Contents

Unit 1: Bonding Unit 2: Structures and Properties Unit 3: Chemical Calculations Unit 4: Rates of Reaction Unit 5: Energy and Reactions Unit 6: Electrolysis Unit 7: Acids, Alkalis and Salts [This is Unit 2 Chemistry, Additional Chemistry. This section comes after Core Chemistry in an AQA Course (Unit 1)]

C2-1 : Bonding
Structure of the Atom In an atom you will find three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. We can find both the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, and the electrons around the nucleus in a number of energy levels (or shells ). Protons are Positive and have a charge of +1 Neutrons are Neutral and have zero charge (0) Electrons are therefore negative, charge of -1 We call the number of protons in the nucleus an atoms atomic number (or proton number). The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons (unless it is an ion), so generally, the proton number gives both the number of electrons and protons. This is an extract from a period table of the elements. It shows Oxygen (O). The bottom number, in this case 8, is the atomic number. The top number, in this case 16, is its atomic mass. The mass number is the value you get when you sum the number of protons and the number of neutrons (i.e. atomic number + neutron count). This means we can use these two values to work out the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom of oxygen. Because the atomic number is 8, we know that there are 8 electrons and protons. With a mass number of 16, we know that there are [16 - 8] neutrons - hence there are also 8 neutrons.

Electronic Configuration The electrons in atoms are arranged in shells, but each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons:

The first shell can hold only 2 electrons The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons The third shell can also hold 8 electrons Sodium (Na) has a relative atomic mass of 11. This means that the first shell will be complete, holding 2 electrons. The second will also be complete, holding 8 electrons. The third shell will remain incomplete as it will only have 1 electron [2 + 8 + 1 = 11]. This arrangement is said to be (2,8,1) There are a number of ways in which atoms can bond:

transferring electrons, called ionic bonding sharing electrons, called covalent bonding

Ionic Bonding With ionic bonding, atoms involved either gain or lose electrons to complete their outer shell (achieving a noble gas structure), and in the process become ions. For example, using the sodium atom above (2,8,1) - we know that the sodium atom in ionic bonding would lose one electron so that its outer shell is complete (2,8). Because of the loss of an electron - it has become an ion, with a charge of +1 (electrons have a charge of -1). This means any ion of sodium is written Na+ A negative ion is an anion and a positive ion is a cation. We use a special type of diagram called a dot cross diagram to represent ionic bonding. This involves drawing the electronic configuration of each atom, using dots to represent electrons in one atom, and crosses for electrons in the other atom. An example might be:

The diagram shows the formation of sodium chlorine (NaCl). The lone electron on the outer shell of the sodium atom is lost to complete the outer shell of the chlorine atom. This results in the sodium atom now becoming an ion (Na+) and the chlorine atom now becoming a negative ion (Cl-). This is ionic bonding in completion. [Click the image to enlarge it] Covalent Bonding The other way in which atoms may bond is via covalent bonding, which works by sharing electrons, rather than transferring them around. Ionic bonding happens between a metal and a non-metal, but covalent bonding occurs when two nonmetals bond. Take hydrogen gas, for example. Always written as H2, because they go around in pairs - and they join together in twos because they each have one electron - and to complete their outer shell, they need two electrons - so they bond together and share each others electrons:

Another example might be when two hydrogen atoms bond with one oxygen atom to form a water molecule. This again is covalent bonding:

As you can see in the example here, with water, there are two bonds, one with each hydrogen atom. This is in order to complete the outer shell of electrons for all three atoms. Both the hydrogen atoms now have two electrons in their outer energy level, and thanks to the two electrons from the hydrogen atoms, the oxygen atom now has the full eight electrons in its outer shell. Giant Ionic and Covalent Structures The ionic bonds between the charged particles after ionic bonding results in an arrangement of ions that we call a giant structure. They seem to go on endlessly in all directions. The giant structures of ionic compounds is very regular and simple. You can also have giant covalent structures. Whilst most covalent bonds are simple and small bonds, such as water, others have enormously complicated networks of

covalent bonds joined together - these are the giant covalent structures. Examples of giant covalent structures are diamond and silicon dioxide (silica). Metallic Bonding Metals can bond using metallic bonding, which tends to produce more giant structures also. You can consider metals as a lattice of metal atoms (or positively charged ions), arranged in layers. The outer electrons here can easily move around the structure, and it is said to have a sea of free electrons. It is the strong electrostatic attraction between the positively charged ions and the negative sea of electrons flowing around that hold the structure together. This sea of electrons are called delocalised electrons.

C2-2 : Structures and Properties

Ionic Compounds Already we know ionic compounds consist of giant structures of ions arranged in lattices. Because the forces between the oppositely-charged ions are so strong, the compound will need a lot of energy to be broken. This is why they have such high melting and high boiling points. However, once we do give enough energy to break the ions apart from their lattice, they are free to move and the compound becomes a liquid. The ions are free to move anywhere in this liquid, which allows conduction of electricity in this liquid form (ionic solids cannot conduct electricity because of the fixed position the ions have). The diagram shows electrolysis. The negative electrode is called the cathode, and is connected to the negative side of the power source. The positive electrode is the anode, which is connected to the positive side. As the cathode (negative electrode) is negative, the positive ions are going to be attracted to it, and the negative ions will be attracted to the anode (positive electrode). As positively-charged ions move to the negative electrode, they receive electrons and we say they have been reduced. Reduction is gaining electrons (reduction also means removal of oxygen). As negatively-charged ions move to the positive electrode, they lose electrons, and have been oxidised. Oxidation is the process of losing electrons (oxidation also means combining oxygen with a substance).

Remember OILRIG: Oxidation Is Loss of electrons; Reduction Is Gain of electrons

An ionic solid will not conduct electricity because the ions are in a fixed position A molten ionic compound will conduct electricity because ions are free to move An ionic compound in solution will also conduct electricity

Covalent Molecules The forces that hold together covalent bonds are equally as strong in covalent compounds as in ionic compounds. However, the bonds between each different molecule in a covalent compound are very weak. This is called having weak intermolecular forces.

This means that breaking up these forces does not take much energy, but note that when these forces are broken - the covalent bonds are NOT broken. Giant Covalent Substances When covalently-bonded compounds form large networks of ions instead of simple molecules, these become giant covalent structures (or macromolecules). Diamond is an example of this type of structure.

The atoms in the giant structure of diamond (left) are held together by extremely strong covalent bonds. It has some special properties which other types of structure do not possess. It is very hard, has high melting/boiling points and is very chemically unreactive. Another type of giant is a fullerene, which you would find when carbon behaves in a way as to form large cages of carbon atoms between the bonds. Giant Metallic Structures We already know that metallic structures are held together by a sea of delocalised electrons, which act as some sort of glue. These electrons are able to move about the entire lattice, and because they can move and hold the structure together at the same time, they enable the lattice to distort so that the metal atoms can move past each other. As a result of this ability, metals can conduct heat and electricity.

C2-3 : Chemical Calculations

Mass Numbers of Atoms The mass of protons and neutrons is the same, so we call their relative masses 1. Electrons are microscopic in comparison with protons and neutrons, they have a negligible mass. This is why the majority of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus electrons do not weigh enough to be counted. As we learned before, the number of protons added to the number of neutrons is the mass number. mass number - atomic number = neutron number Isotopes An atom can have several isotopes. Unlike an ion where you will have a different number of electrons, an isotope of an element has a different number of neutrons. It is sometimes the case that extra neutrons in the nucleus make it unstable and as a result becomes radioactive. Different isotopes of the same element have different physical properties, yet they keep the same chemical properties. For example, they will have a different mass number, and some may be radioactive. Hydrogen has three isotopes: hydrogen, deuterium and tritium. They all have a different mass, and tritium is radioactive, but they can all react with oxygen to form water. Relative Atomic Masses Because the masses of atoms are so tiny, we cannot work with them in chemical calculations, so we use their relative masses instead of their real masses. We call these relative atomic masses. For example, a standard carbon atom has six protons and six neutrons - we say it has a relative atomic mass (RAM) of 12 units. We use these units of measurement to compare atoms with each other. For example, three

helium atoms with a mass number of 4 is said to have an equal mass to one carbon atom (mass number 12) - because of relative atomic mass. Because atoms lose electrons when becoming ions, it tends not to affect its relative atomic mass, because the weighting of electrons in the whole atom is so tiny. This means that a magnesium atom has a relative atomic mass of 24, and a magnesium ion (Mg+) has a relative atomic mass of 24 also. The relative atomic mass is not affected. We can use the relative atomic mass of various elements to calculate the relative formula mass of chemical compounds. This is true whether the compounds are made of molecules or collections of ions. For example, take sodium chloride (NaCl). We know that the RAM of sodium if 23 and the RAM of chlorine is 35.5 so simply the relative formula mass (RFM) of sodium chloride is: 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 RAM Na + RAM Cl = RFM NaCl It is just as easy working with multiples of atoms. Using the example of water, where you have two hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen, we would simply do (1 x 2) + 16 [where the RAM of hydrogen is 2 and the RAM of oxygen is 16] making the relative formula mass being 18. Moles Chemists use their own unit of measurement called the mole, a shorthand version used instead of repeatedly writing relative atomic mass in grams. It is simply the relative atomic mass or relative formula mass of an element or compound expressed in grams (e.g. Carbon with a mass of 12, 12g of carbon would be one mole of carbon). Working Out the Amount of an Element in a Given Compound Using the relative atomic mass of an element and the relative formula mass of a compound, we can calculate the percentage of a certain element in a compound. An example would be working out the percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide. We know that there are two oxygen atoms for every carbon atom, so next we need to know their relative atomic masses. The RAM of one oxygen atom is 16, and the RAM of a carbon atom is 12. To work this out, we divide the individual mass of carbon by the total mass of carbon dioxide. In this case its going to be 12 divided by (2 x 16). 12/44 = 0.27 We then multiply this amount by 100, so the percentage of carbon is therefore 27% Another example might be calculating the percentage mass of hydrogen in methane (CH4). With RAM values of C = 12 and H = 1, this should be easy. All we need to do is to (4 x 1) / 16 = 0.25 0.25 x 100 = 25%

Empirical Formulae If you are given the percentage formula of an element in a compound, we can work backwards and find the ration between the atoms in the compound. We call this ratio the empirical formula, which is simply a compound stated in its simplest form of ratio between the atoms. For example, carbon dioxide has the empirical formula CO2 - which states there are 2 oxygen atoms for every carbon atom. This number is usually the same as the actual number of atoms in one molecule (which is known as the molecular formula), but not always. For example, water has the empirical formula H2O which is also its molecular formula, but hydrogen peroxide has the empirical formula HO, but the molecular formula H2O2. We could work out the empirical formula of the compound formed when 9g of aluminium reacts with 35.5g of chlorine. We start by dividing the mass of each element involved by its relative atomic mass: (9 / 27)g = 1/3 mole of aluminium atoms (35.5 / 35.5)g = 1 mole of chlorine atoms So we know that one mole of chlorine atoms reacts with one third of a mole of aluminium atoms. So the simplest ratio is 3:1 chlorine to aluminium atoms. So the empirical formula is AlCl3. We can also work out the empirical formula of a product compound when we are given the percentage mass. We simply have to assume we are using 100g of the compound. Calculations & Equations There are two sides to a chemical equation: your reactants and products. When balanced, an equation shows the number of atoms, moles or ions in a reaction, e.g.: 2Mg + O2 2MgO We can tell that the equation above is balanced because there are 2 magnesium atoms and two oxygen atoms on either side. In other word, two atoms of magnesium react with one oxygen molecule to form two magnesium and two oxide ions. Working in relative masses, this then becomes: (2 x Ar of Mg) + (2 x Ar of O) gives (2 x Mr of MgO) Where Ar is relative atomic mass, and Mr is relative formula mass, so this means: (2 x 24 + 2 x 16 = 2 x 40) Working with moles rather than relative masses, we are told from the equation that one mole of oxygen reacts with two moles of magnesium to form two moles of magnesium oxide. This means that 48g of magnesium will react with 32g of oxygen to give 80g of magnesium oxide. We can perform calculations with given data. If, say, we had a known mass of 5g of magnesium, we can work out the mass of the magnesium oxide, using moles: In this case, 5g = (5 24) moles of magnesium and so it will produce:

(5 24) x 40g = 8.33g of MgO We can also do it by calculating the proportion of the amounts from the equation: 5 x (80 48)g = 8.33g of MgO We use the term yield to compare how much is actually made in a chemical reaction with the maximum amount possible. There is a difference because it is not possible to collect the amount calculated in an equation. Also, reactions may not reach completion - losing some product. We work out the yield usually as a percentage. The percentage yield is calculated using this formula:

We can also use a different formula to calculate the amount of useful products made from the starting reactants. This is called the atom economy of a process. The atom economy is found by finding the mass of all the atoms in the starting materials and comparing them with the mass of the atoms in the useful product made. Like yield, it is more often than not calculated as a percentage:

Here is a worked example involving atom economy calculations. We extract zinc from its oxide using carbon. Carbon monoxide is produced in this reaction: ZnO + C Zn + CO If we were to work out the atom economy of the reaction, we would need to know the following information: Ar of Zn = 65, Ar of O = 16, Ar of C = 12 Heres the solution. The atom economy, using the above formula, must be: (Ar of Zn Ar of [Zn + CO]) x 100 which is 65 [65 + (12 + 16)] = 65 93 = 70% Especially for business reasons, it is in our best interest to aim for the highest possible yields and atom economies - reducing waste. Reversible Reactions Certain chemical reactions can go in both directions, this means that the product of a reaction can react to produce the reactants. This type of reaction is known as a reversible reaction and we use this symbol, In a closed environment where nothing can escape, the rates of the forward reaction and backward reaction of a reversible reaction will be equal - at this point, equilibrium has been reached.

The Haber Process We use a special process to make ammonia, called The Haber Process. This ammonia can be used to make fertilisers and other commercial chemicals. There are two reactants in the process: - nitrogen from the air, and, - hydrogen (usually obtained from natural gas) These reactants are purified and mixed in their correct proportions (see equation below) and are then passed over an iron catalyst at temperatures of around 450C and a pressure of approximately 200 atmospheres. This is a reversible reaction and so some ammonia is broken down back into nitrogen and hydrogen. The gases are cooled so the ammonia can condense. The liquid ammonia is removed from the unreacted gases and they are recycled. Although the yield is below 20% the production of ammonia is quick and no gases are wasted. High temperatures, high pressures and an iron catalyst are essential. The equation for the reaction is: N2 + 3H2 2NH3

C2-4 : Rates of Reaction

Reaction Rates The rate of reaction simply measures the speed of a reaction. There are two ways to calculate it - we can either measure how long it takes to use a certain amount of reactant or how much product is formed in a certain amount of time. Here are the general formulae:

Reactions can only take place when particles collide - this is called collision theory. Collision theory also states that it is not enough for particles just to collide, but they have to collide with enough energy to form new substances. The minimum amount of energy required is called activation energy. Anything which will increase the chance of collisions will increase the reaction rate. This is why an increase in surface area will increase the reaction rate. We can increase surface area by breaking down larger solid reactants into smaller pieces. A larger surface area means more spaces for collisions to happen - so a powder will react faster than a few lumps of a substance. Surface area is not the only factor affecting reaction rate. An increase in temperature will also increase rate of reaction. This is true because an increase in temperature causes the speed of the particles movement to increase; meaning they collide more often, resulting in a reaction rate increase. As well as colliding more frequently, they also start colliding with more energy and so reaction rate is further increased. Therefore a small increase in temperature produces quite a large increase in rate of

reaction. A reaction carried out at room temperature will be doubled often when temperatures are increased by amounts as little as 10 degrees Celsius. The diagram below shows how raising temperature affects collision rate:

Cold slow movement frequent collisions little energy

Hot fast movement more frequent collisions lot more energy

A third factor affecting reaction rates is concentration. When the concentration of a solution is increased, you have a larger number of reacting particles in the same volume. This means that the particles are closer together and will therefore collide more frequently - increasing rate of reaction. The diagram below shows how the particles are affected by an increase in concentration:

Low low concentration/pressure few collisions

High high concentration/pressure many collisions

As you can see from above, pressure also affects reactions. This is because it behaves the same way as concentration - increasing the pressure of a gas puts more molecules of that gas into the same volume of gas enabling more collisions. The final factor affecting rate of reaction is the introduction of a catalyst. Catalysts are generally used to speed up reactions. The good thing about a catalyst is that it does not get used up in the reaction, and is left at the end - so it can be used again and again. A catalyst helps by lowering the activation energy required, allowing more collisions to be made with less energy. Although many catalysts are expensive, they are profitable in the long-term - because they dont need replacing for a long period of time. Different reactions call for different catalysts.

C2-5 : Energy and Reactions

Types of Reaction When a chemical reaction takes place, energy is transferred as bonds form and break. Reactions which transfer energy to surroundings are exothermic reactions and this energy usually heats the surroundings. Exothermic reactions include the examples of combustion, respiration and neutralisation. A reaction which takes energy in from its surroundings is an endothermic reaction. Many of these reactions will cause a decrease in temperature, but others might simply require a supply of energy. When solid compounds are mixed with water, the temperature decreases because an endothermic reaction has happened. Thermal decomposition reactions require high temperatures in their surroundings to keep them going, and photosynthesis is another important endothermic reaction - it uses light energy. Reversible Reactions & Energy Forward and backward reactions in reversible reactions require equal but opposite energy transfers. This means that a reversible reaction with an exothermic reaction going forwards must be endothermic going the alternate way - but the amount of energy taken in by this endothermic reaction will be equal to the amount transferred to the surroundings of the exothermic one. Because of this; changing the temperature in a closed environment will alter the amount of products and reactants.

If we increase the temperature, the amount of product from the exothermic reaction will decrease If we decrease the temperature, the amount of product from the endothermic reaction will increase

When we heat blue copper sulphate crystals, its an endothermic reaction: blue crystals white powder CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O hydrated anhydrous copper sulphate copper sulphate When we add water to anhydrous copper sulphate its an exothermic reaction If a reaction is exothermic:

an increase in temperature decreases the yield, so less product is formed a decrease in temperature will increase the yield

If a reaction is endothermic:

an increase in temperature increases the chemical yield a decrease in temperature decreases the yield

The Haber Process - Energy & Reaction These general rules apply to all reversible reactions: If a reaction produces larger volumes of gases:

an increase in pressure decreases yield a decrease in pressure increases yield

If a reaction produces smaller volumes of gases:

an increase in pressure increases yield a decrease in pressure decreases yield

Remember that the chemical equations for the Haber Process is N 2 + 3H2 2NH3 This means that four molecules of reactant gases produce two molecules of ammonia gas. So, looking at the above descriptions, increasing the pressure will produce more ammonia. However, increasing the pressure is expensive work, so a compromise has to be made to ensure large quantities can be produced at a reasonable price to ensure profitability in the business world. The reaction to produce ammonia is exothermic, so lower temperatures give higher yields. However, the reaction is slower at lower temperatures because the rate decreases and the catalyst works better at higher temperatures, so again a compromise has to be made to find the correct in between part.

C2-6 : Electrolysis
Conducting Electricity via Electrolysis When electricity is passed through a molten ionic compound or a solution containing ions, electrolysis takes place. The molten compound or solution is called the electrolyte. The electrical circuit consists of two rods which have contact with the electrolyte. These rods are electrodes. The ions which are in the electrolyte move to the electrodes where they are discharged to produce elements.

Positively charged ions are attracted to the negatively charged electrode called the cathode - where they will form metals. Hydrogen may be formed at the cathode if the ions have been dissolved in water Negatively charged ions will therefore be attracted to the positively charged electrode, which is called the anode, and it is there that they lose their charge and form non-metallic elements

An example might be electrolysing lead bromide. The diagram shows that the lead bromide must be in molten form, and heat has to be applied. The positive electrode is attracting all of the bromine ions (bromide is Br-) and bromine gas is given off there. At the negative electrode, the lead ions (Pb2+) are attracted and lead is formed at that electrode. This is a circuit and so the electric current is being passed through at all times - this wouldnt take place without it - to show the electricity flowing through, a bulb is inserted which would be lighting up.

When a positive ion is attracted to the cathode, it gains electrons, so they become neutral atoms. This process of gaining electrons is called reduction, so we say the ions have been reduced. Ions with a single positive charge (e.g. Na+) gain one electron, and ions with a 2+ charge (e.g. Pb2+) gain two electrons, and so on. The opposite happens at the positive electrode where negative ions lose electrons becoming neutral atoms. This is called oxidation - the loss of electrons. Certain non-metal atoms combine to form molecules here, for example, bromine forms Br2

Half-Equations We show the changes happening at the different electrodes with a special type of equation called a half equation. The half equations for the electrolysis of lead bromide shown above are: At the negative electrode: Pb2+ + 2e- Pb At the positive electrode: 2Br- Br2 + 2e[When we write e- we mean an electron] Water contains hydrogen and hydroxide ions. When solutions of ions in water are electrolysed, hydrogen can be produced at the positive electrode (anode). This only happens when the other positive ions are of metals more reactive than hydrogen. The diagram below shows the changes at the electrodes. Remember that an ion always moved towards the oppositely-charged electrode.

Electrolysis of Brine The solution of sodium chloride in water is known as brine. When it is electrolysed, hydrogen is produced at the cathode from the hydrogen ions (H+) in the water. Chlorine is produced at the anode from the chloride ions (Cl-). This leaves behind the sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (from the water) in the solution. The half equations for the changes at the electrodes here are: At the positive electrode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2eAt the negative electrode: 2H+ + 2e- H2 Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali and has many industrial uses, including making soap, making paper, making bleach and neutralising acids (controlling pH). Chlorine is used to kill bacteria in drinking water and swimming pools. It also is used to make bleach, disinfectants and plastics. Hydrogen is used to make margarine and can make hydrochloric acids. We electrolyse brine because it produces all three of these substances and they all have a variety of uses for us. Electrolysis of Copper We have another common use for electrolysis - purifying copper. Impurities in copper affect its properties, including its conductivity. Copper used for electrical wires certainly has to be very pure. We use electrolysis to purify copper using copper electrodes in a solution of a copper salt. The impure copper is used as the positive electrode and the negative electrode is a thin sheet of pure copper. Copper atoms on the positive electrode are oxidised, losing electrons to form copper ions that go into the solution. At the negative electrode, copper ions from the solution are reduced, forming copper metal. This copper is then deposited at the negative electrode, which increases in thickness.

The half equations for purification of copper are: At the positive electrode: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2eAt the negative electrode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) As the copper from the positive electrode dissolves, the impurities are released and collect as sludge at the bottom of the cell. The impurities include precious metals such as gold, silver and platinum. These are then further extracted from the sludge.

C2-7 : Acids, Alkalis & Salts

Acids and Alkalis

The pH scale tells us the acidity or alkalinity of a solution: The scale shows us that acids have a pH value of below seven. Alkalis have pH values greater than seven, and anything with a pH value of exactly seven is neutral. Pure water is the best example of a neutral. There are varying degrees of acidity and alkalinity. For example, a solution of pH 1 is more acidic that a solution of pH 5. Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions, H+(aq), when they are added to water. This makes the solution acidic and gives it a pH value of under 7. A base is a substance which will neutralise an acid, but only some bases dissolve in water - only these ones are called alkalis. Bases react with acids and neutralise them - and so alkalis are bases that dissolve in water to make the solution alkaline. They produce oxide ions, OH-(aq), in the solution. Forming Salts We can make salts by reacting acids with metals or bases. Acids will react with metals that are above hydrogen in the reactivity series. These metals react with acids to form hydrogen gas and a salt: acid + metal salt + hydrogen Reactions with the most reactive metals, however, are too violent to be done safely. Bases are metal oxides or metal hydroxides. They react with acids to form a salt and water: acid + base salt + water

A metal, or a base that is insoluble in water, is added a little at a time to the acid until all of the acid has reacted. The mixture is then filtered to remove the excess solid, leaving a solution of the salt. The solid salt is made when water is evaporated from the solution so that it crystallises. Chlorides are made from hydrochloric acid, nitrates from nitric acid and sulphates from sulphuric acid. We can also make soluble salts by reacting an acid with an alkali: acid + alkali salt + water We can show the reaction between any acid and alkali just by showing the ions which react in the reaction: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) Ammonia solution is an alkali which does not contain a metal. It forms ammonium salts, such as ammonium nitrate, which are used as fertilisers. We can make insoluble salts by mixing solutions of soluble salts that contain the ions needed. For example, we can make lead iodide by mixing solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide. The lead forms a precipitate that can be filtered and dried.