Chapter 6 Histology

Study of microscopic anatomy Only 200 different cells types Four primary tissue classes
epithelial tissue connective tissue muscular tissue nervous tissue

Topics of study include

tissue variations, function, aging

Tissue Classes & Embryonic Tissues

Differences between primary tissue classes
functions of cells amount of space occupied by cells versus matrix characteristics of the matrix (extracellular material)
fibrous proteins and ground substance

Embryonic tissues form 3 primary germ layers

ectoderm (outer) forms epidermis & nervous system endoderm (inner) forms mucous membrane lining GI tract & respiratory system and digestive glands mesoderm (middle) forms mesenchyme that gives rise to muscle, bone, blood and other connective tissues

Tissue Techniques and Sectioning

Preparation of histological specimens
preserved in fixative prevents decay (formalin) sliced into very thin sections only 1 or 2 cells thick mounted on slides & colored with histological stain
stains bind to different cellular components

Sectioning an organ or tissue reduces a 3dimensional structure to a 2-dimensional slice

Sectioning Solid Objects

1 2 3 4 5

Compare sectioning a boiled egg to sectioning a cell with a centrally located nucleus Slices 1 & 5 miss the yolk / cell nucleus Yolk / cell nucleus is smaller in sections 2&4

Sectioning Hollow Structures

A B
Image A is a cross section of elbow macaroni, but it could be a blood vessel, piece of gut, or other tubular organ. Image B is a longitudinal section of a sweat gland. Notice what a single slice could look like

Types of Tissue Sections

Longitudinal section
tissue cut along the longest direction of an organ

Cross section
tissue cut perpendicular to the length of an organ

Oblique section
tissue cut at an angle between a cross & longitudinal section

Epithelial Tissue
One or more layers of closely adhering cells
extracellular material so thin it is not visible no room for blood vessels
depends on underlying connective tissue for oxygen

sits on basement membrane (basal surface of cells)

anchors epithelium to underlying connective tissue

Simple Versus Stratified Epithelia

Simple epithelium
contains one layer of cells named by shape of cells

Stratified epithelium
contains more than one layer named by shape of apical cells

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Single row of flat cells Allows rapid diffusion of substances; secretes serous fluid Found in alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, & serosa

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Single row of cube-shaped cells, often with microvilli Absorption & secretion; produces mucus Liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary and other glands, bronchioles, and most kidney tubules

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Goblet cell

Microvilli

Single row of tall, narrow cells

vertically oriented, oval nuclei in basal half of cell

Absorption & secretion; secretion of mucus Inner lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney & uterine tubes

Pseudostratified Epithelium
Cilia Goblet cell

Basal cell

Single row of cells not all of which reach the free surface
nuclei of basal cells give layer a stratified look

Secretes and propels respiratory mucus Found in respiratory system

Stratified Epithelia
Composed of more than one layer of cells & named for shape of surface cells
exception is transitional epithelium

Deepest cells sit on basement membrane Variations

keratinized epithelium has surface layer of dead cells nonkeratinized epithelium lacks the layer of dead cells

Keratinized Stratified Squamous

Multilayered epithelium covered with layer of compact, dead squamous cells packed with protein keratin Retards water loss & prevents penetration of organisms Forms epidermal layer of skin

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

Epithelial layer

Multilayered epithelium that lacks surface layer of dead cells forming abrasion-resistant, moist, slippery layer Found on tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus & vagina

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Two or more layers of cells; surface cells square Secretes sweat; ovarian hormones & produces sperm Found sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles & seminiferous tubules

Transitional Epithelium

Multilayered epithelium with rounded surface cells that flatten when the tissue is stretched Stretches to allow filling of urinary tract Found in urinary tract -- kidney, ureter, bladder

Connective Tissue
Most abundant and variable tissue type Cells not in direct contact since volume of extracellular matrix is greater than the volume occupied by cells Functions
connects organs to each other gives support & protection (physical & immune) storage of energy & heat production movement & transport of materials

Cells of Connective Tissue

Fibroblasts produce collagen, fibers & ground substance
collagen is a protein rich in Gly, Lys, Pro elastic fibers are made of protein elastin and various other proteins

Macrophages wander through connective tissue phagocytizing foreign material & activating immune system -- arise from monocytes (WBC) Neutrophils wander in search of bacteria Plasma cells synthesize antibodies -- arise from WBC Mast cells secrete heparin that inhibits clotting and histamine that dilates blood vessels Adipocytes store fat

Fibers of Connective Tissue

Collagen fibers/white fibers
most abundant protein in body tough, resist stretch yet flexible tendons, ligaments & deep layer of the skin (dermis)

Reticular fibers
thin collagen type III fibers coated with glycoprotein form framework for spleen & lymph nodes

Elastic fibers/yellow fibers

thin branching fibers made of elastin stretch & recoil like rubberband (elasticity) give skin, lungs & arteries ability to stretch & recoil

Ground Substance of Connective Tissue

Non-collagenous, proteinaceous component of the ECM Gelatinous or rubbery material, found in between fibers and cells
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) (not proteins)
unusual disaccharides that attract sodium & hold water important role in regulating water & electrolyte balance

proteoglycan is gigantic molecule shaped-like bottlebrush made of protein & GAGs

embedded in plasma membranes bonding to other cells or extracellular macromolecules

glycoproteins
protein-carbohydrate complexes that bind plasma membrane to collagen or proteoglycans outside the cells mark pathways for cell migration

Proteoglycan Molecule

Bottlebrush look of proteoglycan molecule

Areolar Tissue

Loose arrangement of collagenous and elastic fibers, scattered cell types & abundant ground substance Underlying all epithelia forming passageway for nerves & blood vessels; fascia between muscles

Reticular Tissue

Loose network of reticular fibers and cells Forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic organs Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus & bone marrow

Adipose Tissue

Large, empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against cell membrane Energy storage, insulation, space filled as cushioning Subcutaneous fat beneath skin & surrounding organs
brown fat found in hibernating animals produces heat only no ATP

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Densely, packed, parallel collagen fibers; compressed fibroblast nuclei & scanty open space Tendons & ligaments, hold bones together and attach muscles to bones

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Densely packed collagen fibers running in random directions; scanty open space; few visible cells Withstands stresses applied in different directions Deeper portion of skin; capsules around organs

Cartilage
Supportive connective tissue with rubbery matrix Chondroblasts produce matrix, once surrounded are called chondrocytes No blood vessels so diffusion must bring in nutrients & remove wastes
injured cartilage heals slowly

Major types of cartilage depend upon fiber types

hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage

Hyaline Cartilage

Clear, glassy matrix; fine dispersed collagen fibers; chondrocytes in small clusters enclosed in lacunae Supports airway, eases joint movements Over ends of bones at movable joints; sternal ends of ribs; supportive material in larynx, trachea, bronchi and fetal skeleton

Elastic Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage with weblike mesh of elastic fibers amongst the lacunae; always has perichondrium Provides flexible, elastic support External ear and epiglottis

Fibrocartilage

Cartilage containing extensive parallel collagen fibers; never has perichondrium Resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints Pubic symphysis, meniscus & intervertebral discs

Bone
Spongy bone looks spongy in appearance
delicate struts of bone fills heads of long bones always covered by compact bone

Compact looks solid in appearance

more complex arrangement cells and matrix surrounding vertically oriented blood vessels in long bones

Bone Tissue (compact bone)

Calcified matrix in concentric lamellae around haversian canal containing blood vessels; osteocytes in lacunae between lamellae connected by canaliculi Physical support; leverage for muscles; mineral storage Found in skeleton

Blood

Variety of cells and cell fragments; some with nuclei & some without Nonnucleated pale pink cells or nucleated white blood cells Found in heart and blood vessels

Nerve Tissue

Large neurons with long cell processes surrounded by much smaller glial cells lacking dendrites and axons For internal communication between cells Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves & ganglia

Skeletal Muscle

Long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with striations and multiple peripheral nuclei Movement, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing and excretion Skeletal muscles

Cardiac Muscle

Short branched cells with striations and intercalated discs; one central nuclei per cell Pumping of blood Found in the heart

Smooth Muscle

Short fusiform cells; nonstriated with only one central nucleus Swallowing, GI tract functions, labor contractions, control of airflow, erection of hairs & control of pupil Sheets of muscle in viscera; iris; hair follicles & sphincters

Intercellular Junctions

All cells except blood are anchored to each other or to the matrix surrounding them by intercellular junctions

Tight Junctions
Tight junctions completely encircle the cell
pattern of complementary grooves & ridges prevents substances from passing between cells found in GI and urinary tracts

Tight Junction enlarged

Desmosomes
Spot weld between 2 cells enabling tissues to resist mechanical stress
small gap between cells is spanned by mesh of filaments terminating on a thick protein plaque cytoplasmic intermediate filaments also attach to plaque

Does not encircle the cell Common in uterus, heart and epidermis
Desmosome enlarged

Gap Junctions
Known as communicating junctions Ring of 6 transmembrane proteins form a water-filled channel Small solutes pass directly from cell to cell for electrical signals

Found in embryos, cardiac & smooth muscle

Gap Junction

Endocrine & Exocrine Glands

Glands secrete substances for elimination or for use elsewhere in the body
composed predominantly of epithelial tissue

Exocrine glands maintain connection to surface with a duct (epithelial tube) Endocrine glands have no ducts but secrete their products (hormones) directly into bloodstream Mixed organs
liver secretes bile into ducts + albumin into blood gonads release gametes + secrete hormones into blood pancreas secretes digestive enzymes + hormones

Exocrine Gland Structure

Stroma = capsule & extensions of the capsule called septa divide gland into lobes & lobules Parenchyma = cells that synthesize the secretions of the gland
acinus is cluster of simple cuboidal cells surrounding the duct draining those cells

Types of Exocrine Glands

Simple glands have a unbranched duct Compound glands have a branched duct Shape of gland
acinar if secretory cells form dilated sac tubular if duct & secretory cells are of uniform diameter

Types & Methods of Secretion

Serous glands
produce thin, watery secretions
sweat, milk, tears & digestive juices

Mucous glands
produce a glycoprotein, mucin that absorbs water to form a sticky secretion called mucus

Mixed glands contain both serous & mucous cells Cytogenic glands release whole cells
sperm and egg cells

Variations in methods of cellular secretion

Holocrine Gland

Secretory cells disintegrate in order to deliver their accumulated product & some cell fragments Oil-producing glands of the scalp are an example

Merocrine & Apocrine Secretion

Merocrine glands release their product by exocytosis
tears, gastric glands, pancreas, etc.

Apocrine glands are really merocrine glands but have confusing appearance (apical cytoplasm not lost as used to be believed)
mammary & armpit sweat glands

Membranes
Synovial membrane lines joints (only connective tissue comprises this layer)
secretes synovial fluid rich in hyaluronic acid

Cutaneous membrane (skin)

stratified squamous epithelium resting on layer of dermis relatively dry layer serves protective function

Serous membrane (serosa)

simple squamous epithelium on areolar tissue covers organs and body walls & produces serous fluid

Mucous membrane (mucosae)

line passageways that open to the exterior: digestive, respiratory, urinary & reproductive often covered with mucus secreted by goblet cells

Mucous Membrane Histology

Consists of 2 to 3 layers
epithelium, lamina propria & muscularis mucosae

Absorptive, secretory and protective functions Mucous coating & movement of cilia trap & remove foreign particles & bacteria from body

Changes in Tissue Types

Tissues are capable of changing from one type to another Differentiation
unspecialized tissues of embryo to specialized mature types (mesenchyme to muscle)

Metaplasia
changing from one type of mature tissue to another simple cuboidal tissue before puberty changes to stratified squamous after puberty

Tissue Growth
Hyperplasia is tissue growth through cell multiplication Hypertrophy is enlargement of preexisting cells
muscle grow through exercise

Neoplasia is growth of a tumor (benign or malignant) through growth of abnormal tissue

Tissue Shrinkage and Death

Atrophy is shrinkage from loss of cell size/number
senile atrophy is due to aging disuse atrophy from lack of use (leg in a cast)

Necrosis is pathological death of tissue

gangrene is due to insufficient blood supply gas gangrene is due to anaerobic bacterial infection infarction is sudden death of tissue from lack of blood decubitus ulcer is bed sore or pressure sore

Apoptosis is programmed cell death

cells shrink & are phagocytized (no inflammation)
webbing between fingers, uterus after delivery, earlobes

Tissue Repair
Damaged tissues are repaired in 2 ways: Regeneration
replacement of dead or damaged cells with original cells restores normal function skin injuries & liver regenerate

Fibrosis
replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue (collagen) helps hold organ together -- function is not restored healing muscle injuries, scarring of lung tissue in TB or healing of severe cuts & burns of the skin

Wound Healing of a Laceration

Damaged vessels leak blood Damaged cells & mast cells leak histamine
dilates blood vessels increases blood flow increases capillary permeability

Plasma seeps into wound carrying antibodies, clotting factors & WBCs

Wound Healing of a Laceration

Clot forms Scab forms on surface Macrophages start to clean up debris

Scab formation & macrophage activity.

Wound Healing of a Laceration

New capillaries grow into wound Fibroblasts deposit new collagen to replace old material Fibroblastic phase begins in 3-4 days & lasts up to 2 weeks
Formation of granulation tissue.

Wound Healing of a Laceration

Surface epithelial cells multiply & spread beneath scab Scab falls off Epithelium grows thicker (regenerates) Connective tissue forms only scar tissue (fibrosis) Remodeling phase Epithelial regeneration & connective may last 2 years
tissue fibrosis.

Connective Tissue Diseases

Deficiencies in collagen & elastin cause serious problems Marfan syndrome = hereditary defect elastin fibers
tall stature, long limbs, spinal curvature & weakening of heart valves & arterial walls (rupture of aorta)

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome = hereditary defect in collagen synthesis

stretchy skin, loose joints, abnormal blood vessels, intestines and bladder

Osteogenesis imperfecta = insufficient collagen in bones making them brittle Scurvy is lack of vitamin C needed for synthesis of 2 amino acids used to synthesize collagen
poor wound healing & subcutaneous hemorrhages