Independent University, Bangladesh

Study on System Protection and Uses of Switchgear Devices in DESCO

An undergraduate internship report submitted by

Md. Nurul Azim Bhuiyan ID: 0920242

In consideration of partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Autumn 2013

i

Study on System Protection and Uses of Switchgear Devices in DESCO

An undergraduate internship report submitted by

Md. Nurul Azim Bhuiyan ID: 0920242

Has been approved on December 10, 2013

______________________________ Dr. A K M Baki Assistant Professor Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering School of Engineering and Computer Science Independent University, Bangladesh
ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my guide and advisor Dr. A K M Baki, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, School of Engineering and Computer Science (SECS), Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB), for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this internship. The blessings, helps and guidance given by him time to time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark. I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Md. Taufique Abdullah, Deputy General Manager, Human Resource & Management Division, Engr. Gazi Shahriar Parvez, Manager, Training & Development, DESCO, for their cordial support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing this task through various stages. I am obliged to staff members of Uttara Substation and Mirpur Digun Substation, for the valuable information provided by them in their respective fields. I am grateful for their cooperation during the period of my assignment. Lastly, I thank Almighty Allah, my family and friends for their constant encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.

The Author December, 2013 Dhaka Bangladesh

iii

ABSTRACT

The principal objective of this paper is to demonstrate the efficiency of electric power distribution of Dhaka city, which runs through conducting technical and hugely commercial operations performing by Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESCO) Limited. World class planning and expert practicing is the key to release that never-ending pressure constantly coming from the people of the worlds 4th most densely populated city (19447/km2). Technically, DESCO had to be sufficiently successful, as the protection of this huge population is the major concern. Protective and switchgear devices are the key apprehension of this study, as the substations are situated in the important parts of the city. Protecting them is always a challenge, as well as to ensure a continuous supply of electricity constantly. But the demand for load is never constant. The synchronising system of load supply according to the load demand is also a very challenging job which has been broadly covered in this paper. All data in this report are the close subjects of the study, some are directly connected to the outline and the others are only the subject of review.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement Abstract List of Figures List of Tables List of Charts Chapter 01 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Overview Purpose of Study Scope of Study Methodology 1.4.1 1.4.2 Chapter 02 Primary Source Secondary Source 01 02 02 02 02 03 iii iv xi xiii xiv

Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution 2.1 2.2 Introduction Important Terms of Power System 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.2.9 Resistance Real Power Reactive Power Apparent Power Power Factor Power Factor Angle Significance of Power Factor Disadvantages of Low Power Factor Power Factor Upgrading 04 04 04 05 05 05 06 06 07 07 08 09 09 09 09 10
v

2.2.10 Surge Voltage 2.2.11 Electricity Consumer 2.2.12 Demand Load 2.2.13 Installed Capacity 2.2.14 Electric Energy Measuring Unit

2.2.15 System Loss 2.3 Electric Power Generation 2.3.1 Classification of Power Plant 2.3.1.1 Steam Power Plant 2.3.1.2 Diesel Power Plant 2.3.1.3 Nuclear Power Plant 2.3.1.4 Hydro-Electric Power Plant 2.3.1.5 Gas Turbine Power Plant 2.3.2 2.4 Power Generation in Bangladesh

10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 16 17 18

Power Transmission 2.4.1 Classification of Transmission Line 2.4.1.1 Overhead Transmission Line 2.4.1.1.1 2.4.1.1.2 2.4.1.1.3 Short Transmission Line Medium Transmission Line Long Transmission Line

2.4.1.2 Underground Transmission Line 2.4.1.3 Gas Insulated Transmission Line (GIL) 2.5 Chapter 03 Distribution of Electric Power

Overview of Dhaka Electric Supply Company LTD (DESCO) 3.1 History of Power Industry in Bangladesh 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.2 The Beginning EWAPDA, Government Monopoly BPDB, Rapid Development REB, Rural Development DESA, BPDBs Relieve from Dhaka 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 23 23 23 23 24
vi

Dhaka Electric Supply Company LTD (DESCO) 3.2.1 3.2.2 Manpower & Recruitment Commercial Operation 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 Tariff Setting Tariff Rate Service Guaranty

3.2.3

Vision & Mission 3.2.3.1 Vision 3.2.3.2 Mission 3.2.3.3 Corporate Philosophy

26 26 26 26 26 26 27 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 34 35 35 37 37 38 38 39

3.3

DESCO Operational Data 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 Technical Highlight Commercial Highlight Growth of the Company

3.4

Performance 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.4.7 Consumption Pattern Consumer Mix Categorised Consumption Growth Load Growth Import & Sales System Loss in DESCO Profit & Loss

3.5

Activities of DESCO 3.5.1 Technical Activities 3.5.1.1 Substation 3.5.1.2 Electric Line Construction 3.5.1.3 Distribution Transformer 3.5.2 3.5.3 Commercial Activities Sales & Distribution (S&D) Division 3.5.3.1 System Operation 3.5.3.2 New Connection 3.5.3.3 Load Sanction 3.5.3.4 Load Retention 3.5.3.5 Power Factor Monitoring 3.5.3.6 Line Maintenance 3.5.3.7 Wireless & Telecommunication

vii

Chapter 04

Substation Operation & Maintenance 4.1 Electrical Substation 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 Classification according to Service Requirements Classification according to Constructional Features 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 42 43 44 44 45 45 46 46 47 47 48 48 49 49 52 53 54 54 54

Equipments in a Substation 4.2.1 Bus Bar 4.2.2 Bus Bar Arrangement 4.2.2.1 Single Bus Bar System 4.2.2.2 Single Bus Bar wit Sectionalisation 4.2.2.3 Duplicate Bus Bar System 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 Insulators Isolators Circuit Breaker

4.2.6 Transformer 4.2.6.1 Power Transformer 4.2.6.2 Instrument Transformer 4.2.6.2.1 4.2.6.2.2 4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9 4.3 Current Transformer (CT) Potential Transformer (PT)

Metering and Indicating Instruments Lightening Arrester Bushing

Grid Substation & Distribution Substation 4.3.1 4.3.2 Feeder & Control Room Data Acquisition System (DAS)

4.4

Maintenance 4.4.1 4.4.2 Routine Job Emergency Operations

Chapter 05

Variable Load 5.1 5.2 Variable Load Effects of Variable Load 5.2.1 Need of additional equipments 55 55 55
viii

5.2.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Chapter 06

Increase in Production Cost

55 56 56 57 57 57 58

Load Curve Load Types of DESCO Load Calculation in DESCO Load Sanction Load Retention Load Balancing System

Power System Protection 6.1 Faults in Power System 6.1.1 6.1.2 Symmetrical Faults Unsymmetrical Faults 6.1.2.1 Single Line-to-Ground (L-G) 6.1.2.2 Line-to-Line Fault (L-L) 6.1.2.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault (L-L-G) 6.2 6.3 Fault Locating Transformer Faults 6.3.1 6.3.2 External Fault Internal Faults 6.3.2.1 Electrical Faults 6.3.2.2 Incipient Faults 6.4 Protective Devices 6.4.1 Circuit Breakers 6.4.1.1 Classification of Circuit Breakers 6.4.1.1.1 6.4.1.1.2 6.4.1.1.3 6.4.1.1.4 6.4.2 Fuses 6.4.2.1 Types of Fuses 6.4.3 Protective Relays 6.4.3.1 Functional Relay Types Oil Circuit Breaker Air-Blast Circuit Breaker Sulphure Hexafluoride CB Vacuum Circuit Breaker 59 59 60 60 61 61 62 62 63 63 63 63 63 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 66 66 66
ix

6.4.3.1.1 Over Current Relay 6.4.3.1.2 6.4.3.1.3 6.4.3.1.4 References Appendices Distance Relay Differential Relay Buchholz Relay

66 66 67 67

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Efficient Power System Power Triangle Showing Power Factor Power Triangle Showing Power Factor Angle Surge Voltage Geographical Network showing National Grid Long Overhead Transmission Line Long Capacity Underground Power Transmission Line Gas Insulated Transmission Line (GIL) Generation to Distribution Bus Bar implemented in Mirpur Digun Substation Single Bus Bar Sectionalised Single Bus Bar Bus Coupler Controlled in Uttara 132/33 kV Substation Double Bus Bar in Uttara 132/33 kV Substation Isolators in Uttara Grid Substation SF6 Circuit Breakers Manual Controller in Uttara Grid Substation 132/33 kV transformer in Uttara Grid Substation Current Transformer (CT) in Uttara Grid Substation Potential Transformer (PT) in Uttara Grid Substation Lightening Arrester in Uttara Grid Substation Various Types of Bushings Single Line Diagram of Mirpur Digun Substation Page 04 06 07 09 14 15 17 18 18 41 42 43 43 44 44 45 46 47 47 48 49 50

xi

Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 5.1 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4

11 kV Feeder Indicating Load Shedding Condition Control Room of a 33/11 kV Substation Data Acquisition System (DAS) in Mirpur Digun Substation Daily Load Curve Symmetrical Fault Line-to-Ground Fault Line-to-Line Fault Double Line-to-Ground Fault (L-L-G)

51 52 53 56 60 61 61 61

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 3.7 Table 3.8 Contributing Fuel Type in Power Generation Various Tariff Rate Service Guaranty for LTI and LT Consumers Service Guaranty for HT Consumers Technical Highlight of DESCO Commercial Highlight of DESCO Installed Substations in 2.11-2012 Expansion and Up gradation of Line Current Infrastructure of DESCO

Page 13 24 25 25 26 27 29 30 30

xiii

LIST OF CHARTS
Charts Chart 3.1 Chart 3.2 Chart 3.3 Consumption Pattern Consumer Mix Consumption Growth Page 28 28 29

xiv

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Overview Internship EEE499 is a 6 credit hour course offered every semester in School of Engineering and Computer Science (SECS) at Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB), as an equivalent option of course Senior Project EEE498. A student of SECS must have to participate in any of these courses to fulfill the requirement of getting a Degree. In internship, an intern must choose a supervisor from the faculties of the school. Then the intern should start participating in the corresponding operations in any desired commercial company. The duties of an intern in the company are decided by a mutual negotiation between the student and the company. Choosing internship as an option allowed me to explore the real world closely and familiarize myself with the industrial and commercial aspects of the subject I studied. Proper application of my theoretical knowledge is required in order to get some benefits from the practical experiences I got during my program. Such theoretical knowledge has been obtained from the courses I studied, but without any corresponding practical knowledge, is only half-way achievement for my day to day practical life. Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESCO) Limited is a 75% government owned company. Rests of the shareholders are public. Choosing DESCO as my internship company is to get familiarize with the distribution operation in Dhaka, as the company has the reputation to get the maximum commercial benefits and ran the majority of successful operations in the most densely populated area of the country. In 1996, DESCO was created under the Company Act 1994 as a Public Limited Company with an authorized capital of BDT 5.00 billion. Electricity is a crucial element, to upgrade the socio-economic circumstances and to improve scarcity. The supply of electricity has a great impact on the national economy. Proper and enough reliable electricity supply have a great positive impact on our Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and GDP is one of the explanations to comprehend the financial system of a country, and a developing country like Bangladesh, where population is over 157 million (2012, World Bank, updated at Sep 8, 2013), the increasing population has an increased demand of electricity. Only
1

60% of which has been fulfilled. The per capita generation rate is only 292 kWh which is also very low compared to any developing country having the similar reputation like Bangladesh. DESCO Operations Administrative activities, Financial Activities, Accounts Activities, HRM Activities, S&D Activities & Operations (New connection, load retention, load release, load management, control room activity, power factor monitoring & upgrading, substation operation & maintenance, line maintenance, DAS maintenance etc.), Operation & Maintenance of Grid Substation.

1.2 Purpose of Study Understanding the electric-power distribution system. Understanding the fault in power system and the protection of power system. Learning the working procedure of the protective relay. Understanding the working principle of the transformer. Learning the substation operation and maintenance in DESCO. Understanding the operational activities of the Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESCO).

1.3 Scope of Study The report covers the brief operations of transmitting, maintaining and distributing electricity in the northern part of Dhaka city under Dhaka Power Distribution Company Limited (DESCO). This report especially emphasizes on power distribution and maintenance. I had the opportunity to have close view of operatives activities of DESCO.

1.4 Methodology 1.4.1 Primary Source: Books, Newspapers, Journals regarding this topic, Internet and other materials were used as the primary source of information. 1.4.2 Secondary Source: Participation in the practical field session, discussion with employees and annual report of DESCO were used as secondary source of information.

Chapter 2

Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution

2.1 Introduction Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries of South-Eastern Asia, where - due to less technical and financial support - electrical energy is the most useful and demanding form of energy. And this demand is increasing proportionally to the population, urging authority to produce more and more electricity to compete with the global development. This necessitates establishing a very efficient form of power system consisting three absolute sectors as shown in figure 2.1. These sectors are authorised to generate electricity according to national demand, transmit it through a nationwide national grid system, and to distribute it according to consumers demands, and charging bills and duties to confirm a commercial stability to the whole system.

Figure 2.1: Efficient Power System

These sectors and their jurisdictions of operations are the main point of concentration of this chapter, but to construct a comfortable insight, a short discussion about some related theories are drawn below.

2.2 Important Terms of Power System 2.2.1 Resistance The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar a many respects to mechanical friction. This opposition, due to the collision between electrons
4

and others atoms in the material, which converts electrical energy into heat, is called resistance of the material [1]. 2.2.2 Real Power Real or true power is the power that is used to do the work on the load [2]. P = Vrms Irms cos Here, P is the real power in watts [W] Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V] Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A] is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current. 2.2.3 Reactive Power Reactive power is the power that is wasted and not used to do work on the load [2]. Q = Vrms Irms sin Here, Q is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR] Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V] Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A] is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current. 2.2.4 Apparent Power The apparent power is the power that is supplied to the circuit [2]. S = Vrms Irms Here,
5

S is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA] Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/2 in Volts [V] Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/2 in Amperes [A] 2.2.5 Power Factor Power factor is the ratio between actual load power (KW) and apparent load power (KVA) drawn by an electrical load and measured by a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 [3]. It indicates how effectively the current is being converted into useful output and most importantly is a very good pointer of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the supply system. Figure 2.2 shows the power factor.

Figure 2.2: Power Triangle Showing Power Factor

2.2.6 Power Factor Angle In an AC circuit, there is generally a phase difference between voltage and current. Cosine of this phase angle is known as the power factor of that particular circuit. Inductive circuit would produce lagging power factor and capacitive circuit would produce leading power factor. Figure 2.3 shows a power triangle, clearly marking the power factor angle.

Figure 2.3: Power Triangle Showing Power Factor Angle

2.2.7 Significance of Power Factor The impact of power factor lies in the fact that distribution companies supply customers with volt-amperes, but bill them for watts. The relationship is watts = volts amperes power factor It is clear that power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the power (watts). This increases generation and transmission costs. Good power factor is considered to be greater than 0.85 or 85%. Watts, or real power, is what a customer pays for. VAR, or reactive power, is the extra power transmitted to compensate for a power factor less than 1.0. The combination of the two is called "apparent" power (VA or volt-amperes). 2.2.8 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor One disadvantage is that the true power is considerably less than the output kVA. This means that for a generating station to supply a given power, it may have to work above its normal kVA capacity, with the consequent excess temperature rise of the generators, supply cables and, where the length of the cables from the generators to the load is large, in these cables as well. There will also be losses in the sub-circuit switchgear. Another bad feature of low power factor is the large amount of wattless kVA produced. This causes losses in the machine as well as increasing the running costs of the whole plant.

A third disadvantage is that a large volt drop in alternator is caused, partly because of the armature synchronous impedance, and partly because of the effect due to armature reaction. Apart from the affects of low power factor in generation sector, there are some significant negative effects on transmission and distribution sector. Firstly, larger cables, switchgear and transformers may be necessary both within an installation, and the supply mains feeding it. Moreover, low power factor causes operating difficulties on high voltage transmission lines. In a reaction to those, distribution companies often penalize consumers whose load is at poor power factor by charging more for the electrical energy used. Besides that, higher currents give rise to higher copper losses in cables and transformers, and also give larger voltage drop in cables, and a change in load gives a larger change in voltage drop if the power factor is low. This phenomenon is known as Poor Voltage Regulation. 2.2.9 Power Factor Upgrading Poor power factor can be corrected, paradoxically, by adding another load to the circuit drawing an equal and opposite amount of reactive power, to cancel out the effects of the load's inductive reactance. Inductive reactance can only be canceled by capacitive reactance, so we have to add a capacitor in parallel to our example circuit as the additional load. The effect of these two opposing reactances in parallel is to bring the circuit's total impedance equal to its total resistance (to make the impedance phase angle equal, or at least closer, to zero). Note that the total current (Itotal) is in phase with the applied voltage (Vtotal), indicating a phase angle of near zero. This is no coincidence. Note that the lagging current, IL of the inductor would have caused the total current to have a lagging phase somewhere between (Itotal) and IL. However, the leading capacitor current, IC, compensates for the lagging inductor current. The result is a total current phase-angle somewhere between the inductor and capacitor currents. Moreover, that total current (Itotal) was forced to be inphase with the total applied voltage (Vtotal), by the calculation of an appropriate capacitor value.
8

It should be noted that too much capacitance in an AC circuit will result in a low power factor just as well as too much inductance. You must be careful not to over-correct when adding capacitance to an AC circuit. You must also be very careful to use the proper capacitors for the job (rated adequately for power system voltages and the occasional voltage spike from lightning strikes, for continuous AC service and capable of handling the expected levels of current). 2.2.10 Surge Voltage A voltage rise that endangers the insulation of electric equipments is called surge voltage in power system. An exact calculation is important for selecting right insulation and appropriate system protection. Figure 2.4 shows the transient voltage surge.

Figure 2.4: Surge Voltage

2.2.11 Electricity Consumer In the distribution system, a multistoried shopping complex or office can be treated as a single consumer if metering is done through one electric energy measuring meter. Here electricity distribution agencies or companies are a consumer to the electricity generation authority or company from where they purchase electricity. 2.2.12 Demand Load Demand load indicates the aggregate demand of electricity of all the consumers at an instant time. Usually electricity demand is denoted by the unit Watt.

2.2.13 Installed Capacity In the electricity system every equipment and line has its maximum load handling capacity. Capacity (power) is usually denoted by Volt-Ampere (VA) which is also convertible into Watt by multiplying power factor with the VA. Therefore, the installed capacity of an electricity system indicates the maximum VA or Watt it can handle. In case of electricity generation, it is the summation of capacities of all the power plants within the system. In case of electricity distribution system, usually it is the summation of the capacities of the sub-stations where high voltage is converted into low voltage. The capacity of electric line and cable is also considered in deriving the capacity of distribution system. 2.2.14 Electric Energy Measuring Unit Usually electric energy consumption is measured by Unit. One Unit of electric energy consumption means consuming one Kilowatt of energy in one hour, i.e. by lit up ten100 Watt bulbs for an hour. 2.2.15 System Loss Every equipment, conductor and cable used in the power system has some loss in carrying electricity. This loss is due to the resistance property of material, electrical energy converts into heat, sound and light energy. The theoretical system loss of the entire system is found by the formula. (%) = 100

But, in reality the pilferage of electricity by any means is also reflected in the system loss, as the pilfered electricity does not come under energy sales. Therefore, in case of distribution systemSystem Loss = Actual System Loss + Loss due to pilferage The actual system loss of the overhead distribution system should not be more than 7~8%.
10

2.3 Electric Power Generation Movement of a loop of wire or disc of copper between the poles of magnet generates electricity. A very fundamental principal of generating electricity - discovered by British scientist Michael Faraday during the early seventieth century. Generation process often started at a power station by electromechanical generators. These generators are driven by heat engines and fueled by any kind of energy sources such as fossil fuel, renewable energy or nuclear energy. 2.3.1 Classification of Power Plants A power plant refers to an industrial place for generating electrical power. The energy source used to rotate the generator defines the type of any particular power plant and varies chiefly depending upon the availability of cheap or safe type of fuel. According to the basic classification, power plants are of two types conventional and nonconventional. Non-conventional power plants are those which are still under experiments or not implemented yet to industrial production of power. On the other hand, conventional power plants are the most popular means of generation and successfully executed in many countries under the mass production of power. The major or the most popular conventional power plants are 2.3.1.1 Steam Power Plant Uses steam as working material and works on Rankin Cycle. Steam has been produced, and then expanded in the prime mover. After that, it has been condensed fed back into the boiler to complete the cycle. 2.3.1.2 Diesel Power Plant Diesel engines are used to the primary side. Diesel burns into the combustion chamber of the engine and produce mechanical energy. This energy drives the alternator to convert this mechanical energy into electrical energy.

11

2.3.1.3 Nuclear Power Plant Heavy elements such as Uranium or Thorium are subjected to nuclear fission in a reactor. This results a release in heat energy which then used to raise steam at high temperature and pressure. This steam then used to run a steam turbine, converting the heat energy to mechanical energy which then drives the alternator to produce electricity. 2.3.1.4 Hydro-Electric Power Plant The potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy, by letting the water fall from a certain height, which then allowed flowing through a turbine to produce mechanical energy to drive the alternator of a generator. 2.3.1.5 Gas Turbine Power Plant Burning fuel into a high-pressure chamber to produce hot gases that rotate a turbine, which is then spin a generator to produce electricity [4].

2.3.2 Power Generation in Bangladesh According to Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB), Bangladesh already reached the capacity to generate 10224 MW of electricity (November 2013), most of which use natural gas (64.53%) as fuel. This was according to the planning of Power Sector Master Plan (PSMP) initiated in 2010. This plan also states that in 2030, the national demand would be 34,000 MW whereas national generation would be 39,000 MW [5]. PSMP 2010 also aims to acquire the fuel composition ratio would be coal 50% (30% domestic coal and 20% imported coal), natural gas 25% (including LNG), 5% liquid fuel and 20% nuclear including renewable and cross-border trades, thus prioritizes the use of domestic primary energy sources. As shown in Table 2.1, Bangladesh currently depending very much on natural gas, which produces 6598 MW of electricity (64.53% of total generation), but attempting to release the pressure from gas stock by diverting attention to coal and renewable energy.
12

Fuel type Gas Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) High Speed Diesel (HSD) Imported Coal Hydro Total

Capacity (MW) 6598 1963 683 500 250 230 10224

Total (%) 64.53 19.2 6.68 4.89 2.45 2.25 100

Table 2.1: Contributing Fuel Type in Power Generation

2.4 Power Transmission Transmission lines are sets of wires, called conductors, which carry electric power from generating plants to the substations that deliver power to customers. At a generating plant, electric power is stepped up to several thousand volts by a transformer and delivered to the transmission line. At numerous substations on the transmission system, transformers step down the power to a lower voltage and deliver it to distribution lines. Distribution lines carry power to farms, homes and businesses. The type of transmission structures used for any project is determined by the characteristics of the transmission lines route, including terrain and existing infrastructure. Power Grid Company of Bangladesh (PGCB) Limited owns all of the transmission line of Bangladesh. The main operating function of PGCB is wheeling of energy from BPDB power stations and Generation Companies to Distribution entities utilizing transmission network. PGCB gets its energy wheeling charge from its clients (distribution entities) at the rate fixed by Bangladesh Electricity Regulatory Commission (BERC). Transmission lines of the company up to June, 2013 are stood at 3020.77 circuit km of 230 kV lines, 6066.44 circuit km of 132 kV lines and 15 nos. of 230/132 kV substation and 83 nos. of 132/33 kV substations. Figure 2.5 illustrates a brief geographical network of national power grid, clearly indicating existing, under construction & planned 230 KV and 132 KV transmission line. It also shows the planning and construction of newly adopted 400 KV transmission lines [5].

13

Figure 2.5: Geographical Network showing National Power Grid

2.4.1 Classification of Transmission Line Depending on the route of transmission lines and considering the terrain and the existing infrastructure, transmission lines are classified into three major types. 2.4.1.1 Overhead Transmission Line Overhead transmission lines distribute the majority of the electric energy in the system. A typical high-voltage line has three phase conductors to carry the current and transport the energy, and two grounded shield conductors to protect the line from direct lightning strikes. The usually bare conductors are insulated from the supporting towers by insulators attached to grounded towers or poles. Lower-voltage lines use post insulators, while the high-voltage lines are built with insulator chains or long-rod composite insulators. The normal distance between the supporting towers is a few hundred feet. Overhead lines use ACSR (aluminum cable, steel reinforced) and ACAR (aluminum cable, alloy reinforced) conductors. In an ACSR conductor, a stranded steel core carries the mechanical load, and layers of stranded aluminum surrounding the core carry the current. An ACAR conductor is a stranded cable made of an aluminum alloy with low resistance and high mechanical strength.
14

ACSR conductors are usually used for high-voltage lines, and ACAR conductors for subtransmission and distribution lines. Ultrahigh-voltage (UHV) and extra-high-voltage (EHV) lines use bundle conductors. Each phase of the line is built with two, three, or four conductors connected in parallel and separated by about 1.5 ft (0.5 m). Bundle conductors reduce corona discharge [6]. Transmission lines are subject to environmental adversities, including wide variations of temperature, high winds, and ice and snow deposits, but are typically designed to withstand environmental stresses occurring once every 50100 years. Figure 2.6 gives an example of long overhead transmission line.

Figure 2.6: Long Overhead Transmission Line

Depending on the voltage level transmitting through the line or the distance the transmitted signal will travel, overhead lines are classified as follows.

15

2.4.1.1.1 Short Transmission Line The transmission lines which have length less than 80 km are generally referred as short transmission lines. For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like resistance and inductance of these short lines are lumped [7]. 2.4.1.1.2 Medium transmission Line The transmission line having its effective length more than 80 km but less than 240 km is generally referred to as a medium transmission line. Due to the line length being considerably high, admittance of the network does play a role in calculating the effective circuit parameters, unlike in the case of short transmission lines. For this reason the modeling of a medium length transmission line is done using lumped shunt admittance along with the lumped impedance in series to the circuit [7]. 2.4.1.1.3 Long Transmission Line A power transmission line with its effective length of around 240 km or above is referred to as a long transmission line. Calculations related to circuit parameters of such a power transmission is not that simple, as was the case for a short or medium transmission line. The reason being that, the effective circuit length in this case is much higher than what it was for the former models (long and medium line) and, thus ruling out the approximations considered there like [7].

2.4.1.2 Underground Transmission Line Underground lines are a very reliable mean of transmitting electric power, but through a set of highly insulated cables buried literally under earth to minimise the effects of environmental hazards to the power system. Underground cables have different technical requirements than overhead lines and have different environmental impacts. Due to their different physical, environmental, and construction needs, underground transmission generally costs more and may be more complicated to construct than overhead lines. Figure 2.7 reveals a large capacity highly secured underground power transmission line in a underground tunnel.
16

Figure 2.7: Large Capacity Underground Power Transmission Line

The design and construction of underground transmission lines differ from overhead lines because of two significant technical challenges that need to be overcome. Providing sufficient insulation so that cables can be within inches of grounded material; and dissipating the heat produced during the operation of the electrical cables. Overhead lines are separated from each other and surrounded by air. Open air circulating between and around the conductors cools the wires and dissipates heat very effectively. Air also provides insulation that can recover if there is a flashover. In contrast, a number of different systems, materials, and construction methods have been used during the last century in order to achieve the necessary insulation and heat dissipation required for undergrounding transmission lines. 2.4.1.3 Gas Insulated Transmission Line (GIL) Gas insulated transmission lines (GIL) are a means of bulk electric power transmission at extra high voltage. GIL consists of tubular aluminium conductors encased in a metallic tube that is filled with a mixture of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen gases for electrical insulation. Since the first installation of GIL in 1975, second generation GIL has been developed that is more economically viable and its design optimised both for installation and operation. Where GIL is installed in combination with gas insulated switchgear (GIS), compact solutions can be delivered in order to supply large amounts of electric power to meet the high demand of large cities and industry. These new possibilities can mitigate power flow problems, reduce the risk of failure of electrical transmission systems and enable the installation of optimum solutions
17

regarding technical, economical and environmental aspects. Figure 2.8 is an example of a 230 kV GIL under construction in Massachusetts, USA [8].

Figure 2.8: Gas Insulated Transmission Line (GIL)

2.5 Distribution of Electric Power Electric distribution system is such a part of power system which distributes electricity for local consumption. The electrical energy produces at the generating station is conveyed to the consumers through a network of distribution system, after it has been transmitted over a transmission grid. Therefore, generally, distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by the transmission system and the consumers meters.

Figure 2.9: Generation to Distribution

18

In Bangladesh, currently 6 semi-autonomous companies are contributing to distribute power, from managing the industrial necessity to lighting the remotest area of the country. All of them are not only purchasing electricity from BPDB and selling them to the consumers, but also managing numerous numbers of sub-stations and distribution networks including pole transformers and zonal underground cables. These bodies are 1. Dhaka Power Distribution Company Limited (DPDC) 2. Dhaka Electric Supply Company Limited (DESCO) 3. West Zone Power Distribution Company Limited (WZPDCL) 4. North-West Zone Power Distribution Limited (NWZPDCL) 5. South Zone Power Distribution Company Limited (SZPDCL) 6. Rural Electrification Board (REB)

19

Chapter 3 Overview of Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESCO) Limited

3.1 History of Power Industry in Bangladesh 3.1.1 The Beginning The electricity supply industry in South-Eastern Asia started with the commissioning of the first power station in 1890. Although a number of small stations were constructed over the next 20 years, these stations were isolated, catering to small distribution networks serving the major urban centers. The first effort to structure a legal framework for the industry came in 1910 with the enactment of the Indian Electricity Act, 1910. This Act sought to regulate the business of industry still based on the old concept of isolated privately owned distribution networks fed by small generation stations & essentially defined the rights & obligations of the supplier and the consumer. 3.1.2 EWAPDA, Government Monopoly In 1947, at the time of independence of subcontinent, the installed generating capacity in the then East Pakistan was only 21 MW. Electricity was available to only small elite in the district and sub-divisional headquarters. The distribution networks in these cities were isolated and were fed by coal fired steam power plants or diesel generation. In an effort to expeditiously augment generation capacity to feed a development economy, the then Government of Pakistan issued an ordinance in 1959 creating the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (EWAPDA). The Ordinance essentially provided for the Governments takeover of all Generation, Transmission and Distribution facilities from the private sector, thereby creating a total Government monopoly in the sector. During 1960s and 1970s the generation capacity of the then East Pakistan rose from 88 MW to 475 MW, supplied largely by natural gas and oil fired steam power and hydro plants. The networks of Dhaka and Chittagong and then been interconnected however with weak 132 KV links.
20

3.1.3 BPDB, Rapid Development Shortly after the creation of an Independent Bangladesh, in 1972, the first Government of Bangladesh, in an effort to speed up the investment in the sector issued an Ordinance creating the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) as the successor organization of the power side of EWAPDA. The Ordinance recognized the divergence of energy related issues in development. During 1972 to 1995, BPDB has increased the generating capacity in the country to 2818 MW, and the length of its 230 and 132 KV transmission networks to 419 KM and 2469 KM. For the first time in December 1982, the eastern and western halves of the country were electrically connected through the commissioning of double circuit 230 KV transmission line across the Yamuna River energized at 132 KV between Ishwardi and Tongi called the first East-West Interconnector. Generation sources were diversified to include a 230 MW hydropower station at Kaptai on the Karnaphuli River and natural gas and imported fuel based, open and combined cycle power plants at different locations of Eastern and Western part of the country. The distribution networks of all major towns and cities had been linked through 230 KV and 132 KV inter-ties. 3.1.4 REB, Rural Development In order to intensify the pace of rural electrification, the Government issued an ordinance in 1977 establishing the Rural Electrification Board (REB), a semi-autonomous agency charged with the responsibility of planning, developing, financing and construction of rural distribution networks, promoting the establishment of 70 Rural Electric Cooperatives (Palli Bidyut Samities PBS), handing over the constructed rural networks to them, assisting the PBSs to operate and maintain the rural networks and monitoring their financial performances. The REB has so far constructed over 239,318 Km of distribution lines and provided over 9 million consumers connections in the rural areas (June, 2012). 3.1.5 DESA, BPDBs Relieve from Dhaka From 1986 onwards, the commercial performance of the BPDB deteriorated and during 1990, BPDBs average gross systems loss was about 42 percent and accounts receivables in excess of 6.5 months of billing. This performance was not found reasonable to the covenants agreed by the

21

Government and BPDB with the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank. Experts revealed, the huge coverage areas were proven difficult to handle singlehandedly by the board. Therefore, to lessen the administrative burden on BPDBs management, in 1990, another ordinance was issued, which was subsequently enacted as an Act transferring the 132 KV and 33 KV Transmission and distribution system in the Greater Dhaka Area including the Metropolitan City to a newly created Government agency called the Dhaka Electric Supply Authority (DESA).

3.2 Dhaka Electric Supply Company LTD (DESCO) Dhaka Electric Supply Co. Ltd. (DESCO) was created as a distribution company in November 1996 under the Company Act 1994 as a Public Limited Company with an Authorized Capital of 5.00 billion BDT. However, the operational activities of DESCO commenced on September 24, 1998 with the taking over of Mirpur area from erstwhile DESA with a consumer strength of 71,161 and a load demand of 90 MW. In the subsequent years of successful operations and performances, the operational area of DESCO was expanded through inclusion of Greater Gulshan Circle in April, 2003 and Tongi Municipal Area in March, 2007. The total consumer strength stands at 504,723 as of June, 2012 with a maximum load demand of 715 MW [9]. The area, about 250 square kilometers under service of the Company, comprises the areas bounded by Greater Mirpur Area Agargaon Area Rokeya Sarani Bijoy Sarani Greater Gulshan Area Greater Uttara Area Baridhara Area New Airport Road Maymenshing Road Immediately after taken over from DESA, DESCOs obligation were, Operation and maintenance of substations and distribution line.
22

Mohakhali Jheel Rampura Jheel North-Western part of Balu River Eastern part of Turag River Tongi Municipal Area Purbachal Model Town Uttarkhan Area Dakhinkhan Area

 Commercial function (billing, consumer accounting, disconnection and re-connection of consumers, testing and installation of consumer meter etc.) Planning, design and installation of new distribution network.

3.2.1 Manpower & Recruitment DESCO recruits its employees through open advertisement. The qualification and experience requirement were fixing up according to the requirement for performing their duties and responsibilities against the respective post. Mainly those who have sufficient experience in the field of utility organization are selected on a merit basis. They were employed on long-term contracted basis under the DESCO's service rules approved by its Board of Directors. 3.2.2 Commercial Operation 3.2.2.1 Tariff Setting Being a commercial organization, DESCO have to charge for electricity it distributes, on a "cost plus performance based return" principle to cover its capital costs, operation costs as well as to target a post-tax return of 15 percent on its equity. It is therefore proposed that, till the recommendations of the tariff study to be conducted with World Bank financing are available, DESCO charge a cost - plus-fixed- return" tariff from its consumers. Calculation of DESCO's tariff during 1997-2001 will be based on the estimated costs of the assets initially to be transferred to it by DESA, the Ninth Power Project cost and any other donors share. However, these calculations will be for illustrative purposes only and the actual tariffs will be based on the costs actually incurred and the foreign exchange value of the Taka as computed each year. 3.2.2.2 Tariff Rate A new tariff rate with respect to retail sales of electricity of Dhaka Electric Supply Company Ltd. (DESCO) has been made effective in case of electricity usages from 01 September 2012. Table 3.1 shows various Tariff Rates.

23

SL Consumer Category

Per

Unit

Rate (Tk.) 1 Category-A : Residential a. First Step : From 00 to 75 units b. Second Step : From 76 to 200 units c. Third Step : From 201 to 300 units d. Fourth Step : From 301 to 400 units e. Fifth Step : From 401 to 600 units f. 2 3 Sixth Step : Above 600 units 3.33 4.73 4.83 4.93 7.98 9.38 2.51

Category-B : Agricultural pumping Category-C : Small Industries a. Flat Rate b. Off-Peak Time c. Peak Time

6.95 5.96 8.47 4.53

4 5

Category-D : Non-Residential (Light & Power) Category-E : Commercial And Office A Flat Rate B Off-Peak Time C Peak Time

9.00 7.22 11.85

Category-F : Medium Voltage, General Purpose (11 KV) A Flat Rate B Off-Peak Time C Peak Time 6.81 5.96 9.33

Category-H : High Voltage, General Purpose (33 KV) A Flat Rate B Off-Peak Time C Peak Time 6.48 5.87 9.14 6.48

Category-J : Street Light and Water Pumps

Table 3.1: Various Tariff Rate

24

3.2.2.3 Service Guaranty Table 3.2 and 3.3 shows the service guaranty for LTI and LT and HT consumer respectively. For LTI & LT consumer Meter &service drop change, load extension & others

Meter & service drop change

Application from consumer Deposit RC-DC fee TK: 1200 Pay all outstanding bills

Load extension &others

Application by consumer Pay all outstanding bills Deposit RC-DC fee &other bills as applicable

Location of overhead lines, poles, U/G Map attached/CD electric cable line
Table 3.2: Service Guaranty for LTI and LT Consumers

For HT consumer (11 KV) Own Transformer maintenance Transformer maintenance & change, Drop out fuse change, Lightening arrester change and others Application from consumer Deposit shutdown fee TK:4260 if feeder shutdown required RC-DC fee TK: 1200 if feeder shutdown not required All payment must be made through Bank Transformer change Application from consumer Deposit shutdown fee TK: 4260 if feeder shutdown required RC-DC fee TK: 1200 if feeder shutdown not required All payment must be made through Bank Permission from CEI
25

procedure Transformer maintenance

Drop out fuse, Lightening arrester Application from consumer change Deposit shutdown fee TK:4260 if feeder shutdown required All payment must be made through Bank
Table 3.3: Service Guaranty for HT Consumers

3.2.3 Vision & Mission 3.2.3.1 Vision To be a role-model electric supply company in the region using most dependable technology and be a development partner in the continuous welfare of the society. 3.2.3.2 Mission Service to the utmost satisfaction of consumers through reliable and uninterrupted power supply and provide value for money. Provide congenial working environment for employees. 3.2.3.3 Corporate Philosophy Service excellence with integrity and corporate social responsibility. 3.3 DESCO Operation Data 3.3.1 Technical Highlight Particular 33/11KV Sub-Station (no.) Capacity of 33/11KV Sub-Station Maximum Demand (MW) 33KV Overhead Line (KM) 33KV Underground Line (KM) 11KV Overhead Line (KM) 11KV Underground Line (KM) LT Line (KM) Distribution Transformer (no.) 2009-2010 21 770/1078 622 82.8 208 1017 350 1671 4810 2010-2011 22 880/1232 640 82.8 215 1044 360 1717 4938 2011-2012 25 980/1372 715 82.8 294 1084 390 1774 5227
26

Table 3.4: Technical Highlight of DESCO

Above Table 3.4 gives a brief technical history of DESCO. It is clear, that every single technical equipments are increasing gradually. 3.3.2 Commercial Highlight Particulars Energy Import (MKWh) Energy Import (MTk) Energy Sales (MKWh) Energy Sales (MTk) System Loss (%) Collection Ratio (%) C.I Ratio (%) Consumer Nos. Receivable/Sales (%) 2009-2010 2933 7845 2673 10911 8.86 98.75 90 446129 20.69 2010-2011 3122 8801 2848 12400 8.79 98.96 90.26 449063 19.96 2011-2012 3401 13327 3111 16094 8.54 98.54 90.13 504723 18.54

Table 3.5: Commercial Highlight of DESCO

From the Table 3.5, it is clear that, 2011-12 was the best year in terms of system loss. System loss parameter is of the main parameter for judging any electric supply company. System loss is now under 2 digits, it is 8.54. 2011-12 was the most successful year in terms of CI ratio, Collection ratio. When collection ratio is decreased then CI ratio decreases and system loss increases. 3.3.3 Growth of the Company The Companys growth can be better conceived by the figures and graphs presented in this report. Starting from a consumer base of 71,000 with load demand of 90 MW in 1998, the Company has grown to cater about 5, 04,723 consumers as of June 30, 2012. The shareholders equity increased from Tk. 9,919 million last year to Tk. 10,553 million, recording a growth of 6.39% during the year.

27

3.4 Performance 3.4.1 Consumption Pattern Form the chart 3.1 below, it is clearly seen that more than 50% of the consumption are subject to residential necessities. Nearly 37% of the power is consumed in industrial factories. The rest are used either in commercial purpose or other non-significant purpose.

Chart 3.1: Consumption Pattern

3.4.2 Consumer Mix As given in chart 3.2, nearly 450 thousand consumers are residential, more than 10 times the numbers of commercial consumers, which are nearly 40,000. The most significant finding of this chart is that only 1.2% of total consumers are industrial consumers who consume more than one third of the total power.

Chart 3.2: Consumer Mix

28

3.4.3 Consumption Growth Chart 3.3 shows the growth of consumption in the last few years. It is clearly seen that the residential consumption has increased and nearly doubled while commercial and other purpose consumptions are hardly increased. Industrial consumption has also increased significantly.

Chart 3.3: Consumption Growth

3.5 Activities of DESCO 3.5.1 Technical Activities Major technical activities completed during the year 2011-12 are highlighted below: 3.5.1.1 Substation: DESCO always feels to be consistent with load growth and capacity enhancement. As such it took various projects for capacity building. In FY 2011-12 the company installed tested and commissioned the following 5 (five) 33/11 KV substations (Table 3.6) within its jurisdiction: Name of Substation Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport (CAAB) Mirpur DOHS Uttara Mirpur Old Baunia Total Capacity Increased Date of Completion July 07, 2011 August 28, 2011 September 21, 2011 October 15, 2011 December 30, 2011 Capacity 2 20/28 MVA 2 20/28 MVA 3 20/28 MVA 3 20/28 MVA 2 20/14 MVA 220/308 MVA

Table 3.6: Installed Substations in 2011-2012

29

3.5.1.2 Electric Line Construction: During last financial year DESCO completed the expansion and up gradation of its source line and distribution network as stated in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7: Expansion and Up gradation of Line

3.5.1.3 Distribution Transformer: In order to cater the increasing load demand and enhance load capacity, DESCO installed as many as 261 nos. of 11/0.4 KV, 3-phase 200 KVA and 28 nos. of single phase transformers, in addition to consumers own transformers. Table 3.8 shows the current infrastructure of DESCO.

Table 3.8: Current Infrastructure of DESCO

3.5.2 Commercial Activities Major commercial activities undertaken during the year are highlighted below:

30

Disconnection / Reconnections Disconnection of electric line has been considered to be an effective tool to recover outstanding bills/dues. By applying this tool a total number of 33,272 defaulting consumers services were disconnected during the year. Moreover, 15,376 illegal consumer services were traced and disconnected during the year. During the year, 29,548 consumers were given re-connection on recovery of their outstanding dues and realization of penalty as applicable. An aggregate amount of Tk. 576.90 million was realized from the defaulting consumers and Tk. 10.59 million against penal/supplementary bills. New Connections This year 55,660 new connections have been added to our system. With these new connections, the total number of electric connections under DESCO at the end of the financial year stands at 5, 04,723. Energy Saving & Use of Alternative Energy: Power saving means Power generation. Aiming this motto, DESCO has undertaken different steps to encourage the consumers for using energy efficient appliances in their homes / offices, turning of lights and fans when not in use and replacing the older incandescent lamp by CFL (Compact Florescent Lamp) etc. by means of distributing leaf-let, displaying poster and festoons. To encourage the use of renewable energy, DESCO ensured installation of eco-friendly Solar Panel of capacity around 2.7 MW by 2,491 nos. of consumers at their premises up to June 30, 2012 in line with the Government policy. DESCO installed solar panel of capacity 17.04 KW at its 48 nos. own installations up to June 30, 2012 Metering The meter being the cash box of the Company, every effort is made to change defective meters, sealing of meters and inspection of meters on a regular basis. During the year 21,937 defective meters were changed, 2,364 meters were sealed and 48,747 meters were inspected.
31

Consumer Complaints: DESCO continuously strives to offer service excellence to its valued consumers. Consumer complaints in terms of billing errors, rectification of names and addresses are seriously attended. During the year, 12,410 bills were corrected and records of 2,655 names and addresses were rectified on receiving complaints from the consumers. One Point Service Center: Customer satisfaction is the key to success of any business. Our customers are our prime focus and we are to ensure satisfactory customer service as deemed suitable. The issue is seriously considered by DESCO, which led to the establishment of Customers One Point Service Center in each of the Sales and Distribution Divisions. Any consumer coming to DESCOs Sales & Distribution Division office may receive desired service and solution from the staff of the One Point Service Centre. The Customer Service Centers are under continuous improvement in order to raise their standard up to the desired level. For this purpose, DESCO is giving emphasis on routine training of the employees. Billing/ Collection The primary objective of maintaining the financial strength of the Company is achieved by continuous efforts to maintain a healthy billing/ collection ratio. Considering sales at Tk.15,962 million and collection at Tk. 15,709 million, the billing collection ratio works out at 99.31% and the Collection/ Import (C.I.) ratio to 89.77% this year. DESCO contract with other company to collect the meter reading from their customers; then they give the reading into the e-Governance software. The software minus previous reading with new reading and get the unit and then calculate the bill depends on the amount of the energy unit. In the DESCO there are three types of bill payment systems, consumers can pay their bill by using one of the system. Bill payment in the bank All most every bank in Dhaka receives the electric bill. So, the consumers of DESCO can pay their bill in any bank.
32

Bill payment through mobile phone Mobile phone service providers have introduced several value added services for the public. One of them is utility bill payment through Mobile phone or through retail seller of the phone operator. DESCO consumers may also pay their electricity bill through mobile phone operators Grameen Phone, Banglalink, Robi and Citycell. Bill payment through internet Payment of utility bill through internet is one of the modern and expected service facilities for the customers worldwide. In line with increasing customer need and expectations for faster service, Bangladesh Bank has allowed DESCO online transaction through Debit/Credit cards of Banks. DESCO is the first public sector utility that launched the facility of bill payment through internet under NEXUS gateway of DutchBangla Bank. DESCO consumers may pay their monthly electricity bills through internet by using Credit/Debit card as allowed by NEXUS-gateway of Dutch-Bangla Bank such as Master, VISA, NEXUS, Maestro etc. stated in DESCO website www.desco.org.bd. DESCO web-portal is secured by SSL which is displayed on the web page. A Bill payment procedure or instruction is published in the web and there is a printed leaflet available in DESCOs Customer Service Centers. At present there is no extra charge to be borne by the customer for this service. Accounts receivable/sales One of the indicators of efficient financial management is to decrease the accounts receivable/sales ratio. The Company maintains a system of continuous monitoring of accounts receivable by way of monthly reports and analysis. The Accounts Receivable/ Sales ratio works out to 15.37% this year as against 19.96% in the last year. System loss This is a key performance indicator of any electric distribution company and is determined by the quantity of energy purchased and sold. The system loss works out to 8.54% this year as against 8.79% in the previous year.

33

Prepaid metering Prepaid meter utilizes smart card technology that allows customers to put money on a smart card which is inserted and removed from the prepaid meter. The meter reads a chip in the card and ensures that only the amount of electricity that has been paid for be available to the customer. Customers can re-charge their smart card at DESCOs vending stations. The introduction of prepaid meters has helped to improve revenue collections as well as to reduce system loss. A total of 11,333 nos. of prepaid meters have been installed in different Sectors of Uttara as of 30th June, 2012. In order to facilitate continuous supply of prepaid meters, DESCO has set up a "Prepaid Meter Production Unit" at Mirpur with the technical assistance of Institute of Information and Communication Technology (IICT), BUET [9]. 3.5.3 Sales and Distribution (S&D) Division Kafrul Monipur Pallabi Gulshan Baridhara Uttara (East) Uttara (West) Dakhinkhan There are three main operations in DESCO. These are 1. COSS (Commercial Operation & Support Service) 2. LEM (Line & Equipment Maintenance) 3. MSS (Maintenance of sub-system) 3.5.3.1 System Operation System operation is an important part of the DESCO. This section mainly related with the Grid and sub-station maintenance. This section maintain the New connection, Load sanction & Load Tongi (East) Tongi (West) Shah Ali Rupnagar Agargaon Uttarkhan Badda Joar Sahara

34

retention, Load Management, Control room activity, Power factor monitoring & upgrading, Line Maintenance, DAS Maintenance etc. 3.5.3.2 New Connection Consumer will be able to download or take a print of the application form. Applicants must submit the required documents in DESCO since its inception has been striving to establish better and friendly service to its customer. In this perspective, DESCO has introduced the opportunity for customers to apply for electric connection through internet. This would also enable them to know about the status of application. Applicants are advised to follow the instructions laid down in the citizen charter. After the confirmation of the On-Line application, the applicant hard copy for validating On-line application, along with his/her signed copy of printed application. Required Documents Residential / Domestic category up to 49KW Signed copy of the application form 2 copies attested recent Passport size color photo Attested copy of registered deed of ownership / Occupancy Mutation document for Land Attested copy of RAJUK / City Corporation approved building plan Attested copy of document regarding holding no. issued by City Corp./ competent authority. Documents Requirement Commercial Customer up-to 49KW load Signed copy of the application form 2 copies attested recent Passport size color photo Authorization letter from partners (for Joint-Venture) Attested copy of registered deed of ownership / Occupancy Mutation document for Land Attested copy of RAJUK / City Corporation approved building plan Attested copy of document regarding holding no. issued by City Corp./ competent authority.

35

Documents Requirement Customers of load 50KW and above load Signed copy of the application form 2 copies attested recent Passport size color photo Attested copy of registered deed of ownership / Occupancy Mutation document for Land Attested copy of RAJUK / City Corporation approved building plan Attested copy of document regarding holding no. issued by City Corp./ competent authority. Sub-Station layout plan and Single line diagram Agreement for use of Meter Room by DESCO Specifications, Test results of Transformer, switch-gear and other equipment License from Chief Electrical Inspector of GOB Documents Requirement: Small Industries Customer up-to 49KW load Signed copy of the application form 2 copies attested recent Passport size color photo Authorization letter from partners for Joint-Venture Attested copy of registered deed of ownership / Occupancy Mutation document for Land Attested copy of RAJUK / City Corporation approved building plan Attested copy of document regarding holding no. issued by City Corp./ competent authority. Clearance from Fire Service (If applicable) Clearance from Environment (If applicable) Trade License. Documents Requirement: Temporary Connection Signed copy of the application form 2 copies attested recent Passport size color photo Attested copy of registered deed of ownership / Occupancy Mutation document for Land
36

 Attested copy of RAJUK / City Corporation approved building plan

3.5.3.3 Load Sanction When a consumer applies for a new connection, the consumer must mention the load demand on the application paper. The consumer calculate the total load (KW) he or she need. Consumer makes an Application to DESCO for that amount of load. Than DESCO authority goes to consumer & calculated the load. Base on the load calculated DESCO approve the consumer sanction load. If the sanction load is below 7KWh than the consumer get single phase line, if it is above 7KWh than the consumer get 3-phase line, if the load is above or equal to 50KWh than the consumer have to make a substation.

3.5.3.4 Load Retention If the consumer see that his Total Demand load is greater than his maximum sanction load. Then the consumers have to make an application to DESCO to increase the sanction load. If the DESCO authority think that the consumer really need to increase the sanction load than they approve the consumer application and give the consumer Extra load. This is called load retention.

3.5.3.5 Power Factor Monitoring Power factor is the real power (watts) divided by total power (the vector sum of real and reactive power). Reactive elements (things that have inductance or capacitance) cause phase shifts between voltage applied to them and current passing through them. This phase shift is a result of these elements holding power, and then releasing it. Since these elements are not actually using power, this does not show up on your electric bill (unless you are billed on VARs as well as watts). Although they don't use real power, these reactive elements do cause "extra" current to flow, which the power company must supply. If this current is excessive (so you have a very low power factor) the power company must install oversized equipment to meet your demand; this
37

means an added expense for them, with no payback on your electric bill. This is why power companies will often require a certain power factor being met, or bill you extra per kWh of use. The power factor for any reactive load, inductive or capacitive, is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current. It is also the ratio of volt-amps over watts. We call it a lagging power factor if it is inductive and a leading power factor if it is capacitive.

3.5.3.6 Line Maintenance In electrical engineering, live-line working is the maintenance of electrical equipment, often operating at high voltage, while the equipment is energized. The first techniques for live-line working were developed in the early years of the 20th century, and both equipment and work methods were later refined to deal with increasingly higher voltages. In the 1960s, methods were developed in the laboratory to enable field workers to come into direct contact with high voltage lines. Such methods can be applied to enable safe work at the highest transmission voltages. For the maintenance DESCO uses out sourcing. When a fault occur on any line due to thundering or high voltage than DESCO inform it to their out sourcing team. The outsource goes to that area as hurry and takes proper action. Sometimes the consumer also inform DESCO, if any fault occur at their respective place then DESCO send their team to that place for taking action.

38

3.5.3.7 Wireless & Telecommunication Wireless telecommunications is the transfer of information between two or more points that are not physically connected. Distances can be short, such as a few meters for television remote control, or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of wireless technology include GPS units, Garage door openers or garage doors, wireless computer mice, keyboards and Headset (audio), headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones. At ones time DESCO use cordless to communicate between their S&D center. Now they use mobile to communicate its employee, outsources, consumers [9].

39

Chapter 4

Substation Operation & Maintenance

4.1 Electrical Substation A substation is a high-voltage electric facility containing equipment to regulate and distribute electrical energy. While some substations are small with little more than a transformer and associated switches, other substations are large and complex. Functions of a substation include receiving power from a generating facility, regulating distribution, stepping voltage up and down, limiting power surges, and converting power from direct current to alternating current or vice versa. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. Substations are classified according to 4.1.1 Classification according to Service Requirements 1. Transformer Substation 2. Switching Substations 3. Power Factor Correction Substations 4. Frequency Changer Substation 5. Converting Substation 6. Industrial Substations

4.1.2 Classification according to Constructional Features 1. Indoor Substation 2. Outdoor Substation 3. Underground Substation 4. Pole Mounted Substation

40

4.2 Equipments in a Substation The equipments required for a substation depends upon the type of substation. Service requirement and the degree of protection desired. However, in general, a transformer substation has the following major equipments 4.2.1 Bus Bar When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are copper or aluminium bars and operate at constant voltage. The incoming and outgoing lines in a substation are connected to the bus bars. Figure 4.1 shows a single line diagram of Mirpur Digun 132/33/11 KV Grid substation, indicating two duplicate bus bar systems. Here, both 33 KV buses are sectionalised [10].

Figure 4.1: Bus bar implemented in Mirpur (Digun) Substation

41

4.2.2 Bus-Bar Arrangements 4.2.2.1 Single Bus bar System The single bus bar system has the simplest design and is used for power stations. It is also used in small outdoor stations having relatively few outgoing or incoming feeders and lines. Figure 4.2 shows the single bus bar system for a typical power station. The generators, outgoing lines and transformers are connected to the bus bar. Each generator and feeder is controlled by a circuit breaker. The isolators permit to isolate generators, feeders, and circuit breakers from the bus bar for maintenance [10].

Figure 4.2: Single Bus Bar

4.2.2.2 Single Bus bar system with Sectionalisation In large generating stations where several units are installed, it is a common practice to sectionalise the bus so that fault on any section on the bus bar will not cause a complete shutdown. This illustrates in the figure 4.3 which shows the bus bar divided into two sections connected by a circuit breaker and isolator; however, it may also be done by a bus coupler [10].

42

Figure 4.3: Sectionalised Single Bus Bar

Three principal advantages are claimed for this arrangement. Firstly, if a fault occurs on any section of a bus bar, that section can be isolated without affecting the supply to other sections. Secondly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the fault current is much lower than with unsectionalised bus bar. This permits the use of circuit breakers of lower capacity in the feeders. Thirdly, repair and maintenance of any section of bus bar can be carried out by de-energising that section only, eliminating the possibility of complete shutdown.

Figure 4.4: Bus Coupler Controller in Uttara 132/33 kV Substation

4.2.2.3 Duplicate Bus bar system In large stations, it is important that breakdowns and maintenance should interfere as little as possible with continuity of supply. In order to achieve this objective, duplicate bus bar system is used in important stations. Such a system consists of two bus bars, a main bus bar and a spare bus bar. Each generator and feeder may be connected to either bus bars with the help of bus coupler which consists of a circuit breaker and isolators [10]. Figure 4.5 shows the duplicate bus bar system implemented in Uttara Grid Substation.
43

Figure 4.5: Double Bus Bar in Uttara 132/33 kV Substation

4.2.3 Insulators The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors or bus bars and confine the current to the conductors. The most commonly used material for insulators is porcelain. There are several types of insulators and their use depends upon the service requirement. 4.2.4 Isolators In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance or repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator. An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is essentially designed to open a circuit under no load. Figure 4.6 is an example of isolators in Uttara Grid Substation.

Figure 4.6: Isolators in Uttara Grid Substation

44

4.2.5 Circuit Breaker A circuit breaker is equipment which can open or close a circuit under normal as well as fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually or by remote controller under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the latter use, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.

Figure 4.7: SF6 Circuit Breakers Manual Controller in Uttara grid Substation

4.2.6 Transformer A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without changing frequency. This is very basic definition of transformer. According to the application and operation, transformers are classified accordingly. Auto Transformer Capacitor Voltage Transformer Power Transformer Distributing Transformer Phase Angle Regulating Transformer Polyphase Transformer Grounding Transformer Leakage Transformer Resonant Transformer Instrument Transformer Scott-T Transformer

45

4.2.6.1 Power Transformer A power transformer is used in a substation to step-up or step-down the voltage. Apart from the power station, all the subsequent substations use step-down transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally deliver it at utilization voltage. Figure 4.8 shows one of the four power transformers using in Uttara Grid substation, a couple of which are 132/33 KV and the rests are 33/11KV.

Figure 4.8: 132/33 kV Transformer in Uttara Grid Substation

4.2.6.2 Instrument Transformer The lines in substations operate at high voltages and carry currents of thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and protective devices are designed for low voltages and currents. Therefore, they will not work perfectly if mounted directly on the power lines. This difficulty is overcome by installing instrument transformers on power lines. The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer voltages or currents in the power lines to value which are convenient for the operation of measuring instruments and relays. The types of instruments are discussed below. 4.2.6.2.1 Current Transformer (CT) A current transformer (CT) is essentially a step-up transformer, which steps down the current to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of thick wire connected in series with the line. The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wires
46

and provides for the measuring instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of the current in the line. Therefore, if a 100/5 A CT is connected in the line to measure current, it will read 5 amps of current when the current in the line is 100 amps.

Figure 4.9: Current Transformer (CT) in Uttara Grid Substation

4.2.6.2.1 Potential Transformer It is essentially a step-down transformer and steps down the voltage to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is a known fraction of the line voltage. For instance, a 66kV/100V

Figure 4.10: Potential Transformer (PT) in Uttara Grid Substation

47

4.2.7 Metering and Indicating Instruments There are several metering and indicating instruments, such as ammeters, voltmeters, and energy meters etc, installed in a substation to maintain watch over circuit quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably used with them for satisfactory operations.

4.2.8 Lightening Arrester These protect a substation from voltage surges and are installed on power poles, towers, transformers and circuit breakers to protect them from damage during electrical storms. Lightning Arresters look similar to standoff insulators and bushings, but their unique characteristics is that they have earthing terminals at the bottom where a large ground cable is connected and runs down the structure that connects to the station ground.

Figure 4.11: Lightening Arrester in Uttara Grid Substation

4.2.9 Bushing This is the component that allows electricity to enter electrical equipments safely, preventing it from shorting to another phase. There are different types of bushings, namely oil filled, gas filled
48

and dry solid porcelain. Unique characteristics of bushings are that the porcelain section is between an oil expansion chamber and a mounting flange.

Figure 4.12: Various Types of Bushings

4.3 Grid Substation & Distribution Substation After generation, power has to transform into a very economical form to transmit to a distant location. 230 kV and 132 kV are considered to be very efficient for such transmissions. But this Extra High Voltage (EHV) is not comfortable at all to consume, as most of the machines of industrial and residential places are suitable to operate at much lower voltage level. Moreover, this high level of voltages is not very safe to transmit through highly populated areas. As a result, this enormous level of voltage has to convert again to a suitable level, but certainly in a gradual sequence. Substations used for transforming 132 kV line to 33 kV is known as grid substations. The outputs of this kind of substations are generally fed to industrial consumers with an unconventionally high demand and distribution substations which therefore convert them to a level appropriate for household consumption. This level of voltage is still not safe for a comfortable transmission to city areas and therefore uses underground cables. On the other hand, the 33 kV line coming from a grid substation are subjects to further degradation to 11 kV for residential use and therefore another type of substations are called into action. These types are known as distribution substations and convert power to 11 kV which is very much safe to transmit in urban or metropolitan areas. This level of voltage can be carried
49

easily by either underground or overhead to the consumers and then connect them directly if they are High Tension (HT) consumers or via a pole mounted transformer which further degrade it to .415 kV if they are Low Tension (LT) consumers. Mirpur (Digun) & Uttara Grid Substation

Figure 4.13: Single Line Diagram of Mirpur (Digun) Substation

Figure 4.13 shows the single line diagram of Mirpur (Digun) grid substation, where two of the four of its incoming lines are from Tongi and Uttara, and the rests are from Aminbazar. It has a Double bus bar system for 132 kV buses, at least one of which is readily available for operation while other is reserved for emergency situations. Incoming lines are connected to a number of measuring instruments including CT and PT to calculate the amount of power consumed by the substation and to observe any faults in the incoming line. Protection devices like lightening arresters and earth switches are installed at this stage of the station to protect the whole system from any environmental hazards. After getting a clearance from these devices, the power is now a subject to bus bars. This bus bar allows the necessary distribution of power to all of the transformers available in the station. It also permits the maintenance workers to conduct maintenance operations partially, rather than completely shutting down the station.
50

At this stage, power is about to enter to the transformers but to make sure that everything is in safe condition and to measure necessary data and give standby commands to protective relays after having a brief diagnosis in CT and PT it then transmitted to breakers and isolators. These devices allow pulling off the load from the transformer when necessary. Transformers then converts the power to a lower voltage level of 33 kV which then goes to feeder room for further transmission to consuming areas. To protect the feeder room, another set of CTs, PTs, Breakers and Isolators are implemented at this stage.

4.3.1 Feeder & Control Room Feeder room is the section of the area, where most engineers are engaged with the master control of the station. Determining where to transmit the load and the quantity of the load, occurring load shedding to any desired feeder and to check and maintain a quality load to the consumer by making sure that the power factor of the loads are up to the mark.

Figure 4.14: 11 kV Feeder indicating load shedding condition

51

In Control Room, mainly, all of the readings from CTs & PTs are coming to the relays situated in the control room, which further decide that what operation should be done depending upon the readings. Manual and remote controllers of certain Circuit Breakers and Isolators are also operated from here.

Figure 4.15: Control Room of a 33/11 kV Substation

4.3.2 Data Acquisition System (DAS) The Power generation and maximum demand of the electricity network need strong monitoring and effective network power management system. Therefore, DESCO has implemented a data acquisition system (DAS) that help to monitor real time load status of the network for better load management. The data acquisition system is integrated with a remote terminal unit and computer server network for data gathering. The technical assistance along with software for the system was developed by Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET).

52

Figure 4.16: Data Acquisition System (DAS) in Mirpur (Digun) Substation

Figure 4.16 shows the DAS of Mirpur (Digun) Substation implemented by DESCO with the technical assistance from BUET.

4.4 Maintenance Maintenance of a substation refers to certain kinds of activities that involve engineers, technicians and labors to do some work to keep the station running, depending on the types of works. Generally, two kinds of maintenance operations are conducted, namely 4.4.1 Routine Job Routine jobs are operations which are previously scheduled to do in any particular date. Commonly, this majorly involves non-technical jobs, such as dust cleaning, inspecting protective devices and machines for whether they are working properly, checking temperature gauge, fluid gauge and the cooling fan operation of the transformer and replace any if necessary, etc. 4.4.2 Emergency Operations This is much more technical than the former one, as it occurs when any kind of problems or emergency situations are occurred in the station. The most common problems are transformer overheating, oil leaking, heated connections, charging motor damaging and SF6 gas pressure
53

problems etc. In most of the case, station should partially shut down to operate these jobs, as it lessens the danger of damaging other machines and devices.

54

Chapter 5

Variable Load
5.1 Variable Load Although power stations are committed to deliver loads to a large number of consumers, but the demand of the consumers are not always consistent. An ideal load on the station, from stand point of equipment needed and operating routine, would be one of constant magnitude and steady duration. However such a steady load is never realised in actual practice. The consumers require their small or large block of power in accordance with the demand of their activities. Thus the load demand of one consumer at any given time may be different from that of others. As a result, load on the power stations varies from time to time. This results an unpredictable behavior of load production and supply for the stations. Therefore, load has been divided into several sections depending on the implication of the loads into consumptions. This allowed the stations to pre assume the load range depending on the types of loads. 5.2 Effects of Variable Load The variable load on power station introduces many perplexities in its operation. Some of the important effects of variable load on power stations are 5.2.1 Need of additional equipments The variable load on a power station necessitates having additional equipments. In order to produce variable power, the supply of the material in a power plant would require to be varied correspondingly. For example, according to the increase in the demand in any given plant, the supply of raw material should also be increased, which demands the new installations of equipments and devices. In modern power plant, there is many equipments devoted to adjust the raw materials according to the demand.

55

5.2.2 Increase in Production Cost The variable load on the plant increases the cost of producing per unit electrical energy. An alternator operates at maximum efficiency near its rated capacity. If a single alternator is used, it will have poor efficiency during the light loads on the plant. Therefore, a number of alternators of different capacities are installed so that most of the alternators can be operated at nearly full load, which increases the cost of production 5.3 Load Curve The curve showing the variations of load with respect to time is known as load curve. The load is never constant; it varies from time to time. These load variations during the whole day are recorded hourly and are plotted against time, which is known as Daily Load Curve. Figure 5.1 shows the Load curve of 18th November, 2013.

Figure 5.1: Daily Load Curve

5.4 Load Types of DESCO Depending on the types of consumers 1. Domestic Load 2. Commercial Load 3. Industrial Load 4. Municipal Load
56

5. Irrigation Load 6. Traction Load 7. Depending on the demand of load 8. Low Tension (LT) Consumer (0 - 7 kW)

9. Low

Tension

Industry

(LTI)

Consumer (8 50 kW) 10. High Tension (HT) Load (above 50 kW)

5.5 Load Calculation in DESCO Before endorsing a load to a consumer, DESCO always asses the load demand of that consumer to determine whether the feeder and 11 kV / .415 kV transformer is capable of that load. For this reason, a field visit is mandatory for DESCO officials. A Clip-on Meter is used to calculate the load and the calculations are A Fan = 75 watt A TV = 120 watt A CFL Light = 23 watt A TFT Light = 40 watt A Refrigerator = 100 watt An AC (1 ton) = 2000 watt A 2-pin plug = 120 watt A 3-Pin Plug = 600 watt A Water Heater = 2000 watt

5.6 Load Sanction While applying for a connection, a consumer must declare the demand of load. DSCO then calculates the load and makes a series of decisions for or against the favor of the connection. If all decisions are positive, DESCO will sanction a load depending upon the requirement of the consumer 5.7 Load Retention If the sanctioned load is not sufficient for the consumer or the demand has increased beyond the sanctioned load, then the consumer has all the right to apply for load retention. After application,
57

DESCO operates the similar field visit procedures of load sanction. If the outcomes are satisfactory from field visit, then DESCO will make a decision to increase the sanctioned load to that particular consumer. 5.8 Load Balancing System Among the three distinct phases of the distribution line, from which line a load is to be sanctioned to a consumer is a very important decision to make. Otherwise, one phase will be supplying much more load than from its capacity and the others are not supplying that much. It creates a massive imbalance in the whole system. To measure the load on the phases, a Clip-on meter is used. For instance, if the total load is 300 kWh in the all three phases, and 120 kWh, 80 kWh and 100 kWh in Red, Yellow and Blue phases respectively, then load has to be reduced from Red phase and the extra load has to put into the Yellow phase.

58

Chapter 6

Power System Protection

6.1 Faults in Power System In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal electric current. A short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", charge flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a fault can be calculated for power systems. In power systems, protective devices detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure [10]. A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference come in contact with each other. These faults may be caused by a sudden failure of a piece of equipment, accidental damage, short-circuit to overhead lines or by insulation failure resulting from lightning surges. Irrespective of the cause, the faults in a 3-phase system can be classified into two main categories 6.1.1 Symmetrical Faults The fault which gives rise to symmetrical currents equal fault currents in the lines with 120 degree displacement is called a symmetrical fault. It occurs when all the three conductors of a 3-phase line are brought together simultaneously into a short circuit conditions as shown in the figure 6.1

59

Figure 6.1: Symmetrical Fault

Symmetrical faults rarely occur in practical circumstances, as majority of faults are of unsymmetrical nature. However, symmetrical faults are most severe and impose more heavy duty on circuit breakers [10]. 6.1.2 Unsymmetrical Faults Those faults on the power system which gives rise to unsymmetrical fault currents, or in other words unequal fault currents in the lines with unequal phase displacement are known as unsymmetrical faults. If an unsymmetrical fault occurs, the current in all three phases become unequal along with an unusual phase displacements. In a power system, unsymmetrical faults occur in three distinct ways 6.1.2.1 Single Line-to-Ground (L-G) Line to ground is a short circuit between one line and ground (Figure 6.2), very often caused by physical contacts due to lightning or other storm damage.

60

Figure 6.2: Line-to-Ground fault

6.1.2.2 Line-to-Line Fault (L-L) Generally caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into physical contacts due to a broken insulator (Figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3: Line-to-Line Fault

6.1.2.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault (L-L-G) While two lines come into contact with each other and also with the ground (Figure 6.4), then a L-L-G fault occurs [10].

Figure 6.4: Double Line-to-Ground Fault (L-L-G)

61

6.2 Fault Locating Detecting fault is a decisive step in employing energy efficient changes to suburban and manufacturing arrangements. Fault detection is exploited to verify that a problem has occurred within a firm channel or area of operation. Faults can easily be detected by either with the circuit de-energiser, or in some cases, with the circuit under power. Fault location techniques can generally be divided into terminal methods, which measure voltages and currents at the ends of the cable, and tracer methods, which inspects along the length of the cable. Terminal method can be used to trace the general area of the fault, to accelerate tracing on a long or covered cable. In simple wiring systems, the fault location is often found through inspection of the wires but in complex wiring systems, where the wires may be hidden, faults are positioned with a Timedomain reflectometer. The time domain reflectometer sends a pulse down the wire and then analyses the returning reflected pulse to identify defects within the wire. Sensitive galvanometers are also used to measure fault currents, by checking at the both ends of a defective cable, the fault location could be isolated to a few miles, which allowed the cable to be grappled up and repaired. Sometimes an insulation fault in a power cable will not show up at lower voltages. A "thumper" test set applies a high-energy, high-voltage pulse to the cable. Fault location is detected by listening to the sound of the discharge at the fault. While this test contributes to damage at the cable site, it is practical as the faulted place would have to be reinsulated when found in any case.

6.3 Transformer Faults Electrical transformers are static devices, but internal tensions arising from an unusual system conditions, must be taken into concern. A transformer usually experiences following types of faults

62

6.3.1 External Fault Overload conditions and external short circuits are the main reasons for this type of fault. Time graded over current & earth fault relays are used for external short circuit conditions. Fuses are offered for distribution transformers. 6.3.2 Internal Fault: Internal faults are of two types. These two types of faults are described below: 6.3.2.1 Electrical Faults: This type of fault cause immediate damage in the system. Phase to earth or phase to phase faults, short circuits between turns of high voltage and low voltage windings etc are the general examples of electrical faults. 6.3.2.2 Incipient Faults: These are originally minor faults, causing slow rising damage like poor electrical connections of conductors or breakdown of insulations etc.

6.4 Protective Devices In a power system consisting of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution circuits, it is inevitable that sooner or later some failure will occur somewhere in the system. When a failure occurs in any part of the system, it must be quickly detected and disconnected from the system. There are two principle reasons for it. Firstly, if the fault is not cleared quickly, it may cause unnecessary interruption of service to the customers. Secondly, rapid disconnection of the faulted apparatus limits the amount of damage to it and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the system [10]. The detection of the faults and disconnection of a faulty section or apparatus can be achieved by using protective devices.

63

6.4.1 Circuit Breakers During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to switch on or off the various circuits under both normal and abnormal conditions. The lines and other equipment operate at very high voltages and carry large currents. This necessitates employing a dependable means of control such as Circuit Breakers (CB). A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or automatically under all conditions. This characteristic of the CB has made it very useful equipment for switching and protection of various parts of the power system. A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions. But it can also break the circuit automatically under fault conditions and can make it either manually or automatically under fault conditions [10]. 6.4.1.1 Classification of Circuit Breakers There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the basic way of classification is on the basis of medium used for extinction. 6.4.1.1.1 Oil Circuit Breaker In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil is used as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is stuck between them. The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. The oil is pushed away from the arc region and adjacent portions of the contacts. The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two main processes. Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high gas conductivity and cools the arc. Secondly, the gas set up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between contacts [10]. 6.4.1.1.2 Air-Blast Circuit Breaker These CB use a high pressure air-blast as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of air-blast establishing by the opening of blast valve. The air-blast cools the arc and sweep away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly
64

increases the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and prevent from reestablishing the arc. The Air-Blast CBs are finding wide application in high voltage installations. Majority of the circuit breakers for voltage beyond 110 kV are of this type [10]. 6.4.1.1.3 Sulphure Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breaker In such CBs, sulphure hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium the SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is struck between them. The conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc. The SF6 CBs have been very effective for high power and high voltage service [10]. 6.4.1.1.4 Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) In such breakers, vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium. Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching properties than any other medium. When contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric strength between the contacts building up at a rate thousands of times higher than that obtained with other CBs.

6.4.2 Fuses A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit. The fuse element generally made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity and least deterioration due to oxidation. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating. However, when short-circuit or overload occurs,

65

the current through the fuse increases beyond its rated value. This raises the temperature and fuse element melts, disconnecting the circuit protected by it [10]. 6.4.2.1 Types of Fuses Fuse is the simplest current interrupting device for protecting against excessive currents. A variety of fuses are available. In general, fuses may classified into Low Voltage Fuse High Voltage Fuse

6.4.3 Protective Relays A protective relay is a device that detects the faults and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system. Relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions. 6.4.3.1 Functional Relay Types Most of the relays in service on power system today operate on the principle of electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the principle involved, relays are generally classified according to the function they are called upon to perform in the protection of electric power circuits. Few important types of special function relays are discussed below [10]. 6.4.3.1.1 Induction Type Over-Current Relay This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective measures when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These relays are used on AC circuits only and can operate for fault current flow in either direction.

66

6.4.3.1.2 Distance Relay Relays in which the operations are governed by the ratio of applied voltage to current in the protected circuit. Such relays are called distance or impedance relays. In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is opposed by the torque produced by a voltage element. The relay will operate when the voltage current ratio is less than a predetermined value. The voltage element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (PT) from the line to be protected. Similarly, the current element is excited from current transformer (CT) in series with the line [10]. 6.4.3.1.3 Differential Relay A differential relay is one of that operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value. Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current entering the section of the system with the current leaving the section. Under normal operating conditions, the two currents are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer applies. The difference between the incoming and outgoing currents are arranged to flow through the operating coil of the relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section. 6.4.3.1.4 Buchholz Relay Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for protection against all kinds of faults. It is used to give an alarm in case of incipient faults in the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the conservator to the main tank.

67

REFERENCES

[1] http://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-resistance-and-laws-of-resistance/ [2] http://www.electrical4u.com/reactive-power-and-its-compensation-in-transmission-lines/ [3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor [4] Lecture notes on EEE403 - Electrical Energy System by Dr. Abdur Razzak [5] http://www.pgcb.org.bd/ [6] http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Electrical+transmission+line [7] Lecture notes on eee402 - Power Transmission & Distribution by Dr A K M Baki [8] http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=1633656 [9] Annual Report 2012, Dhaka Electric Supply Company Limited [10] Principles of Power System by V K Mehta and Rohit Mehta [11] http://www.bpdb.gov.bd/bpdb/