COOLING TOWERS

SECTION 1
OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION
'There aTe exhibits placed in the center of Ihe book that will be referred
to later in the program. The1J should be removed and set aside now so
Ihal they will be handy when needed.
1. A refinery uses as much as 25 barrels of water for every barrel
of crude processed.
A 200,OOObal'l'ei-a-day refinery might use as much as
_______ barrels of water.
. 2. Of all the water used by a refinery, 80 to 90% is used as cool-

ant to absorb energy.
3. Look at tn15 heat exchanger.
HOT
COOL

As the liquid travels through the pipe, the heat from the
liquid is exchanged or transferred to the ______ _
4. Heat always travels from areas of higher te'mperature to areas
of (higher / lower) temperature.
5(, Water can absorb only so much heat.
As water becomes hotter, its effectiveness as a coolant (in-
creases/ d ocreases).
6. After a while, the temperature of water becomes so hillh
that it can no longer absorb from the hot
liquid .
7. The water in this heat exchanger works as a coolant only as
long as it is than the liquid being cooled.
8. Maximum cooling IS achieved by constantly replacing hot
water with _______ water.
1

5,000,000
heat
water
lower
decreases
heat
cooler
coo1
9. In order to provide for further cooling, two things are possible.
First, the hot cooling water can be discharged and ____ _
with fresh water.
10. Or, the hot cooling water can he _______ and reused
(or further cooling.
11. The amount oC water needed for cooling in a large refinery is
in the range of (tho.usands/millions) of barrels per day.
12. Drawing millions of barrels o( water per day from the water
supply would be extremely ______ _
13. The amount of water needed is so large that many water sup-
plies (would/would not) be able to provide enough.
14. A refinery must be careful about the quality of the water it
discharges.
Discharging millions of barrels of hot water per day might
cause a problem.
15. Cooling the hot water enables the refinery to _____ _
water over and over again.
16. The liest way to handle hot water is to (discharge it / cool and
reuse it).
17. Hot water is cooled for reuse in special cooling __ .. __ _
MmlODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
18. Suppose a steel rod is heated at one end.
c
(The entire rod heats up evenly./Section A gets hot first.)
19. AJ3 A becomes hot, it acquires thermal, or ____ _
energy.

20. Thermal, or heat, energy always travels from higher to
_______ temperature regions.
2
replacE'(t
cooled
millions
or expE'nsive
would not

pollution
reuse
cool and reuse it
tower!:::
",
Section A gets hot first.
heat
lower
21. As one seetion of the steel rod beeomes hot, the rod (conducts/
does not conduct) the heat to the colder sections.
22. In this example, the heat transfer from section A to C (occurs/
does not occur) by conduction.
23. Conduction occurs when heat or thermal energy flows
through a substance from a _____ to a ____ _
temperature region.
24"Suppose a hot baT of steel is placed in contact with a cold one.
COLO BAR
HOT BAR
B
POINT OF CONTACT
A
The. heat energy from baT A (will transfer/will not transfer)
to baT B.
25. The cold bar becomes hot first at the point of _____ _
26. Then, the heat is transferred through the bar by ____ _
27. Another method of heat transfer is convection.
WATER
rn---BURNER
The burner heats the water in the vessel (all at once/at the
bottom only).
28. As the water at the bottom of the container gets hot, it be-
comes less dense. .
A volume of hot water weighs (more/ less) than the same
volume of cold water.
29. As the water at the bottom of the vessel gets hot, it will (float
to the top/ stay at the bottom).
30. In this case, heat is carried to other parts of the vessel by
(conduction/ physical movement).
3
conducts
occurs
higher; lower
will transfer
contact
conduction
' "
at the bottom only
less
fioat to the top
physical movement
31. Convection is the transfer of thermal or heat energy by actual
______________ within a 5ubstance.
32. Heat transfer also occurs in another way.
If you bring your hand near any hot object you (feel / do not
feel) the heat from it.
33. Usually, solids, liquids or gases have a high enough tempera-
ture to emit OT radiate energy.
34. This method of heat transfer or flow is called (convection/
radiation).
Review
I 35. There are three methods of heat transfer: rad iation, conduc-
tion, and ______ _
36. Heat flowing within a substa:lce from a higher temperature
region to a lower temperature region is heing transferred by
37. This shows a flame heating the bottom opening of , duct.
~
COLD AIR
Ai; it enters, the, cold air absorbs thermal energy and b e c o m ~
88. As the air becomes hot, it rises and leaves the duct, taking its
_______ energy with it.
39. The method of heat traMler by physical movement is calleu
4
physical movement
feel
,
hent, or thennal
radiati on
. .
convection
conduction
hot
heat, or thennal
,
convection

HOW COOLING TOWERS COOL WATER
Result, "f Evaporation

;-. 40. S o r r ~ Conn of energy is required for any movement or change
in matter.
To boil water) a source of _______ energy is needed.
41. The molecules in any body of water move due to the heat
_______ in t hem.
42. The speed of the molecules depends upon the amount of heat
energy in them. The more heat, the the
molecules move.
43. In any body of wat er, some molecules move faster than others.
/
/
The molecules which move faster have (more/ less) heat
energy.
44. Some molecules moYe fast enough to break away from the
body of water and mix with the air.
The molecules that break away first have a (higher/lower)
amount of heat energy.
45. As the mol ecules leave the body of water,
_______ energy with them.
they take their
46. The ",olecules that remain have a lower level of heat energy.
With a lower level of energy, these molecules move (slower.'
faster).
47. In order for them to escape from the body of water, the slow-
moving molecules have to in speed.
48. Adding heat energy to the molecules will cause them to move
,
,
?nce moving fast enough, the molecules will es;ap:. ;hi;)
IS evaporahon. . _" . ' ._- . _ --
After partial evaporation, a body of water (is cooler/ stays the
same) .
5O' I,;Cooling towers are designed to expose hot water to the air.
This (allows/ does not allow) partial evaporation of the water.
51. This partial evaporation (cools/ does not cool) the water.
What Affects Evaporation
52. In order for water to evaporate, it (needs/ does not need) to
be in contact with air.
53. The 'larger the surface in contact wi th air, the (more/1ess)
molecul es can leave a body of water at a given time.
5

heat
energy

faster
more
higher
heat
slower
increase
faster
is cooler
allows
cools
needs
more
\':
54. The more water molecules that leave a body or water at a
given time, the (faster / slowe,') the rate of evaporation.
55. These two basins contain the same amount of \vater.
A 8
The rate of evapOl'ation is faster from basin (A/ B).
56. The faste,' the rate of evaporation from a body of water, the
(fasteri slower) the body of water will cool.
57. Cooling towe''S are designed to provide the hot water with a
_______ surlaceato-air contact.
58. The hotter the water, the more (fast / slow) -moving molecul.s
in it.
59. Hot water will evaporate _______ than cold lVater.
60. Atmospheric pressure (exerts/ does not exert) pressure on a
body of water.
I 61, Atmospheric pressure (resists/ does not resist ) the molecules
escaping from a body of water.
62. It is easier for water molecules to leave a body of water at
(high/ low) atmospheric pressures.
63. As air acquires moisture (water molecules), its humidity
64. Air can hold only a certain amount of water molecules. If it
becomes water saturated, it will no longer ______ _
water molecules.
/ 65.
The higher the humidity of the air in contact with the water,
the the rate or evaporation.
Review
66. Hot water evaporates at a (higher/ lower) rate than cold water.
/ 67. Which of the following affect the rate of water evaporation:
a) humidity of the air
b) surface of contact water and air
c) the temperature of the water
6
faster
B
faster
large
fast
faster
exerts
resist!'
low
rises, or increases
slower
higher
n;b;c
t . : ,:
: '
'
' , . .
;. " ,
CONSTRUCTION OF COOLING TOWERS
68. In the early days of continuous processing, no attempt was
made to cool process water. Water that was cool already was
taken into the plant from the outside, then discarded when hot.
/' When a plant was located near a river or stream, the cool water
was taken into the plant upstream and released ____ _
69. When a plant was not located near a river, the water was taken
from a pond. Hot process water was returned to the pond
surface and cooled by surface exposure to the ______ .
70. The open pond cooling system was eventually modified.
HEAT EXCHANGER
COOL
WATER
SPRAY POND COOLING SYSTEM
In this system, hot cooling water is _______ over the
pond surface.
71. By spraying the hot water, more water-to- ______ _
surface contact is reached.
72. With a larger water-te-air surface contact. the rate of evapora-
tion (increases/ decreases).
However, wind could blow away the sprayed water, resulting
in water and damage to nearqy structures.
" , .
74. The spray pond . ystem was also modified.
,
FENCE

To reduce water loss due to drift, and to prevent property
damage. this system includes ______ around the pond.
7
'"
.'
downstriam
, ." .
"' . . ;" ' .
1- . '
.. ,,:
'. ,
. . , ..
--,. .
:.;' , .,
,
.'
I
"
, .
air, or itmosphere

., . .
: , ,.
:;.;..,
.
"
' .
. ' ;' .:;!; .6
.'
sprayed
air
. .
Increases
.,.
".
75. The air contacting both of these ponds is at the same humidity
level.
NO WINO

WINO
B
As occurs, the air in conlact wilh the water
becomes (morelless) saturated.
76. As the ail' becomes mOTe saturated, the rate of evaporation
77. The air over pond B never becomes saturated because it is
constantly being with new air.
78. The rate of evaporation is mnre constant in pond (A/ B).
79. The rate of evaporation in the open pond, t he spray pond,
and the spray type cooler is greatly affected by the prevailing
80. The rate of evaporation is also aflected by the . _____ _
of the air.
Atmospheric Cooling Towers
81. Exhibit 1 shows an atmosphen'c cooling tower .
This cooling tower, like a pond system, depends on the
_-:-_.,-___ velocity and the relative _ ___ __ _
of the air.
82. Some of the wind entering the tower is carried upward, but
most of the wind blows straight the tower.
83. The wind flow through the tower is interrupted and changed
by the and bars.
84. The louvers help direct wind and also prevent water
/
85. The hot air and water vapors leaving the t op of the tow ....
have to pass through the .
86. Some atmospheric cooling towers have adjustable sections of
_______ and drift to aid in the
control of air flow.
87!':The splash bars slow down the raU of water and break it up
into small _______ .
8
more
decreases
replaced
B
wind
humidity
wind; humi'dity
through
louvers ; splash
loss
drift eliminators
.
...
"
louvers; eliminators'.
drops
. .
" .'
" .
l , ,
, ,
, ' ,
Cooling
, "
, , .'
EXHIBIT BOOKLEY:::
, "' j
" ( " ' j "':
. . :;" ,':::: "".':
'"
, "
,: .. . i:;':
: .'
,
, , ,
-,"
.' ,' .
: .
,. ,
" . ", '
.,;. '.
I;. .
:.' "' . !r :
, It, - :.
". .: .
'. .' .'
"
,
, ,
.
. " '. .
, ,
EXHIBIT 1
WATER
SPRAY
LASH
ARS
liND (AIR)
=::>
LOUVERS
:OLUMN
COOLED WOTl:" BASIN
ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOVIER
j'
"
:\ i
,
..
"
..

___ ?HOT AIR ANO WATER VAPO j
.,
/
FROM HO '
WATER
I
,
,
,
I
,
,
"!!'".oCl f
. I
i
"
J
;
,

,
,
,
j
t
!
- MAKE
- WATE
COOL WATER
, <t' ,
, . , """j'
- : " " "' , t.
. "' ''''',' ..
" : j l" :
. . ... , " 1
. " -, \
.. . I ..
I .
"2 I'
: '. ;. .
" ' , l .", ,
, ..
. : ;,
i, " "
'.
"
WATER BASIN
AND SUPPORT
,.
NA TURAL - DRAFT COOLING TOWER
HOT AIR AND WATER VAPOR

I--CHIMNEY
. HOT W4-r<=O SPRAYS
c"J!-- HOT WATER
-
COOL WATER
MAKEUP WATER .
EXHIBIT 3
FORCEO-ORAFT COOLING TOWER
HOT AIR
DRIFT IMINA TOR
HOT WATER IN
SPLASH BARS
--+- SOLID SIDES
S
~ O O L E D WATER BASIN
COOL WATER


~ . ",
'" ,
~ ~ .
,
, .
f. "
" , ~
. .I' .
;OOLED WAT.'Q BASIN
INDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWER (CROSS-FLOW)
HOT AlA AND VAPOR
ROSS FLOW AIR
MAKEUP WATER
COOL WATER
"

,
\
INDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
A. COUNTERFLOW
-
I R ~
AIR
B .. CROSSFLOW
......",,- LOUVERED SIDES
88. The longer contact of water with air causes quicker ____ _
and faster than in a spray pond.
89. Due to evaporation and drift, there is some \vater ____ _
which has to be replaced with makeup ____ _
90. As the quantity of air passing up and through the cooling tower
changes, water loss due to evaporation and drift _____ _
91. The longer air remains in a cooling tower, the (more/ less)
moisture it absorbs.
92. rl'he more moisture the alT contains, the :faster/ slower) it
ac(:.epts more moisture.
93. In order to get maximum evaporation in a cooling tower, the
air should pass through (quickly/ slowly).
94. Look at this drawing.
DIRECTION OF PREVAILING WIND
-
.....
A B
More evaporation will take place in tower (A/ B).
95. For best operational results, atmospheric cooling towers
should be placed so that the prevailing wind blows through
the (shortest / longest) dimension of the tower.
/96': In an atmospheric cooling tower, a lO-mile-per-hour wind wi!l
cause (more/ less) cooling than a I-mile-per-hour wind.
97. Without wind, an atmospheric cooling towel' operates (more
efficiently/ less efficiently).
98. Atmospheric cooling towers are designed to operate best under
the normal prevailing wind conditions at each site.
If wind velocity is much higher than normal , there will be ...
higher than normal loss of water due to (drift/ evaporation).
99. High winds will cause water to be blown (rom atmospheric
cooling towers. Such towers are placed so that' water blown
from them will not cause to surrounding
buildings or equipment.
9
, '.
evaporation
cooling
loss
water
changes
.. ~
more
slower
quickly
A
shortest
more
less efficiently
drift
damage
100. Whenever watel' is cooled by evaporation, 1 here IS always
some water _ ______ .
/ 101. When cooling water 10F by evaporation, one percent of the
water is lost due to evaporation. In cooling 100 gallons of
water 10F, a tower loses ga;lon(s) of water
due to _____ _
; 102. Drift loss is usually about 0.2% of the water flow or about
______ gallon(s) per 100 gallons.
'"
103. Makeup water is used to replace water loss due 10 ____ _
_____ , or leaks.
104. If there are no leaks and a cooling tower cool s 100 gallons of
water 10F, there will be gallon(s) of water
loss due to evaporation and ,!!alIon(s) due to
drift .
Review
105. An atmospheric cooling tower depends upon wi nd ___ oC-_
and the relative of the air for effe<tive operation.
106. The spray of water falling down the tower is hroken up into
droplets by bars.
107. In atmospheric cooling towers, evaporation and drift are
major causes of water ______ _
108. For best operational results, the atmospheric cooling towers
are placed so that the prevailing wind blows through the
(shortest/longest) dimension of the tower.
109. Atmospheric cooling towers usually operate hest at (high/
wind velocities.
, 110. The towers are located so that water blown from them will
not nearby buildings or equipment.
Natural-Draft Cooling Towers
111. Heat in a furnace causes hot Rue gases to Row ____ _
through the stack causing a draft. -
112. Exhibit 2 shows a natural-draft cooling tower. The top part
of the tower is a ______ _
/ 113. The hot water IS sprayed in above the _ . ____ _
10
loss
1
evaporation
0.2
evaporation
drift
1
0.2
velocity
humidity
splash
loss
shortest
moderate
damage
up

chimney, or stack
splash
bars
114. The splash bars break the falling water into fine drops in order
to provide better air-to- contact.
115. Some of the heat in water transfers to the air. As the air
heats uP. it beeomes (lighter/heavier) .
116. When it is light enough. the air in the chimney.
117. ;'J.l1e heateu air is replaced with cold air that the tower
through the ___________ _
118. Beeause of its design. a natural-draft tower (does/ does not)
depend as much on the wind direction as the atmospheric
tower.
119. The temperature of the air inside the chimney is always
_______ t han the atmospheric temperature.
120. This difference in temperature causes a constant _ ___ _
to exist.
/
121. The natural-draft cooling tower (needs/ does not need) drift
eliminators.
122. Makeup water is needed t o replace water loss due to leaks
and _____ _
123. Louvers or baffles at times are installed around the air inlet
of the natural-draft t ower.
9p.ch louvers or baffles (can/ cannot) control the amount of
aIr entering the tower.
124. By regulating the amount of air entering the tower, the
amount of cooling due to _______ can be regulated.
. Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers
125. Atmospheric cooling towers depend upon the natural flow of
_______ up and across the falling water.
126. Natural-draft cooling towers create an upward flow of
_______ the falling water.
127. Exhibit 3 shows a forced-draft cooling tower. The air flow
through the falli ng water is produced by
128. The internal construction of a forced-draft cooling tower is
c;imilar to an atmQspheric tower, but the sides are , _____ _
129. Motor...{)riven fans force air into the tower through openings
near the of the tower.
11
water
lighter
rises
air inlet
.- \
\
.,
J
does not
_.
.... :J
. ..

, , .. ..
'>- oj
.. ' ..
-,-
'.
'.
higher, or warmer .
.. . 'f';
draft, 01" flow, or movemen1
does not need
evaporation
can
evaporation
.... aIr
au'
fans
closed. or solid
bottom, or base
. ..
,', .
. ,.!
, "/ :: \ ' I
. ', " :
..
,
'. .
I
" ", 'I ;'1
,
' ..
..
130. The cooling of the water in all towers depends mainly on t he
amount and DC air passing through.
131. Fans uSed in forced-draft cooling towers shoul d produce a
large of air with a low velocity.
132. Both mechanical-draft and atmospheric towers are provided
with _-:-_:--:-_________ to prevent water loss
due to air velocity:
133. If one 01' more of the fans is shut down, the cnoling rate is
______ due to low -to-water contact.
134. The degree of cooling can be adjusted by controlling one .or
more of the and the rate of flow.
Induced-Draft Cooling Towers
135. In a forced-draft cooling towel', the fans (push 'pull) the air
through the towe, ..
136. Look at Exhibit 4. In the induced-draft cooling t ower, the fan
is located at the of the tower.
137. As the fan rotates, it (pulls/ pushes) t he air through the tower.
138. The air is driven upward. from the top of the tower, where it
can be carried away easily by the ____ _ _
139. This reduces the possibilit y of wet air reentering the
____________ at the bottom.
140. Exhibit 5 shows two types of induced-draft cooling towers.
The tower with its sides open is the _____ type.
141. In the counterflow t ype, the largest part of the tower has
______ sides.
142. In a tower with solid sides, the induced air travels most of the
time in (the same direction as/ an opposite direction from) the
falling water,
143. Both towers have. movable side louvers t o regulate the
-'-_____ intake.
144. In both t owers. the air volume flowing through the tower is
controlled by the of the fan and the amount
of opening of the side ______ _
12
humidity
volume. or amount
drift eliminators .
less; air
(ans; air
push
top
pulls
wind
'., I.
I

f
t
i
,.
1
,
,

,
cooling tower, 01' air intake
.."".
crossnow
enclosed, or solid

an opposite direction from
speed
louvers
!-Cell Cooling Towers
Large eooHng towers are usually constructed in cells or sections
which can be operated independently.
The cooling capacity of a multi-eell cooling tower can be de-
creased by taking one or more out of service .
. This is ' : lower side view of an atmospheric cooling tower.
The drawing indicates that the tower has _____ cells.
47. If a tower with only one cell needs cleaning or repairs, the
entire tower has to be _____________ _
48. Any cell can be operated independently. If one cell in a multi-
cell tower must be shut down, the entire tower (must also bel
need not be) shut down.
Review
149. An atmospheric cooling tower depends greatly upon the
natural _______ velocity for effective operation.
150. The natural-draft tower is constructed in such a way that it
causes its own ______ _
, 151. Mechanical-draft towers depend upon motor-driven
______ to force the air through them.
152. The induceddraft tower (pushes/ pulls) air through the tower.
,153. A tower with fans at the bottom is (an induced/ a forced)
-draft tower.
154. All cooling towers cool water primarily by the process of
155. The rate ' of evaporation of water depends upon the water
surface-to-air contact and on the relative ______ _
of the air.
13
sections, or cells
three
shut down
need not be
wind
draft
. fans
pulls
a forced

. evaporation
humidity
l56: The greater the water-to-air surface contact, the ____ _
the rate of evapolation.
157. The greater the water-toair contact, the more ___ _ _
is accomplished.
158. The .plash bars in cooling towers break up the spray of water
into smaller droplets as well as prolonging the water-to-
___ -''--_ contact.
L59. If the air passing th;'ough a cooling tower is watersaturated
to the maximum, there (will 'will not) be any cooling due to
evaporation.
l60. If there is no e"aporation taking place, but the air is cooler
than the watel', there will be (no/ some) cooling du!' to con
duetion, convection, and radiation.
L6I. In a cooling tower there is always some cooling oC water due
to conduction, convection, and ______ _
162. However, most of the cooling of water in a cooling tower is
accomplished by _____ _
163. In any other type of cooling tower, drift eliminators are needed
to minimize water because of the wind.
164. However, in a natural-draft cooling tower, drift eliminators
. (are/ are not) used.
165. Any cooling tower is subject to water losses produced by drift,
ll?'aks, and evaporation.
These losses are compensated for by water.
166. In mechanical-draft towers, the volume of air passing through
the tower can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the
167. Controlling the volume of air passing through the tower
(controls/ does not control) the amount of cooling.
168. It is easier to control the amount of cooling in a(n} (atmos-
pheric/mechanical-draft) cooling tower.
169. Mechanical-draft towers (can/cannot) regulate or control the
amount of air passing through the tower.
170. They cannot control the relative ______ of the air.
171. They cannot control the temperature of the _ _____ _
used for cooling.
172. Mechanical-draft towers' can control the amount of all'
passing through them, as well as the ___ ___ of
evaporation of the water.
~
14
(aster, or greater
cooling, or evaporation
will not
some
radiation
evaporation
loss
are not
makeup
Cans
controls
mechanicaldraft
can
humidity
' .

air
rate, or amount
nstruction Materials
S. When iron is exposed to water and the oxygen in the air, it
4. In a cooling tower, practically all parts are exposed to
____________ and __________ __
6. Iron and' carbon steel are used to a very limited extent in
cooling tower construct ion because they corrode or rust
(rapidly I slowly),
76. The best grades of California redwood are used because they
resist cOT!"osion caused by and ____ ,-_
77. laetals WhlCh resist corrosion are used in certain parts of red-
wood towers. Copper-coated nails resist ______ _
78. Cast-iron is used in anchoring members that hold the tower
on its concrete basin, but it does corrode and has to be
_________ occasionally,
179. Brass boltS, washers, and nuts are used because they also
_______ corrosion and rust.
180. Fir wood is used as well as redwood because it resists rot due
to moisture. Like fir, synthetic materials such as tensile, fiber-
glass, and other plastics resist moisture rot (poorly/ well) .
,
181. Although some wood resists corrosion and rot and has rela-
tively little expansion due to heat, wood swells when it absorbs
water and when it dries.
182. Expansion and contraction from either temperature change
or water content change can _____ the tower structure.
188. Treating the tower wood with creosote increases its resistance
to 1.t0th water-logging and moisture ________ __
184. Synthetic materials are (more/ less) damaged by corrOSIon,
water-log and, rot than wood.
186. Regardless of the material used in construction, cooling towers,
like other refinery units, should be peri-
odically for structural soundness,
Cooling Tower Mechanical Equipment
186. The fans on forced- and induced-draft towers are driven QY
electric __________ __
187. The pressure necessary to circulate the cooling water through
the plant cooling water system is provided by direct-acting
steam or motor-driven __ ' _____ _
188. All mechanical equipment with rotating or moving parts must
be lubricated on a definite schedule to prevent exceSSIve
15
".
corrodes, or rusts
.,
water; air
rapidly
water; ail'
corrosion
replaced
resist
well
'.
'I ' . , ' .. ,
"
' ''"J' q
, i
contracts, or shrinks "';i
,
weaken
rot, or damage
less
,
,
"
"
,
.!,
'":
"
.. ,
,
,
"
.'
..

. ;
.'
.":
./;
'I. .
inspected, or checked ;'
.J" ! .. -til
motors
pumps
wear
"
~ ..
"
~
"
",
",
,
. '
~ ' .
. ;,
.',
189. The operator must lubricate equipment regularl y and
all equipment daily for other conditions
which require repair or replacement .
CONDITIONS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE
190. The most important factor in any kind of cooling tow. r is how
fast the water _____ _
191. Therefore, any condition which prevents water from evapo-
rating .'. the efficiency of the cooling tower.
192. Air contains moisture or water vapor.
On a damp day, the air holds (a lot of/ very little) water.
193. If the air surrounding a cooling tower is very humid, the water
in the cooling tower does not evaporate as much as it would
if the air was ______ _
194. On damp, humid days, a cooling tower works (bet. ter than/
not as well as) it does on dry days.
195. One factor that affects the rate of evaporation is t he amount
of in the air in contact with the \vater.
Absolute and Relative Humidity
196. Air becomes denser as the temperature decrea.,"s.
Air is densest when temperatures are (very hot / very cold).
197. More moisture can be contained in air if it is less dense.
Very cold air can contain (more/ less) moisture than hot air.
198. Temperature (is/ is not) an important factor in measuring
humidity.
199. Here is one way to express humidity measurements.
Suppose we have a humidity measurement that reads 1 pound
of water in 10 pounds of air. This reading is expressed as
(degree of saturation/ weight per given volume) .
200. Pound is an expression of a specific quantity.
1 pound and 10 pounds are (relative/ absolute) expressions
of quantity.
201. Humidity expressed as weight per quantity is (relative/
absolute) humidity.
202. Temperature is not considered in measurements of absolute
humidity.
humidity readings tell how much water is in a given
quantity of air, but (do/ do not) tell how much more water
. the air can absorb.
16
,
check. or
evaporates
reduces
a lot of
dry
o.
not as well as
humidity. or moisture
very cold
less
is
weight per given volume
a0so1ute
absolute
do not
. order tc... know how much evaporation can take place, it is
_sary to know how much more the air
absorb.
ipposewe have a humidity reading that says air at 85
0
holds
of the maximum it could hold at that temperature.
expressed as (degree of saturation/ weight per
humidity reading is given a of maximwn
Humidity "erprE:S.Sed as a Cot maximum humidity at
a given is (rtlative / e;bso\utE: / humidity.
206. A humidity reading (doc do.,; not) give an indica
tion of how much more wa"ter air can absorb.
207. If air bolds all the water vapor it can hold at any temperature,
it is aaid to be _____ _
. 208. The relative humidity of air at the point of sat uration lS
-----0/0.
209. AJ. relative humidity increases, evaporation _____ _
210. of a cooling tower (increases/ decreases) as
the relative humidity increases.
211. Relative humidity is the (least/ most) important variable af
fecting the performance of cooling towers.
Dry.and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
212. This combination of thermometers and wick is a hygrometer.
'"
THERMOMETER
The thermometers are identical except that one bulb is covered
bya _____ _
17
water .
degree of saturatio_n
relative
doos
saturated
100
decreases
decreases
most
' "

wick
~
:213. Beeause the wick is saturated with water, the thermometer
I it covers is called a bulb thermometer.
214. Evaporation has a cooling effect.
I
I If the water in the wick of the wet-bulb thermometer is
evaporating, it wiJI show a (warmer/cooler) temperature than
the other thermometer. .
215. The faster evaporation occurs, the (greater/ less) difference
! there will be in flte readings.
216. Evaporation will occur faster If the air surrounding the wick
is (moisUdry).
217. In dry air, the wet-bulb reading is always (lower/ higher) than
the dry-bulb reading.
218. Suppose the dry bulb reads 90F and the wet bulb reads 75F.
100' 90% 80%
90
/b
/.
f0
7 0 ~
6 0 ~ ~
-.e
50'/. 0
0:
80
w
f-
w
~
70 ::E
a:
W
~ :& ./'
V;
t%= / / V
0 ~ V
/.
V
V
~ ~
v.
V/
y
V
" 40' " :n
m
3 0 ~
,
:.-
...
20'1
<
m
10
0
I
:x:
f-
ro
60
--'
=>
ro
f-
50
w
;0:
,,:%
~ V V /' V
~
~ t:%
V V
./
V
~ / V ./
./
~
V
V
C
3:
>2
-i
-<
40
;:::::
v::
V
:/'
50 60 70 80 90 100
II: DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
The chart shows that the relative humidity is _____ %.
ZI9. If the dry bulb reads 60F and the wet bulb reads GOF, the
relative humidity is %.
l20. The greater the difference between readings, the (higher I
lower) tbe relative humidity.
18
wet
cooler
greater
dry
lower
50
100
lower
, . A sling psychrometer also measures relative humidity.
GAUZE WICK
.. . .. . ...... . .... _- .
DRY BULB
The operator whirls the sling psychrometer In the outside
atmosphere after saturating the wick with _____ ---'_
22. If the atmosphere is not saturated, t here will be ___ _ _
readings on the two thermometers.
:23. When the wet bulb reads lower t han the dry bulb, it is because
water has from the wick.
124. Evaporation causes ______ _
!25. Cooling tower performance is (highest/ lowest) when wet- 'and
, .. dry-bulb temperatures are equal.
~ 6 Even when the air is saturated in the tower, some cooling
occurs by convection and conduction.
1Zl.
Therefore, cooling t owers do not depend entirely on
_______ to accomplish cooling.
When the outside air is cooler than the water being cooled,
some cooling occurs due to radiation, and
_______ , even though none occurs due to evaporation.
228. ")ve'\thoullh no evaporation occurs, if the air is cooler than the
, water; heat IS transferred from the water to the .
'.
229. The heated air then carries the heat with it out of t he tower
by ___ _ _
230. Cooling towers are never 100% efficient.
If the wet-bulb temperature is 65F, that would be the mini-
mum a.pproach temperature of the water.
The lowest possible water temperature after cooling with the
above condition would be (60'F /above 65'F).
23I. The efficiency of cooling t owers, regardless of type, increases
as the difference between wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature
19

water
different
evaporated
cooling
lowest
evaporation
conveetion
conduction
convection
above 65'F
increases
Winter Operation
232. The degree or cooling in"cooling towers in part depends on the
amount of air flowing through the ______ _
233. In addition, il the air is hot and humid, the degree 01 cooling
is (more/less) than when the air is cold and dry.
234. Low air temperature may result in too much ___ ___ _
235. Water freezes at 3Z0F.
In winter, air temperatw"e well below 32F may cause cooling
water to on parts of the cooling tower.
236. Because of more cold air contact, water broken up into small
droplets freezes (faster/slower) than if it was in a solid stream.
237. Ice (onnations may _ ~ _ ____ the passages between
splash bars.
238. The operator has to watch (or fannation of ice around the fan.
I! ice builds up around the Ian too much, it may shut off the
How 01 _____ _
239. In cold weather, moisture-filled air is likely to form _ ___ -,
on the fan blades and other moving parts.
240. This may cause overloading 01 the fan motor and costly
~ :
24.1. The operator"needs to know how to prevent ___ ___ _
. formation in the tower and on moving parts.
242. One way to control freezing is to limit the quantity of cold
_______ entering the tower.
243. In atmospheric towers, adjustable louvers can limit the intake
01 ____ _
244. To limit the intake of air in induced-and forced-draft towers,
the can be slowed or shut down.
245. Decreasing the pitch of the Ian blades will also reduce the
______ intake.
246. If ice has formed in the fill deck, it can be melted by reducing
the amount of cold entering the tower.
247. The incoming water will melt the ice because the water is
248. Fans which do not have variable-pitch blades are usually
equipped so that the direction of rotation can be ____ _
Now tum the page, 20
turn the boo&t over, and go on.

tower
less
cooling
freeze
laster
block
Ice
damage, or repairs
ice
alf
...
fans
air
hot, or warm
. ~
changed. or reversed

249. On a forced-draft towel', the fan pushes the aIr into the
(top !bottom) of the tower.
:250. R',d'sing the pitch of the fan blades causes air to be (pushed
.;:: into/;ucked out of) the tower. .
251. Since the ail' in the tower is hot, reversing the fan (can/cannot)
melt an ice buildup.
1.: -
252. The quantity of ail' flowing through the forced- or induced-
draft towel' can be controlled:
by shutting off one or more _______ ;
by changing the pitch 01' direction of rotation of ____ _
______ ;and
by changing the _______ of fan motors.
RevIew and Summary
253. Cooling towers are needed in modern refineries to reduce the
temperature of cooling water. Cooling water needs cooling so
that it can again be used in exchangers to:
condense petroleum ______ _
cool products enough so that they do not go off ____ _
in storage due to heat; and to products to
pressure- or fire-safe storage temperature.
254. Cooling towers depend mostly on the (conduction of heat
from water to air/ partial evaporation of water).
255. Evaporation depends on water-to- _______ contact.
256. The most important condition affecting the rate of evapora-
tion: is the (temperature/ relative humidity) of the air.
. , : .
. 257. Atmospheric cooli ng towers depend primarily upon the pre-
t f. vailing for performance.
r. . j
:258. The natural-draft tower is designed in such a manner that the
" i heat of hot water causes a through it.
':'f-
259. In fo""ed- and induced-draft cooling towers, the draft is
t . ~ l . caused by motor-driven ______ _
260. The draft in forced- and
(eaaier/harder) to control
\ ~ : ; towers:
induced-draft cooling towers is
than the draft in atmospheric
261. Redwood and fir is used in the construction of cooling towers
because it resists wet ______ _
21

bottom
.. .
sucked out of
,,'
can ::t ",,'
fans
fan
blades
-.'
: ; : (:1::"
.
, .
.
'." .
..
" .
. . . :.
. :.
,r- , .,
.
.. (
.,.. t,
t I::
' .. '.
,
speed
..
. ~ ' :' ..
vapors
specification
cool
"
. ~
. . ~
,;
partial evaporation of watt
"
air
relative humidity
" , .
. ....
wind
'-;-
.' .
....
.'
.'t
,.
draft
.'
,
.'.
,.
:-
fans
': 1>
.. .
i'
. ,
"
'I
, .. .
. , .1
I'
~ ,
',.
easIer
t , .
: . ~ ;
' :".
rot
,.
':i
... . ; ~
262. Ideally, metal parts of the towers should be highly __ _
to con-osian.
263. Metal parts are coated with special _______ to in
crease their corrosion resistance.
264. The operator should keep alert to evidence 01 excessIve
______ and wet _____ _
265. Cooling towers perlorm best when the air passing through
them- is cool .and (dry j wet).
266. Hygrometers and psychrometers .are instruments used in
determining the _-,-________ 01 the air.
267. If there is no difference in the temperature reading of a dry. and
thermometer, the relative humidity is %.
268. At 100% relative humidity, there will be (some/ no) cooling
due to evaporation.
269. Even though there might not be any cooling due to evapora
tion, a cooling tower will still cool water slightly due to
radiation, and ______ _

270. In cold climates, where temperatures get belol. Ireezing, the
- operator must guard against the (ormation 01 _ ____ _
in the tower as wen as the fans.
271. A naturaldralt tower (needs/ does not need) drift eliminators.
272. All other towers have ______ _
_____ to
reduce loss of water due to wind.
273. Makeup water is needed in cooling towers to replace water
loss aue to leaks, and ___ ___ _
SECTION 2
WATER CONDITIONING
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. H20 is a chemical symbol (or water. It shows that a water
molecule is a compound made up of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of _____ _
2. wnen hydrogen and oxygen combine to (orm water, the
process is a (chemical/physical) change.
22
J :

coating, or paint
corrosion. or rust: rot
dry
relative humidit}''
100

no
conduction; convection
ice
does not need
drirt eliminators
evaporation; drift
.. -

oxygen
chemical
-.
3. The drawings show different changes that water can undergo.
E:J

.
(
I
. ' .
, ,)",,)
( "-' r ))

}I
"'-__ --l
ICE (SOLID) WATER (LIQUID)
BELOW 32' F 32'F TO 212'F
STEAM (GAS)
ABOVE 212'F
These changes are (chemical / physical).
4. Whether water is a solid, liquid, or vapor, its molecule$ are
. still composed of two a toms and one
______ atom.
or cooling water causes it to change state from one
form to another .
. Changingthe state of water is only a change.
. .
6. A ehemical change occurs only when atoms or molecules
change from one substance into an entirely ______ _
substance.
: 7 . . Water does not undergo chemical change easily.
! . Chemically, it is relatively (stable/ unstable).
il' 8:' Water also has a good heat capacity. That means that it has
, .
i' .a good capacIty to absorb .
! 9. BTU stands for British Thermal Unit. It is a measurement of
quantity of energy.
10. Spteiji Mal is the number of BTU's required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 pound of any substance 1F. For water, this
takes 1 BTU.
To raise 2 pounds of water by 1 OF, for example, requires
_____ BTU's.
, .
11. Here is a table of specific heat values for different substances.

,
\ r "
toY;'
,.
l!'.'
t'
Substanee
't .... '
b*_
Air .
... ::! Alcohol
r ' Aluminum
" . Brass
...
.... Copper
fj >;; Earth (dry soil)
c-
Glass ''. :
, ..
Gold
" ;
J.
, .
!ce
Iron (steel)
;; "
, .
. " ( .' ..
Specific Heats
Sp. Ht . Substance Sp.Ht.
0.24 Kerosine 0.50
0.60 Lead 0.03
0.22 Lube Oil 0.45
0.091 Mercury 0.033
. 0.093 Steam 0.48
0.20 Stone 0.192
0.21 Tin 0.055
0.032 Water 1.00
0.51 Wood (avg.) '0.42
0.115 Zinc 0.093
.' Kerosine has a specific heat value of ______ _
23
,,..

physical
hydrogen
oxygen
physical
different
stable
heat
heat
2
0.50
,-
12. To raise the temperature of 2 pounds of kerosine by 1F
",requires BTU.
13. When any 1iquid or fluid is used as a coolant, it absorbs heat
energy from the material being ______ _
14. As a coolant absorbs heat energy, its temperalllre' ____ _
15. Raising the temperature of 1 gallon of kerosine a certain
amount requires (more/ less) heat than raising a gallon of
water the same amount.
16. A substance with a high specific heat can absorb (more/ less)
heat per degree of temperature change than a substance with
a low specific heat.
17. A substance with a high specific heat should make a (good/
poor) coolant.
18. Water can'disso1ve m!l.ny things. Water is norrnally a (good/
poor) solvent.
19. Many tiny, particles, such as grains of sand, rust,
and calcium carbonate, become suspended in water.
Water can contain two kinds of solids : (1) dissolved solids
and (2) solids.
Review
20. Water is made up of two _______ and one
_______ atom.
21. Chemically speaking, water is (stable/ unstable ' .
22. Water makes a good coolant because it has a _ ____ _
specific heat.
23. Because of its properties. water can
carry various solids.
___ . ___ and
24. The two types of solids that can be found In water are
______ and ______ solids.
EFFECTS OF TOTAL SOLIDS ON COOLING
", 25. The makeup water used in refineries comes from natural
sources such as rivers, lakes, and wells.
Such waters are likely to contain both and
solids even though they may appear per-
fectly clear.
24

1
cooled
rIses
less
'.
more
good
good
suspended, or undissolve
hydrogen
oxygen
stable
high

dissolve
dissolved; suspended
dissolved
suspendod
..
26. Because the water circulates many times through pipes, ex-
changers" rooling towers, and basins, it picks up (more/ less)
solids.
27. ,The total solids increase because the water ______ _

. "i
a little bit of the substances it contacts.
,i8'.' When water evaporates, it (takes/does not take) the solids
with it.
, "

.' -
29. Mter partial evaporation, the solids tend t o concentrate in
'v-"l'the remaining water. Ccx.>led water leaving a cooling tower
has (mOl'e:1ess) total sohds per gallon than the hot water
, i . entering the tower.

' .. I.. .
.. " '
80. The circulating water in a cooling system has (more/less)
'total solids than the fresh makeup water.
. ji}:!.
:' slf, So, the discarding of some cooling water and the addition of
ll"!' water tends to keep the total volume of solids
)J .(up/down).
r " '
Suspended solids tend to settle out in sections o( the cooling
.system where the velocity o( the water is (slowed/increased).
C' 1
f 3S.'Some diasolved solids are less soluble in hot water than in cold
i;l"ii w.ater. When the water becomes hot, these dissolved solids
'., . ,Decome solids .
. :; ....
" , .
34. Calcium and magnesium carbonate are less soluble in hot
", ,:: water than in cold water. When cooling water goes through
0" t!.: heat exchanger, calcium and magnesium carbonate become
, . . solids.
, ' j ':'1- i
",.>
containing calcium and magnesium carbonate
, _ .' ., \8 !>otled In a vessel, form on the sides and
bottom of the vessel.
t-f ,
.l-" .... ' .oj.
" 136.' The aame thing happens when the water passes through a
'.'heat. '
"","
... .. .....
.}1 " " , )
or scales (ormed in the tubing o( heat exchangers
'-" ,will {increase/decrease} heat transfer.
... ... r

>1 :1/ ,:
,The 'buildup of deposits in an exchanger, regardless of the
t .'-. 'cause or source of the deposit, is called fouling. Fouling makes
necessary. ' .
suspended solids also cause wear in narrow passages
.. ;or turns in the flow. This kind of wear is (erosi on/ corrosion).
' ..
ri. too much buildup of solids is permitted in a cooling tower,
. . ;. it, too, has to be periodically.
,
25
"
more

dissolves
,,'
does not take "
,
, "
"
more
H
{
more
down
exchanger
" .
decrease
::.:!
cleaning
, .. -!
\
erosion'
"
"
cleaned
41. Tiny, microscopic plants sometimes thri ve in cooling water
systems.
These tiny growths, often green in col or, require light in order
to grow. They start growing on the walls of (closed/open)
parts of the system.
42. Parts of the growth break away from t he walls and start
floating in the water. They become part of the _____ _
solids. .
43. They Cfl,n plug narrow passages in the system and damage
woodinthe ____________ _
44. These are biological, or living, substances. To control or stop
their growth they have to be ______ _
45. The biological growths are algae and slime. There are a number
of varieties; all cause to cooling systems.
46. Cooling water, in addition to dissolved soli ds and suspended
solids, contains some dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
which are (solids/ gases).
47. It is not the water in the system that causes corrosion, erosion,
and fouling.
It is the disSolved ______ , suspended solids, and
dissolved _____ _
KEEPING COOLING WATER IN CONDITION
48. Waters from different water sources are likel y to contain
_______ kinds and quantities of solids and gases.
49. The chemical analyses and the physical tests made on the
different waters are likely to be _____ _ _
50. The chemist prescribes what the operator must do to keep
the cooling water in good _____ _
51. The operator may be required to make a few si mple tests and
change his of the water as the t est may indicate.
52. Because each cooling system is different and t he natural make
up water is different, methods of treatment are ____ _
CONTROLLING SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
,63. If it is necessary (or the operator to make certain tests on
cooling water, his supervisor will arrange f or the necessary
instructions and for the test .
. 54'. Chemists use two measures to express the quantity of various
f/- . impurities in water: grains per gallon (gr./gal. ) and parts per
: million (PPM).
One grain per gallon equals 17 parts per milli on. If the total
solids in cooling water is 10 gr. / gal., the PPM is ____ _
26
open
suspended
cooling towers
.
killed, or poisoned
damage, or fouling
gases
solids
gases
different, or various
different
condition
l: eatrnent; "."r eonditi
different
equipment, or tools
170
: 55: Cooling water analyses usually are reported in PPM. 50 PPM
. . . total solids means that in one million pounds of water there
. ; ". are pounds of suspended and dissolved solids.
. t
, . .
; 56.;rhere are both suspended and dissolved solids in the natural
;;: makeup water. These solidc; increase in the cooling tower water
of and because of the treating
.. chemIcals that are added.
, . ','
,'," ,
,
. 57.
1
Some small increase of both kinds of solids also comes from
J\ :t "the basins, pipes, and wood in the cooling system .
. .
. ' . total of solids in cooling waters varies from one PPM in
:.(.;,j;lt relatively clear water to 50,000 PPM in muddy river water .
. Muddy rive,' water probably has (more/ less) suspended solids
than dissolved solids.

' . " .","
',1,' ..;,,(- .t
... -".4.,
I.,:.\i.i"

sedimentation Ba$in$
"-',
., '1!<i:f
" if',.._',.
, :", ' -j.J
;\ ' 58:' jf there is so much suspended solid matter in water that it
can be seen easily, the water is turbid.
.'

:::. :,.,. Turbid water has a (high/ low) PPM of suspended solids.

"1' . ,
59, . Suppose the water is flowing rapidly.
:"',
It;;: The soli'ds are (more/ less) likely to settle out.
t .,.

" .
60. One way to settle out the solids would be to (speed up/
;;. slow down) the flow of the water.
61. One process for removing suspended solids from the water by
. causing them to settle out is called sedimentation.
I process uses a sedimentation basin which is large enough
.. i!"' 'that the flow of water through it is extremely ____ _
.. ,
\' ' ..
' 62 ... Then the particles of suspended solids can drop to the bottom
i,e','" of the basin due to (gravity/ pressure).
"

ISS.' Clear water is drawn from near the (top/ bottom) of the basin.
f' .
I
; 64. If the basin is being used continuously, sediment must be
: '. removed from the bottom of the basin ___ ___ _
<.
> "
: 65. If a battery of two or more sedimentation basins is used., the
L flow through at least one can be completely.
I ,'. .
66. If flow is stopped completely, suspended particles settle
:: jfaster/slower).
,,'
: 1 . , :
67. Good settling basins of sufficient size provide sufficient
_______ of natural waters to make it suitable for
, .
cooling.
27
' "
50
evaporation
more
high
less
:r: ..
.'
slow down
."
slow
'.
gravity
top
,,'
.- ., .
'.'
.! ...
. .. ', ,
:'
" .
.: .. 1
. .
Mechanical and Chemical Clarifiers
68. Mechanical clarifiers take up less space t han sedimentation
basins.
VARIABLE SPEED DRI
OUTLET
" .
HARD
WATER
INLET
CHEMICA,L FEED INLET
OUTLET
Here, turbid water and coagulating chemicals are fed in
through (the same inlet / different inlets),
69. The design of the clarifier causes the chemicals to be thor-
oughly with the raw, turbid ,vater.
70. Aluminum compounds such as aluminum sulfate, sodium
aluminate, and iron compounds, such as ferrous sulCate and
ferric chloride. are coagulants.
When added to turbid water with other chemicals, they speed
up ____ _
71. Coagulants with other chemicals form a spongy floc which
settles rapidly, taking with it sediments, al gae particles, and
other suspended _____ _
72. The chemicals coagulate the suspended solids so that they
become heavy enough to settle quickly to the _____ _
of the clarifier tank.
73. The solids pile up as sludge on the bottom of t he clarifier tank.
A rotating scraper moves the sludge toward the center where
it can enter the sludge ______ _

. 74. Because the chemicals speed up the settling, these clarifiers
require (more/less) space than a sedimentation basin.
75. Because of the coagulating action of the chemicals, water from
these clarifiers is than water from sedimenta-
tion basins.
28
"'L'
. "
different in
1
.... ts
mixed
.-
sedimentation,
or purification
solids, or matter
bottom
outlet
' .
less
clearer, or deaner
Filtration
76. Suspended solids can be removed from water by filtering the
solids out. Filte,'s work by ei ther gravity 01' pressure.
OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
SAND GRAVEL
WATER INLET
' , '
_. -
'"
BACKWASH OUTLET
l2::==
FILTERED WATER
:=ftt=OUTLET

This is a ______ filt er,
77, Note that t he tank [or thi s filter is completely enclosed.

BACKWASHING FILTER
"
BACKWASH OUTLET
'I",'
,,", This is a ______ filter.
78. ' Both gravity and'pressure filters can produce backwash.
:,i:' Water can be forced back in the _ ____ __ direction
normal flow.

.
79. ',The solids trapped in and on the filt er bed are backwashed or
I( ftusbed into the disposal system.
BO. Filters are usually installed in batteries of two or more so that
. .'< the flow of filtered water can continue through at least one
o ,filter while the other is being _____ _
29
gravity
"
pressure
,;
;.'
,:: - '!.',
, :"
:', - ',
:.
. ,.?,
, ',0,
"

'. :
.
"
"
,,1. .. i, '
; "f
.
"iI"
." -i ,
'I' ' i
:.'
,,':
,',
.f
:. '
t ' .
. r
,
opposite, or .e.en ..
"
waste.
backwashed,
Hardness
81. Hard water is water which contains dissolved _____ _
82. Distilled water does not contain either dissolved solids and
gases or suspended solids and gases. It is therefore (soft/ hard).
88. Rain water is not entirely soft because it picks up some hard-
ness from the- solids and gases in the ______ _
84. Natural water from wells, lakes, and streams is often quite
hard.
When the water is heated, some of the dissol ved solids in the
water fann insoluble in the equipment.
85. The hardness itself does not cause corrosion in the system,
but the deposits create a condition favorable to _ _ __ _
by other impurities in the water.
Scale Control
86. Cooling water conditioning is necessary to prevent or minimize
..,.corrosion, fouling, and formation in heat
. exchanger equipment.
87. The dissolved solids which cause calcium and magnesium
hardness also cause scale formation if the cooling water be-
comes (hotter/ colder).
88. Calcium and magnesium scale on heat exchanger tubes
significantly reduces the transfer of _______ through
the tube walls.
89. Scale also reduces the flow of fluid through the heat exchanger
shell, completely plugging some or all of t he exchanger
______ if it is not removed .
90. The formation of scale makes the equipment less efficient
, . and makes costly necessary.

91. There are three widely used methods for conditioning water
against scaling.
One method is to soften the water by making the soluble
compounds insoluble so that they can be remoyed by settling
OT ____ _
30

solid.
soft
air, or atmosphere
deposits, or solids, or 50
corrosion
scale
hotter
heat
tubes, or passages . e,
cleaning, or repair
filtration
, '. 92. This is a cold-process softener.
: ;.
, ....
CHEMICAL INLET
MECHANICAL
,.
,. " .
. ,! ,"
",. '
,
....
The softening reaction is accomplished by feeding in chemicals
such as lime and soda ash and mixing them with the water
'Jl i." by means.
"
.; 98. This softener uses heat as well as chemicals .
..
1I1J'
_1
'-"li;-.,'
!'t#, HARD WATER
. INLET
", W" ;;;.;;;

. I ' #
.. ,
",: ..
CHEMICAL
INLET
it::I'
..
S,'EAM IN
WATER
TO
SLUDGE BLOW-QFF

the raw water and the chemicals are heated by
.

i94;;,There (is/ is no) mechanical mixing.

speeds up the softening reaction.
the reaction is speeded up, in a given amount of time
hot-process softener can soften (more/ less) water.
i.,. ,
'.

31
. ,
...
..
'"
,

.,
',.
,
mechanical
".:-
.

.,
steam
IS no
more , .
"
96. If the processing rate for bot.h hot and coJdprocess unit!; i5
the same, the size of the (hot / cold) uni i can be smaller.
97. Heat makes the softening reaction mor' complete.
For a given amount of processing time, the water from :1
(hot/cold) unit is likely to be softer.
98. Because its reaction is faster and more complete. chemical
costs for the hot-process unit are usually (higher/ lower) than
the cqsts for the cold unit.
99. The amount of chemicals used depends, however, on the
hardness of the raw ______ _
100. Generally, the higher the hardness of the raw water, the
(higher flower) the chemical costs to soften the water.
101. Zeolites, chemicals that produce ion exc hange, are also used
. to soften water.
'.
' .
HARD
WATER
INLET
ZEOLITE
SOFT
WATER
OUTLET
'==o;'\lV ION EXCHANGE
UNIT
REGENERANT TANK
(SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINE)
In this kind of softener, the water (intimately mixes with/
passes through) the zeolite.
102. An ion is an atom that either has extra el ectrons or is m j ~ i n
some electrons.
An ion exchange involves one substance collecting ions from,
or giving up ions to, another substance.
Passing the water through the zeolite (makes possible/
prevents) ion exchange.
32
hot
hot
lower
water
higher
.'
passes through
makes possible
103. Usually, the zeolite has sodium ions attached to it.
When hard water passes through the zeolite, the sodium ions
of the zeolite exchange with calcium or magnesium ions of
the raw _____ _
104. With calcium 01' magnesIUm removed, the water is now
_______ than it was.
105. When all the sodium attached to the zeolite has been removed,
the zeolite (can still .'can no longer) exchange ions.
106. Suppose a sodium chloride brine is flushed through the
saturated zeolite.
There (now can be' still can't be) an ion exchange.
107. The zeolite now exchanges ______ or _____ _
ions with the brine.
108. The brine gives up _______ ions to the zeolite.
109: With sodium once more attached to it, the zeolite is re-
activated .
. ' It can (once again/ still no longer) soften water passed through
' to
110. The zeolite can only be reactivated a certain number of times.
..
. '
" ,
:.V
Eventually, the zeolite must be ______ _
111. Zeolite softeners yield much softer water than is usually
needed in a .cooling system.
Their use is generaJly limited to providing very soft boiler
feed water and some of the _______ water in the
I' cooling system .
. 112. Sulphuric acid also can be used in water to control scale.
Sulphuric acid is highly _____ _
; 113. Therefore, the quantity of acid added to the water has to be
carefully _____ _
114. The sulphuriC acid acts on scale-forming substances to keep
tbem dissolved in the water.
Tbis means tbat adding sulphuric acid to the water makes
seale-forming substances (morelless) soluble . .
: 115. So long as these substances remain soluble, it is (easy / difficult)
for them to settle out and form scale.

.' 116. Retarding the rate at which scale-forming substances settle
out (speeds up/slows down) the formation of scale.
"117. way to control the formation of scale is to blow down
or discard some cooling water continuously,
....
This lost water is then replaced with (hard / soft) makeup water.
33
water
:.;,' !:;l ",

. '.
"
.'
.
..
can no longer
..
now can
calcium;
sodiwri ; , .
once again
makeup ,
..,
corrosive
more
slows
soft
.
,
RROSION CONTROL
I. Cooling water corrodes by destroying the metal which it
I. ' Perfectly pure water is not corrosive.
Cooling water corrodes because there are dissolved ____ _
and gases in it. '"
I. Dissolved solids in the natural makeup water become can
centrated because of _______ which takes place in
: the cooling tower.
,
:1.:. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are picked up trom
the in the cooling tower.
:t Carbon dioxide causes the water to become acidic. Acidic
water is (corrosive/non--corrosive).
:l. Oxygen in contact with iron causes oxidation or __ __
L These fonns of corrosion are in part eliminated by using
I
' corrosion-resisting in construction of parts
which come in contact with cooling water.
i
fj. But, using expensive metals entirely is more costly than
_______ the water to lessen its tendency to corrode
: metal.
i. One way to treat the water to prevent corrosion is to inhibit
or stabilize the water chemically so that it will not attack
,.' Another approach is to treat the water so that it deposits a
tbin, protective film on the of the metal.
Ilhoclic Protection
1. The tarnishing of polished metal is a fonn of _____ _
J. Oxidation of the metal occurs in dry air. Water is not involved
in the corrosion. This kind of corrosion is called dry

). Because water is involved, the kind of corrosion which occurs
in cooling systems is (wet/dry) corrosion.
1. During wet corrosion, two reactions occur at the same time.
Metal passes into the water and hydrogen p:\SSes out of the
______ into the metal.
34
,
,
contacts
solids
.
,
I
evaporation
\
aJr
corrosive
rust, or corrosion
metals, or matei ials .'
.
.
conditioning, or softenins
metal
surface
wet
water
,.
, . .:
.
. ,
. ,
... .. : ..
When this occurs, there is a tiny flow of electricity between
the water and the _____ _
133. The metal is the anode and the water is thecathode.
GALVANOMETER
CATHODE
.;;.,::-\- HYDROGEN
IRON CONDENSER BOX
The indicates a small flow of _____ _
", .;
134. Iron is going 'into sol ution from the metal walls (anode) and
hydrogen is leaving the water at the ______ _
135. Suppose a strong direct current is applied in the opposite
direction.
ELECTRICAL SOURCE
+
In this situation, hydrogen leaves the water
and is taken from the rod.
136. The anode, which may be scrap iron, corrodes,
metal from the iron condenser box is _______ ..
137. This arrangement provides cathodic protection metal
in the cooling water system.
To keep the current flowing in the right direction at tbe right
magnitude, the operator may be required to make adiust-
ments of the outside source.
138. The amount of current that must be applied from the outside
source (depends/dOes not depend) on the corrosiveness of the
water and on stray c\PTtnt trom nearby electrical equipment.
.. ,
1;
, . ' .
metal
,
, .
current, or electricity;
r :a
.- ", :.
cathode 1
metal
"
''Prevented .
.,
,
.'
,
''',::
,
. ..
current,
'."
"
depends ):.
.,,'
TESTING FOR ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
139. Water from any source is either acidic, alkaline, or neutral.
Litmus paper and phenolphthalein and methyl-orange solu-
tions are indicators that do not show neutral water but can
indicate either acidic cir water.
140. If blue litmus paper is dipped in acidic water, it turns red.
If then dipped in alkaline water, the paper t urns ____ _
once more.
141. Phenolphthalein solution is colorless and stays colorless In
ae:idic water.
It turns red when added to _______ water.
142. A drop of methyl-orange solution is yellowish-orange. When
added to alkaline water it remains yellowish-orange, but turns
reddish-orange when added to water.
143. Litmus paper, phenolphthalein and methyl-orange only in-
dicate whether a sample of water is acid or alkaline.
They do not indicate the degree of acidity or _____ _
144. The degree of acidity or alkalinity can be est ablished by
finding a pH value for a given sample.
pH SCALE
, 1 I I I I , , ! I I ! ! I ,
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14
t--I.---ACIO----,t-I--ALKALINE --1
NEUTRAL
A sample of water with a pH value of 7 is ______ _
145. A sample of water with a pH value of 5 is ______ _
146_ A sample of water with a pH value of 9.5 ;s ______ _
147. If you want to increase the pH value of the cooling water,
you would add (an acid/ an alkali) .
148. Water with a high pH value is (more/less) likely to form
:Sea!e than to corrode metal.
149. Water with a pH value of 9.0 causes red litmus paper to tum

150. Water with a pH of 4.0 causes methyl-orange indicator to
turn - orange.
151. A sample of water with a pH value of 11.3 causes phenol-
: phthalein indicator to turn ______ _
36
alkaline
hlue
alkaline
acidic
alkalinity
neutral
acidic
alkaline
an alkali
rnore
blue
reddish
,
.
,

red

' .;.

152. Phenolphthalein in 4.0 pH water is _____ _
153. If applied excessively, the chlorine and phenolic compounds
used as and algaecides are to
the wood in cooling towers.
154. Excess alkalinity over a long period of time is damaging to
cooling tower lumber. Water which is damaging to lumber is
likely to have a (high/ low) pH value.
155. Wood contains organic acids which act to protect 'it from
rotting.
These acids can be washed out by _______ sub-
stances with high pH values.
156. Excessive chlorine also destroys the natural preservatives in
cooling towel' wood.
Excessive ______ _
and excessive
should be avoided,
REVIEW AND SUMMARY
157. Water for cooling is (readily available/ scarce) in most areas.
158. Water has the capacity to absorb (more/ less) heat than most
available coolants,

159. Water is (more/ less) costly than other possible coolants.
.160. Water from natural sources (is/is not) corrosive to metals.
d'.IIil. Water (has/ does not have) scale-forming 'and fouling
tendencies.
162. Water is non-eombustible and therefore does not add to
dangers from fire.
It also responds readily to a large variety of ______ _
treatments.
153. Accumulation of suspended solids in cooling water may be
reduced by filtration, adding soft water,
sedimentation, and continuous from the
system.
164. In cloling W81.-.er, the main problem with hard water makeup
is that it (does not evaporate Quickly/increases scale.fonning
tendencies) ,
',.
i 165. Lime-soda and zeolite processes are used to ____ -,-__
water.
37
. ,
colorless'"
high
alkaline
,: .
. '.
ti i,..\
. '.;.":
' ..
" \
. ! .
; ,'
"


alkaline; '" .
'".
, ,r;.j
. ..
' ,:.: "
-.., .
,! .
,,1,

more
less
IS
has
r ..
-.s;
)t.
"
..

chemical, or

fl.
... ,
f '
makeup "
'

increases
soften
, ... .
166. The pH value is an expression of (hardn., --softness/ acidity-
alkalinity) of the water.
167. Water with a pH value of 3.9 is ______ _
Water with a pH value of 7.9 is ____ __ __ .
168. Water with a pH value of 7.0 is ______ .
169. Algae and slime are (mineral / biological) m:-\ ter.
170. Algae occurs' mostly where water is expo od to (darkness/
sunlight).
171. Algae and slime cause heat exchanger __ ____ _
172. Coagulation is a process which may be aid.d by the use of
17&. -Coagulation aids (tiltration only /sedime,' cation only/both
tiltration and sedimentation) .
. 174. Gases, especially oxygen and hydrog.., sulfide, cause
______ of metal parts.
175. A process for protecting metal equipmen' against electro
. ,'.'
..
. : .
chemical corrosion is prot ction.
I THE END I

38
, -
acidity-alkalinity
acid
alkaline
nelltral
biological
sunlight
fouling, or cloggin;'
chemicals
- ' .
both tiltration and
sedimentation
corrosion
cathodic
. ' ,' ..
-,
_ ..
-,
--