22. Examples of ownership functions

The imperfections of a sensor and how well the person performing the experiment
knows the sensors can also be modelized by functions of the same type. Here, we
speak of a distribution of possibilities. We assume that a sensor delivers the
measurement xm of a real variable xr. The information we have about the value of the
measured variable is expressed by a distribution of possibilities written as πm(x): that
the variable is equal to x, knowing that the measurement is xm (see Figure 11.23).

π m( x )

x
xm

Figure 11.23. Distribution of possibilities linked to a measurement

A completely imprecise sensor is expressed by: πm(x) = 1 ∀x∈R. The existence

of an ideal sensor and the knowledge of this perfection is expressed by the
distribution of possibilities: πm(xm) = 1 and πm(x) = 0 ∀x ≠ xm .

The analogy with a probability p(x|xm) is only graphic, since no constraint is

imposed on the probability distribution.

11.4.4.1. Operations on ownership functions and possibility distributions

We can define operations on functions µΩ(x) or πm(x) such as inclusion,
intersection, union and complementing. This helps express logical operations on
hypotheses or on information relative to variables. The “and” and the “or” or their
corresponding symbols ∪ and ∩ can be expressed, for example, by [11.28]:

µ A∪ B ( x ) = max ( µ A ( x ) , µ B ( x ) )
µ A∩ B ( x ) = min ( µ A ( x ) , µ B ( x ) ) [11.28]
µ¬ A ( x ) = 1 − µ A ( x )
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 503

11.4.4.2. Possibilistic multisensor fusion

Let us look at a situation where there are reliable but imprecise sensors all
observing the same variable. Each will be modelized by a distribution of
possibilities relative to this variable. The fusion of information will then take the
form of an intersection of distributions of possibilities, using the operator ∩.

If these sensors are not completely reliable, especially if the information they
provide is discordant, we can take this discordance and uncertainty of this information
into account by using the conjunction of distributions using the operator ∪.

Figure 11.24 illustrates these two types of fusion when there are two sensors.
πC1(x) and πC2(x) are the distributions of possibilities of the values of the variable x
observed by two sensors C1 and C2.

All intermediary forms of fusion are certainly possible [BLO 96], which justifies
sophisticated supervision techniques, according to a priori knowledge.

π C 1 ∩C 2 (x)
conjunctive
fusion
πC 1 (x)
x

πC 2 ( x)

x π C 1 ∪C 2 (x)

disjunctive
fusion x

Figure 11.24. Possibilistic multisensor fusion

As for hypotheses, the same types of fusion can be used. This means that the
ownership function µΩ1 ∪ Ω2(x) characterizes the veracity of the hypothesis
Ω1 ∪ Ω2.

11.4.4.3. Diagnostics and fusion

From a distribution of possibilities, obtained from a sensor or from a fusion
operation between sensors, it is possible to characterize the information we have
504 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

about a variable. To do this, we introduce two functions, the possibility degree Π

and the necessity degree N represented on a subgroup S of the possible variable
values:

Π ( S ) = Sup ( π ( x ) )
x∈ S
[11.29]
N ( S ) = Sup (1 − π ( x ) ) = 1 − Π ( ¬ S )
x∉S

These functions evaluate the confidence we have in the statement: “The variable
has a value belonging to the group S.”

If now a hypothesis Ωi can be expressed by an ownership function, it is easy to

construct, by extension, a possibility degree linked this time to a hypothesis Ωi,
knowing the distribution of possibilities of the variable. Formula [11.30] shows the
calculation of Π(Ωi).

( i ) = Sup { min ( µ i
( x), ヾ m ( x) )} [11.30]
x

If Π(Ωi) is obtained from a possibilistic multisensor fusion, its value evaluates

the confidence that we have in the veracity of hypothesis Ωi, taking into account the
measurements carried out and fused.

A diagnostic operation is thus possible by discriminating the hypothesis

corresponding to the maximum possibility degree:

Ωi such that Π ( Ωi ) = Sup {Π ( Ωk )} [11.31]

k =0...K −1

To illustrate this, let us imagine an obstacle detection situation in a road or

highway. We assume these obstacles are of two types: “car” or “truck”. To validate
one or the other of these hypotheses, a sensor (or a fusion of sensors) gives us a
measurement (for example, of volume of vehicles). A distribution of possibilities
will be linked to the measurement; we express it as: πm(x). In addition, our two
classes have their own ownership functions: µtruck (x) and µcar (x).

We can evaluate the degree of possibility of each hypothesis (truck or car) and
finally decide by using the rule of maximum possibilities (equation [11.31]). Figure
11.25 shows this mechanism.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 505

π m (x)
µ car(x) µ truck (x)

πm (car)
π m (truck)
µ truck(xm)
µ car (xm)
x
x m

Figure 11.25. Example of fusion and possibilistic diagnostics

We should observe that, on the figure, the maximum possibility degree rule gives
a “car” result different from the “truck” result which would have been obtained from
the raw measurement xm by using as a decision rule the maximum of the ownership
function. So:

πm (car ) > πm (truck) while µ truck ( xm ) > µcar ( xm )

Probabilistic fusion allows us to analyze the measurements provided by sensors,

cameras [DEV 94], and temporal information about sequences of events [NIF 97]
directly. The advantage of this theoretical framework is that it gives us many choices
among fusion mechanisms that can lead to supervised control on a hierarchic level
of the symbolic type [DUB 97] [ZAD 92]. The drawback is in the difficulty of
mastering the obtained results. This means that fusion laws cannot be associative,
cannot even be used in cases where there are more than two sources. Decisions
coming from them may not agree with the operator’s intuition.

11.4.5. Conclusion

Data fusion can take various forms. The reader will find a more thorough
coverage of different fusion techniques in [ABI 92], [TS 94] and [TS 97].

Generally, we can say that if only imprecision has to be controlled, we can

choose a Bayesian fusion. If fusion must deal with both uncertainties and
imprecisions, but if we have information of a symbolic nature, we can choose the
theory of evidence.

On the other hand, if the data are numeric, we choose possibilistic fusion; in
particular if we do not have a reliable probabilistic modelization of the sensors.
506 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Constraints are relaxed when we go from Bayesian fusion to theory of evidence

fusion, then to theory of possibilities fusion, but it can also lead to systems in which
it is difficult to regulate parameters.

11.5. General conclusion

This chapter has presented some of the aspects of diagnostic problems with the
help of multisensor systems: choosing a representation space of signals and in
particular the reduction of it dimension; Bayesian and non-Bayesian classification
techniques; and fusion of probabilistic and possibilistic data.

All these topics have been extensively researched and developed. The recent
refinement of connectionist techniques, logical flow and the theory of evidence, to
name several, have all made their contribution.

We have also noticed a recent convergence of interests, even of methods, on the

part of a scientific community that had previously been divided into areas of
specialization such as data analysis (in statistics), form recognition (in artificial
intelligence) and neural networks (in signal processing). This synergy has resulted in
many new theoretical and practical developments such as vocal and cursive
handwriting recognition, aids to detecting driving problems, analysis of
malfunctions in industrial settings, and medical imagery.

A certain number of problems encountered during the implementation of a

diagnostic system can be mentioned here. Other chapters of this book have covered
themes strictly related to those covered in this one. So, the geographic distribution of
these sensors, whether the system being used is in an industrial workshop or a
system that perceives specific targets, poses the problem of choosing software and
material architecture. It can be centralized or distributed. If distributed, we need
sensors that integrate an “intelligence” that helps them make local diagnostics.
Chapter 12 will discuss these problems.

11.6. Bibliography

[ABI 92] ABIDI M.A., GONZALEZ R.C., Data Fusion in Robotics and Machine
Intelligences, Academic Press, 1992.
[APR 91] APPRIOU A., “Probabilités et incertitudes en fusion de données multi-senseurs”,
Revue Scientifique et Technique de la Défense, no. 11, p. 27-40, 1991.
[BEL 61] BELLMAN R., Adaptive Control Process: A Guided Tour, Princeton University
Press, 1961.
[BIS 95] BISCHOP C.M., Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Clarendon Press, 1995.
 Multi-sensor Systems: Diagnostics and Fusion 507

[BLO 96] BLOCH I., “Information Combination Operators for Data Fusion: A comparative
Review with Classification”, IEEE Trans on SMC, vol. 26, no. 1, 1996.
[CHE 89] CHEN S., BILLINGS S.A., LUO W., “Orthogonal least squares methods and their
application to non-linear system identification”, Int J. Control, vol. 50, no. 5,
p. 1873-1896, 1989.
[DEV 94] DEVEUGHELE S., DUBUISSON B., “Adaptabilité et combinaison possibiliste:
application à la vision multicaméra”, Revue Traitement du Signal, vol. 11, no. 6,
p. 559-568, 1994.
[DOC 81] DOCTOR P.J., HARRINGTON T.P., DAVIS T.J., MORRIS C.J., FRALEY D.W.,
“Pattern recognition methods for classifying and sizing flaws using eddy current data”,
Eddy Current Characterization of Materials and Structures, ASTM, p. 464-483, 1981.
[DUB 87] DUBOIS D., PRADE., “Une approche ensembliste de la combinaison
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 Chapter 12

Intelligent Sensors

12.1. Introduction

Since the end of the 1980s, many articles have appeared in scientific [BER 87],
[GIA 86] and technical [BLA 87], [JOR 87] books using the term “intelligent”, a
word often associated with sensors, transmitters, actuators and instrumentation. In
this chapter, we will define an intelligent sensor as the linkage of one or several
measurement chains to a computing “machine”. Its main function is providing
reliable, useful information. However, sometimes we read that the sensor is the
weakest link in the measurement chain.

As shown in Figure 12.1, we remember that the purpose of a sensor is essentially

to provide information, that is, to measure a variable and to communicate
representative information of the value of this variable. A sensor is always part of an
action/reaction loop:
– This action/reaction loop may be “closed” in the technological sense through a
certain number of components such as controllers, calculators, Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLC) or actuators. The sensor is then an element in an automation loop
that provides a representative signal of a physical variable: for example, it provides a
signal to a regulator or to a PLC that will itself provide a command signal to be
transmitted to an actuator. In the automotive field, a typical example is that of a
rotation speed sensor placed on each of the wheels which transmits this rotation
“speed” information to the central Anti-Breaking System (ABS), which makes the
“right” decision by comparing the rotation speeds of the same axle.

Chapter written by Michel ROBERT.

510 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– This action/reaction loop could also be closed by a human operator. Still in the
automotive context, it is the driver who usually observes the speedometer and either
brakes, accelerates or reduces gear to adjust the speed of the car to the speed limits.
Obviously in this context the speed sensor must be precise and reliable.

Goals

Analyze,
Make decision

Observe Act

Process

Figure 12.1. Sensor in an action/reaction loop

12.2. Users’ needs and technological benefits of sensors

Whatever the context, sensor users want products that perform well; that is,
sensors that are reliable from the first performance or, to be more technologically
exact, that are accurate1. In complementing this accuracy, it is more particularly the
credibility2 of the information which is required by the users of the systems. This is
especially true in the automotive context, with users who tend to have absolute
confidence in their vehicles and would be angered by erroneous warnings generated
by a faulty surveillance system.

Together with this need for accurate measurements, integration strategies require
mutual exchanges of information between the automation units. The development of
these techniques and automation methods has led to less centralized processing,
made possible by new communication networks. These networks are called

1 Accuracy of a measurement instrument: the ability of the measurement instrument to give

close indications of the true value of a measured variable (ISO norm, NF X07-001, December,
1984, International Organization for Standardization).
2 The quality, capability or power to elicit belief (OED).
 Intelligent Sensors 511

fieldbuses [CIA 99] and the appearance, by the 1980s, of “smart” or “intelligent”
equipment.

In industry, current strategies aim to improve the quality of this equipment by

increasing reliability and improving productivity. Automation is part of this
improvement and requires the collection of relevant data to be used and processed
by a production system. This data must be conveyed to decision-making units which
then undertake a range of actions that culminate in predefined objectives.
Measurements, which are the result of a collection of information, are thus
inherently linked to automation, which itself integrates the following procedures:
– automation integrates the control-command features, which provide “real
time” information about the value of strategic variables that are indispensable to
production. These variables qualitatively or quantitatively describe the product or
they provide information about the state of the production system;
– automation integrates the maintenance; in this area, the measurements detect or
anticipate any deterioration in the system that might adversely affect its functioning;
– automation coordinates safety procedures, usually cross-integrated, that protect
operators, equipment, and the environment;
– automation regulates production, helps establish guidelines and expected
results, and helps adjust product and energy flow;
– automation improves technical management, giving information about
processing availability.

Hierarchy

Automation
P&T Management
system

Safety Functional

Maintenance

Control

Sensors
Actuators

PROCESSING Topology

Figure 12.2. Four automation units (DEL 90)

512 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

In the automotive context, automation is used in the following instruments or

systems:
– it is used in the command-control of a car. It coordinates everything to do with
speed regulation, since the car must be able to move safely. It also guides the vehicle
and regulates the interior temperature;
– automation helps maintain the car, integrating diagnostics, on-off engine
functions, engine temperature, tire pressure and compression measurements, among
other functions;
– automation integrates safety functions, including the essential function of
protecting drivers and passengers. This includes inflatable airbags, ethylometers,
which can stop a driver from driving under the potentially dangerous influence of
alcohol, as well as anti-theft systems;
– automation coordinates data concerning fuel consumption. This data usually
tells the driver how much fuel is available and, indirectly, the distance that can be
covered with this fuel. This kind of information comes from a gas tank sensor that
determines from the volume of fuel available, taking into account the geometry of
the tank and conditions in which the vehicle is being used. These factors are
provisionally parameterized by conditions such as urban or highway driving that an
intelligent sensor can provide, given the distance to be traveled. The information the
sensor provides is in an adapted form the driver can use;3
– automation coordinates technical regulation of the system itself; there are
sensors that give information about tires and their condition. The company
Continental Teves has developed a system called Sidewall Torsion Sensor (SWT)
that has produced Smart Tyres [CRO 99].

3 We will come back to this example of “intelligent distance sensors” after discussing the
concept of “intelligent sensors”.
 Intelligent Sensors 513

Figure 12.3. Schema principle for the direct injection system with an injection pump

1) Intake pressure sensor

2) Airflow meter
3) Regulated control of supercharging pressure
4) Control for gas recirculation system (EGR)
5) Control of supercharging cut-off
6) Reheating of cooling system
7) Preheating spark plugs
8) Pump injectors
9) Fuel temperature sensor
10) Brake camshaft sensor
11) Crankshaft sensor
12) Speed sensor
13) Pedal accelerator sensor
14) Alternator
15) Multiplexer circuit
16) Diagnostics connection
17) Anti-theft system connection
18) Electronic control-command unit engine unit

We see that the car can be described as a system and also can be broken down
into subsystems; the motor control and anti-lock brake systems are themselves
systems. In looking at the example of Figure 12.3, taken from [GUY 99], we see
there are no less than seven sensors that provide information to the injection system,
which, in this particular case, leads to an increase of 21.3% of the engine torque to
1,900 tr/mn.
514 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

12.2.1. A short history of smart sensors

The first “smart” sensors were developed by internationally well-known

manufacturers like Honeywell, Fuji and Control Bailey, who had in a sense already
developed precursors to these sensors, at least in terms of concept. These first-
generation smart sensors were most often dedicated to numerical control-command
systems. In France, work on users’ needs was gathered in 1987 within the
publication of a White Book [CIA 87], and completed by a census of services
proposed by intelligent sensors in automated production systems [ROB 93].

12.2.2. Smart or intelligent?

We are basing our ideas on those in [KLE 91] in distinguishing between a smart
sensor and an intelligent sensor (see Figure 12.4):
– a smart sensor has functionalities that improve its metrological performances
by using numerical processing;
– an intelligent sensor integrates functions that allow it to fully participate in the
goal of an automated system, which then becomes a distributed automated system.
Mechanisms are implanted in this system and exchange information through the
dedicated communication system. This system is the backbone of a true real-time
database [BAY 95].

Intelligent sensor

Automation
"Smart" sensor
Metrology

Integration
Signal
"Standard" processing
sensor

Compensation

Fieldbus
Point-to-point Point-to-point
connection connection

Figure 12.4. Smart and intelligent sensors

 Intelligent Sensors 515

Although these names are now in common usage, we prefer the term “digital
sensor with processing and communication capacities”, which specifies that the
system is a measurement device, that it is created by digital technology, that it has
bidirectional communication means, and processing capacities. An intelligent sensor
is then seen as a fully functional system with its own processing abilities, one that
can take part in more complex systems.

12.2.3. Architecture of an intelligent system

Figure 12.5 gives an example of material architecture of an intelligent sensor.

This architecture includes one or several transducers connected to the conditioners:
– basic sensor components that convert the measurand into an electric signal,
which is usually analog;
– a numerical processing chain of information, including the following elements:
- an interface of the measurement (a multiplexer, amplifier, ADC, sample and
hold);
- a calculation unit (a microcontroller, microprocessor, DSP) and linked
peripherals (memory units);
- a communication interface that ensures bidirectional communication with the
automation system through a fieldbus;
– an energy feed that is usually integrated with the intelligent sensor.

This architecture clearly is more complex that that of a standard sensor. It links
one or several measurement chains and the equivalent of a computer machine [BRI
96]. The related processing possibilities improve metrological performances in terms
of reliability and sensor availability.

Logical
Measurand Influence variables
Transducer Transducer quantitie(s)

Conditioner Conditioner
P
O
W
E Multiplexer Ampli. S&H
R
Interfaces
U
N
I Multiplexer Gain S&H
T ADC
Command Command Command

Internal bus

Component
Micro... ROM RAM Fieldbus
Comm.

Figure 12.5. Example of intelligent sensor architecture

516 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

12.3. Processing and performances

12.3.1. Improving performances with sensors

Among the essential qualities of sensors [AFN 94] are the following: freedom
from bias error, fidelity, accuracy, rangeability, sensitivity, linearity, sharpness or
keenness, rapidity, resolution, traceability, repeatability and reproducibility.
Accuracy is the attribute which is most often considered by users.

Information processing carried out by intelligent sensors improves accuracy by

the following means:
– processing compensates for influence quantities, which must be taken into
account as “normal” variables, leading to a multisensor approach to data fusion;
– processing uses signal processing algorithms, from the simple mobile average
to, for example, the implementation of deconvolution procedures that return to the
excitor signal of the sensor. If its transfer function is known, fairly sophisticated
numerical filters can be used.

This improvement of accuracy can make the sensor more adaptable and improve
its range, so it can be used in a variety of situations and applications.

For example, the same type of temperature sensor can acquire information about
the interior temperature of a car and about the interior of a cylinder, always retaining
its precision. Obviously, modelizing the transfer function signal output =
f(measurand) feature goes beyond simple linear transformations. In addition, the
linearity requirements need no longer be respected, since the information provided is
quantified, digitized and transmitted according to a range of different codings. These
codings allows us to link the corresponding physical unity, freeing us from fixed
rule of linearity imposed by using an intermediary variable such as the 4-20 mA, or
0-10 V for reasons of interoperability between sensors, actuators, regulators or
recorders.
 Intelligent Sensors 517

Figure 12.6. Rangeability, linearity and exactitude

In other words, these improvements in metrological performances have a

downside. This downside is mainly connected with modelization which takes place
during conception stages and static or dynamic modelization of the transducer(s),
which may be completed by individualized calibration procedures [NOI 97], [ROB
99].

12.3.2. Reliability and availability of information

Technical writing abounds with examples of failures in production systems [VIL

98] caused by sensors transmitting incorrect measurements and information to
operators or to automation systems. The decisions made from this information based
on measurements sometimes have had serious consequences.

Thus, the overriding need for reliability was behind the early development of
intelligent sensors. An intelligent sensor must be able to provide valid information
leading to the dependability of the application, even if the application itself is not of
optimal reliability, availability, safety, maintainability or durability.

These goals are met through validation procedures that are completed by:
– auto-tests and auto-diagnostics;
– stored memory of the last delivered values;
– alarm systems used when failures are detected;
– configuration re-readings;
518 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

– network reconfigurations.

These procedures are described in detail in [BRI 94] and [CIA 87].

In the context of cars, the need for reliable, certain and validated information is
obvious. No consumer will accept an airbag that doesn’t inflate; no driver will
accept false warnings about engine problems.

Technological
Acquisition, Measurement Metrological
Correction, Operational
Compensation,
Signal
processing, Validation
Operational
measurement

Communication Configuration

Technological
Functional
Synchronisation,
Operational
Date

Figure 12.7. Validation and functionalities

Validation functions provide informal descriptions of the idea of the intelligent

sensor, as shown in Figure 12.7.

There is a crucial need for intelligent sensors which can provide data and
generate validated information. Indeed, the issue of validation is crucial to
intelligent sensors.

Validation on many levels, including technological, functional, metrological and

operational, is discussed in detail in [ROB 93]. Validation is based on material or
analytical redundancies and is integrated at different levels. However, we must keep
in mind that a material and conceptual limitation does not allow us to recursively
validate all information necessary to carry out and record a measurement.

However, the basic function of a sensor is to provide measurements. The

processes it undergoes allow it to transform the principle quantity or quantities into
an operational measurement (see Figure 12.8) that results from the consideration of
metrological compensations through the influence quantity or quantities, and of
 Intelligent Sensors 519

validations made through technological means. Obtaining this “high value-added”

measurement requires:
– knowing and exploiting the behavior models of the transducer(s);
– regulation of internal time, which helps in dating the operational measurement;
– regulation of diverse data, such as:
- validation thresholds;
- anterior values to the operational measurement;
- measurements coming from other sensors.

All these are re-grouped in an equivalent database.

Internal Auto-co ntrol Influe nce Principal Models

Static/ dyna mic time varia ble(s) Quantit y(ies) Quan tit y(ies)
dat a b ase and quantit y(ies)

Techn ological Auxialiary Primary

measurement(s) measurement(s) me asure me nt(s)

Functio nal
measurement(s)

Qualified
me asure me nt(s)

Operational
me asureme nt

User(s)

Figure 12.8. Obtaining an operational measurement

12.4. Intelligent distance sensors in cars

In the following paragraphs we will illustrate these concepts by showing how the
level of gasoline in a tank is converted to relevant information about how far a car
can travel with this gasoline.

The principle quantity here is obviously the level of fuel in the gas tank.

The temperature inside the gas tank can be seen as an influence quantity that
through the laws of liquid dilation influences the quantity of energy actually
available. The influence quantities are intrinsically linked to metrological and
physico-chemical characteristics of the proof body, allowing us to carry out the first
measurement. We see that the chemical characteristics of the fuel (the octane rate
can vary according to where the gasoline was bought) can be taken into account to
make the prediction more exact.
520 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

The autocontrol variables are, for example, the pressure and temperature in the
gas tank. These help to validate the nominal functioning of the sensor of the level
used and provide information relating to safety. We see that the variable
“temperature inside the gas tank” appears as both an influence quantity and an
autocontrol variable; it can be used in many validation steps. On another level, the
temperature of the processing unit, the supply voltage of the electronic module, and
the supply voltage of any sensor can also be variables requiring surveillance.

The primary measurement is an electronic signal coming from the height sensor,
a signal which must be validated technologically. Then it must be verified that the
frequency and amplitude of the supply voltage conditioner linked to the capacitive
transducer being used are close to nominal values, that the output of this conditioner
is coherent with the geometric characteristics of the gas tank.

The auxiliary measurement is the tension delivered by a thermistor that has been
traversed by a known or measured current that represents the temperature of the
tank. This measurement is obtained though a model specific to the thermistor that
describes the temperature relation of the range of potential utilization of this proof
body. So the temperature = f(tension, current). This model must be constructed and
stored in the intelligent sensor. We point out here that this auxiliary measurement
can be compensated by taking into account auto-heating phenomena, for example, or
validated by measuring the current going through the thermistor; so validation has a
recursive or returning aspect.

Technological measurements are:

– the signal delivered by the proof-body and pressure-conditioner that have been
placed in the sensor for safety reasons;
– the signal delivered by the temperature sensor;
– the various supply voltages that must be watched.

The group of primary and auxiliary measurements leads to the production of a

functional measurement. In our example of a car, the initial measurement of the fuel
level can be converted into information showing the volume of available fuel. The
information is produced by taking into account the geometry of the fuel tank, which
varies according to the vehicle. The information is then clarified during a
configuration step and then is stored in the intelligent sensor in the “static database”
zone. This data about fuel volume can then be corrected by data about volume of
fuel available at a “normalized” temperature; that is, by consideration of laws of
fluid dilation, which will then also be memorized in the “static database”.

The validated or qualified measurement is the information pertaining to the

available fuel volume available at a normalized temperature relative to the
 Intelligent Sensors 521

technological measurements requiring that the nominal conditions for primary and
auxiliary measurements be combined at the moment a measurement is made. If this
is not the case, the processing can be done following several different strategies:
– if the producer of the primary measurement is faulty, then an estimation of the
measurement can be obtained from measurements previously made that have been
stored on a specific temporal horizon in the “dynamic database” by taking into
account the distance traveled since the problem began;
– if the metrological conditions are not combined by the faulty temperature
sensor, for example, the estimation of the distance traveled will be less precise and
this estimation error may be transmitted to the user;
– in other circumstances, a foldback value that has previously been
parameterized according to the application may be produced. Typically, the foldback
value can be the last produced operational measurement;
– in addition, alarm systems can be produced; the receiving systems or units
must have be able to make decisions to regulate these unusual situations which,
however, have been foreseen in the design step of the system.

Lastly, the operational measurement is the information concerning the distance

that the vehicle can travel; this is the truly useful information. It will then be
transmitted to the “final” user who may be the driver, or to a control guidance
system that will even lead the driver to a local, open service station. This operational
measurement is expressed in a configurable unit for the user in miles of kilometers.
It integrates a margin of error that takes into account the exactitude of each of the
first mechanisms that provide information: the primary sensors. This measurement is
obtained by looking at the instantaneous consumption that reflects how the vehicle is
being used. The fuel consumption can be measured by a flow sensor that itself
produces validated information which it transmits to an intelligent sensor showing
the distance that can be traveled.

The physical variable or quantity “time” can also be measured or more or less
produced within the system itself, in order to represent the refresh period of the
operational measurement. This physical variable “time” can be considered as an
implicit physical quantity.

This purely academic example shows us that an intelligent sensor:

– can integrate local processing, based on models;
– requires parameterization or configuration that allows it to be dedicated to a
given application;
– requires information coming from other components.
522 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

An example of the third point is a temperature measurement that must be tested

by a control mechanism of the vehicle that guards against overheating or fires,
possibly by triggering a fire extinguisher.

This transmission of information in a vehicle is not perfect [MEN 99]. It often

depends on a speed sensor, for example, put in an ABS system that transmits
information about speed to a dashboard, which then can override the rotation speed
sensor initially part of the output of the transmission shaft.

This last example underlines the need for integration and precise representations
of relevant data, specifications for related processing, and efficient exchanges of
data within a vehicle. It brings up the potential problems of optimal data distribution
and the related processing of a system.

12.5. Fieldbus networks

Using intelligent sensors or, more generally, a range of automation components

means digital communication between producers and consumers, and also using
dedicated communication networks, since operating constraints in real time or
critical time are not the same as those of usual computer networks.

For production systems, more than 50 types of fieldbuses are currently on the
market, many of which are described in [CIA 99], [FAG 96], [PET 96] and [TER
97].

In the automotive domain, the Controller Area Network (CAN) [PAR 96, 99] is
currently the reference fieldbus, as well as another automotive multiplexing
network, the Vehicle Area Network (VAN), which has mainly been used by PSA
and its subsidiaries [ABO 97].

CAN was first developed by Bosch and Intel for automotive applications. It has
had good reliability and low costs. Many car manufacturers use or are preparing to
use the CAN network. The association of utility vehicles of the USA have also
adopted the fieldbus as a standard, as have most industrial manufacturers, mostly
because of the buses’ wide availability and competitive costs. At this time,
according to [MEN 99], sales for CAN components for cars have surpassed sales to
the industry.

Schematically, the CAN uses a bus topology and belongs to the class of
multimaster networks of the producer/consumer type. In these networks, different
levels of information are transmitted according to the diffusion principle, and
regulated by implanting the protocol CSMA/CR (Carrier Sense Multiple
 Intelligent Sensors 523

Access/Collision Resolve). The nominal rate of communication depends on the

physical length of the bus; typically, a length of 40 m is associated with a
transmission rate of 1 Mbit/s.

Many other multiplexing systems or, more generally, exchange systems in cars
are now being developed by automotive manufacturers or other consortia. Among
these are the J1850 or the ITS (Intelligent Transport System), the Data Bus made by
the SAE, Society of Automotive Engineers, and the OSEK/VDE or the Open
systems and Interfaces for Distributed Electronics in Cars/Vehicle Distributed
Executive. The latter is a consortium of European manufacturers and scientists that
aims to establish operating system norms and communication protocols in the field
of electronics.

Other projects connected to automotive embedded electronics are using fiber

optic networks that enable flows of more than 10 Mbit/s (the AMINC consortium,
standing for the Automotive Multimedia Integration Consortium).

12.6. Towards a system approach

The previous sections show that, in the world of automotive electronics, the
current trend is towards developing interacting, multiplexing systems. This approach
is very important to the field of intelligent sensors, which are integrated into a
distributed automation architecture since, in addition to the characteristics discussed
above, an intelligent sensor must have the following features;
– it must be interoperable. This means it must cooperate with other automation
components in and with a specific application. This, at the very least, means using a
common standard of communication to allow the exchange of information and also
means that the two components conform to the same interpretation of data;
– its components must be interprocessible. This feature, which is not easily
differentiated from the first one, is especially important for the equipment and its
integration with a automation system with distributed architecture (ASDA)
dedicated to an industrial process;
– it must be interchangeable. This means that the equipment of one manufacturer
can be replaced with that of another manufacturer without changing the components.

The above concepts [STA 96] are both an advance and a check to any large-scale
diffusion of intelligent sensors in industry. They imply normalization procedures
which could appear to be constraints. However, some studies ([INC 93]; [LEE 96])
have proposed a standard, or at least an aid, to producing intelligent instruments that
might disregard interface communication. In the near future, these works might lead
to a total or partial modelization of the abilities of intelligent sensors and also lead to
524 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

creating tools to aid in designing intelligent sensors, thus verifying specifications

and performances and ensuring that interoperability and inter-processing criteria are
respected.

This is one of the objectives of the LARII project for “Software of Assistance to
the Creation of Intelligent Interfaces for Sensors and Actuators” which profited from
the financial support of the French authorities and which must make it possible to
diffuse near the French companies manufacturing of the sensors, mainly PMI-PME
of the software libraries, comprising functional blocks based on the standard IEC
1131 (typing of the data, definition of the functions, programming language, etc.)
directly usable in the design of intelligent sensors. These libraries will be integrated
in the strategy of design which should no longer remain on a solely technological
approach [ LEM 99].

12.7. Perspectives and conclusions

In spite of industry’s stated enthusiasm for the idea of intelligent sensors, there
are clear drawbacks to their present widespread use:
– the wait-and-see policy of designers, manufacturers and potential users, who
must choose between the current wide range of communication networks and
fieldbuses (more than 50 fieldbuses are currently on the market ([TER 97, PET
98]));
– advances in industrial instrumentation are basically marketing tools of
manufacturers who develop new techniques before there is a real need for them;
– the integration of intelligent automation components is linked to the issue of an
optimal distribution of data and processing [CON 99]; [HER 98].

However, academic studies have seemed to develop in two directions:

– integration of information processing techniques using fuzzy logic, neural
networks, etc. [END 97];
– connection on the same sensitive element structure and of the processing
electronics using microtechnologies or nanotechnologies [MUL 95].

In addition, catalogues of automation systems tend to promote “intelligent”

products to improve sales.

Especially in the automotive context, Figure 12.9 shows the variety of sensors
which can be integrated in a vehicle that is used on a daily basis.

An article from the end of the last century [GRA 99] mentioned the sale of
sensors used in vehicles: these sales are estimated at $5.18 billion in 1997, while
 Intelligent Sensors 525

sales predictions for 2002 are estimated at $6.86 billion. Even though the technical
works often combine sensors, associated electronics, associated software and
mulitplexing, the sale of electronic chips for cars was estimated at $8.25 million in
1998; predictions for 2000-2001 have been estimated at $13.3 million [VER 99].
Experts’ predictions say that automotive electronics will, in the short term, represent
20% of the finished product, which may well surpass the cost of the mechanics.
According to [GRA 99], the “salability threshold” for a vehicle sensor may be
around $5-7, including the cost of signal processing. This means using digital
technologies of the MEMS (Microelectochemical systems) or MST (Microsystems
technologies) type.

Figure 12.9. Car sensors (image courtesy of Robert Bosch GmbH)

Aside from the optimal running of the engine and the comfort of the driver and
passengers, the key word in the automotive field is safety. We can see this simply by
looking at acronyms such as ESP (Electronic Stability Program), EBS (Electronic
Braking System), TCS (Traction Control System) and ASR (Acceleration Slip
Regulation), which imposes calculation powers comparable to those of a 1982 A310
Airbus [VER 99].
526 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

We also note that on the margins of automotive manufacturing, the demand for
sensors and associated systems is also important in the field of vehicle testing, both
in the design phase and in the test-run phases [ERW 99].

12.8. Bibliography

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l’émergence des réseaux de terrain et de l’instrumentation intelligente dans la conception
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[CIA 87] CIAME, Livre blanc: les Capteurs Intelligents, réflexions des utilisateurs, CIAME
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 Intelligent Sensors 527

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distributed architecture in automation systems: application to a pilot thermal process using
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528 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

[PET 98] PETERSON G.C., “Selecting the right Industrial Network”, Control Engineering
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 List of Authors

Patrice AKNIN
INRETS, Arcueil

François BAILLIEU
ESIEE, Noisy-le-Grand

Paul BILDSTEIN
ESIEE, Noisy-le-Grand

Cécile DURIEU
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan

Bernard JOURNET
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan

Michel LECOLLINET
CNAM, Paris

François LEPOUTRE
CNAM, Paris
ONERA/DMSE

Thierry MAURIN
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan
IEF, Paris-Sud University

Dominique MILLER
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan
530 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

Mustapha NADI
LIEN
Henri Poincaré University
Nancy

Dominique PLACKO
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan

Stéphane POUJOULY
IUT Cachan

Denis PRÉMEL
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan

Michel ROBERT
Henri Poincaré University
Nancy

Eduardo SANTANDER
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan

Frédéric TRUCHETET
Le2i
University of Bourgogne
Le Creusot

Olivier VANCAUWENBERGHE
ESIEE, Noisy-le-Grand
 Index

A E
amplifier 66, 147 effect
instrumentation 160 load 12, 18
isolation 162 Peltier 131
logarithmic 163 photoelectric 94
operational 147, 153, 192 Seeback 129
axis Thomson 130, 131
inertia 468
principle 468 F
C filter 223
active 168, 191, 199
cell analog 167, 169
capacitive 291 anti-folding 215, 228
Fleisher-Tow 198 corrective 170
Friend 194 dynamic 432
piezoresistive 307 FIR 258, 431
photoconductor 94 half-band 215, 241
Sallen-Key 193 IIR 260, 431
Tow-Thomas 196 Kalman 439
converter low pass ladder 179
analog-to-digital 229 passive 168, 177
current Wiener 437
darkness 82
gap 156
polarization 156
532 Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Measurement

M S
sensor
measurement intelligent 509
auxiliary 520 signal
functional 520 analog 29, 416
operational 519, 521 causal 417
primary 520 deterministic 416
technological 520 ergodic 421
periodic 420
N quantization of 423, 427
sampled 423
noise stationary 421
electronic 138 signal-to-noise ratio 145, 306
thermal 138 synthesis
white 422 cascade 175
Darlington analytic 181
P
T
processing
analog 137, 416 theorem
digital 422, 436 Parseval 419
signal 464, 506 Plancherel 418
Wiener-Kintchine 419, 421
transform
Q bilinear 456
Fourier 418, 420, 423, 443, 444,
quantities 446, 447, 449
influence 11, 61, 518, 519 Gabor 448
interfering 11 Hartley 444
modifying 11 Wigner-Ville 456, 457, 459