129

Chapter 11
Voltage, energy and power
The meaning of voltage
So far, we have used the term voltage in a rather
casual way. You may think of a voltage simply as
something measured by a voltmeter. In everyday
life, the word is used in a less scientifc sense for
example, A big voltage can go through you and kill
you. In this chapter, we will consider a bit more
carefully just what we mean by voltage in relation to
electric circuits.
Look at the simple circuit in Figure 11.1. The
power supply has negligible internal resistance. (We
look at internal resistance later in Chapter 13). The
three voltmeters are measuring three voltages. With
the switch open, the voltmeter placed across the
supply measures 12 V. With the switch closed, the
voltmeter across the power supply still measures 12 V
and the voltmeters placed across the resistors measure
8 V and 4 V. You will not be surprised to see that the
voltage across the power supply is equal to the sum
of the voltages across the resistors.
In Chapter 9 we saw that electric current is the rate
of fow of electric charge. Figure 11.2 shows the same
circuit as in Figure 11.1, but here we are looking at
the movement of one coulomb (1 C) of charge round
the circuit. Electrical energy is transferred to the
charge by the power supply. The charge fows round
the circuit, transferring some of its electrical energy
to heat in the frst resistor, and the rest to the second
resistor.
The voltmeter readings indicate the energy
transferred to the component by each unit of charge.
The voltmeter placed across the power supply
measures the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the
supply, whereas the voltmeters placed across the
resistors measure the potential difference (p.d.) or
voltage across these components. Electromotive force
and potential difference have different meanings so
you have to be very vigilant.

The term potential difference is used when
charges lose energy by transferring electrical
energy to other forms of energy in a component.
Potential difference, V, is defned as the energy
transferred per unit charge.

The term electromotive force is used when
charges gain electrical energy from a power supply
or a battery. Electromotive force, E, is also defned
as the energy transferred per unit charge.
Electromotive force is a misleading term. It has
nothing at all to do with force. This term is a legacy
from the past and we are stuck with it!
V = 12 V
12 V
V
V V
R = 20 R = 10
V = 8 V V = 4 V
Figure 11.1 Measuring voltages in a circuit.
Note that each voltmeter is connected across the
component.
+12 J
1 C 1 C
8 J 4 J
R = 20 R = 10
12 V
Figure 11.2 Energy transfers as 1 C of charge fows
round a circuit. This circuit is the same as that shown
in Figure 11.1.
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Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
130
Voltage and energy
By comparing Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2, you
will see the relationship between volts and joules.
A 12 V power supply gives 12 J of electrical energy to
each coulomb of charge that passes through it. This
electrical energy is dissipated as heat as the charge
moves through the resistors connected in the circuit.
Each coulomb of charge dissipates 8 J of energy as
heat in the 20 resistor and 4 J of energy as heat in
the 10 resistor. All the energy gained by the one
coulomb of charge is transferred to the components in
the circuit.
The potential difference across a component and
the electromotive force of a battery (or power supply)
are defned as follows:
potential difference =
energy lost by charge
charge
or
V =
W
Q
where V is the potential difference, and W is the
energy lost by a charge Q as it moves through a
component.
electromotive force =
energy gained by charge
charge
or
E =
W
Q
where E is the e.m.f. of the battery (or power supply)
and W is the energy gained by a charge Q moving
through the battery.
From the defnitions above, we can see how the
volt is related to the joule and the coulomb:
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb
or
1 V = 1 J C
1
So perhaps we should now also think of voltmeters
as devices that measure the amount of joules
transferred per coulomb.
Sources of e.m.f. (Figure 11.3) are often labelled
with their e.m.f. For example, a 1.5 V chemical cell
transfers 1.5 J of energy to each coulomb of charge
that it passes through it. All sources of e.m.f. change
energy to electrical energy. For example, a chemical
cell changes chemical energy into electrical energy and
a solar cell changes light energy into electrical energy.
Figure 11.3 Some sources of e.m.f. cells, batteries,
a power supply and a dynamo.
SAQ
1 Calculate how much energy is transferred to 1.0 C
of charge:
a by a 6.0 V battery, and
b by a 5.0 kV high-voltage supply.
2 A 12 V battery drives a current of 2.0 A round a
circuit for one minute. Calculate:
a how much charge fows through the battery in
this time
b how much energy is transferred to the charge
by the battery
c how much energy this charge
transfers to the components
in the circuit.
3 Describe the energy transfers
that occur in 1.0 s in the resistor
shown in Figure 11.4.
CAS Physics 1
11.04
Mac/eps/Ilustrator 8.01/4-col s/s
Text: Time New Roman 9/12pt
CUP
Studio: Peters & Zabransky
2
6 V
Figure 11.4 For SAQ 3.
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Volt, ampere, ohm these are all electrical units
from the SI system, established over 50 years
ago. SI, which stands for Systme Internationale
dUnits, is the system of units which is used in
most scientifc applications. The ampere (or simply
the amp) is one of the seven base units in the SI
system, from which all other SI units (including the
volt and ohm) are derived.
These three units are named after pioneers in the
study of electricity.

Alessandro Volta (17451827) was an Italian
physicist who invented the frst reliable battery.
He also invented a device for producing
electricity.

Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836) was a French
pioneer of the study of electromagnetism. He
produced a detailed study of the magnetic feld
produced by an electric current.

Georg Ohm (17891854) was a German
physicist who discovered the relationship
between voltage and current, long before the
invention of ammeters and voltmeters.
These three physicists working lives covered a
revolutionary century in the feld of electricity
and magnetism. It is ftting that their names have
come down to us in the form of units. However,
other pioneers have been less lucky. The names
of Maxwell, Gauss, Oersted and the Curies were
used as units in earlier systems of units, only to be
abandoned when the SI system became established.
The International Committee for Weights and
Measures is the body which ratifes decisions about
the naming of units. Its headquarters is near Paris;
the French have had a powerful infuence on this
area of international cooperation, largely because
Naming units
the metric system was frst developed and adopted
in France, shortly after Napoleon came to power
in 1799.
It is not just in science that it is important to have
agreement about units. International trade requires
that manufacturers produce goods to agreed
standards, and this requires a shared system of
measurement. Although some countries (notably the
USA) still use non-SI units, these are now based on
the defnitions of SI units. In the UK, the National
Physical Laboratory (Figure 11.5) at Teddington,
near London, is the body with responsibility
for ensuring that scientifc and commercial
measurements meet international standards.
Figure 11.5 The National Physical Laboratory near
London is home to a team of scientists working to
improve the precision of measurement in the UK
and further afeld.
Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
131
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Electrical power
The rate at which energy is transferred is known as
power. Power P is measured in watts (W). (If you are
not sure about this, refer back to Chapter 7, where we
looked at the concept of power in relation to forces
and work done.)
power =
energy transferred
time taken
P =
W
t
where P is the power and W is the energy transferred
in a time t. (Take care not to confuse W for energy
transferred or work done with W for watts.)
The rate at which energy is transferred in an
electrical component is related to two quantities:

the current I in the component

the potential difference V across the component.
We can derive an equation for electrical power from
the equations we have met so far.
The amount of energy transferred W by a charge Q
travelling through a potential difference V is given by:
W = VQ
Hence:
P =
VQ
t
= V

Q
t

The ratio of charge to time,

Q
t
, is the current I in the
component. Therefore:
P = VI
As a word equation, we have:
power = potential difference current
SAQ
4 Calculate the current in a 60 W light bulb when it
is connected to a 230 V
supply.
5 A large power station supplies
electrical energy to the grid at a
voltage of 25 kV. Calculate the output power of the
station when the current it
supplies is 40 kA.
Fuses
A fuse is a device which is ftted in an electric circuit;
it is usually there to protect the wiring from excessive
currents. For example, the fuses in a domestic fuse
box will blow if the current is too large. High
currents cause wires to get hot, and this can lead to
damaged wires, fumes from melting insulation, and
even fres.
Fuses (Figure 11.6) are usually marked with their
current rating; that is, the maximum current which
they will permit. Inside the fuse cartridge is a thin
wire which gets hot and melts if the current exceeds
this value. This breaks the circuit and stops any
hazardous current. Worked example 2 shows how an
appropriate fuse is chosen.
Calculate the rate at which energy is transferred
by a 230 V mains supply which provides a current
of 8.0 A to an electric heater.
Step 1 Use the equation for power:
P = VI with V = 230 V and I = 8.0 A
Step 2 Substitute values:
P = 8 230 = 1840 W (1.84 kW)
Worked example 1
Figure 11.6 Fuses of different current ratings.
Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
132
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Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
133
SAQ
6 An electric cooker is usually connected to the
mains supply in a separate circuit from other
appliances, because it draws a high current. A
particular cooker is rated at 10 kW, 230 V.
a Calculate the current through the cooker when
it is fully switched on.
b Suggest a suitable current rating
for the fuse for this cooker.
Power and resistance
A current I in a resistor of resistance R transfers
energy to it. The resistor dissipates heat. The p.d. V
across the resistor is given by V = IR. Combining this
with the equation for power, P = VI, gives us two
further forms of the equation for power:
P = I
2
R
P =
V
2
R
Which form of the equation we use in any particular
situation depends on the information we have
available to us. This is illustrated in Worked
example 3a and Worked example 3b, which relate
to a power station and to the grid cables which lead
from it (Figure 11.7).
A power station produces 20 MW of power at a
voltage of 200 kV. Calculate the current supplied
to the grid cables.
Step 1 Here we have P and V and we have to
fnd I, so we can use P = VI.
Step 2 Rearranging the equation and substituting
the values we know gives:
current I =
P
V
=
20 10
6
200 10
3
= 100 A
So the power station supplies a current of 100 A.
Worked example 3a
An electric kettle is rated at 2.5 kW, 230 V.
Determine a suitable current rating of the fuse to
put in the three-pin plug. Choose from 1 A, 5 A,
13 A, 30 A.
Step 1 Calculate the current through the kettle in
normal operation. Rearranging P = VI to make I
the subject gives:
I =
P
V
So: I =
2500
230
= 10.9 A
Step 2 Now we know that the normal current
through the kettle is 10.9 A. We must choose
a fuse with a slightly higher rating than this.
Therefore the value of the fuse rating is 13 A.
Note that a 5 A fuse would not be suitable
because it would melt as soon as the kettle is
switched on. A 30 A fuse would allow more than
twice the normal current before blowing, which
would not provide suitable protection.
Worked example 2
Figure 11.7 A power station and electrical
transmission lines. How much electrical power is lost
as heat in these cables? (See Worked example 3a and
Worked example 3b.)
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Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
134
SAQ
7 A calculator is powered by a 3.0 V battery. The
calculators resistance is 20 k.
Calculate the power transferred
to the calculator.
8 A light bulb is labelled 230 V, 150 W. This means
that when connected to the 230 V mains supply it
is fully lit and changes electrical energy to heat
and light at the rate of 150 W. Calculate:
a the current which fows through the bulb when
fully lit
b its resistance when fully lit.
9 Calculate the resistance of a 100 W light bulb that
draws a current of 0.43 A from a
power supply.
Calculating energy
Since
power = current voltage
and
energy = power time
we have:
energy transferred = current voltage time
W = IVt
Working in SI units, this gives energy transferred in
joules.
SAQ
10 A 12 V car battery can supply a
current of 10 A for 5.0 hours.
Calculate how many joules of
energy the battery transfers in
this time.
11 A lamp is operated for 20 s. The current in the
lamp is 10 A. In this time, it transfers 400 J of
energy to the lamp. Calculate:
a how much charge fows through the lamp
b how much energy each coulomb of charge
transfers to the lamp
c the p.d. across the lamp.
Energy units
We are used to energy transfers given in joules
(J), the SI unit of energy. However, this is a rather
small unit for many practical purposes the energy
transferred to you by your daily diet is of the order
of 10 MJ, and many hundreds of megajoules are
supplied by the electricity, gas and other fuels you use
in your daily activities.
A more practical unit for many purposes is the
kilowatt-hour (kW h). If you operate a 1 kW electric
heater for one hour, the energy it transfers to the
surroundings is 1 kW h. If you use a 2 kW heater for
3 hours, it transfers 6 kW h, and so on. Therefore
energy transferred (kW h) = power (kW) time (h)
The grid cables are 15 km long, with a resistance
per unit length of 0.20 km
1
. How much power
is wasted as heat in these cables?
Step 1 First we must calculate the resistance of
the cables:
resistance R = 15 km 0.20 km
1
= 3.0
Step 2 Now we know I and R and we want to
fnd P. We can use P = I
2
R.
power wasted as heat, P = I
2
R
= (100)
2
3.0
= 3.0 10
4
W
= 30 kW
Hence, of the 20 MW of power produced by the
power station, 30 kW is wasted just 0.15%.
Worked example 3b
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You can calculate the cost of the energy
consumption if the cost for each kW h is given.
That is,
cost (p) = number of kW h cost of each kW h (p)
SAQ
12 A 100 W lamp is guaranteed to
run for 1000 hours. Calculate
the number of kilowatt-hours
transferred in
this time.
Domestic and industrial electricity consumption
is measured in kW h, sometimes simply known as
units. Domestic gas bills also show the cost of
energy in kW h, to allow the consumer to make
comparisons. Elsewhere you may come across many
other practical energy units: kilocalories for the energy
content of foods, barrels or tonnes of oil, and so on.
Since one kilowatt is 1000 joules per second and
an hour is 3600 s, it follows that:
1 kW h = 1000 3600 = 3.6 10
6
J = 3.6 MJ
It is the large size of this value that makes it easier to
work in kW h for everyday purposes.
Summary

The term potential difference (p.d.) is used when charges lose energy in a component. It is defned as the
energy transferred per unit charge.
V =
W
Q
or W = VQ

The term electromotive force (e.m.f.) is used when charges gain electrical energy from a battery or similar
device. It is also defned as the energy transferred per unit charge.
E =
W
Q
or W = EQ

A volt is a joule per coulomb. That is, 1 V = 1 J C
1
.

A fuse is selected so that its current rating is slightly higher than the normal operating current of the device
which it is protecting.

Power is the rate of energy transfer. In electrical terms, power is the product of voltage and current.
That is, P = VI.

For a resistance R, we also have:
P = I
2
R and P =
V
2
R

Energy transferred is given by the equation:
W = IVt

One kilowatt-hour is defned as the energy transferred by a 1 kW device operating for a time of 1 hour.
energy (kW h) = power (kW) time (h)
Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
135
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Extension
Glossary
Chapter 11: Voltage, energy and power
136
1 a Defne the kilowatt-hour (kW h). [1]
b On average, a student uses a computer of power rating 110 W for 4.0 hours
every day. The computer draws a current of 0.48 A.
i For a period of one week, calculate:
1 the number of kilowatt-hours supplied to the computer [2]
2 the cost of operating the computer if the cost of each kW h is 7.5p. [1]
ii Calculate the electric charge drawn by the computer for a period of
one week. [3]
OCR Physics AS (2822) January 2005 [Total 7]
2 A convenient unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kW h).
a Defne the kilowatt-hour. [1]
b A 120 W flament lamp transforms 5.8 kW h. Calculate the time in seconds for
which the lamp is operated. [2]
OCR Physics AS (2822) June 2004 [Total 3]
3 The diagram shows an electrical circuit for a small dryer used to blow warm air.
warm air
coil X
2.0
coil Y
6.0
12 V
motor and fan A B
The 12 V supply has negligible internal resistance.
It may be assumed that coils X and Y have constant resistances of 2.0 and
6.0 , respectively.
a Calculate the total resistance of the circuit with both switches closed. [3]
b Calculate the power dissipated by the coil X with only switch A closed. [4]
OCR Physics AS (2822) May 2002 [Total 7]
4 a Use energy considerations to distinguish between potential difference (p.d.) and
electromotive force (e.m.f.). [2]
b Which of the following is the correct answer for an alternative unit for e.m.f.
or p.d.?
J s
1
J A
1
J C
1
[1]
OCR Physics AS (2822) June 2001 [Total 3]
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