18

Richard Harding
Air Transportation &
Facilities Consultant
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
AIRPORT
ENGINEERING
A
irport engineering involves design
and construction of a wide variety of
facilities for the landing, takeoff,
movement on the ground, and parking
of aircraft; maintenance and repair of aircraft; fuel
storage; and handling of passengers, baggage, and
freight. Thus, at a typical airport, there are terminal
buildings and hangars; pavements for aircraft
runways, taxiways, and aprons; roads, bridges,
and tunnels for automobiles and walks for
pedestrians; automobile parking areas; drainage
structures; and underground storage tanks. Air-
craft include airplanes, helicopters, and the
anticipated tilt rotor aircraft. Airport engineers
have the responsibility of determining the size and
arrangement of these facilities for safe, efcient,
low-cost functioning of an airport.
18.1 Functions of Airport
Components
A runway, the most essential component of an
airport, enables landing and takeoff of airplanes. For
all but the crudest airports, it is a paved strip. Many
airports have more than one runway to accommo-
date aircraft landing and taking-off at locations
where winds vary signicantly in both direction and
speed. Parallel runways are two runways laid out in
the same directionto accommodate operations when
the capacity of a single runway is exceeded.
Taxiways provide a convenient means for
aircraft to enter and exit a runway. They are
usually paved strips connecting runways with each
other and with aircraft parking areas.
Parking aprons are typically paved areas
adjacent to terminal buildings, storage hangers,
aircraft maintenance hangers, and other buildings
that pilots use as an approach to the building and to
stop to permit passengers and crew to enter or exit
the aircraft. Aprons at larger airports usually
incorporate fuel systems, electrical power supply,
and facilities for servicing aircraft.
A terminal building usually is incorporated in
an airport layout to provide a transition for
passengers and crew from ground to air and vice
versa. It houses waiting rooms for passengers and
at larger airports include facilities for baggage and
cargo handling. Also, at larger airports it generally
contains airline ticketing counters and ofces. It is
served by automobile access roads, and typically
parking spaces for autos are provided nearby.
Control towers are built at many busy airports
for air-trafc control. They provide a raised area
from which trafc controllers can observe run-
ways, taxiways, and aprons.
18.2 Classes of Airports
There are two categories of airports in the
United States: civil and military. Civil airports
serve the scheduled airlines and all phases of
general aviation. They are developed through the
local initiative of individual communities, with
some assistance from state and Federal sources.
Military airports serve as bases for Air Force,
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Source: Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers
Army, Navy, and Marine Corps aviation and are
developed, as needed, through the Department
of Defense.
Civil airports may be further classied as air
carrier airports (those that serve the scheduled
airlines) and general aviation airports (those that
serve business and executive ying, air-taxi
operations, commercial and industrial aviation,
and student instruction). Although all air carrier
airports accommodate considerable general avia-
tion activity, the general aviation airports are
usually not of a size sufcient to accommodate
scheduled airlines. In each instance, the size and
type of facility are determined by the existing and
anticipated types and volume of air trafc that the
facility will serve.
Military airports serve only the nations defense
needs. Only in rare instances is civil aviation activity
permitted. There are, however, limited military
facilities for Reserve and National Guard purposes
at some civil airports. Military development is under
the Corps of Engineers, United States Army, or the
Facilities Engineering Command, United States
Navy. Rigid adherence to standards and specica-
tions for military airports is maintained.
18.3 National Airport
Standards
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
publishes an advisory circular, AC 150/5300-13,
Airport Design, which replaces ve previous
advisory circulars dealing with site requirements
for terminal navigation facilities, design of utility
airports, aircraft data for airport design, and
design of airport aprons. Airport design, under
AC150/5300-13, is guided by the Airport Reference
Code (ARC), which correlates airport design
criteria and operational and physical characteristics
of the airplanes intended to operate at the airport.
The ARC consists of two components related to
the design airplane selected for the airport. A letter
depicts one component, the aircraft approach
category. This is determined by the aircraft
approach speed, which, in general, affects design
of runways and runway-related facilities. A Roman
numeral designates the second component, the
airplane design group. This is related to airplane
wing span, which primarily determines aircraft
separation requirements and inuences the design
of taxiways and taxilanes.
The ARC species ve aircraft approach
categories, which are designated A through E, and
six wing-span categories, which are labeled I
through VI. Category A-I covers small and slow
single-engine airplanes, whereas categories such as
D-V and C-VI concern larger and faster airplanes
(Table 18.1). Category E generally applies to high-
speed military airplanes and is not referenced in
the design of civil airports.
FAA advisory circulars contain standards for
nationwide application to the design and construc-
tion of airports. These standards make possible the
compatibility of local airports with each other and
with the national system of airports. Although
the standards are widely accepted, their use by
communities is not mandatory unless Federal
funds are involved in local airport development.
Furthermore, regulations permit some latitude in
deviation from the standards, where justied.
Table 18.2 summarizes physical characteristics
set by national standards for airports. These are the
minimum requirements that the FAA considers
acceptable for safe operation. They can be used as a
design guide in selection of physical characteristics
of an airport to accommodate the aircraft antici-
pated to use its facilities. Information on how to
obtain the standards is available at FAA district
ofces or one can obtain many of the advisory
circulars for airport design by going to the FAA
Web Site at http://www.faa.gov/arp/150acs.htm.
18.4 Airport Planning
Safety is the number one priority when designing
or operating airports. All airport work must be
carefully coordinated with the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and must be shown on an
FAA (or designated representative) approved
airport layout plan (ALP), and receive environ-
mental clearance and air-space clearance to ensure
its compatibility with the total airport and
airspace system. The Airport Improvement Pro-
gram (AIP), administered by the FAA, may
provide funds for a major part of the development
of landing areas including land acquisition. The
FAA maintains national airport standards; offers
advice on airport planning, design, and construc-
tion matters; maintains a national airport systems
plan; certies airports for operation; and conducts
a compliance program to ensure adherence to
regulations and requirements. The FAA operates
18.2 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
through conveniently located district ofces.
Liaison should be effected with the appropriate
FAA ofce to ensure full consideration of FAA
policies and procedures.
18.4.1 Airport Master Plans
In the event that a full master planning study
has not been made for an existing or proposed
airport, such a study might well precede the
planning of an improvement to that airport. If a
master plan study has been undertaken, it can be
used as the basis for further planning, or it can
be reappraised. The master plan presents
the planners conception of the ultimate
development of a specic airport, together with
priority phasing, cost estimates, and nancial
plan. The master plan should be reevaluated
periodically to maintain its validity.
To be eligible for Federal funding, an airport
must be included in the National Plan of Integrated
Airport Systems (NPIAS), described in Art. 18.4.2.
It also must have an FAA-approved airport layout
plan (ALP). This is a scaled drawing of existing and
proposed land and facilities necessary for airport
operations and development. All airport develop-
ment carried out with Federal nancial assistance
must be done in accordance with the FAA-
approved ALP. To the extent practicable, this plan
should conform to the FAA airport design
standards existing at the time of its approval. See
also Arts. 18.3 and 18.4.3.
Table 18.1 Airplane Operational Characteristics for FAA Airport Reference Coding System
Approach
Airplane Design Group (Wing Span, ft)
Category
(Speed, Knots)
I
Less than 49
II
49 to 78
III
79 to 117
IV
118 to 170
V
171 to 213
VI
214 to 261
A (less than 90) A-I* A-II*
,
A-III

A-IV

B (91 to 120) B-I*

,
B-II*
,
B-III

B-IV
,
C (121 to 140) C-I

C-II*
,
C-III

C-IV
,
C-V

C-VI

D (141 to 165) D-I

D-II

D-III
,
D-IV
,
D-V

E (166 or more) E-II

E-III
,
*Small airplanes (12,500 lb or less maximum takeoff weight). Examples:
A-I: Cessna 177
Cardinal
A-II: DHC-6
Twin Otter
B-I: Beech 100
King Air
B-II: Beech 200
Super King Air
C-II: Rockwell 980

Large airplanes (more than 12,500 lb maximum takeoff weight). Examples:

A-II: Dassault 941 A-III: DHC-8
Dash 8-300
A-IV: Lockheed 1649
Constellation
B-I: Mitsubishi 300
Diamond
B-II: Cessna III
Citation
B-III: BAe 146 B-IV: MDC
DC-7
C-I: Gates 55
Learjet
C-II: Grumman III
Gulfstream
C-III: Boeing 737
500
C-IV: Boeing 757
D-I: Gates 36A
Learjet
D-II: Grumman IV
Gulfstream
D-III: BAC III
500
D-IV: Boeing 707-200
E-II: Lockheed SR-71
Blackbird

Heavy airplanes (takeoff weight of 300,000 lb or more). Examples:

B-IV: Ilyushin
Il-76
C-IV: Airbus
A-300-B4
C-V: Boeing
747-SP
C-VI: Lockheed
C-5B Galaxy
D-III: BAC/Aerospatiale
Concord
D-IV: Boeing 777 D-V: Boeing
747-400
E-III: Tupolev
TU-144
Airport Engineering n 18.3
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Table 18.2 Federal Aviation Administration Standards for Airport Design
a
Airports Serving Aircraft Approach
Categories
b
A and B
Airports Serving Aircraft Approach Categories
b
C and D
Item Airplane Design Group
c
Airplane Design Group
c
Length, ft. I
d
I II III IV I II III IV V VI
Runway
e
2,800 3,200 4,370 5,360 6,370 5,490 6,370 7,290 9,580 10,700 12,000
Runway safety area ,
3

4
f
600 600 600 800 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
(beyond runway end)
3

4
g
240 240 300 600 1,000
Runway object-free area ,
3

4
f
600 600 600 800 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
(beyond runway end)
3

4
g
240 240 300 600 1,000
Width, ft.
Runway ,
3

4
f
75 100 100 100 150 100 100 100 150 150 200

4
g
60 60 75 100 150
Runway safety area ,
3

4
f
300 300 300 400 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

4
g
120 120 150 300 500
Runway object-free area ,
3

4
f
800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

4
g
250 400 500 800 800
Taxiway 25 25 35 50 75 25 35 50 75 75 100
Taxiway safety area 49 49 79 118 171 49 79 118 171 214 262
Taxiway object-free area 89 89 131 186 259 89 131 186 259 320 386
Taxilane object-free area 79 79 115 162 225 79 115 162 225 276 334
Minimum distance between, ft.:
Center lines of parallel
a
See Advisory Circular 150/5300-13, Chapter 2
runways
h
Center lines of runway and ,
3

4
f
200 250 300 350 400 400 400 400 400 450 600
center line of taxiway
3

4
g
150 225 240 300 400 300 300 400 400 450 600
Center line of runway and ,
3

4
f
400 400 400 400 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
aircraft parking area
3

4
g
125 200 250 400 500 400 400 500 500 500 500
Center line of taxiway and
aircraft parking apron
45 45 66 93 130 45 66 93 130 160 193
Center line of parallel
taxiways
69 69 105 152 215 69 105 152 215 267 324
Center line of runway to ,
3

4
f
875 875 875 875 875 875 875 875 875 875 875
building line or obstruction
i

4
g
600 600 600 600 600 713 713 713 713 713 713
Center line of taxiway to
obstruction
45 45 66 93 130 45 66 93 130 160 193
Maximum runway grades
j
, %:
Longitudinal 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Transverse
k
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
a
Airport Design, FAA Advisory Circular 150/5300-13, Change 6.
b
Aircraft Approach Categories are described in Art. 18.3.
c
Airplane Design Group is described in Art. 18.3.
d
Represents airports serving only small airplanes (an airplane of 12,500 lb or less maximum certicated takeoff weight).
e
Runway lengths assume an airport elevation of 1000 ft above mean sea level (MSL) and a mean daily maximum temperature of 85
degrees in the hottest month. Actual runway lengths should be based on the selected design airplane adjusted for the local condition of
elevation, temperature, and runway gradient. The lengths shown are representative of a runway that can accommodate selected
airplanes found in the indicated Airport Reference Code (ARC). Runway length for airplanes over 60,000 lb is usually determined based
on the amount of fuel needed to y a certain distance or haul length and may need to be increased from that determined above.
f
With approach visibility minimum less than
3

4
mile.
g
With approach visibility minimum greater than or equal to
3

4
mile.
h
Dual simultaneous precision instrument approaches normally require parallel runway center-line separartion of 4300 ft. A
minimum distance of 3400 ft may be used if special radar and monitoring equipment is used. Simultaneous instrument ight regulation
(IFR) operations to parallel runways are not authorized for nonprecision instrument approach procedures. Simultaneous precision
instrument approach procedures serving parallel runways spaced 2500 ft require radar controlled approaches and departures. Consult
with FAA.
i
The numbers represent a building restriction line (BRL) that encompasses the runway protection zones and runway object-free area.
The BRL should also encompass the runway visibility zone, NAVAID critical areas, areas required for terminal instrument procedures,
and airport trafc control tower clear line of sight.
j
Taxiway grades should be held to the same maximum grades as runways.
k
Gradient shown is for pavement. To improve runoff, shoulder slopes may be increased to 5.0% for a distance of 10 ft from the edge
of pavement, then continue at 5% maximum for approach categories A and B and 3% for approach categories C and D.
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
18.4.2 National Plan of Integrated
Airport Systems (NPIAS)
Through constant research, the Federal Aviation
Administration, Department of Transportation,
has developed criteria for determining the aero-
nautical potential of a community and translating
that potential into airport requirements. The
overall airport needs of a community are
summarized in the NPIAS, published by the FAA.
For existing and proposed airports, the plan shows
the type of activity forecast and the general
facilities required to accommodate the activity. A
brief text spells out broad items of recommended
development.
In the past, communities to receive passenger
service were certicated by the Civil Aeronautics
Board (CAB). The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978,
however, called for the sunset of the CAB by the
end of 1984. During the nal years of the CAB and
in the aftermath of deregulation, air carriers were
permitted to change routes without government
approval. As a result, the carriers dropped many
unprotable routes. With the end of the CAB, the
few remaining essential functions performed by
the CAB were transferred to the Department of
Transportation (DOT). DOT oversees the Dereg-
ulation Act Essential Air Service provisions,
which authorize subsidized passenger air service
to some smaller communities. The historic trend of
the number of enplaned airline passengers related
to other factors can indicate a communitys air
carrier potential.
The number of based aircraft at an airport is an
indication of the general aviation potential. At air
carrier airports, the requirements for facilities to
serve scheduled operations are greater than those
for general aviation. Consequently, the overall
needs of general aviation are usually met at
airports that are developed to serve scheduled
activity. Thus, the requirements of general aviation
become a controlling factor only at airports that are
not served by, or built for, the scheduled airline
service.
The FAA changed the method of classifying
airports in 1982. It now lists them in four major
categories, which identify the broad functional
mission of each airport in the NPIAS by relating the
mission to the service level, including commercial
service (primary and reliever) and general aviation
airports (Table 18.3).
18.4.3 Airport Layout Plan
Every airport should have a layout plan showing
ultimate development, even though construction is
to be in stages. Such a plan is desirable to ensure
an orderly development and an economical and
functionally sound airport. All major components
should be worked out in advance.
The airport layout plan is the basic element of the
airports master plan and shows all existing and
proposed facilities, property lines, topography,
utilities, airport approach surfaces, and runway
protection zones, in addition to the ultimate
runway and taxiway layout. The ultimate plan will
provide a basis for acquiring ample land and for
determining zoning required to protect future
approaches. The plan should be exible enough to
permit modications between stages of construction
to meet the changing demands of air transportation.
18.4.4 Airport Zoning
In the planning of any airport, it is important that
sponsors work closely with local communities and
their planners to develop and implement sound land
use compatibility plans. This also requires that all
existing obstructions to air navigation be cleared or
marked and lighted and that future obstructions be
prevented. Where legally possible, steps should be
taken to adopt appropriate airport zoning legislation
to prevent the establishment of obstructions to air
navigation. Ideally the zoning will be developed
concurrently with the layout plan. If comprehensive
zoning is in force or can be instituted, height
restrictions and land use can both be incorporated.
18.4.5 Environmental Impact
Airport development is subject to state and Federal
regulations that require careful consideration of
environmental, ecological, and sociological matters
in planning and construction. It is likely that
preparation of an Environmental Impact Assess-
ment Report will be required for airport develop-
ment involving airport location, new runways,
major runway extensions, runway strengthening if
it might result in increased aircraft noise, adverse
effects on the capacity of existing roads, certain
land acquisitions, establishment or relocation of an
instrument landing system or an approach lighting
system. Such a statement should include, among
other things, a description of the project and a
Airport Engineering n 18.5
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
discussion of its purpose, impact on the natural
environment, and impact on the human environ-
ment. Also, it should include alternatives to the
proposed development, unavoidable adverse
impact, short-term effects, long-term impact,
irreversible or irretrievable commitments of
resources, and long-term benets. The statement
should be carefully prepared, thorough and
complete, unbiased, and clear, so that its review
by many public bodies and agencies will not be
unduly protracted.
18.4.6 Airport Construction Plans
Construction plans for airports should include a
location and site plan, airport layout plan, grading
and clearing plan, borings and soils-exploration
plot, grading and drainage plan, runway and
taxiway proles, access-road plans and proles,
drainage-line proles, pavement cross sections,
drainage structures, lighting and conduit plan,
landscaping plan, and summary of construction
quantities. Plans are also required for development
of terminal area and parking lots and for
construction of terminal buildings.
18.5 Obstruction and
Clearance Criteria for
Airport Approaches
The FAA has established standards for determin-
ing obstructions to airports in Part 77 of the
Federal Aviation Regulations. These standards set
up civil imaginary surfaces (Fig. 18.1 and
Table 18.4). Objects that extend above these
surfaces are considered obstructions and should
be removed or marked and lighted, depending on
the nature of the obstruction and the feasibility of
its removal.
The airport reference point is a centrally
located point that denes the geographic location
of the airport. The primary surface corresponds to
a landing surface; it is a surface with a width of
250, 500, or 1000 feet depending upon the weight
class of the airplane to be accommodated longi-
tudinally centered on a runway and extending
200 ft beyond each end of the runway. The
horizontal surface is a horizontal plane 150 ft
above the established airport elevation (the high-
est point on the landing surfaces). It is bounded by
a conical surface, which has a width of 4000 ft and
rises on a 20: 1 slope.
Table 18.3 National Airport Classication SystemAeronautical Activity Levels
for Functional-Role Airport Classication System*
NPIAS

airport category Classication description

Commercial service Annual scheduled passenger service
Primary Percent of total U.S. enplanements
Large hub (L) 1% or more
Medium hub (M) 0.251.00%
Small hub (S) 0.050.25%
Non-hub (N) 0.010.05%
Other 2500 or more but less than 0.01%
Reliever

Must have at least:

50 based aircraft, or
25,000 annual itinerant operations, or
35,000 annual local operations
General aviation All other civil airports
*Established by the Federal Aviation Administration.

National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems.

Intended to reduce congestion at large commercial service airports by providing general aviation pilots with
alternative landing areas and by providing more general aviation access to the overall community.
18.6 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Approach surfaces are longitudinally centered
on runway center lines extended outward from the
primary surface. The dimensions and slopes vary,
depending on the nature of the runway involved
(Table 18.4). From the sides of the approach
surfaces, transitional surfaces extend outward at
7: 1 until they intersect the horizontal or conical
surfaces. The transitional surface at each end of a
precision instrument runway extends beyond the
conical surface for the remaining length of the
approach surface and has a width of 5000 ft.
All feasible steps should be taken to insure
adequate protection of airports from obstructions
above these imaginary surfaces.
18.5.1 Runway Protection Zones
These are land areas the function of which is to
enhance protection of people or property on the
ground from aircraft operation. Runway protec-
Fig. 18.1 Airport imaginary surfaces for determining obstructions. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.7
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
tion zones require elimination of objects and
activities that are incompatible with airport
operations. They also designate areas on which
are prohibited land uses such as residences and
places of public assembly, including churches,
schools, hospitals, ofce buildings, shopping
centers, and theaters.
Runway protection zones lie directly beneath
the inner portions of runway approach surfaces
(Fig. 18.2 and Table 18.5). The standard congur-
ations of runway protection zones conform to the
inner dimensions of approach surfaces. Zone
length is a function of the type of aircraft and
approach visibility minimums for the runway
(Table 18.5).
Airport authorities should control sufcient
property in the runway protection zone to provide
for unobstructed passage of aircraft landing or
taking off. All obstructions should be cleared and
creation of future obstructions should be prohib-
ited. Although protected areas should be comple-
tely cleared, grading of the areas is not necessary.
Table 18.4 Criteria for Airport Imaginary Surfaces for Determining Obstructions*
Dimensional standards, ft (see Fig. 18.1)
Nonprecision instrument runway
Visual runway
Other than utility
runways
Dimension Item
Utility
runaways

Other than
utility
runways
Utility
runways
Visibility
minimums
greater
than
3

4
mi
Visibility
minimums
as low
as
3

4
mi
Precision
instrument
runway
A Width of
primary
surface and
width of
approach
surface at
inner end
250 500 500 500 1,000 1,000
B Radius of
horizontal
surface
5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
C Approach
surface
width
at end
1,250 1,500 2,000 3,500 4,000 16,000
D Approach
surface
length
5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 10,000

E Approach
slope
20: 1 20: 1 20: 1 34: 1 34: 1

*Federal Aviation Administration.

Precision instrument approach slope is 50: 1 for inner 10,000 ft and 40: 1 for an additional 40,000 ft.

Runways expected to serve propeller-driven airplanes with maximum certicated takeoff weight of 12,500 lb or less.
18.8 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Also, although ownership of the areas is desirable,
zoning or aviation easements give the necessary
protection.
18.5.2 Clearance of Obstructions
To test approach zones for clearance of obstruc-
tions, a topographic map of the airport site and its
environs is required for a radius of at least 4 mi
from the airport boundary. A convenient test
method is to prepare a transparent template
showing the extension of the runway center line,
the limits of the runway approach surface, and
contour lines representing the elevations of the
sloping runway approach surface and 7: 1 tran-
sition surface. For an instrument-runway ap-
proach, the transparent template (Fig. 18.3) is tted
to the end of each runway, and the ground-surface
contours are compared with those of the runway
approach surface. Any high places or created
features on the ground that will protrude into the
runway approach surface are noted. The runway
layout is adjusted, if necessary, to avoid obstacles
with a minimum sacrice of wind coverage.
The horizontal surface clearances, 150 ft above
the airport are examined in a similar manner.
All obstructions above the horizontal surface are
spotted. Measures should be taken to remove as
many obstructions as possible and to mark and
light those that cannot be removed.
Detailed plans should be made of critical areas
in approach zones. The plans should show heights
of trees, poles, buildings, etc. that come near the
runway approach surface. Steps should then be
taken to obtain control of these areas by easement
Fig. 18.2 Runway protection zones and approach surfaces. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.9
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
or purchase, so that the obstructions may be
removed. Clearances for railroads and highways
are shown in Fig. 18.4.
18.6 Airport Site Selection
Before investigating possible sites in detail for an
airport, the engineer should assemble certain
background data. These include U.S. Geological
Survey topographic maps, aerial photographs in
stereo-pairs for studying relief and culture, avail-
able soils maps and analyses, and overall develop-
ment plans for the area. Data on winds and weather
should be obtained from the most reliable sources
possible. It is desirable to get complete weather
information for a period of at least 10 years.
The engineer should establish liaison with
appropriate representatives of the FAA, the state
aviation agency, local and area planning groups,
and the aeronautical interests that can be expected
to use the airport. Finally, there must be evalu-
ations, projections, and studies to develop forecasts
of the volumes and types of anticipated activity
and to establish the general size, character, and
scope of the airport. With such information, a
reconnaissance of the area can be made and the
most likely sites identied for further study.
18.6.1 Physical Site Characteristics
Selection of an airport site is inuenced by a
number of physical factors. These can affect the
utility of the airport and the economy of its
development.
Adequate area must be provided to accom-
modate an airport of the type required and
oriented for prevailing winds. The area is
determined by the runway length and runway
layout and by terminal-area requirements. A
small airport may be located on 50 to 100 acres.
Table 18.5 Dimensions for Runway Protection Zones
Dimensions
Approach
Visibility
Minimums*
Facilities
Expected
to Serve
Length L,
feet
(meters)
Inner
Width W
1
,
feet
(meters)
Outer
Width W
2
,
feet
(meters)
RPZ,
acres
Visual and not lower
than 1-Mile (1,600 m)
Small
aircraft
exclusively
1,000
(300)
250
(75)
450
(135)
8.035
Aircraft
approach
categories
A & B
1,000
(300)
500
(150)
700
(210)
13.770
Aircraft
approach
categories
C & D
1,700
(510)
500
(150)
1,010
(303)
29.465
Not lower than
3/4 Mile (1,200 m)
All aircraft 1,700
(510)
1,000
(300)
1,510
(453)
48.978
Lower than 3/4 Mile
(1,200 m)
All aircraft 2,500
(750)
1,000
(300)
1,750
(525)
78.914
*The RPZ dimensional standards are for the runway end with the specied approach visibility minimums. The departure RPZ
dimensional standards are equal to or less than the approach RPZ dimensional standards. When a RPZ begins other than 200 feet (60 m)
beyond the runway end, separate approach and departure RPZs should be provided. Refer to appendix 14 for approach and departure
RPZs.
Small airplane: Airplanes of 12,500 lb or less maximum certicated takeoff weight.
Large airplane: Airplanes of more than 12,500 lb maximum certicated takeoff weight.
18.10 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
A large international airport may cover as much
as 15,000 to 40,000 acres.
Possibility for expansion should be ensured by
the selection of a site that is not constrained by
built-up property, railroad yards, mountains,
rivers, harbors, or other features that prohibit
enlargement except at excessive cost. Although
initial acquisition should include all land needed
for ultimate development, there should be ample
undeveloped land available adjacent to the site.
This land should be protected by zoning against
uncontrolled growth of industrial or residential
Fig. 18.3 Template for checking approach-zone clearance for instrument runways. Similar templates
can be developed for noninstrument runways.
Fig. 18.4 Vertical prole along extended center line of runways shown minimum clearance required
by the Federal Aviation Administration over highways and railways.
Airport Engineering n 18.11
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
property that will block runway extensions or
terminal-area expansion.
Terrain should be relatively at to avoid
excessive grading costs. Elevated sites are prefer-
able to those in lowlands because they are usually
free from obstructions in approach zones, less
subject to fog and erratic winds, and easy to drain.
Soils should be studied and evaluated for their
effect on grading, drainage, and pavements. The
nature of the soil inuences the cost of construc-
tion. Ideally, the site should be cleared ground that
is easily drained and has sandy or gravelly soil that
offers a satisfactory foundation for runway pave-
ments without excessively thick subbases and
costly subdrainage systems.
Drainage characteristics of the site should be
investigated to ascertain the possibility of oods
and the existence of high water tables. Natural
drainage is most desirable. The ability to dispose of
storm water should also be evaluated.
Air approaches to the proposed airport should
be free of obstacles, such as mountains, hills, tall
buildings, transmission lines, chimneys, and
towers.
(A. T. Walls, Airport Planning and Manage-
ment, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.)
18.6.2 General Site Characteristics
In addition to the physical characteristics of an
airport site, factors of a more general nature require
consideration.
Accessibility to the community is essential, to
preserve the speed advantage of air transportation.
In general, accessibility is measured in time rather
than distance. Sites near modern express highways
are to be sought, and those bounded by trafc-
congested streets avoided. On the other hand, the
site should not be so remote fromthe community as
to require excessive transportation time.
Availability of utilities, such as electric power,
gas, telephone, water, sewers, and public transpor-
tation, is an important factor to be investigated. If
these utilities are not available, the cost of
providing them must be considered.
Control of the site and its surroundings by
zoning should be investigated to ensure protection
of aerial approaches and possibility of expansion. If
the airport is located outside the community to be
served, the means of guaranteeing proper control
should be determined.
Compatibility with local and area planning is
an important characteristic. It should be explored
so that the airport and the area can develop without
one interfering with the other. The effect on land
values and tax assessments may be adverse or
benecial, depending on the nature of the site. If
the airport is located near residential property, the
value of that property could be affected because of
the commercial nature of some types of airports. If
located in an undeveloped area, the airport will
increase the value of adjacent land for industrial
sites and for other uses related to the airport. The
possible impact of aircraft noise should be
assessed.
Spacing of the airports is a consideration since
airports should not be located so that air-trafc
patterns interfere. Approval of the FAA is
necessary to ensure air-space compatibility. This
approval should be obtained before a nal com-
mitment is made for a specic airport site.
18.6.3 Site Evaluation
Having identied the most likely sites in an area,
the engineer should review them on the basis of
physical and general characteristics. It is not likely
that any one site will possess all the desirable
characteristics. Thus, it is necessary to evaluate the
good and bad features of each site to make the best
selection.
Preliminary runway patterns should be tested,
approaches checked, real estate evaluated, and
construction costs analyzed. The more promising
sites can be evaluated in the eld, and specic soil
and topographic data developed. Before nal
selection is made, the engineer should ascertain
that the most favored site will receive FAA air-
space clearance, that an acceptable master plan can
be developed for that site, and that it offers
maximum compatibility with area planning.
18.7 Runway Design
Runways are the focal points of an airport. They
must have a length and width adequate to
accommodate the aircraft to be served. (See also
Table 18.2.)
18.12 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
18.7.1 Runway Lengths
To determine the runway length required for a
given airport location, the engineer should take
into account the takeoff and landing performance
of the most critical aircraft expected to make
regular use of the airport. Aircraft performance
decreases with increase in distance to be own
from the airport, airport elevation, runway gradi-
ent, and air temperature. The runway length
chosen should be thoroughly reviewed and
validated.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
issues advisory circulars from time to time, giving
performance data on aircraft that supplement its
engineering data. The safe runway length for
transport aircraft is based on Federal Aviation
Regulations (Part 25), which specify three require-
ments for civil air transports, each of which
must be met:
1. Runway lengths should be sufcient for air-
planes to accelerate to the point of takeoff and
then, in case of failure of a critical engine, to be
braked and brought to a stop within the limits of
the runway (or usable landing strip).
2. If failure of a critical engine occurs at point of
takeoff, airplanes should be capable of takeoff
with one or more operating engines. Aircraft
powered by reciprocating engines should be
able to clear the end of the runway at an
elevation of 50 ft and those powered by turbine
engines, at an elevation of 35 ft.
3. In landing, airplanes should clear the approach
end of the runway by 50 ft and be able to touch
down and stop within 60% of the available
runway length.
Data published on runway requirements for
transport aircraft usually incorporate the preceding
so that no additional computation is required,
except for effective gradient (Art. 18.7.2).
Normal requirements for landing of jet aircraft
establish runway lengths that are valid only for
normal instrument conditions. For jet airliners to
land at lower weather minimums, runways should
provide a landing length more than that normally
required. Generally, the additional requirement
will still be less than the required takeoff length.
Runway length requirements are established for
instrument operations for runway visual ranges
(RVR) from 2400 ft down to 1200 ft. The equivalent
of a 100-ft ceiling and 0.25 mi visibility. With
electronic and visual landing aids of greater
integrity, weather minimums may be lowered.
All-weather operations are the ultimate goal. The
corrected landing length should be checked against
required takeoff length to ascertain that an
adequate length is provided if lower RVR
operations can be forecast.
Future needs for a new runway at an existing
airport or the need for an entirely new airport
should be determined only after thorough study
and review of the requirements to meet the
anticipated demand. The study process should
account for all factors that impact full use of a
runway for the design airplane. These include
length, width, and specially designated areas free
of obstacles to provide an interconnected system of
air space and land surfaces for the safe landing and
takeoff of aircraft. To control areas off the airport
from impacting the air space or approach surfaces,
airport owners must have the authority to prohibit
potential obstructions and incompatible land uses.
The intent of airport planning, in this regard, is to
maximize utilization and retention of paved areas
on airports. Without proper planning, runways are
subject to encroachment by obstructions or incom-
patible land uses that may restrict or preclude
future use of the runways.
To meet obstacle clearance requirements for
approaches to existing runways, where control of
encroachments has not been possible, the threshold
for an affected runway may be displaced or
relocated if this is determined to be the only
practical alternative. A displaced threshold
reduces the length of runway available for land-
ings. The portion of the runway behind a displaced
threshold is available for takeoffs in either direction
and for landings from the opposite direction. A
relocated threshold is different in that the runway
is not available for landings or takeoffs at that end
of the runway.
Another way to increase runway utilization at
constrained airports is to use declared distances.
These provide an alternative design procedure in
which distances are specied that satisfy require-
ments for aircraft takeoff run, takeoff distance,
accelerate-stop distance, and landing distance. The
application of declared distances at a specied
location requires prior FAA approval, which is
given on a case-by-case basis. Approval must be
reected on the FAA-approved Airport Layout
Plan.
Airport Engineering n 18.13
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
18.7.2 Runway Grades
Aircraft performance is inuenced by the gradient
of the runway. Ascending grades increase power
required for takeoff. Descending grades increase
braking distance. Not only is the gradient at any
point along the runway of concern, but also the
effective gradient of the overall runway. Other
factors that inuence grades are the sight distance
and the transverse slopes of graded areas.
Longitudinal grades for airports serving air-
craft in approach categories C and D should not
exceed 1.50% at any point on the runway prole,
but a 2.0% maximum is allowable for airports
serving aircraft in categories A and B (Table 18.2).
Runway length determined for the critical
aircraft at the elevation and mean temperature of
the airport site is further increased at the rate of
20% for each 1.0% of effective gradient.
Longitudinal grade changes should be avoided.
If changes are necessary, they should be in
accordance with Table 18.6, which shows maxi-
mum grade changes and minimum length of
vertical curves.
Minimum runway sight distances are necessary
to permit safe visual aircraft operations. At non-
controlled airports, runway grade changes should
be such that there will be an unobstructed line of
sight from any point 5 ft above the center line of the
runway to any other point 5 ft above the runway. If
the airport has an operating control tower,
adherence to longitudinal gradient standards for
runways will provide an adequate line of sight
from the tower to the runways.
A graded safety area 240 to 1000 ft long is
required at each runway end, depending on
aircraft approach category and design group (Table
18.2). The associated width required, also shown in
Fig. 18.5 Vertical prole around runway center line shows changes in longitudinal grades. (Federal
Aviation Administration.)
Table 18.6 Vertical Curve Data and Maximum Grade Changes for Runways
Runways serving
categories A
and B airplanes
Runways serving
categories C and
D airplanes
Maximum gradient at ends of runaway, such
as x grade or z grade (Fig. 18.5)
0 to 2.0% 0 to 0.8%, rst and last
quarter of runway length
Maximum gradient in middle portion of
runway, such as y grade (Fig. 18.5)
0 to 2.0% 0 to 1.5%
Maximum grade change, such as A or B
(Fig. 18.5)
2.0% 1.5%
Minimum length of vertical curve L
1
or L
2
(Fig. 18.5) for each 1.0% grade change
300 ft* 1000 ft
Minimum distance between points of
intersection for vertical curves, D (Fig. 18.5)
250(A B) ft

1000(A B) ft

*Vertical curves not required at utility airports for grade changes less than 0.4%.

A% and B% are successive changes in grade.

18.14 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Table 18.2, varies from 120 to 500 ft. For the rst
200 ft, measured from the runway ends, the safety
area should slope between 0 and 3% downward
along the longitudinal axis of the runway. For the
rest of the safety area, the maximum longitudinal
grade should be selected to prevent any part of the
runway area from penetrating the approach
surface or clearway plane. The maximum down-
ward slope permitted in the safety area is 5%.
Longitudinal grade changes are limited to 2% per
100 ft up or down.
Transverse grades on runways should not
exceed 2% for approach categories A and B and
1.5% for categories C and D (Table 18.2).
Unpaved shoulders may have a steeper slope
to improve runoff. The rst 10 ft of shoulder
adjoining the pavement may be as steep as 5%. The
transverse grade of shoulder beyond the 10-ft
distance may be as steep as 5% for approach
categories A and B and not more than 3% for
categories C and D.
Graded shoulders should be set 1
1

2
in below the
adjoining pavement edge to preclude future turf
from developing a gutter that would impound
water at the pavement.
18.7.3 Runway Numbering System
The runways at each airport are designated by
numbers related to azimuth, measured clockwise
from magnetic north. For simplicity, the numbers
are expressed in 108 units of azimuth.
For example, if a runway has an azimuth
measured from magnetic south of 328, the south-
erly end is numbered 21 since (328 1808)/
108 21.2. The other end is numbered 3 since
328/108 3.2. The runway is referred to as 3-21.
The object of the system is to have the number
facing a landing airplane correspond (in 108 units)
to the compass course of the airplane. Where there
are parallel runways, the runway on the right of the
landing airplane is designated with an R (right); the
other is designated L (left). For example, if there
were a runway parallel to 3-21, the runway would
be 3R-21L or 3L-21R.
18.7.4 Runway Layout
Choice of runway pattern is inuenced by the
necessity of obtaining clear approaches, the
desirability of providing maximum wind coverage,
and the necessity for tting the layout to the
topography so as to secure low grading and
drainage costs. Shape and location of the terminal
area also inuence the layout. Furthermore, short
and direct taxiing distances are desired between
runways and the airport terminal.
The number of runways will depend on wind
coverage and trafc volume to be handled. To
increase capacity, the layout should permit simul-
taneous use of two or more runways.
Orientation of the runways depends on obstacle
clearance requirements and prevailing wind direc-
tions. The instrument runway should, if possible,
be aligned with the winds that prevail during
instrument-ying conditions. Ideally, runway
approaches should, if possible, be over sparsely
settled or nonresidential areas where the public will
be the least inconvenienced by aircraft operations.
18.7.5 Wind Coverage
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) spe-
cies that runways be oriented with the prevailing
winds. The intent is to ensure that aircraft may be
landed at least 95% of the time without exceeding
the cross-wind capability of aircraft forecast to use
the airport on a regular basis. If the runway does
not provide 95% wind coverage for the forecast
aircraft, then a cross-wind runway may be
necessary. Inasmuch as light airplanes are more
susceptible to cross winds than heavy airplanes,
allowable cross-wind components are specied for
runways designed to serve the aircraft of different
Airport Reference Codes, as indicated in Table 18.7.
The trend is toward one- or possibly two-
directional layouts. In some localities, where the
prevailing winds are consistently in one direction
Table 18.7 Allowable Cross-Wind Components
for Aircrafts
Aircraft Reference Code
Cross-wind
component, knots
A-I and B-I 10.5
A-II and B-II 13
A-III and B-III 16
C-I through D-III 16
A-IV through D-VI 20
Airport Engineering n 18.15
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
or the reverse, a single runway will meet FAA
requirements. One-runway layouts are sometimes
adopted when wind-coverage requirements are not
fully met but the approaches are excellent and
other factors are satised.
18.7.6 Wind Rose
To determine the orientation of a runway that will
offer the greatest wind coverage, a wind rose may
be used. A simple type consists of bars radiating in
several compass directions, each representing, to
scale, the percentage of time that the wind blows
from the direction in which that bar points.
For mathematical computation of wind cover-
age on the basis of cross-wind component, a wind
rose similar to that shown in Fig. 18.6 is helpful.
This wind rose gives the percentage of time the
wind blows in specied speed ranges as well as in
specied directions. The small numbers on the
diagramrepresent the percentages of time the wind
blows fromthe several compass directions between
specied velocities. For the wind rose in Fig. 18.6,
the percentages of winds were known for velocity
ranges of 0 to 3.5 knots (calm), 3.5 to 13 knots, 14 to
27 knots, 28 to 41 knots, and over 41 knots. Winds
over 41 knots accounted for less than 0.1% and
were neglected.
This wind rose may be used to determine the
maximum wind coverage for a one-, two-, or three-
directional runway layout. It may also be used to
check the wind coverage for a layout adopted after
a study of obstacles in approaches and other
factors.
Fig. 18.6 Template aids determination of wind coverage for a cross-wind component of 13 knots.
18.16 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
For nding the maximum wind coverage
possible for a given runway, a transparent template
is made. On it are drawn the runway center line and
parallel lines representing the limits of 13-knot cross-
wind components on each side of the center line.
This template is then superimposed on the wind
rose, with the center line passing through the center
of the rose. Next, the template is rotated until a
direction is found in which the greatest percentage
of wind is included within the 26-knot-wide band.
If the layout has more than one runway,
templates are plotted for each runway and shifted
about the center of the wind rose until the direction
for each runway is found such that the total
percentage of wind coverage by all runways is a
maximum.
With Fig. 18.6, for example, a two-runway layout
is to be checked for wind coverage; rst for Runway
A alone and then for both Runways A and B. The
runway center lines are plotted on the wind rose in
their proper compass directions. Lines are drawn
parallel to each center line, to represent, to the scale
of the wind rose, the limits of all cross-wind
components of 13 knots. For simplicity, the percen-
tage of winds not covered is computed and
deducted from 100. The percentages and fractions
of percentages outside the limits of coverage
(dashed lines in Fig. 18.6) for Runway A are as
follows: in directions NW to E, 0.4 0.1 0.0
0.6 0.7 0.1 0.9 0.8 0.0 1.1 0.2 2.3
0.0 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2; from SE
to W, 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.9
0.4 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.0 0.6 1.0
0.6 0.1 0.1 1.6 8.16 or 91.84% coverage.
The addition of Runway B will add the following
coverage: from N to ENE, 0.5 0.8
0.0 1.1 0.2 2.3 0.0 0.6 0.1 and from S
to WSW 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.9
0.5 0.0 0.4 1.0 6.49, giving total coverage
for two runways of 98.33%.
The analysis may be rened by using more
wind-velocity groups if they are available. It may
also be applied for other cross-wind components.
The wind rose usually employed for study
purposes is plotted for annual data. In locations
where the wind distribution varies during the year,
roses should be plotted for the different seasons
and the uctuations taken into account in design,
particularly if the airport is used mostly in certain
seasons.
For selecting the instrument-runway orien-
tation, a wind rose for low-visibility conditions is
useful and can be developed from special studies
undertaken by the U.S. Weather Bureau.
18.7.7 Runway Congurations
The simplest layout is a single runway with
parallel taxiway and centrally located terminal
area as shown by full lines in Fig. 18.7a. Two
directions of operation are possible, 6-24 or 24-6
(Art. 18.7.3). Only one landing or takeoff can be
made at a time.
Under these conditions, the capacity of the
runway is about 50 movements per hour (including
both landings and takeoffs). When more capacity is
needed, a second parallel runway may be built as
shown by dashed lines in Fig. 18.7a.
In this design, the original runway can be used
for takeoffs, while the future runway is used for
landings. The capacity under visual ight rules will
be raised to about 70 movements per hour. Landing
trafc will have to cross the takeoff runway under
control from the tower.
Figure 18.7b shows parallel runways 5000 ft
apart. The terminal area lies between the runways.
This arrangement has denite operational advan-
tages over the layout in Fig. 18.7a. Taxiways do
not cross runways, the terminal area is centrally
located with ample room for expansion, and the
wide separation of runway approaches will increase
capacity under conditions of low visibility since the
5000-ft separation is adequate for simultaneous
operations. But the layout in Fig. 18.7b requires a
larger area thanthe one inFig. 18.7a. The two parallel
runways, however, need not be opposite each other.
Increasing the offset from the terminal area will
decrease taxiing distance but may increase land and
construction costs.
Taxiways may be extended to the runway ends
to provide exits for incompleted takeoffs, to
facilitate landings and takeoffs on the same
runway, and to permit simultaneous use of both
runways for takeoff or for landing. During peak-
hour operations, arrivals and departures are not
usually equal, so simultaneous use of both run-
ways for the same type of operation is often
desirable.
In Fig. 18.8 an open V-type layout is shown. This
layout gives four directions of wind coverage and
also allows simultaneous operation of runways in
most directions when wind velocities are not
unusually high. The trafc diagrams indicate a
Airport Engineering n 18.17
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
separation of landings and takeoffs in three or four
wind directions. In the one situation where the
landing go-around path intersects the takeoff path,
the landings and takeoffs will have to be rigidly
coordinated.
The Vshape permits a centrally located terminal
area with room for expansion. In some designs the
angle of the V is made about 908.
When additional capacity is required, the
designs in Figs. 18.7b and 18.8 may be expanded
by building a runway parallel to each of the
original runways but 1000 to 3500 ft farther out.
Two runways would then be available for landings
and two for takeoffs at all times for the layout in
Fig. 18.7b, and for most of the time for the layout in
Fig. 18.8. The greatest capacity can be obtained
from the two sets of parallels for the conguration
shown in Fig. 18.7b, with a third runway at a
divergent angle on each side.
Most existing airports have intersecting run-
ways. At some locations, it is impractical to build
nonintersecting runways. When winds are not
critical, the capacity of these designs can be
improved over single-runway operations by using
Fig. 18.7 Plan of simple runway layouts: (a) Single runway with future parallel runway. (b) Two
parallel runways.
18.18 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
one runway for takeoffs and another for landings.
The movements are alternated under rigid coordi-
nation from the air-trafc control tower.
Airport capacity is reduced under instrument-
landing procedures, and delays to landings occur.
Improvements in air-trafc control, however, have
increased landing rates in overcast weather so they
nearly equal those in good weather.
18.8 Taxiway Systems
Taxiways are laid out to connect the terminal area
with ends of runways for takeoffs and to tap the
runways at several points to provide exits for
landing aircraft. Landings usually do not require
the full length of the runway.
To clear a runway of landing planes as rapidly
as possible, easy turns are introduced at exit
taxiways (Fig. 18.7). Even faster aircraft exits are
obtained when the runway is equipped with the
taxiway illustrated in Fig. 18.9. These exit taxiways
best serve a variety of aircraft when placed about
2500, 4000, and 6000 ft from the runway threshold.
Where there is a taxiway parallel to the runway,
the exit taxiways can lead into the parallel taxiway
with a reverse curve that permits the maintenance
of high-speed taxi operations. When applied
bidirectionally to the same runway, the effect can
be that in Fig. 18.7a. At the ends of a runway, the
taxiways join the runway at about 908 to give the
pilot a view of the runway and its extension in both
directions. Additional pavement is added to make
room for waiting airplanes and to allow one
airplane to pass another in the takeoff sequence.
Taxiway widths and clearances are given in Table
18.2. Figure 18.10 shows taxiway intersection
details, and Table 18.8 lists standard dimensions.
18.9 Aprons
The apron or ramp adjacent to a terminal is used
for loading and unloading airplanes, fueling, and
minor servicing and checkup. The dimensions of
the apron depend on the number of loading
positions required and the size and turning
characteristics of aircraft. The number of spaces
depends on the time of occupancy per aircraft, the
time being longer at terminal airports than at en-
route stops. In most instances, airlines desire
exclusive use of apron positions because of the
complex equipment required to service transport
aircraft. The resulting need is for a greater number
Fig. 18.8 V-type runway layout permits two-directional operation of aircraft. (Federal Aviation
Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.19
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
of loading positions than would be required if
positions were shared.
When determining area requirements for
aprons, various methods of aircraft positioning
should be explored. The size of airline loading
aprons depends on the number and size of aircraft
to be accommodated, as determined froma forecast
of peak-hour aircraft movements. Aircraft loading
positions are designated by circles of varying
diameters, depending on wing span, length, and
turning radius of the aircraft that will use the
airport.
Provision of underground facilities in the apron
is a requirement at some airports. At others,
services such as fuel, air, power, and telephone are
available at the edge of the apron or from the
terminal building. Grounding connections should
be provided.
18.10 Automobile Parking
Areas
Ample parking facilities are required for airport
patrons, passengers, employees, and spectators.
Public parking should be developed as near the
airline terminal as feasible, to minimize walking
distance. Most visitors will come on Sundays and
when special events occur at the airport.
The parking lot should be designed to handle
overow trafc, or a supplemental lot should
be developed for intermittent use. A design
criterion of 150 parked automobiles per acre may
be used when estimating the size of parking lot
required.
To minimize walking distances, some airports
have multilevel parking structures adjoining the
terminal. Employee parking facilities are usually
separate and more distant.
At busy terminals, temporary storage areas will
be needed to park taxicabs, buses, and limousines
waiting for turns or for scheduling. Parking might
be required for service vehicles such as fuel trucks.
There should be adequate truck-parking areas at
the terminal for delivery of commodities and
supplies.
18.11 Airport Grading and
Drainage
A thorough analysis of the soils on an airport site is
required for planning of grading and drainage and
subdrainage systems and for designing pavements
and base courses. Soils testing is also required for
the control of compaction of lls and base courses
so that there will be no detrimental settlement
under heavy airplane loads.
Procedures for soil sampling and testing are
much the same as for highways. Samples should be
taken at 200-ft intervals along the center lines of
planned runways and taxiways, one boring per
Fig. 18.9 Angled-exit taxiway design with dual parallel and crossover. (Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration.)
18.20 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
10,000 ft
2
for other areas of pavement. Borrowareas
should be tested sufciently to dene the borrow
material clearly. Results of such tests are plotted on
soils proles or on a boring plan. This plan shows
locations of borings with respect to proposed
runway layout and individual proles of the soil
layers at each location, with a description of each
soil type.
The FAA has adopted the Unied System of
soil classication (ASTM D2487). Table 18.9 lists
recommended spacings and depths for borings
for soil investigations for airport construction. A
typical graphic soil log is shown in Fig. 18.11.
FAA Advisory Circular Airport Paving, AC 150/
5230-6, discusses soils and paving topics.
18.11.1 Airport Grading
The surface of an airport should be relatively
smooth but well-drained. Few natural sites provide
these ideals; hence, proper grading is important.
Grading plans and drainage plans must be
carefully coordinated.
The grading plans should consist of runway and
taxiway center-line proles, cross sections showing
areas of cut and ll, and a topographic map
Fig. 18.10 Taxiway intersection details. The taxiway safety area shown in (a) has been omitted from
(b) and (c) for clarity. Dimensions W, R, L, and F are given in Table 18.8. (a) T-shape intersection.
(b) Crossover. (c) Turn.
Airport Engineering n 18.21
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Table 18.8 Taxiway Dimensional Standards
Airplane Design Group
Design item Symbol
a
I II III IV V VI
Taxiway width W 25 35 50
b
75 75 100
Taxiway edge safety margin
c
5 7.5 10
d
15 15 20
Taxiway pavement llet
conguration:
Radius of taxiway turn
e
R 75 75 100
f
150 150 170
Length of lead-in to llet L 50 50 150
f
250 250 250
Fillet radius for center line F 60 55 55
f
85 85 85
Fillet radius for judgmental
oversteering, symmetrical
widening
g
F 62.5 57.5 68
f
105 105 110
Fillet radius for judgmental
oversteering, symmetrical
widening
h
F 62.5 57.5 60
f
97 97 100
Taxiway shoulder width 10 10 20 25 35
i
40
i
Taxiway safety area width 49 79 118 171 214 262
Taxiway object-free area width 89 131 186 259 320 386
Taxilane object-free area width 79 115 162 225 276 334
a
Letters correspond to the dimensions in Fig. 18.10.
b
For airplanes in Airplane Design Group III with wheelbase equal to or greater than 60 ft, the standard taxiway width is 60 ft.
c
The taxiway edge safety margin is the minimum acceptable distance between the outside of the airplane wheels and the
pavement edge.
d
For airplanes in Airplane Design Group III with a wheelbase equal to or greater than 60 ft, the taxiway edge safety margin is 15 ft.
e
Dimensions for taxiway llet designs relate to the radius of taxiway turn specied. Additional design data can be found in Airport
Design, AC 150/5200-13.
f
Airplanes in Airplane Design Group II with a wheelbase equal to or greater than 60 ft should use a llet radius of 50 ft.
g
Figure 18.10b displays pavement llets with symmetrical taxiway widening.
h
Figure 18.10c displays a pavement llet with taxiway widening on one side.
i
Airplanes in Airplane Design Groups V and VI normally require stabilized or paved taxiway shoulder surfaces.
Table 18.9 Recommended Spacings and Depths for Borings for Soil Investigations for Airport
Construction
Area Spacing Depth
Runways and taxiways Along center line, 200 ft c to c Cut areas: 10 ft below nished
grade
Fill areas: 10 ft below existing
ground surface*
Other areas of pavement One boring per 10,000 ft
2
of
area
Cut areas: 10 ft below nished
grade
Fill areas: 10 ft below existing
ground surface*
Borrow areas Sufcient tests to dene
borrow material clearly
To depth of proposed
excavation of borrow
*For deep lls, boring depths should be used as necessary to determine the extent of consolidation and slippage that the ll to be
placed may cause.
18.22 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
showing initial and nal contours. This latter map
becomes the basis of the drainage-layout plan.
Cross sections of runways and taxiways should
slope transversely each way from the center line to
provide for surface drainage. Paved surfaces
should slope 1 to 1
1

2
% for those serving approach
categories C and D airplanes and 1 to 2% for those
serving categories A and B.
Side slopes of cuts and lls should be as at as
possible. In cuts, the sides should not encroach on a
lateral clearance ratio of 7: 1 measured normal to
the edge of the landing strip.
Properly designed grades can develop lowareas
that may be used for temporary ponding of storm
runoff in the interest of a more economical storm-
sewer system. Typical cross sections of runways are
shown in Fig. 18.12.
(See Airport Pavement Design and Evalu-
ation (www.faa.gov/arp/).)
18.11.2 Airport Drainage
With proper grading, the surface runoff is drained
into collector sewers or ditches. Runoff is usually
collected along the edges of runways in shallow
ditches leading to inlets piped to storm sewers
(Fig. 18.12a). At some airports in northern climates,
where snowbanks along the edges of the runway
block drainage across the runway, the surface
water is also collected along the edges of the
runway (Fig. 18.12b). Surface drainage inlets may
be placed just outside the edges of runways, or they
may be set in a shallowdepression built in the outer
edge of the pavement (Fig. 18.13). Inlets are usually
spaced from200 to 300 ft apart along the runway or
taxiway.
Subsurface drainage is obtained by the use of
interceptor drains and pervious base-course layers,
in much the same way that highways are drained.
Some of the smaller, turfed elds are drained by
a network of subdrains covering the entire area.
At airports with paved runways, subdrains are
usually placed along the edges of the runways
where soil conditions indicate that drainage is
needed to lower the groundwater level. A
combined interceptor and base drain is often used
(Fig. 18.14).
Surface drainage is accomplished by the
collection of surface water into inlets. A system of
underground pipes is required to carry runoff
from inlets and subdrains to outlets into water-
ways. In low areas, surface waters are sometimes
drained into ditches or canals running around
the perimeter of the airport.
For design of the drainage system, a topo-
graphic map is required, on which is plotted the
proposed layout of runways, taxiways, aprons, and
the terminal plan. The proposed surface grades of
these features are shown by contours of small
interval: 0.1 or 0.2 ft for paved areas and 0.5 or 1.0 ft
for turfed areas. Inlet locations and subdrains are
plotted, and storm-drain lines laid out to collect the
discharge from them. The system should be as
direct as possible to avoid excessive lengths of
pipe; frequent changes in pipe size should also be
avoided. Crossings of pipes under runways should
be held to a minimum.
Figure 18.15 shows a portion of an airport
drainage system. The pipe sizes are computed to
accommodate the discharge from the design storm,
which may be taken as that expected once in every
2 to 10 years, depending on how serious an effect
Fig. 18.11 Boring for subgrade investigation.
(a) Plan of runway showing locations of borings.
(b) Typical graphic boring log. (Federal Aviation
Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.23
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
an occasional ooding may have on airplane
operations. In some designs, a certain amount of
ponding is permitted in areas outside the runways.
The rational method (Art. 21.39) of calculating
runoff is universally used in airport-drainage
design.
The engineer should prepare studies of inter-
sections to ensure good drainage. Center-line
grades are held constant, and the grades of the
outer portion of the runway or taxiway warped or
adjusted so that there will be no abrupt changes in
grade in the path of airplanes. The surface should
have sufcient slope to drain properly. Intersection
studies should be made at a scale of 1 in equals
50 ft. A contour interval of 0.10 ft will permit
positive surface drainage to be designed. The
Fig. 18.12 Runway cross sections showing typical provisions for drainage.
Fig. 18.13 Drainage inlet at outer edge of runway in northern climates. (Federal Aviation
Administration.)
18.24 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
studies will also be useful in establishing pavement
grades.
(Airport Drainage, Federal Aviation Admin-
istration Advisory Circular AC150/5320-5.)
18.12 Airport Pavements
Airport pavements are constructed to support the
loads imposed by aircraft using the airport and to
produce a smooth, all-weather surface. Pavements
are divided into two general types: exible and
rigid. Properly designed and constructed, either
type will provide a satisfactory airport pavement.
Specic types have, however, proved benecial in
Fig. 18.14 Combined interceptor and base
drain. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
Fig. 18.15 Plan of a portion of an airport drainage system. (Federal Aviation Administration Advisory
Circular AC 150/5320-5.)
Airport Engineering n 18.25
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
specic applications: Rigid pavements are rec-
ommended for areas subjected to appreciable fuel
spillage at aircraft gate positions or maintenance
positions on the apron; a low-cost exible pave-
ment is adequate to stabilize an area subject to jet-
blast erosion.
The Airport Paving Manual, published by the
Federal Aviation Administration, is the usually
accepted guide for design of civil airport pave-
ments. It contains methods and requirements to be
used in designing projects involving Federal funds.
Subgrade is the foundation for airport pave-
ments (Fig. 18.12). Its bearing capacity affects the
thickness required in exible and rigid pavements.
Depth of frost penetration and inuence of
drainage conditions can affect the supporting
value of the subgrade. Through selective grading,
it might be economical to replace inferior subgrade
material with superior material so as to reduce the
subbase thickness requirement. Subgrades should
be thoroughly compacted to provide the highest
possible bearing capacity.
Subbase is a granular material placed on the
compacted subgrade (Fig. 18.12). It usually is
required under exible and rigid pavements,
except for the better soils groups. Thorough
compaction is mandatory.
Figure 18.16 shows cross sections of typical
runway pavements. The transverse slope of
pavements usually is 1.50%, to minimize water
ponding on the surface. The Federal Aviation
Administration maintains Standards for Specify-
ing Construction of Airports, AC 150/5370-10,
which cover most elements of airport
development.
Critical areas are those requiring the thickest
pavement. They include sections of runways, all
taxiways, and aprons (Fig. 18.17). These are the
areas subject to the most adverse aircraft loadings.
Pavement thickness in noncritical areas may be
reduced from the thickness required in critical
areas (Fig. 18.16).
18.12.1 Flexible Pavements
These consist of a bituminous surface course, a base
course of suitable material, and usually a granular
subbase course (Fig. 18.16). Design of exible
pavements is based on the results of subgrade soils
tests. The FAA has developed a relationship
Fig. 18.16 Cross section shows typical bituminous pavement (left of center line) and portland
cement concrete pavement construction (right of center line) for critical areas of runways (Fig. 18.17).
18.26 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
between soil classes and thickness of surface
course, base course, and subbase course required
for various gross weights of aircraft, based on
different conditions of drainage and frost action.
Design curves for exible pavements are shown
in Fig. 18.18, applicable to single-wheel landing
gear, Fig. 18.19, applicable to dual-wheel landing
gear; and Fig. 18.20, applicable to dual-tandem
landing gear.
Curves are based on the assumption of a 20-year
pavement life. Bituminous surfaces should be at
least 4 in thick in critical areas, 3 in in noncritical
areas, except for light aircraft. Use of the design
curves for exible pavements requires a California
bearing ratio (CBR) value for the subgrade material
and a CBR value for the subbase material. Also
required are the gross weight of the design aircraft
and the equivalent number of annual departures of
the design aircraft. When the proper curve has been
selected based on the landing-gear conguration of
the design aircraft, the chart is entered at the
appropriate CBR value at the top. A line is drawn
vertically down to the gross weight of the design
aircraft. From this point of intersection, a line is
drawn horizontally to the number of annual
departures. From this point of intersection, a
vertical line is drawn to the base of the chart and
the thickness read on the lower scale. The indicated
thickness is for the surface and base courses
combined, bearing on a subbase with the indicated
CBR value.
Surface-course requirements are established to
protect the base from surface water, provide a
smooth running surface for aircraft, accommodate
trafc loads, and resist skidding, trafc abrasion,
and weathering. The surface course generally
consists of two bituminous layersa wearing
course and a binder course. The binder course
Fig. 18.17 Critical areas of airport pavement. T total thickness of exible pavement or concrete
thickness for rigid pavement. See also Fig. 18.16.
Fig. 18.18 Flexible-pavement design curves for
critical areassingle-wheel gear. (Airport Pave-
ment, Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.27
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
typically contains larger aggregate and less asphalt.
Bonding of the two courses may be enhanced by a
tack coat of asphalt emulsion. The FAA recom-
mends a dense-graded, hot-laid bituminous con-
crete produced in a central mixing plant for the
wearing course of exible pavements.
Base-course materials include a wide variety, to
take maximum advantage of local materials and
construction practices. When high-quality aggre-
gates are used, asphalt or portland cement
treatments produce bases that are more effective
than untreated bases. Accordingly, the FAA credits
1.0 in of certain treated base materials as being
equivalent to 1.5 in of untreated base material.
Subbase is usually an integral part of the
exible-pavement structure. It is protected by the
base and surface courses, and so the material
requirements are not so strict as for the base course.
Pavements for light aircraft do not need to be so
thick as for heavy aircraft. At airports that will not
be required to accommodate aircraft in excess of
30,000 lb gross weight, the design curves in
Fig. 18.21 should be used. The procedure is the
same as with the design curves for heavier aircraft,
except there is no reduction for noncritical areas.
18.12.2 Rigid Pavements
These are made of portland cement-concrete,
usually placed on a suitable subbase course, which
rests on a compacted subgrade (Fig. 18.16). Design
curves for rigid pavements are shown in Fig. 18.22,
applicable to single-wheel landing gear, Fig. 18.23,
applicable to dual-wheel landing gear, and
Fig. 18.24, applicable to dual-tandem landing gear.
Use of the design curves for rigid pavements
requires the exural strength of the concrete, the k
value of the subbase, the gross weight of the design
aircraft, and the equivalent number of annual
departures of the design aircraft. When the proper
curve has been selected based on the landing-gear
conguration of the design aircraft, the chart
Fig. 18.19 Flexible-pavement design curves for
critical areasdual-wheel gear. (Airport Pave-
ment, Federal Aviation Administration.)
Fig. 18.20 Flexible-pavement design curves for
critical areasdual-tandem gear. (Airport Pave-
ment, Federal Aviation Administration.)
18.28 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
containing the appropriate design curve is entered,
from the left, with the concrete exural strength. A
horizontal projection is made until it intersects the
appropriate foundation modulus (the k value). A
vertical projection is made from this point of
intersection to the appropriate gross weight of the
design aircraft. A horizontal projection is then
made to the scale on the right that corresponds
with the annual departures. The pavement
thickness is read from that scale. The pavement
thickness shown refers to the thickness of the
concrete pavement only, exclusive of the subbase,
and is that shown in Fig. 18.16 as T, referred to as
the critical thickness.
The k value is based on the material directly
beneath the concrete pavement. (See p. 16.42) A k
value shouldbe establishedfor the subgrade andthen
corrected to account for the effects of the subbase.
Joints and reinforcing used in airport pavements
are similar to those used in highway pavements,
except that wider slabs and larger dowels are used
for thick pavements. Longitudinal construction
joints are doweled, keyed, or hinged (butt or
keyed).
Longitudinal expansion joints are advisable at
runway and taxiway intersections and next to
structures. Where dowels are not suitable, a
thickened edge may be introduced.
Transverse contraction joints are spaced 15 to
25 ft apart in unreinforced pavement. Transverse
expansion joints are not generally used except at
intersections.
Dowels are used across expansion joints and also
across construction joints in some designs. The bars
or bonded reinforcing are carried across certain
longitudinal contraction joints and keyed construc-
tion joints to hold the slab faces in close contact.
Construction joints between runs of pavement
are keyed, doweled, or hinged. The diameters of
dowels vary from
3

4
in for 6- to 7-in-thick slabs, to
Fig. 18.21 Flexible-pavement design curves
light aircraft. A minimum of 2 in is required for the
surface course. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
Fig. 18.22 Rigid-pavement design curvessingle-wheel gear. (Airport Pavement, Federal Aviation
Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.29
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
2 in for 21- to 24-in slabs. Standard length of dowels
is 18 to 24 in and spacing is 12 to 18 in c to c.
Reinforcing of the pavement is desirable to
control cracks. Its installation should follow the
latest design and construction practices.
Rigid pavement for small aircraft (weighing
12,500 lb or less) should be at least 5 in thick. For
aircraft between 12,500 and 30,000 lb, the rigid pave-
ment should be at least 6 in thick. All paved areas
should be considered as critical areas (Fig. 18.16).
Fig. 18.23 Rigid-pavement design curvesdual-wheel gear. (Airport Pavement, Federal Aviation
Administration.)
Fig. 18.24 Rigid-pavement design curvesdual-tandem-wheel gear. (Airport Pavement, Federal
Aviation Administration.)
18.30 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
18.12.3 Pavement Overlays
Pavement overlays restore a pavement. An overlay
may be applied over a pavement that no longer can
be maintained satisfactorily. Or an overlay may be
used to increase the load-bearing qualities of a
satisfactory pavement that must accommodate
aircraft heavier than those for which the pavement
was designed.
Flexible overlays involve a combination of a base
course and a bituminous surface course. Rigid
overlays involve the use of a layer of portland
cement-concrete. Bituminous overlays consist entirely
of bituminous concrete. In each instance, the
qualities of the existing pavement must be fully
ascertained and the overlay designed to make the
resultant pavement capable of handling the required
trafc, following procedures outlined in Airport
Paving, Federal Aviation Administration.
18.13 Unpaved Surfaces at
Airports
Some airports do not require paved surfaces
because of a low volume of trafc and use by only
light aircraft. In some instances, turf surfaces are
used for landings and takeoffs at small airports and
on the unpaved areas of runways at larger airports.
A tough, thickly matted grass is required in these
areas. The type of grass to use depends on soil
characteristics and climate at the site. If tests show
the soil decient in nutrient elements, these may be
supplied by appropriate fertilizers. When a fertile
topsoil must be removedduring grading operations,
it should be stockpiled and later spread on the areas
to be turfed. A vegetative cover is also desirable on
embankment, cut slopes, and other interior areas of
the airport to prevent dusting and erosion.
When turf is not adequate by itself, it may be
possible to add to stability by adding coarse
aggregate to the soil prior to the development of
the turf. This will permit the soil to retain sufcient
moisture to promote the growth of grass, yet
provide a surface that will not become too soft in
wet weather.
18.14 Soil Stabilization at
Airports
Granular material, portland cement, tar, cut-back
asphalt, or emulsied asphalt may be used to
improve the qualities of a soil so that it can serve as
a base or subbase. Such stabilized soils are not
intended to serve as a surface course; a separate
wearing surface must be provided. The same
general procedures are followed in stabilizing
airport soils as are followed in highway practice.
(See Art. 16.19.)
18.15 Airport Terminal
Buildings
Transition of passengers from ground to air occurs
in the terminal area. Various methods are used to
accommodate and transfer the public and its
goods, arriving either by air or by ground, and to
provide for parking, servicing, and storage of
aircraft and vehicles used in ground transportation.
The degree of development in the terminal area
varies with the volume of airport operations, the
type of trafc using the airport, the number of
people to be served, and the manner in which they
are to be accommodated.
18.15.1 Airplane Parking
The concept of a very small airport might involve
only a hangar with simple ofce facilities, adequate
for limited aeronautical activity. At larger airline
terminals, demands are greater. The concept can
involve bilevel terminal operations, auto parking
in buildings, and elaborate passenger-loading
devices. Various concepts of terminal systems are
shown in Figs. 18.25 and 18.26.
Frontal layout of facilities is usual at airports of
low activity. In the small-airport layout (Fig.
18.25a), the facilities required to serve a moderate
volume of general aviation are in a row along the
boundary road. At many small airports, the
terminal is eliminated and its functions housed in
a lean-to of a service hangar. At such an airport, the
terminal (or lean-to) would usually have a waiting
room, rest rooms, ofce for the airport manager or
ight service operator, and perhaps a restaurant,
snack bar, or vending machines.
At airline terminals of low activity, a frontal
loading system as shown in Fig. 18.25b is usually
preferred. Expansion possibilities are indicated. As
the ngers are extended, however, the passenger
walking distances increase. Likewise, the nger
structure becomes less economical, since loading
positions are on only one side.
Airport Engineering n 18.31
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Finger systems project onto the parking apron
and permit aircraft to park closer to the terminal.
This arrangement reduces structural cost since
loading is accomplished on both sides.
The nger system shown in Fig. 18.25c is a
simple solution for a hub airport. Walking distances
to the extreme end positions, however, could be
rather long.
A more elaborate nger layout is the split-nger
system (Fig. 18.25d). Here the passenger walking
distances become quite long. A passenger transfer-
ring from the end-loading position of one nger to
the end-loading position of another nger would
walk more than
1

2
mi, assuming the aircraft
parking positions to be 200 ft in diameter. Walking
distances are inevitably long at centralized term-
inals that serve large numbers of gates, unless
mechanical transfer of passengers is employed.
Unit terminals concentrate aircraft parking
positions and minimize passenger walking dis-
tance except where interunit transfers are required.
The movement from one unit terminal to another
can involve excessive time and distance. Unit
terminals are generally designed so that each unit
is a self-contained entity.
Satellite terminals also concentrate aircraft
parking positions in an effort to minimize walking
distances. The satellites shown in Fig. 18.26a are fed
Fig. 18.25 Simple terminal systems. Fingers are added to increase aircraft parking capacity.
18.32 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
by tunnels from the ticketing area and provide a
number of aircraft parking positions without
excessive walking distances.
In Fig. 18.26b the satellite is a pier at the end of a
nger and concentrates parking positions, with a
resultant saving in walking distance. The terminal
layout shown in Fig. 18.26c has two piers to serve
14 loading positions with relatively short walking
distances. The pier-satellite approach offers mini-
mum passenger walking distances for a large
number of gate positions.
Remote parking of aircraft minimizes walking
distances by using a vehicle to transport passen-
gers from terminal to airplane. At some European
airports, buses accomplish the transfer.
In an elaborate scheme under the remote concept,
a mobile lounge moves passengers to and from
aircraft parked some distance from the terminal
(Fig. 18.26d). The mobile lounge is in use in several
countries. At ight time, passengers are driven to the
aircraft, or are met on arrival. Thus, the long walk
between plane and terminal is eliminated.
18.15.2 Passenger Loading and
Unloading
Passenger-loading devices permit weatherproof
transfer from terminal to aircraft, usually with no
change in level required. The mobile lounge is one
Fig. 18.26 Terminal systems used at some international airports.
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type of loading device. Figure 18.27a shows the
type of lounge vehicle used at Dulles Airport.
Figure 18.27b shows passengers transferring from
lounge to aircraft. Local-service airlines using small
transport aircraft can be accommodated directly at
the terminal.
The telescoping gangplank, shown in Fig. 18.27c
and d, is the loading device in most general use.
The telescoping passage has a swivel connection at
the terminal. The aircraft end rides on a full-swivel
gear that is electric-powered. Parallel parking is
shown in Fig. 18.27c, with gangplanks serving front
and rear doors of the aircraft. Airplanes that park at
an angle may use a single gangplank, as shown in
Fig. 18.27d. In both instances the aircraft can taxi
into and out of gate positions. (Wide-body aircraft
are normally towed away from parking positions.)
The nose devices shown in Fig. 18.27e and f
permit aircraft to taxi into the parking position, but
aircraft must be towed away from the gate.
Deplaning the passengers is faster with nose
loading devices, but the departure from the gate
is slower.
In Fig. 18.27e, an adjustable transfer device
suspended from a canopy on the outside of the
terminal moves only a few feet to the aircraft
door. The nose loading device in Fig. 18.27f is
pivoted at the terminal and supported on xed,
powered wheels at the aircraft end. When not in
use, the device is stored against the wall of the
terminal and swings into position to connect to
the doorway of the aircraft. Experience has
shown that aircraft can be precisely taxied into
parking positions so that elaborate adjustments
are not required.
The pedestal device (Fig. 18.27e) is the least
expensive, but the swivel type (Fig. 18.27f ) can
serve a greater variety of aircraft since it can serve a
wider span of aircraft heights because of the longer
ramp.
Other types of passenger-transfer devices
include moving sidewalks in ngers and other
places where feasible, horizontal transportation
systems that connect unit terminals and satellites,
and similar systems that can serve individual
loading positions, to keep walking distances to a
minimum.
18.15.3 Terminal-Building Layout
The key feature of any terminal-area layout is the
terminal building. In size, it can be small for
airports with low activity, or large and complex at
primary-system terminals.
The terminal should be planned to serve the
number of peak-hour passengers forecast for 10
years in the future. Flexibility and expandability
are paramount requirements.
The terminal building should provide a smooth
ow of passengers from parking lot to aircraft. The
passenger should be able to park, or get out of a
taxi, bus, or limousine, at a point near the ticket
counter. Baggage is checked at this point. Then the
passenger proceeds to the aircraft via a waiting
room where rest rooms, telephones, concessions,
and restaurant facilities should be available. At the
loading position, there should be a hold room
where the passenger may be processed for
boarding the scheduled ight.
Fig. 18.27 Devices used for passenger loading
on and unloading from aircraft at airports.
18.34 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Deplaning passengers go directly from the
aircraft to the baggage pickup area, then proceed
to taxicab, bus, limousine, or parked automobile.
Automobile rental counters should be near the
baggage-pickup areas, and there should be
telephones and rest rooms nearby.
Visitors should be provided with observation
decks. The need for concession, restaurant, and
ofce space will vary at each location. A greater
variety of concession potential will obviously
develop at the larger airports.
Airline facilities include ticket counters, ticket
ofces, baggage-processing areas (with baggage
usually mechanically conveyed from the ticket
counters), and operational space at the loading
position. Inbound baggage should be available to
the passenger at a convenient location, either
placed by hand on a claim counter or mechanically
conveyed by belt with spacers, diverters, or
carousels for delivery to the arriving passenger.
At small airline terminals, the entire operation is
at a single level. Larger terminals tend to have
elevated roadways so that departing passengers
enter the terminal at the second level and enter the
aircraft at the same general elevation by means of a
loading device. Deplaning passengers leave the
aircraft at the second level and escalate down to the
ground oor for baggage pickup and ground
transportation. There are many variations of this
scheme, but the pattern is the same.
The accommodation of FAA air-trafc-control
quarters, as well as weather facilities, will vary
from one location to another. There is a trend
toward locating these government facilities in
separate structures, away from the terminal but
nearer to the general aviation activity. There is no
xed pattern. The need for such space in the
terminal building varies from location to location.
18.16 Access Roads
In preparing a terminal-area layout, the engineer
should recognize the importance of vehicular
access. The area should be located so that full
advantage is gained from freeways and other
roads, planned or existing, that will expedite
ground transportation to the airport.
Within the airport, the access-roadway system
should provide a connection between the terminal
area and the best routes to town. The system also
should include roads for intercommunication
between the separate facilities. Separation of
passenger and commercial trafc is desirable, as
well as separation of patron, spectator, and
employee trafc.
18.17 Hangars
The size of hangars depends on the dimensions
and numbers of aircraft to be serviced. Airports for
general aviation usually have one or more service
hangars that hold several aircraft, for which repair
and maintenance operations are conducted. These
hangars are supplemented by nests of T hangars,
which provide individual stalls for aircraft storage.
At larger airports, the trend is toward cantilever
hangars, capable of accommodating the largest
aircraft.
Table 18.10 gives the gross weight, wing span,
length, and height of typical aircraft. Jet transport
aircraft are being produced in short-, medium-, and
long-haul versions. The larger jets have become
even larger, with fuselage increases in excess of
30 ft and with gross weights exceeding 350,000 lb.
Supersonic aircraft exceed the length and weight of
a stretched-out jet aircraft. One model has a length
of about 300 ft, a wing span of about 120 ft, and a
gross weight of nearly 500,000 lb. Hangars to serve
such aircraft must have built-in exibility.
18.18 Cargo and Service
Buildings
At many airports, air cargo is handled through the
terminal building. Where separate cargo facilities
have been developed, they usually have been
located adjacent to terminal areas. Size and type of
cargo facilities vary, depending on local need. Most
are long, low structures with truck docks on one
side and aircraft parking on the other. The roadway
level on the truck side should be depressed to
provide a truck-high oor for easy loading and
unloading.
These separate cargo buildings not only provide
facilities to load cargo directly into aircraft on the
adjacent apron but contain facilities for sorting out
small freight shipments to be taken to the terminal
area on small carts and placed aboard passenger
aircraft.
Airport Engineering n 18.35
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
At smaller airports, the cargo is handled at the
terminal building and carried only by passenger
planes.
At most airports with scheduled passenger
service some form of aircraft rescue and re-
ghting facilities is required. They should be
provided at a location having ready access to all
parts of the airport. Other buildings that might
be required are heating plant, utility buildings,
maintenance buildings, equipment-storage build-
ings, electrical equipment, and transformer vaults.
18.19 Airport Lighting
Airport lighting provides illumination to keep the
facilities available around the clock. Lighting,
usually kept on from dusk to dawn, assists in
location and identication of the airport, outlines
the usable areas, and furnishes guidance to moving
aircraft.
Basic lighting consists of beacons, lighted wind
indicator, runway or trip lights, and such obstruc-
tion lights as are required. Figure 18.28 illustrates
the basic lighting at a small airport. Airport-
lighting equipment and systems are subject to
considerable modication in concept and design.
The latest FAA recommendations and practices
should be followed.
Airport Beacon
n
This is a double-end,
rotating light situated on or near the airport and
visible from considerable distances. Appropriate
color coding of the two beacon lenses will identify
the airport as an unlighted facility (both lenses
clear), or equipped with runway lights, burning or
readily available (clear-green).
Table 18.10 Physical Data for Selected Aircraft
Name and model Gross weight, lb Wing span Length Height
Single Engine, Prop.
Beech Bonanza 3,125 33 ft 5 in 25 ft 2 in 7 ft 7 in
Cessna 210 2,900 36 ft 7 in 27 ft 9 in 8 ft 8 in
Piper Saratoga 2,900 36 ft 0 in 24 ft 11 in 7 ft 3 in
Multiengine, Prop.
Aero Commander 8,000 49 ft 0 in 35 ft 1 in 14 ft 6 in
Beech Super King Air 12,500 54 ft 6 in 43 ft 10 in 15 ft 0 in
Cessna Conquest 9,925 49 ft 4 in 39 ft 0 in 13 ft 1 in
Piper Cheyenne 12,050 47 ft 8 in 43 ft 5 in 17 ft 0 in
Executive Jets
Lockheed Jetstar 35,000 54 ft 5 in 60 ft 5 in 20 ft 5 in
Grumman Gulfstream II 51,340 68 ft 10 in 79 ft 11 in 24 ft 6 in
Learjet 25 13,300 35 ft 7 in 47 ft 7 in 12 ft 7 in
Rockwell Sabreliner 17,500 44 ft 5 in 43 ft 9 in 16 ft 0 in
Airline Transports
Airbus A-300 330,700 147 ft 1 in 175 ft 6 in 55 ft 6 in
B-737-200 100,800 93 ft 0 in 100 ft 0 in 36 ft 9 in
B-727-200 173,000 108 ft 0 in 153 ft 2 in 34 ft 0 in
DC-9-30 109,000 93 ft 4 in 107 ft 0 in 27 ft 6 in
DC-8-63 358,000 148 ft 5 in 187 ft 5 in 43 ft 0 in
B-747 775,000 195 ft 8 in 229 ft 2 in 64 ft 8 in
B-757 225,000 124 ft 10 in 155 ft 4 in 45 ft 1 in
B-767 350,000 156 ft 1 in 180 ft 4 in 52 ft 7 in
L-1011 432,000 155 ft 4 in 178 ft 8 in 55 ft 10 in
DC-10-30 555,000 161 ft 4 in 181 ft 11 in 59 ft 7 in
MOC-MD-11 602,500 169 ft 10 in 201 ft 4 in 57 ft 10 in
18.36 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
The beacon may be placed atop a structure or on
a standard beacon tower. The beams of the beacon
are set slightly above the horizontal and should
clear all trees and obstructions in the vicinity.
Obstruction Lights
n
These red lights mark
objects that penetrate approach, horizontal, or
conical surfaces (Fig. 18.1). Both steady-running
and ashing obstruction lights are available for use
according to requirements. The positions of lights
will depend on the obstruction and its location
with respect to the airport.
Wind Indicator
n
Wind information is
required at all times to permit aircraft to select the
most favorable runway or landing strip for takeoff
or landing. The simplest indicator is a wind cone, a
free-swinging cloth cylinder which gives infor-
mation as to wind direction and velocity. At larger
airports, landing information is furnished by a
wind tee. The cone and tee should be illuminated to
provide information during hours of darkness.
18.19.1 Runway Lighting
These are low, elevated lights used to outline the
edges of paved runways or to dene unpaved
runways. The smallest airports have lights
mounted on driven stakes. At larger airports, the
lights are mounted on heavy bases or small vaults
of metal or concrete. The vault contains the
isolating transformer for each xture; otherwise,
the transformer is buried alongside the runway
light. The tops of bases and vaults are ush with
the airport surface.
The lights are spaced 200 ft apart longitudinally
and are usually 10 ft off the edge of the pavement
(Fig. 18.28). They are fed from underground cables,
either direct-burial or in ducts.
Medium-intensity runway lights are used on
noninstrument runways and are adequate for
visual operations. The intensity is controlled
through a ve-step regulator so that minimum
intensity can be used in good weather. The lights
have a Fresnel lens for optimum light distribution.
High-intensity runway lights are used on
runways equipped for instrument landings or
Fig. 18.28 Basic layout for airport lighting.
Airport Engineering n 18.37
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
designated as instrument-landing runways by the
FAA. These lights concentrate powerful beams
down the longitudinal axis of the runway, in both
directions. Intensity is controlled so that there is
adequate guidance without undue glare.
Threshold Lights
n
The effective end of each
runway is indicated by runway lights (medium- or
high-intensity) with green lenses. These lights are
placed athwart the runway to mark its actual end,
or outboarded beyond the edges of the runway for
displaced thresholds. It is usual to place threshold
lights at the actual runway ends (Fig. 18.28), except
where clearance of obstructions in the approach
dictates locating the threshold inward from the
actual end.
In-Runway Lights
n
Use of precision
approach facilities to achieve lower weather
minimums requires extensive electronic equipment
in the aircraft, improved FAA navigation aids on
the airport, and high-intensity runway lights, plus
in-runway lighting. The last consists of center-
line runway lights and touchdown-zone lighting.
The lighting of the center line of taxiway turnoffs is
desirable since it assists aircraft in clearing the
runway during inclement weather.
Runway center-line lighting (Fig. 18.29) con-
sists of xtures installed at uniform intervals along
the center line of a runway to give a continuous
lighting reference from threshold to threshold. The
lights are spaced at 50-ft intervals. Fixtures are
installed in shallow holes drilled into the pave-
ment. The lights are fed by cables installed in
1

4
-in
slots sawed 1 in deep. Isolating transformers are
located at the sides of the runway.
Touchdown-zone lighting (Fig. 18.29) consists
of 30 rows of transverse light bars at 100-ft
intervals. Each row contains two bars. Set 30 ft on
Fig. 18.29 Lighting layout for runway touchdown zone and center-line runway lights. NOTES: (1) In
case of unusual joint location in concrete pavement, the rst pair of light bars may be located 75 to 125 ft
from the threshold. (2) Longitudinal tolerance should not exceed 2 ft. (3) Gage may be reduced to 55 ft to
meet construction requirements. (4) Longitudinal installation tolerance for individual lights should not
exceed 2 ft. (5) Center-line lights need not be aligned with transverse light bars. (6) Maximum uniform
spacing of lights is 5 ft c to c. (7) Center-line lights may be located up to 2 ft from the runway center line to
avoid joints. (8) Corresponding pairs of transverse light bars should lie along a line perpendicular to the
runway center line. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
18.38 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
each side of the runway center line, each bar
consists of three lights 5 ft apart, ush with the
surface of the pavement, and aligned normal to the
axis of the runway.
The xtures are high-intensity lights installed in
the pavement and fed through ducts or cemented
into shallow holes drilled into the pavement and
fed through cable installed in sawed joints. A
variety of xtures is available.
18.19.2 Taxiway Lighting
An airport with paved taxiways should have
guidance lights if there is signicant trafc at night.
Taxiway lights are similar to medium-intensity
runway edge lights, except that they are equipped
with blue lenses. They are placed along the edges
of taxiways to outline usable paved areas (Fig.
18.28). The longitudinal spacing varies with the
taxiway conguration.
Taxiway Guidance Signs
n
These are
internally illuminated directional indicators placed
low above the ground surface. They give abbre-
viated guidance to the ends of runways, terminal
aprons, hangar areas, and other airport locations.
Need for them depends on the volume of trafc
and the complexity of airport layout and
development.
Taxiway-turnoff lighting (Fig. 18.30) consists of
lights installed, for relatively high-speed perform-
ance, along the center of a turnoff taxiway to
indicate the exit path. The lights are spaced 50 ft
apart. The xtures are similar to those used in the
runway center line.
18.19.3 Airport-Lighting Control
All airport lights should be controlled from a single
panel, readily accessible to an operator. At small
airports, a regulator assembly with controls built
into the same cabinet provides a simple solution for
basic lighting. Automatic controls (photoelectric or
astronomic time switches) may be used where it is
not feasible to have an operator on duty, or for
remote beacons, obstruction lights, or other equip-
ment, where direct control lines would not be
economically feasible.
At airports with more complex installations,
relay control equipment is placed in a transformer
vault and lights are remotely controlled from the
airport trafc-control tower or other central source.
The remote-control source should have an ade-
quate control panel, usually mounted on the
control-tower console, and should contain circuit-
control and brightness-control switches.
18.20 Airport Electric Power
Supply
Provision of electric power to an airport for general
purposes, as well as for airport lighting, requires a
determination of power requirements and study of
power availability. Usually, a second source of
power is desirable to ensure reliability of the
Fig. 18.30 Long-radius taxiway-turnoff lighting. A longitudinal tolerance may be necessary to avoid
joints in rigid pavements. (Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.39
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
lighting system. The overall reliability of power
from commercial sources will determine the
possible need for standby service or equipment.
Electrical Ducts
n
In the preparation of a
master plan for an airport, provision of electrical
ducts for all cable crossings under paved areas
should be carefully studied. The various systems of
lighting should be laid out in sufcient detail to
permit cable runs to be determined. All lighting
that can be contemplated as an ultimate require-
ment should be studied.
The FAA should be requested to furnish details
of all installations that it might make so its
cable requirements can be incorporated into the
duct plan.
When runways, taxiways, or aprons are paved,
care should be taken to ensure that adequate
electrical ducts are provided to preclude costly
jacking or cutting of pavements at some future
date. A number of spare ducts might well be
provided in all instances.
18.21 Airport Marking
In addition to airport lighting, marking of facilities
assists in guidance day and night and enhances
operations in periods of restricted visibility. Federal
Aviation Administration national standards should
be followed.
The basic marking at an airport consists of a
segmented circle marker (Fig. 18.28) and a wind
indicator. The segmented circle marker is placed
just outside the usable landing area. It identies an
airport and provides a central location for such
indicators as exist at that airport.
The marker is a broken circle 100 ft in diameter.
At the center is a conventional wind cone. A tee,
however, may be used as a landing direction
indicator.
Radial extensions beyond the 100 ft circle show
the orientation of landing strips or runways.
Extensions of the radials to the left or right indicate
the airport trafc pattern.
Obstructions should be day-marked for maxi-
mum visibility. Other marking includes the
numbering and striping of runways for normal
identication, striping of taxiways, marking of
unusable areas, and special runway marking to
facilitate operations during low-visibility weather.
18.22 Fuel Systems
Regardless of the volume of trafc at an airport,
some system of supplying fuel to aircraft must be
provided. The simplest system at a small airport is
an underground tank and an elevated dispenser,
not unlike a regular service station pump. Usually
provided by a petroleum company, this system
requires aircraft to taxi to a central location for
service (Fig. 18.25a).
Generally, a single grade of fuel is available.
Each additional grade and type of fuel requires a
separate installation.
Airports with a medium volume of trafc
normally use fuel-truck dispensers. These are
serviced from local bulk stations if trafc is low
and from airport storage if there is a sufcient
volume of trafc to warrant. The busiest primary-
system airports require fuel in such quantities that
supply, storage, and distribution become special
and complex problems.
Fuel Supply
n
Depending on overall fuel
requirements coupled with local conditions, fuel
will be supplied to the airport by truck delivery
from local sources; tank truck, rail, or barge
deliveries from reneries or bulk-storage sources;
direct pipeline delivery; or various combinations of
these. The heavier the volume of trafc, the more
varied the types of fuel required.
Even at some airports where large quantities of
certain varieties of fuels come by pipeline, the
demand for other varieties is so low that truck
delivery is employed for them. It is necessary to
make a forecast of the demand for various grades
of fuel, to determine long-range sources of
availability, and to study all possible methods of
delivery as a prerequisite to the design of an airport
fuel system.
Fuel Storage
n
The bulk-storage system at the
airport should provide for each type of fuel to be
handled. Normal practice is also to maintain brand
segregation. The capacity for each type should be
adequate to accommodate fueling requirements for
several days.
Delivery provisions should be exible. There
should be truck stands so that fuel can be unloaded
from trucks and pumped into storage. Even where
trucks are not the major source of supply to the
airport, truck stands should be adequate to supply
the entire fuel demand in an emergency, with
18.40 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
pumping capacity sized accordingly. The same
pumping capacity can be used for rail or barge
supply.
Pipeline delivery will normally not require
pumping capacity, inasmuch as fuel can be
transferred under pressure to storage tanks. A
waste tank should be provided for changing types
of fuel without affecting type integrity.
The storage tanks should be interconnected to
provide for interchange or transfer of fuel within
the storage area. Tanks should be adequate to
handle modern jet fuels. Usually, inert-gas
explosion suppression is provided, or the tanks
have oating roofs. The storage system should be
capable of easy expansion or modication.
Fuel Transfer
n
Fuel is pumped from storage
tanks through lter separators to pits, hydrants,
or truck-loading stands, either directly or through
satellite storage areas. If the distance is great, the
size and number of transfer pipes may be
reduced by introducing one or more satellite
storage areas.
It is usual to have a separate satellite area for
each user or group of users. Pumps take fuel from
satellite storage through lter separators and to
pits, hydrants, or truck stands.
Fuel Delivery
n
Trucks and pits are used for
low-capacity delivery of fuel. High-capacity fuel
delivery is accomplished by hydrants and hose
carts.
Truck stands serve as loading points for fuel
trucks, which deliver from the trucks directly into
aircraft fuel tanks, through lter separators.
Pits contain booster pumps, lter separators,
and coiled hose to deliver fuel directly into aircraft
tanks similar to truck delivery.
Hydrants provide for quick connection to hose
carts. These are powered vehicles equipped with
lter separators and pressure regulators to deliver
fuel at high rates, under pressure, through under-
wing loading.
18.23 Air-Trafc Control
Airports are developed through the initiative of
local communities, but the control of air trafc is a
function of the Federal government. It is usual for
air-trafc-control facilities to be installed and
operated wholly with Federal funds.
Some auxiliary facilities, such as high-intensity
runway lights and in-runway lighting, are the
responsibility of the local community owning
the airport. Facilities that furnish guidance along
the airways and assist in the transition from airway
to airport are usually installed without local
participation. The FAA has criteria based on
volumes of trafc that are used to locate specic
control facilities at an airport. Articles 18.23.1 to
18.23.3 provide general information concerning
location and installation, but the FAA should be
contacted for the latest revisions.
(Airport Design Requirements for
Terminal Navigation Aids, Federal Aviation
Administration.)
18.23.1 Instrument Landing
System (ILS)
The ILS is an electronic facility that furnishes three-
dimensional information in the nal portion of an
airport approach, to permit an aircraft to y to the
landing runway in inclement weather. The system
consists of localized glide slope, outer marker, and
middle marker.
Localizer equipment provides an electronic
course down the projected center line of the
runway for lateral guidance. The equipment is
normally installed 1000 ft beyond the end of the
runway opposite the approach direction. The area
between the end of the runway and the localizer
should be smooth, and within a circular area 500 ft
from the localizer there should be no trees,
buildings, roads, or fences.
Glide-slope reference is transmitted from
equipment located 400 to 600 ft off the center line
of the runway and 750 to 1250 ft in from the
approach end. A smooth area is necessary for a
considerable distance in front of the glide-slope
unit to ensure the stability and accuracy of the
electronic emissions.
Outer-marker equipment is located 4 to 7 mi
from the airport on the projected center line of
runway. The signals from the outer marker indicate
distance from the runway end.
Middle-marker signals indicate a point about
3500 ft from the runway end.
(Airport Design Requirements for Terminal
Navigation Aids, Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.41
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18.23.2 Approach-Light
Systems
This is a system of high-intensity lights that extend
outward from the approach end along the
projected center line of the runway. They provide
visual reference to the instrument runway during
the transition from instrument ight to visual
ight.
The system consists of horizontal 12-ft bars of
high-intensity lights spaced 100 ft apart long-
itudinally for a distance of 1400 to 3000 ft. Each
bar contains, in addition, a condenser discharge
light. These ash in sequence toward the runway.
An area 400 3200 ft is desirable for the
installation of the approach-light system. The lights
are placed on piers or towers as required to provide
a uniform light line at a slope not exceeding 2%
upward from the end of the runway or a slope of
1% downward.
Runway-End Identier Lights
n
This
system consists of a pair of synchronized ashing
lights. One is located on each side of the runway-
landing threshold facing into the approach area.
The lights are placed 40 ft outward from the
runway edge lights. The ashing lights provide
rapid and positive identication of the approach
end of a particular runway.
Precision-Approach-Path Indicator
n
This is a system of visual-approach indication,
designed to provide visually the same information
that a glide-slope unit provides electronically.
Normally, four light units in one row are placed
1000 ft in from the runway threshold. The lights are
placed 50 ft from the runway edges.
The light units have beams elevated so that a
specic approach slope is indicated through the
proper combination of red and white lights; for
example, two red and two white. The approach
slope may be set to clear a specic obstruction or to
enhance noise-abatement procedures.
(Airport Design Requirements for Termi-
nal Navigation Aids, Federal Aviation
Administration.)
18.23.3 Other Airport Trafc
Controls
Surveillance radar controls trafc within a con-
siderable distance from the airport, about the same
range as covered by the airport approach-service
control. No unusual siting problems are involved.
Precision-approach radar system is used to
monitor or control trafc approaching the instru-
ment runway. It is located alongside the instrument
runway 400 to 750 ft from the center line.
Terminal VOR omnirange is a terminal facility
similar to the standard VOR (VHF omnirange)
navigation device. When it is sited on an airport,
there should be a clearance of 1200 ft in all
directions to ensure true azimuth course indication.
Transmissometer is a device that furnishes
visibility-measurement information for the runway
touchdown area. The installation is located slightly
more than 400 ft from the center line of the
instrument landing system runway.
Airport trafc-control towers are provided by
the FAA at those locations where new towers are
required. The control tower should be located at a
point from which all portions of the runways,
taxiways, and aprons are visible. Requirements for
each airport will vary; hence, they should be
checked with the FAA.
Airport surface-detection equipment com-
prises a radar system that permits the observation
of aircraft ground trafc on the airport. It is usually
located on top of airport trafc-control towers.
(Airport Design Requirements for Terminal
Navigation Aids, Federal Aviation Administration.)
18.24 Heliports
Helicopters in civil use vary in size, number of
rotors, number of engines, and overall weight.
Small helicopters usually employ a single rotor for
lift and lateral control and a vertical tail rotor for
pivotal or yaw control. Large civil helicopters have
a single main rotor and vertical tail rotor or two
main rotors located in tandem along the longitudi-
nal axis of the helicopter. There are other potential
congurations, including intermeshing main rotors
placed normal to the main axis, and various models
of vertical-lift devices and convertible aircraft that
can take off vertically and, through variable aircraft
geometry, y horizontally at speeds greater than
those possible for helicopters.
Helicopters rise vertically a few feet above the
heliport surface when taking off. Then they accelerate
upward and forward on a sloping path to climb-out
speed and continue to en-route altitude.
18.42 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Landing involves an approach on a sloping path
to a hovering position a few feet above the heliport
surface. Then, the craft descends vertically to a
selected landing point. Sideward ight may be
performed easily during the landing maneuver, so
the helicopter will land in a precise position.
Ability to operate vertically permits the helicopter
to land and take off using areas only slightly larger
than its own dimensions.
18.24.1 Heliport Classications
Heliports, as described in FAA Advisory Circular
150/5390-2A, are classied by use as private,
publicgeneral aviation, publictransport, and
hospital. Private-use heliports are developed for
the exclusive use of the owner and person
representing the owner. General aviation heliports
are intended to accommodate individuals, corpor-
ations, and helicopter air-taxi operators. Scheduled
passenger services may be available. Transport
heliports are intended to accommodate air-carrier
operators who provide service with large helicop-
ters. Hospital heliports are limited to serving
helicopters engaged in air ambulance or other
hospital-related functions. Helistops are heliports
with minimum support facilities; that is, no shelter,
maintenance, or fueling.
Heliports are developed around a design
helicopter, the largest helicopter expected to use the
heliport during future years. For heliports located
on airports, helicopters are classied as small,
medium, or heavy for determining the distance
between landing facilities.
Small helicopters (up to 4 passengers) generally
weigh up to 6000 lb, are 30 to 40 ft long, 9 to 10 ft
high, and have rotor diameters up to 35 ft. Medium
helicopters have a takeoff weight between 6000 and
12,000 lb. Larger helicopters in general use weigh
up to 20,000 lb, carry as many as 30 passengers, are
65 to 85 ft long, up to 17 ft high, and have rotor
diameters up to 55 ft. Most small helicopters use a
skid-type landing gear, but large helicopters use
wheel landing gear with a three- or four-wheel
conguration.
18.24.2 Final Approach and Takeoff
Area
Although planning considerations are the
same for the various classications of heliports,
requirements for physical characteristics differ
slightly. Heliports have in common the nal
approach and takeoff area (FATO), which is an
object-free area available for helicopter landings
and takeoffs. The FATO may be at ground or water
level or elevated, on a pier or rooftop. At least one
clear path from the FATO aligned with the
prevailing wind should permit approach and
takeoff of a helicopter clear of all objects
(Fig. 18.31.) A FATO should have a minimum
dimension (length, width, or diameter) 1.5 times
the overall length of the design helicopter. If a
heliport is 1000 ft or more above mean sea level,
consideration should be given to elongating the
FATO in the direction of takeoff. The FATO should
be smooth. Grades may range from 0.5% to a
maximum of 5.0% to ensure good drainage, but
they should not exceed 2% in any area where a
helicopter is expected to land.
A safety area, free and clear of objects that could
be struck by the main or tail rotor or that could
catch the skids of an arriving or departing
helicopter, should surround the FATO. The width
of this area, measured outward from the FATO,
should be at least one-third the rotor diameter but
not less than 20 ft.
18.24.3 Touchdown and Liftoff
Area
A FATO should have a touchdown and liftoff area
(TLOF) with a paved or other hard surface,
preferably centered in the FATO. The diameter of
the TLOF should be at least that of the rotor of the
design helicopter. (When the entire FATO is load-
bearing, however, an identiable TLOF may not be
required.)
For ground-level heliports, the surface of the
TLOF should be portland cement-concrete. An
asphaltic concrete surface may also be used, but
provision should be made for the possibility that
ruts may form under wheels or skids due to hot
climatic conditions or the repeated loads of landing
and parking helicopters. (Ruts are suspected of
being possible factors in some rollover incidents.)
Pavements should be designed to support 1.5 times
the maximum weight of the design helicopter. They
should have a broomed nish to enhance safety of
persons and helicopters on the TLOF.
An elevated TLOF also should be designed
to support 1.5 times the maximum takeoff
Airport Engineering n 18.43
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
weight of the design helicopter. The TLOF may be
constructed of wood, metal, or concrete, but
usually, a combination of steel and concrete is
used. The gradient of an elevated TLOF should be
about the same as that for a ground-based TLOF.
When a TLOF is elevated more than 30 in above
its surroundings, a 5-ft-wide safety net or shelf
should be provided in lieu of a railing. The safety
net should have a load-carrying capacity of at least
25 lb/ft
2
. Normally, it is installed with a slight slope
upward and outward fromthe TLOF with the outer
edge projecting above the TLOF 2 in or less.
Engineers should obtain information from local
building ofcials on design loads for elevated
heliports; re-extinguishment requirements; and
storage, handling, and dispensing of aircraft fuels.
Information also should be obtained from the
nearest FAA Airports District Ofce on require-
ments for heliport markers and markings, wind
indicators, heliport lighting, and approach and
navigational aids applicable to the type of heliport
being designed. The FAA should also review
environmental impacts and compatibility of land
uses in the vicinity of the proposed heliport.
18.24.4 ApproachandTakeoff
Paths
All public-use heliports should have more than one
approach and takeoff path. One path should be
aligned with the predominant wind during
operations in visual meteorological conditions
(VMC). Another path, if practicable, should be
aligned with the prevailing winds for operations in
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Visual approach and takeoff paths may curve to
avoid objects or noise-sensitive areas or to utilize
the airspace above public ways, such as freeways
and rivers (Fig. 18.31).
Avisual approach and takeoff surface should be
centered on each approach and takeoff path. This
surface should conformto the dimensions specied
in the FAR Part 77 heliport approach surface.
Fig. 18.31 Standard dimensions for heliports and approaches. FATO length and width a should be at
least 1.5 times the overall length of the design helicopter. Straightway approach-departure length c, width
d of the ight path at the wide end of the straightway, and the radius of the curved path should each be at
least 300ft.
18.44 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Approach-departure paths should be laid out to
offer the best lines of ight. It generally is necessary
to have at least two ight paths, usually 1808 apart,
but the paths may be as little as 908 apart.
Curved paths are practicable but should be used
with a minimum straightway approach-departure
length of 300 ft (Fig. 18.31). The center-line radius
of a curved path will vary, depending on local
conditions and type of helicopter used. In general,
however, the radius of the curved path should be at
least 300 ft.
The approach-departure path has the same
width as the contiguous edge of the landing and
takeoff area and ares uniformly on each side of the
center line to a width of 500 ft at the en route
altitude. The slope of the path is 1 ft vertical for
each 8 ft longitudinally (8: 1). Objects that extend
above this sloping plane are obstructions.
Transition areas are surfaces along the lateral
boundaries of the landing and takeoff area and the
approach-departure areas. The surfaces, or
side slopes, extend outward and upward from
the edges of the heliport and approach-departure
areas for a distance of 250 ft from the center line.
The slope is 2: 1 upward from the edge of the
landing and takeoff area or from the edge of
the sloping approach-departure plane.
Heliport proponents or owners should own or
control property underlying the approach and
takeoff surface outward to a distance where the
surface is 35 ft above the heliport.
18.24.5 Helicopter Parking
Public heliports, not designed as helistops, should
have an area designated for parking helicopters.
The size required for this area, or apron, depends
on the number of helicopters to be accommodated.
The clear distance from any part of a helicopter on
its intended path to another helicopter or any object
should be at least one-third the rotor diameter, but
not less than 10 ft. If a helicopter must turn more
than 308 within a parking position, clearance of the
tail rotor beyond one-third the rotor diameter or
10 ft. whichever is larger, may control location of
parking positions. Parking pads should have a
minimumdimension of 1.5 times the undercarriage
length or width of the design helicopter.
Taxi routes or taxiways should connect the
FATO to the area designated for helicopter parking.
They should be designed to provide 20 ft of rotor
tip clearance to objects and parked helicopters for
hover taxiing and 10 ft of clearance for ground
taxiing. Paved surfaces of taxiways should have at
least twice the undercarriage width of the design
helicopter. If the surface is unpaved, it should be
treated in some manner to prevent dirt and debris
from being raised by the rotor wash of a taxiing
helicopter.
18.24.6 Heliport Layout and
Design
Aheliport may be sited on the ground or on top of a
building. For greatest utility to helicopters, the site
should be as close as possible to the locale it serves.
It should provide operational safety, have clear
approaches, and be compatible with air trafc in
the vicinity. It should t in with area planning and
not have an adverse impact on the community.
The small heliport may consist of only a
designated area containing an unsurfaced landing
and takeoff area (Fig. 18.32) or of an elaborate
facility with a paved landing area, parking and
service aprons, heliport terminal, and automobile
parking (Fig. 18.33).
Standard grading and drainage practices should
be employed. The rotor downwash of helicopter
operations usually requires a stabilized landing
and takeoff area at a minimum. A paved touch-
down pad is desirable.
Ground locations for heliports usually permit
less expensive construction than rooftop sites but
are seldom available in congested areas. Rooftop
locations usually have advantages of accessibility
and clear approaches to counter the disadvantages
of limited space, difculty of locating emergency-
landing areas, and the probable need to strengthen
the structure. It is necessary to consider wind
effects as well as local building codes, zoning, and
re regulations.
If the structure requires reinforcing, a load-
distribution pad might be satisfactory. The pad
need not be so large as the landing and takeoff area,
but the full area should be a clear area. The pad can
be as small as 20 20 ft for smaller helicopters, up
to 50 50 ft for larger vehicles. The rooftop heliport
should be of sufcient strength that it will not fail
under unusual, high-impact landings. The landing
surface should be designed for a concentrated load
equal to 75% of the gross weight of the helicopter
on any 1 ft
2
of the surface.
Wind conditions might require bafes to elimi-
nate turbulence across the surface of the heliport.
Airport Engineering n 18.45
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Fig. 18.32 Layout for a small heliport. L overall length of design helicopter. (Heliport Design,
Federal Aviation Administration.)
Fig. 18.33 Layout for a large heliport. L overall length of design helicopter. (Federal Aviation
Administration.)
18.46 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Also, a safety device should be provided around
elevated touchdown areas or landing pads. This
should extend outward from the touchdown area.
18.24.7 Heliport Marking and
Lighting
Standard heliport markers, placed near the center
of the touchdown area, are shown in Fig. 18.34.
The touchdown area should be marked with a
border at least 1 ft wide. The boundary of the
landing and takeoff area should be made conspic-
uous by low markers spaced 25 ft apart. A wind
indicator should be adjacent to the landing
and takeoff area, located to provide true wind
information.
Obstructions should be marked and lighted.
Yellow boundary lights may be used to outline the
Fig. 18.34 Heliport markers: (a) Standard public heliport markers; (b) example of marker for private-
use ports; (c) marker for hospital heliport; (d) weight-limiting marker (7000lb indicated) for elevated
heliports. (Heliport Design, Federal Aviation Administration.)
Airport Engineering n 18.47
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING
landing and takeoff area. Floodlighting will be
effective. One method is to place low Fresnel-lens
lights around the landing and takeoff area, with a
sharp cutoff that will not bother the pilot.
(Heliport Design, Federal Aviation
Administration.)
18.25 STOL Ports
There is a great potential for STOL (short take-off
and landing) aircraft in short-haul transportation,
serving stage distances of up to 500 mi. There is
considerable advantage for city-center-to-city-
center and intracity air-passenger carriers that can
provide better service to passengers and relieve
both air-space and ground congestion at large
airports.
Criteria for STOL ports are tentative and subject
to change as evaluation of proposed STOL
aircraft and operational experience dictate. Signi-
cant future changes may be incorporated into
revisions to the Federal Aviation Administration
publication, Planning and Design Criteria for
Metropolitan STOL Ports. The STOL vehicle
promises shorter runways, steeper approach paths,
lesser real estate requirements, and the prospect of
in-town airport locations, but more research and
testing are needed.
18.48 n Section Eighteen
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AIRPORT ENGINEERING