Preface vi 1 2 Contents Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Introduction 1 Units and Dimensions 2 Newton’s Laws and Inertial Systems 5 Inertial and Noninertial Systems: Noninertial Forces 7 Simple Applications of Newton’s Laws 9 Motion in a Circle and Gravitation 17 Problems 23 ‘Suggestions for Further Reading 27 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Introduction 28 Constant Applied Force: F constant 30 ‘Time Dependent Force: F = F(t) 31 Velocity Dependent Force: F = F(x) 35 Position Dependent Forces: F = F(x), Conservative Forces, and Potential Energy 44 ‘Motion under a Linear Restoring Force 49 27 41 44 45 Variation of g in a Gravitational Field 51 Problems 54 ‘Suggestions for Further Reading 57 Harmonic Oscillators Introduction 58 Linear and Nonlinear Oscillations 58 Linear Harmonic Oscillator 62 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 70 Quality Factor 82 Forced Harmonic Oscillator (Driven Oscillator) 85 Amplitude Resonance 92 Energy Resonance 98 Rate of Fnergy Dissipation 99 Problems 100 Suggestions for Further Reading 103 Oscillating Systems Introduction 104 Harmonic Oscillators in Electrical Circuits 105 Principle of Superposition and Fourier Series 110 Harmonic Motion and Green's Function 115 Nonlinear Oscillating Systems 12246 5 54 55 5.6 37 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 6.8 69 Qualitative Discussion of Motion and Phased Diagrams 127 Problems 134 Suggestions for Further Reading 138 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Introduction 139 ‘Vector Properties 139 Vector Addition: Analytical ‘Treatment 141 Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors 145 Unit Vectors or Base Vectors 151 Directional Cosines 155 Vector Calculus 158 Vector Differential Operators: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl 164 Coordinate Transformations 176 Problems 183 Suggestions for Further Reading 187 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions Introduction 188 Different Coordinate Systems 188 Kinematics in Different Coordinate Systems 194 Del Operator in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 204 Potential Energy Function 205 Torque 213 Dynamics in Three Dimensions 215 Harmonic Oscillators in Two and Three Dimensions 217 Projectile Motion 225 Problems 231 Suggestions for Further Reading 237 Central Force Introduction 238, Central Force and Potential Energy 238 Central Force Motion as @ One-Body Problem 241 General Properties of Motion under a Central Force 244 Equations of Motion 249 General Force Field Orbits and Effective Potential 253 Contents 7.7 Orbits in an Inverse Square Force Field 264 7.8 — Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 274 7.9 Perturbed Circular Orbits: Radial Oscillations about a Circular Orbit 277 7.10. Orbital Transfers: Gravitational Boost and Braking 281 Problems 285 Suggestions for Further Re ing 290 8 System of Particles: Conservation Laws and Collisions 8.1 Introduction 291 8.2 System of Particles and Center of Mass 291 8.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum 293, 8.4 — Conservation of Angular Momentum 297 8.5 Conservation of Energy 298 8.6 Motion of Systems with Variable Mass: Rockets and Conveyor Bells 301 8.7. Blastic Collisions and Conservation Laws 308 8.8 Inelastic Collisions 314 8.9 Two-Body Problems in Center-of Mass Coordinate System 317 8.10 Collisions in Center-of-Mass Coordinate System 320 8.11 An Inverse Square Repulsive Force: Rutherford Scattering 324 Problems 331 Suggestions for Further Reading 337 9 Rigid Body Motion: | 9.1 Introduction 338 9.2 Description of a Rigid Body 338 9.3 Center of Mass of a Rigid Body 341 9.4 Rotation about an Axis 345 9.5 Calculation of Moment of Inertia 349 9.6 Simple Pendulum 358 9.7 Physical Pendulum 362 98 Center of Percussion 364 9.9 Deformable Continua 367 9.10 Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies 372 9.11 Equilibrium of Physical Cables and Strings 373 9.12 Equilibrium of Solid Beams 378 Problems 379 Suggestions for Further Reading 386Contents *0 Gravitational Force and Potential 20.1 Introduction 387 102 Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation 387 10.3 Gravitational Field and Gravitational Potential 391 10.4 Lines of Force and Equipotential Surfaces 394 10.5 Calculation of Gravitational Force and Gravitational Potential 399 10.6 Gauss'sLaw 412 10.7 Gravitational Field Equations 417 Problems 419 Suggestions for Further Reading 424 11 Nonlinear Coordinate Systems ALA Introduction 425 11.2 Translating Coordinate Systems 425 11.3 Rotating Coordinate Systems 429 114 Description of Motion on the Rotating Earth 437 115 Foucault Pendulum 447 11.6 Horizontal Wind Circulations: Weather Systems 453 Problems 457 Suggestions for Further Reading 12. Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Dynamics 12.1 Introduction 463 Generalized Coordinates and Constraints 464 12.3, Generalized Forces 466 124 Lagrange’s Equations of Motion for a Single Panicle 468 12.5 Lagrange’s Equations of Motion for a System of Particles 477 12.6 Lagrange’s Equations of Motion with Undetermined Multipliers and Constraints 481 12.7 Generalized Momenta and Cyclic (or Ignorable) Coordinates 487 12.8 Hamiltonian Functions: Conservation Laws and Symmetry Principles 489 12.9 Hamiltonian Dynamics: Hamilton’s Equations of Motion 495 Problems 500 Suggestions for Further Reading 509 13 Rigid Body Motion: Il 13.1 Introduction 510 13.2. Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy 510 13.3 Inertia Tensor 516 13.4 Moment of Inestia for Different Body Systems (Steiner Theorem) 521 13.5 Principal Moment of Inertia and Principal Axes 526 13.6 Inertia Ellipsoid 533 13.7. More About the Properties of the Inertia Tensor 535 13.8 Eulerian Angles 542 13.9 Euler's Equations of Motion for a Rigid Body 545 13.10 Force Free Motion of a Symmetrical Top 546 13.11 Motion of a Symmetrical Top with One Point Fixed (the Heavy Top) 552 Problems 558 Suggestions for Further Reading S64 14 Theory of Small Oscillations and Coupled Oscillators. 14.1 Introduction 566 14.2 Equilibrium and Potential Energy 566 143 Two Coupled Oscillators and Normal Coordinates 570 14.4. Theory of Small Oscillations 576 14.5. Small Oscillations in Normal Coordinates 581 14.6 Tensor Formulation for the Theory of ‘Small Oscillations $83 14.7 Sympathetic Vibrations and Beats 596 14.8 Vibration of Molecules 602 14.9 Dissipative Systems and Forced Oscillations 604 Problems 607 ‘Suggestions for Further Reading 613 15 Vibrating Strings and Fluids 15.1 Introduction 614 15.2 Vibrating String 614 15.3 Wave Propagation in General 624 15.4 Lagrange Formulation of a Vibrating String: Energy and Power 629 15.5 System of Particles: The Loaded String 632 15.6 Behavior of a Wave at Discontinuity: Energy Flow 642vi 15.7 Sound Waves: Longitudinal Waves 645 15.8 Fluid Statics 648 15.9. Fluids in Motion 653 15.10 Viscosity and Viscous Flow 660 Problems 665 Suggestions for Further Reading 670 16 Special Theory of Relativity 16.1 Introduction 671 16.2 Galilean Transformations and Galilean Invariance 672 16.3 Einstein’s Postulates and Lorentz Transformations 674 164 165 16.6 16.7 Contents Some Consequences of Lorentz Transformations 678 Covariant Formulations and Four Vectors 683 Relativistic Dynamics 686 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulation of Relativistic Mechanics 693 Problems 696 Suggestions for Further Reading 700 Index 701Preface Tihs edition is written to present a reasonably complete account of classical mechanics at an in- temmediate level, with an option of using state-of-the-art computer-based technology. The text affords maximum flexibility in the selection and arrangement of topics for a two-semester, three credit-hour course at a sophomore or junior Jevel. However, with proper selection and omission of material, it may be used for a one-semester course. Students with adequate preparation in general physics and calculus are ready to start this course. Mechanics is the foundation of pure and applied sciences. Its principles apply to the vast range and variety of physical systems. I intend this text to take students who have had intro- ductory mechanics in general physics to an intermediate level of mechanics, which will give them a strong basis for their future work in applied and pure sciences, especially advanced physics. Attention has been paid to the following topics of imerest: (a) nonlinear oscillators «Chapter 4); (b) central force motion (Chapter 7), which includes the capture of comets, satel- lite orbits and maneuvers, stability of circular orbits, and interplanetary transfer orbits; (c) col- lisions in CMCS, which are discussed in detail (Chapter 8); (d) horizontal wind circulation (weather systems) (Chapter 11); and the relationship between conservative laws and symmetry principles (Chapter 12). The aim of classical mechanics is, and always will be, to understand physical phenomena and laws of mechanics and to apply them to different, everyday situations. In order to achieve this it is necessary to: (a) perform mathematical calculations and solve problems, (b) make zraphs resulting from different calculations, and (c) make interpretations of these. These three procedures, especially the first two, are so time consuming that one forgets or ignores the real process of learning and understanding physics. The latest developments in computer software re quite helpful in overcoming these difficulties, and we must use these resources to their max- num, Keeping this in mind, the main purpose of this second edition is to use Mathcad to solve ‘most examples and to create many figures. Mathcad is a unique way to work with numbers, for- -nulas, and graphs. To solve problems or graph mathematical relations, you type them as you would write them on the blackboard or see them in a reference or textbook. You can solve al- most any math problem you can think of, symbolically or numerically. The usefulness of Mathcad is demonstrated by incorporating it in more than 90% of the ver 60 solved examples, as well as in many new figures.vill Preface * All graphs are created using numbers that refiect actual physical situations. You may change and experiment with numbers without losing time. * Graphs that ordinarily take hours can be created in minutes, and if mistakes are made, cor- rections can be made in only a few seconds + Mathematical calculations such as differentiations and integrations can be done by using the symbolic program instead of fosing time by looking up information in standard tables. + The solving and graphing that normally would have taken hours takes only minutes, Finally, you may use this book in three different ways. * Use the book the conventional way and it will still provide insight into the subject matter. + Use Mathcad in a limited way up to the extent provided in the book, and it will still pro- vide many benefits. + Use Mathcad and fully explore its power and benefits by incorporating it in your learning process of mechanics or physics in general. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Finally, I am very thankful to the reviewers who gave many useful suggestions for this edition, Professor John P. Toutnghi, Seattle University; Professor George Rainey, California State Poly. University; Professor Robert R. Marchini, University of Memphis ‘There are many individuals who encouraged me in completing this edition. It would have been impossible to complete this project without the help and the encouragement of Professor Larry E, Halliburton, Chairman Physics Department, West Virginia University; Mr. Ray Hen- derson of Prentice Hall, and my wife Pauline. Finally, my thanks to Alison Reeves, Executive Editor, who took the project to its completion. APA. To Professor William W. PrattIntroduction to Newtonian Mechanics 1.1 INTRODUCTION Mechanics is one of the oldest and most familiar branches of physics. It deals with bodies at rest and in motion and the conditions of rest and motion when bodies are under the influence of in- ternal and external forces. The laws of mechanics apply to a whole range of objects, from mi- croscopic to macroscopic, such as the motion of electrons in atoms and that of planets in space or even to the galaxies in distant parts of the universe. Mechanics does not explain why bodies move; it simply shows how a body will move in a given situation and how to describe such motion, The study of mechanics may be divided into two parts: kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics is concerned with a purely geometrical de- scription of the motion (or trajectories) of objects, disregarding the forces producing the mo- tion. It deals with concepts and the interrelation between position, velocity, acceleration, and time. Dynamics is concerned with the forces that produce changes in motion or changes in other properties, such as the shape and size of objects. This leads us to the concepts of force and mass. and the laws that govern the motion of objects. Statics deals with bodies at rest under the influ- ence of external forces. Inantiquity significant gains were made in the theory of mechanics during Aristotle's time; however, it was not until the seventeenth century that the science of mechanics was truly founded by Galileo, Huygens, and Newton. They showed that objects move according to cer- tain rules, and these rules were stated in the form of laws of motion. Essentially classical or New- tonian mechanics is the study of the consequences of the laws of motion as formulated by New- ton in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (the Principia) published in 1686. Although Newton's laws provide a direct approach to the subject of classical mechanics, there are a number of other ways of formulating the principles of classical mechanics. Among these, the two most significant approaches are the formulations of Lagrange and Hamilton, 12 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 These two approaches take energy rather than force as the fundamental concept. In more than half of this text, we will use the classical approach of Newton, while in the later part of the text ‘we will introduce Lagrange and Hamilton formulations. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, Newton’s laws were completely applicable (o all well-known situations. The difficulties arose when these laws were applied to certain def inite situations: (a) to very fast moving objects (objects moving with speeds approaching the speed of light) and (b) to objects of microscopic size such as electrons in atoms. These difficul- ties led to modifications in the laws of Newtonian mechanics: (a) to the formulation of the spe- cial theory of relativity for objects moving with high speeds, and (b) to the formulation of quan- tum mechanics for objects of microscopic size. The failure of classical mechanics in these situations is the result of inadequacies in classical concepts of space and time as discussed briefly in Chapter 16, Special Theory of Relativity. Before we start an in-depth study of mechanics, we devote this chapter to summarizing briefly a few essential concepts of interest from introductory mechanics. We especially empha- size the importance of the role of Newton’s laws of motion. 1.2 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS Measurements in physics involve such quantities as velocity, force, energy, temperature, elec- tric current, magnetic field, and many others. The most surprising aspect is that all these quan- tities can be expressed in terms of a few basic quantities, such as length L, mass M, and time These three quantities are called fundamental or basic quantities (base units); all others that are expressed in terms of these are called derived quantities. Three Basic Standards: Length, Mass, and Time Three different sets of units are in use, The most prevalent is that in which length is measured in meters, mass in kilograms, and time in seconds, hence the name MKS system (or metric sys- tems, As we will see, in practice there are five different quantities that are used as base units. Standard of length: The meter. ‘The meter has been defined as the distance between the two marks on the ends of a platinum-iridium alloy metal bar kept in a temperature-controlled vault at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, near Paris, France. In 1960, by international agreement, the General Conference on Weights and Measures changed the stan- dard of length to an atomic constant by the following procedure. A glass tube is filled with kryp- ton gas in which an electrical discharge is maintained. The standard meter is defined to be equal to exactly 1.650,763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light emitted in a vacuum from krypton-86 atoms. To improve the accuracy still further, a meter was redefined in 1983 as equal to a dis- tance traveled by light in vacuum in a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second, Standard of time: The second. _In the past, the spinning motion of Earth about its axis. as well as its orbital motion about the Sun, have been used to define a second. Thus, a sec- ond is defined to be 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. In October 1967, the time standard was re- defined in terms of an atomic clock, which makes use of the periodic atomic vibrations of certainSec. 1.2 Units and Dimensions 3 zsoms, According to the cesium clock, a second is defined to be exactly equal to the time inter- 21 of 9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation from cesium-133. This method has an accuracy of part in 101", It is possible that two cesium clocks running aver a period of 5000 years will dif- 27 by only 1 second. Standard of mass: The kilogram. A platinum-iridium cylinder is carefully stored = a repository at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The mass of the cylinder + defined to be exactly equal to a kilogram. This is the only base unit still defined by an artifact. The basic aim of scientists has been to define the three basic standards in such a way that they are accurately and easily reproducible in any laboratory. Different Systems of Units Besides MKS system, there are two others, all using five base units, which are briefly described ~elow. The CGS or Gaussian system. In this system the unit of length is the centimeter = 107? m), the unit of mass is the gram (= 10-3 kg), and the unit of time is the second. The British system. This is used in the United States and may be referred to as U.S. engineering system. In this system the unit of length is the foor and the unit of time is the sec- ‘nd. This system does not use mass as a basic unit; instead, force is used, the unit of which is che pound (Ib). The unit of mass derived from the pound is called the slug (= 32.17 Ib mass). The unit of temperature in the British system is the degree Fahrenheit. The MKS or metric system. In this system the unit of length is the meter (m), the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), and the unit of time is the second (sec). These are the most com- monly used units in the world. The other two base units are temperature in kelvins (K) and charge in coulombs (coul). Five of the most commonly used base units in the different systems are listed here. Units MKS USA Length Lisi-m Lisl-em Lisl-ft Mass M:=I-kg 9 M am L:=1elb Time T:=lesec T:=tesec | T:=1-sec Temperature R: =1-K R K RISK Charge Qi=l-coul Qi =1-coul Q:=1-coul International System of Units (SI). ‘The International System of Units, abbreviated Sl afier the French Systéme international d’unités, is the modern version of the metric system4 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 established by international agreement. For convenience it uses 7 base units: Five of these are the same as MKS already listed and the other two are: Amount of substance mole 1 mol Luminous intensity candela ed The SI also uses two supplementary units: Plane angle radian 1-rad Solid angle steradian 1 sr Dimensions. Most physical quantities may be expressed in terms of length L, mass M, and time 7, where L, M, and T are called dimensions. A quantity expressed as L“M°T® means that its length dimen- sion is raised to the power a, its mass dimension is raised to the power b, and its time dimension is raised to the power c. Thus the dimensions of volume are L?, that of acceleration are LT~*, and that of force are MLT~?. To add or substract two quantities in physics they must have the same dimensions. Simi- larly, no matter what system of units is used, all mathematical relations and equations must be dimensionally correct. That is, the quantities on both sides of the equations must have the same dimensions. For example, in the equation x = vp + Lar’, x has dimensions of L, vot has dimen- sions of (L/T)T = L, and } at” has dimensions of }(L/7?)(7?) = L. Thus dimensional analysis may be used to (1) check the correctness of the form of the equation, that is, every term in the equation must have the same dimensions, (2) to check an answer computed from an equation for plausibility in a given situation, and (3) to arrive at a formula if we know the dependence of a certain quantity on other physical quantities. » Example 1.1 The magnitude of the centripetal force Fe acting on an object is a function of mass M of the object, its velocity v, and the radius r of the circular path. By the method of dimensional analysis, find an expression for the centripetal force. Solution Since Fe is a function of M, v, and r, the values of a, b, and c are calculated in the expression for Foam vc! ao Fe. Fes bkg— Mestkg ov sec” In terms of units, expression (i) takes the form (ii).Sec. 1.3 We assume the values of a, b, and c +o be (guess values) Comparing the values of a, b, and ¢ on both sides of Eq. (ii), we get Eqs. (iii). Let $ represent the solution giving the values of a, b, and c that satisfy Eqs. (i) and (ii). The results are: a=l,b=2and Thus the proper equation for force Newton's Laws and Inertial Systems Guess al Given asl byesl — b- 250 fl s2(2 al Fee. Fe = I+kg*mrsec * Git) (iv) Fe and its units are EXERCISE 1.1 The angular velocity @ of a simple pendulum is a function of its length L and acceleration due to gravity g. Find an expression for the angular velocity @ and the time period T of the pendulum by the method of dimensional analysis. : ’ 1.3 NEWTON'S LAWS AND INERTIAL SYSTEMS: Newton's laws may be stated in a brief and concise form as below: Newton’s First Law. Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a net external force acts on it fo change that state, Newton's Second Law. The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly pro- portional to the force applied and takes place in the direction of the force. Newton’s Third Law. To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction; that is, whenever a body exerts a certain force on a second body, the second body exerts ‘an equal and opposite force on the first. ‘These statements do look simple; but that is deceptive, Newton's laws are the results of a combination of definitions, experimental observations from nature, and many intuitive concepts. We cannot do justice to these concepts in a short space here, but we will try to expand our think- ing horizon by discussing these statements in some detail. The motion of objects in our immediate surroundings is complicated by ever present fric- tional and gravitational forces. Let us consider an isolated object that is moving with a constant (or uniform) velocity in space. Describing it as an isolated object implies that its far away from any surrounding objects so that it does not interact with them; hence no net force (gravitational6 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 or otherwise) acts on it. To describe the motion of the object we must draw a coordinate system with respect to which the object moves with uniform velocity. Such a coordinate system is called an inertial system. The essence of Newton's first law is that it is always possible to find a coor- dinate system with respect to which an isolated body moves with uniform velocity; that is, New- ton’s first law asserts the existence of inertial systems. Newton's second law deals with such matters as: What happens when there is an interac- tion between objects? How do you represent interaction? And still further, what is inertia and how do we measure this property of an object? As we know, inertia is a property of a body that determines its resistance to acceleration or change in motion when that body interacts with an- other body. The quantitative measure of inertia is called mass. Consider two bodies that are completely isolated from the surroundings but interact with one another. The interaction between these objects may result from being connected by means of a rubber band or a spring. The interaction results in acceleration of the bodies. Such acceler- ations may be measured by stretching the bodies apart by the same amount and then measuring the resultant accelerations. All possible measurements show that the accelerations of these two bodies are always in opposite directions and that the ratio of the accelerations are inversely pro- portional to the masses. That is, ay _ ms a or 140, = ~My (1.1) ‘Thus the effect of interaction is that the product of mass and acceleration is constant and de- notes the change in motion. This product is called force and it represents interaction, Thus we may say that the force F, acting on A due to interaction with B is Fy = may (1.2) while the force Fy acting on B due to interaction with A is Fg = Mgay 3) Thus, in general, using vector notation we may write F= ma (14) This equation is the definition of force when acting on a constant mass and holds good only in inertial systems. It is important to keep in mind that the force F arises because of an interaction or simply stands for an interaction. No acceleration could ever be produced without an inter- action. Let us now proceed to obtain the definition of force starting directly with the statement of Newton's second law given previously. Suppose an object of mass m is moving with velocity v so that the linear momentum p is defined as pam (Ls)loninertial Forces 7 Sec. 1.4 Inertial and Noninertial Systems: According to Newton's second law, the rate of change of momentum is defined as force F; that is, dp dt This equation takes a much simpler form if mass m remains constant at all speeds. If v is very small as compared to the speed of light c (= 3 X 108 m/s), the variation in mass m is negligi- ble. Hence, we may write F= (1.6) a av Fs lm) = mG = ma a7 That is, force is equal to mass (or inertial mass) times acceleration provided m is constant. This is the same as Eq, (1.4). It should be clear that Newton’s first law is a special case of the second law, when F = 0, Let us now say a few words about Newton's third law. According to Newton's third law, forces always exist in pairs. Thus, if two bodies A and B interact with one another, and if there is a force F, acting on body A, then there must be a force F's acting on body B, so F,=—F, (8) Thus the law implies that forces always exist in pairs (a single force without its partner some- where else is an impossibility) and that such forces are the result of interactions. We can never have an isolated object having acceleration. An object with acceleration must have a counter- part somewhere else with opposite acceleration that is inversely proportional to mass. It should be clear that Eq. (1.8) implies that the forces are equal and opposite, but they do not always necessarily have the same line of action. These points are elaborated on in Chapter 8. 1.4 INERTIAL AND NONINERTIAL SYSTEMS: NONINERTIAL FORCES. As we mentioned earlier, the first law of motion defines a particular type of reference frame, called the inertial system; that is, the inertial system is one in which Newton’s first law holds good. We would like to find a relation between the measurements made by an observer A in an inertial system S and another observer B in a noninertial system S', both observing a common object C that may be moving with acceleration. This situation is shown in Fig. 1.1. $ being an inertial system means that observer A is moving with uniform velocity, while system S” being noninertial means that observer B has an acceleration, Object C of mass M is accelerating. Observer A measures its acceleration to be a, and ob- server B measures its acceleration to be ap, Thus, according to observer A, the force acting on Cis F, = May a9) while according to observer B the force acting on Cis Fy = May 10)8 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 Zz Figure 1.1 Moving object C being observed by an observer A in an inertial sys- tem S and another observer B in the noninertial system " F, would have been equal to F, if the S' system was also a true inertial system. Let us find the relation between F, and Fy. According to Fig. 1.1, XO) = X0 + XO aap Differentiating twice and rearranging, take (2.12) Multiplying both sides by M, MX, = MX, — MX or Fy = Fy - MX (1.13) Since observer A in system S is in a true inertial system, we may write Fue = MX, (14) while the force measured by observer B, who is in a noninertial system S’, is not a true force but an apparent force given by Fy = Fagg = MX (1.15) ‘Thus we may write Eq. (1.13) as F we — ME (1.16) opt = Fy Thus observer B will not measure a true force unless ¥ = 0, in which case B will be moving with a uniform velocity with respect to A; hence S’ itself will be a true inertial system. In gen- eral, for three-dimensional motion, we may write Eq. (1.16) as Fup = Fyue — Mik (1.17)Sec. 1.5 Simple Applications of Newton's Laws 9 here R is the acceleration of the noninertial system S” with respect to the inertial system S or ‘sith respect to any other inertial system. If R = 0, then Fig: = Fyye. and hence both systems ‘ill be inertial. We may write Eq. (1.17) as Brae + Frit (1.18a) where Fig = —MR (1.18b) The last term is called a noninertial force or fictitious force because it is not a force in the true sense; no interactions are involved. It is simply a product of mass times acceleration. 1.5 SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS A few simple applications of Newton's laws will be discussed in this section and the next. Atwood Machine A system of masses tied with a string and going over a pulley is called an Atwood machine, as shown in Fig. 1.2. We will assume that the pulley is frictionless and hence will not rotate. Mass my, being greater than mass m,, will move downward and m, will move upward. The velocity v v/dt is taken (0 be positive upward, while T (which is the same on both sides since the string is massless) is taken to be the tension in each string, Thus the motion of the two masses may be described by the following equations, a = dx/dt* being the acceleration for either mass. Ac- celeration a is the same on both sides since the string is “stretchless.” T- mg = ma (1.19) mg —T= ma (1.20) i = A T x - , { r me ™ A mg TMi, Figure 1.2 Atwood machine.10 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 These equations may be solved to yield _ mam Coe (2a 2 b T= my (1.22) m, +m, If m, = my, we get a = 0, and T = mig = mg, which is the case for static equilibrium. On the other hand, if m; 3 m,,we get a ~ g and T~ 2myg. Let us consider the case in which the pulley is not stationary but moves upward with an acceleration a, as shown in Fig. 1.3. In such a situation the total length of the string is, ee Oe 0 Og OD) (1.23) Differentiating, we obtain 2-H jr =0 (1.24) But ¥ = ais the upward acceleration of the pulley. Hence a=30 + i) (1.25) These principles can be extended to other situations involving many masses and pulleys. he Figure 1.3 Motion of masses when the pulley has an upward 7, acceleration aSec. 1.5 Simple Applications of Newton's Laws " Figure L4 Forces acting on a mass m on an inclined plane. Inclined Plane Consider a mass m on an inclined plane that makes an angle 0 with the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The two forces acting on the mass m on the plane are the weight mg of mass m acting downward and the reaction P of the plane acting on mass m as shown. It is the resultant of these two forces that moves the mass up or down the plane, as illustrated for the two cases in Figs. 1.4 and 1.5. P can be resolved into two components; component N perpendicular to the surface of the plane is called the normal reaction (or normal force), and component f parallel to the sur- face of the plane is called the frictional force. Let us consider the motion of mass m moving down the inclined plane, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Note that mg has been resolved into two components mg cos 0 and mg sin 6, Thus, for the motion of mass m, we may write mg sin 0 — f= ma (1.26) N— mg cos 0=0 (1.27) Figure 1.5 Motion of mass m moving upward on an inclined plane,12 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics — Chap. 1 For a surface with a coefficient of friction p, the frictional force fis found to be the product of jeand the normal reaction. That is, f= HN = pmg cos 0 (1.28) (ifthe body is at rest jz = j1», where 1, is the coefficient of static friction. If the body is in mo- tion, 4. = jay, where ja, is the coefficient of kinetic friction. jx, is always less than p,.) Substi- tuting for fin Eq. (1.26) and solving for a, a = g(sin 8 — pecs 6) (1.29) If the mass m has an initial upward velocity along the plane, the direction of f will be opposite, as shown in Fig. 1.5, and the expression for the resulting acceleration (or deceleration) will be a= g(sin 8 + cos @) (1.30) Suppose mass m is sitting on the horizontal plane and the angle @ of the plane is increased steadily. When the angle reaches a certain value @ = 6, mass m just starts sliding. In this situa- tion, when the motion starts a = 0, and we get ig sin 8, — f= 0 N ~ mg cos 6, = 0 or . = tan 0, (4.31) But by definition f= 2,N, where 4, is the coefficient of static friction; hence p, = tan 6 (1.32) where 6, is called the angle of friction or the angle of repose. If @ is greater than 6,, the mass will not remain at rest. For the mass to remain at rest, tan 6 < tan 6, a, (1.33) The same conclusion may be arrived at by considering Eq, (1.29), according to which the speed of the mass will increase if a > 0. This is possible only if (sin @ — cos 8) > 0 That is, 6>tan'p (1.34) Ifa =0, 6 = 6 = the angle of friction. If @ < 6, a will be negative, and the particle will not move or will come to rest if already movingSec. 1.5 Simple Applications of Newton’s Laws 13 The Spinning Drum Ina spinning drum or well in an amusement park ride, the riders stand against the wall of the iru. When the drum starts spinning very fast, the bottom of the drum falls down but the rid- ers stay pinned against the wall of the drum. We want to find the minimum angular velocity (pin for which it is safe to remove the bottom, The situation is as shown in Fig. 1.6, and with V being the unbalanced force the radial equation of motion is N - Ma, (1.35) or we could say that the normal reaction N must provide the needed centripetal force F,: F, = Ma, = Me = MRo* (1.36) Thus N = Ma, = MRo? (1.37) If fis the static frictional force, then SN = pMRo? (1.38) where p, is the coefficient of static fricition between the rider and the surface of the drum. For the rider to stay pinned against the wall of the drum, f must be equal to Mg. Substituting this in Eq. (1.38) yields Mg = p,MRoP (1.39) fe or om VaR (1.40) Figure 1.6 Spinning drum.14 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 imum safe value of w is > Example 1.2 In Figure 1.6 the spinning drum has a radius of 2m and the coefficient of friction is 0.3, Calculate the minimum speed at which itis safe to remove the floor of the spinning drum. (1.41) Solution ‘The different values given are 4503 Retm g298— fe o = From Eq. (1.44), the angular fm fr ; eR frequency « of the rotating drum is @=4.041sec! “rad @ = 231.558'sec! “deg. Alternately, the revolution rate and, = a time period are Pr O6A8sc = ‘Thus if the drum makes 0,643 revolution per second, or it takes 1.555 seconds to make one revolution, it will be safe (o remove the drum floor from the bottom. ‘Should the drum speed be increased or decreased if (a) the coefficient of friction increases or decreases and (b) the radius R is larger or smaller? EXERCISE 1.2 In the example, suppose we want the drum to rotate at a speed of 2 revolutions per second and still be able to remove the floor safely by: (a) changing the radius but keeping Ht the same and (b) changing pt but keeping the radius the same, ‘What are the values of the radius and . in the two cases? > Example 1.3 ‘Two blocks of masses m and M are connected by a string and pass over a frictionless pulley. Mass m hangs vertically and mass M moves on an inclined plane that makes an angle @ with the horizontal. If the coef- ficient of kinetic friction is 1, calculate the angle 9 for which the blocks move with uniform velocity. Dis- ‘cuss the special case in which m = M.Sec. 1.5 Simple Applications of Newton's Laws Solution 15 Figure Ex. 1.3 The situation is as shown in Fig. Ex. 1.3, From the force diagram, if the blocks are in equilibrium, that is, at rest or moving with a uniform velocity, T-mg=0 N - Mg cos @=0 T- Mg sin 6 - f= 0 and, from the definition of the coefficient of friction, f= yN Combining Eqs. (ii) and (iv), f= Mg cos 0 ‘Substituting for 7 from Bq. (i) and for f from Eq. (v) into Eq. (iii) mg — Mg sin 6 — w,Mg cos 6 = 0 First Method: We can solve the given Eqs. (i), (ii), and (iii) directly. From the force diagram, if the blocks are in equilibrium, at rest, or moving with uniform velocity, the equations after using the definition of the coefficient of friction f= UN are as shown, Solving these equations for the unknowns T, N, and 6 yields the values as shown below. ro) W) (wi) Given T-mg20 N= M-gcos(@)=0 To Megsin(@) - w-N=016 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 For M=m, the two possible values of 6, given by $6, are calculated as shown, so rad Second Method: fe now solve Eq. (vi) for the ee ne Eq, (vi) is written as mg~ Megsin(®)~ -M-g:cos(6)=0 The two possible values given by 1 ( | ae S are (solving above equation loos } symbolically for @ ) ce ; —— 2-atan) ——! —__.{2.m— 2qM?= m? rr) (-Cm-"M)) One value of @ is 56.6 degrees or 0.988 radians while the other 0988 eae value of 6 = 90 degrees Sl on \90 corresponds to the simple case of two masses hanging vertically from a pulley, EXERCISE 1.3 Find the ratio of the masses M/m so that the two blocks will move with uniform velocity for 6 = 45 degrees and p =0.3.Sec. 1.6 Motion in a Circle and Gravitation 7 Figure 1.7 Mass m moving in a circle of radius r with a uniform speed v. 1.6 MOTION IN A CIRCLE AND GRAVITATION Consider a mass m moving in a circle of radius r with a uniform speed v, as shown in Fig. 1.7. The acceleration of mass m is toward the center 0 and is given by v (1.42) where a, is called the centripetal acceleration and is produced by a constant force F, called the centripetal force, and given by F, = ma, = me (4.43) Note that Fis not a force in the true sense because it is not produced as the result of interaction between objects. It simply happens to be the product of mass times acceleration. According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the gravitational force between mass m at a distance r from the center of Earth of mass M is, Mm Fo= Go y= mg (1.44) If this point mass is on the surface of Earth, which has a radius R, we may write (1.45) ‘That is, (1.46) Let us assume that m is a satellite or some other object moving with velocity vin a circle of radius r around Earth, as shown in Fig. 1.8. Gravitational force (toward the center of Earth) provides the necessary centripetal force to keep the mass moving in a circular orbit; that is, F.= Fg18 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 Figure 1.8. Mass m moving in a circle of radius r around Earth of mass M and radius R. Substituting 2m/T, where T is the time period of the circular orbit, in Eq. (1.47) and rear- ranging, we get (1.48) or substituting GM = gR”, we may write Eq. (1.48) as 4n' 2.47 3 Paige (1.49) Equations (1.48) and (1.49) are statements of Kepler’s third law. Horizontal Circular Motion A small mass m swings in a horizontal circle of radius r at the end of a string of length f,, which makes an angle 6, with the vertical as shown in Fig. 1.9. The string is slowly shortened by pulling it through a hole in its support until the final length is (and the string is making an angle 6, with the vertical. Find an expression for /;in terms of /;, 0, and 6). ‘Suppose at some instant the length of the string from the support to mass m is f, it makes an angle 6, with the vertical, mass m is at a distance r,, from the axis of rotation, and v, is the velocity of mass m. Let T,, be the tension in the string as shown. Since mass m is moving in a circle of radius r,, the horizontal component of the tension in the string must provide the nec- essary centripetal acceleration; that is, 7, sin 9, = =" (1.50) while the vertical component of the tension balances the weight of mass m, that is, T,, 0s 6, = mg (1.51)Sec. 1.6 Motion ina Circle and Gravitation 19 I 7, 08 By Tyaia Figure 1,9 Dividing Eq, (1.50) by Eq. (1.51), tan 9 = (1.52) arn which may be written as gr, tan 0, = ure (1.53) Since no external torque acts on the system, the angular momentum of the system must be con- served; that is, L,= Ly or my, = mr, or ry = rey (1.54) Thus, in general, 1%, = constant (1.55) Combining Eqs. (1.53) and (1.55), we may conclude F tan 6, = rptan 8, (1.56) But 1, = 1,sin 6, (57) Therefore, Eq. (1.56) takes the form (sin 6) tan 6, = (sin 6)? tan 0, (1.58) which is the required result and may be solved for I, To illustrate the above concepts, we discuss a few examples involving the motion of the planets and the centripetal force.20 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 » Example 1.4 (a) Calculate the variation in the value of ‘g with distance from the center of Earth. (b) Apply Keplers law to the motion of the Moon around Earth and calculate the distance between them. Solution (a) From Eqs. (1.44) and (1.46), gr is the value of g at a distance r from the center of Earth, RO is radius of Earth, and g0 is the value of g at Earth's surface. From the given values of gO and RO, the value 20 of K is calculated 806 RO:=6.3810° K=g0R0 K=3.99110" 3.991-10° Thus the value of g in terms of r is We calculate g for 60 different values of rand N'=60n=0..N then plot the results as shown in the graph, Below are some values of g at different r, together with two and geo, Which correspond to the values near the Moon's surface. 1263810", =9.806 ‘ ‘0 1127610" g, =2.451 18-10" “o 89 70.081 89210" Distance ‘Acceleration g versus distance rSec. 1.6 Motion in a Circle and Gravitation 2 (b) Eq. (1.49) for T may be solved for r as shown. T = 27.33 days is the period of revolution of the Moon around Earth eae Ti=(27333)246060see ——R'36.368-10%m Using the given values of T, g, and m 8 1 =2.36210° see =95 R, we obtain the value of r, the a i distance between Earth and the Moon, 1 =3.829-10" +m F=3.820°10° “km EXERCISE 1.4 Repeat the example for another planet such as Mars or Venus. — ——22 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 » Example 1.5 A small mass swings in a horizontal circle of radius r at the end of a string of length Li and makes an angle 6; with the vertical as shown in Figure 1.9. The string is slowly shortened by pulling it through a hole in its support. Write expressions for r, v, and time period of revolution T in terms of 8. Then graph these quantities. Solution We will use Eqs. (1.57) and (1.53), and T = 2n/a. Let us consider n= 25 values of @ from a very small angle to 90 degree angle. Radius ry (for n = 1) is 0.063 meter, while the vertical angle is 3.6 degrees. Three graphs are shown below. (a) Which quantities become very small near @ = 0 degree angle and near @ = 90 degree angle, and why? (b) Which quantities become very large at near 0 = 0 degree angle and near @ =90 degree angle, and why? 6, =3.46 deg 0,, =90"deg (c) What is the significance of the points where two graphs intersect? 10 ] T, =2.005 ae } * / F1920.588 Vyg=2046 Typ =1.805 ms 7 % A 5.356 Tyy= 1.116 as Pal fys= 1g = 4.000108 Ty = 1.57110 = a o os EXERCISE 1.5 Derive an expression for the tension Ft in the string as a function of the angle of the string with the vertical, Graph the tension Ft and angular frequency @ versus @. Then answer all the questions in the example using this information.Problems 23 PROBLEMS 1.1. The speed v of sound waves in air depends on the atmospheric pressure P and density p of the air. By using the method of dimensional analysis, find an expression for v in terms of P and p. 1.2. The velocity v of waves on a vibrating string depends on the tension 7 in the string and the mass per unit length A of the string. Derive an expression for » by using the dimensional analysis method, 1.3. The time period 7 of a planet around the Sun of mass M is given by the following expression: 7? = 4m PMG where a is the radius of the circular orbit of the planet. (a) What are the SI units of G? (b) Derive the preceding expression by using the dimensional analysis method, that is, by assum- ing T = TU M, G), 1.4, When a fluid flows in a pipe, the friction between the fluid and the surface of the pipe is given by the coefficient of viscosity 7, defined by the equation F/A = n(du/ds), where F is the force of fric- tion acting across an area A and dv/ds is the velocity gradient between layers of fluids, (a) What are the units of 7? (b) If AP is the pressure difference and is directly proportional to Al, by using the method of di- mensional analysis, show that where gis the volume flux of the fluid through the pipe and ris the radius of the pipe, as shown in Fig. P14. —— p+] Figure Pia 1.5. In Fig. 1.1, the mass of object C is 100 kg, the acceleration measured by the observer in the iner- tial system A is 100 mvs’, while the observer in system B measures the acceleration as 90 mis?. What is the fictitious force? What is the acceleration of the noninertial system B? What could B do to achieve a true inertial system? 1.6, A mass mis given an initial velocity u, up an inclined plane of angle @ (@ is greater than the angle of friction). Find the distance the mass moves up the incline, the time it takes to reach this point, and the time it takes to return to its original position. 1. A box of mass m is connected by a rope that passes over a pulley to a box of mass M, as shown in Fig. P1.7. The coefficient of friction between m and the horizontal surface AB or the inclined24 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 surface BC is 1. Find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the rope for the portion whem the mass is moving (a) between A and B, and (b) between B and C. SS) LLLLLLULEALAL LL Figure P1.7 1.8. A man of mass M pushes horizontally a sled with a boy (sitting on it) of mass m. The coeffici of friction between the sled and the snow is 4, and the coefficient of friction between the man's feet and the snow is j1, (a) Draw a clear diagram showing all the forces acting on the sled and the man. (b) Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the force when the man and the sled an acceleration a. (e) What is the maximum acceleration the man can give to himself and the sled? 1.9, A man pushes a box of mass M with a force F using a stick AB of mass m and making an angle with the vertical, as shown in Fig. P1.9. The coefficient of friction between the box and the is w. (a) Draw a clear diagram showing all the forces. (b) Calculate the value of F required to move the box with uniform velocity. (©) Show that, if 6 is less than the angle of friction, the box cannot be started by just pushing. Figure P1.9 1.10. Consider a system of two masses and a pulley as shown in Fig. P1.10. Let m, = 12 kg, ms the mass of the pulley m = 10 kg, and its radius r = 10 cm. (@) Show all the forces acting on the system. (b) Calculate 7), T;, and acceleration a. Assume the pulley to be a solid disk (sa, = m2)1 Problems 25 n Ty , et Figure P1.10 1.11. Repeat Problem 1.10 ifthe pulley were a hollow rim of the same mass and radius (Ij = mr) 1.12. An automobile on a highway enters acurve of radius R and banking angle 0, as shown in Fig, P1.12. The coefficient of friction between the wheels and the road is . What are the maximum and min- a imum speeds with which a car can round the curve without skidding sideways? {| 8 1 € \ ' ' Aa : Figure PLI2 x 1.13. A mass M tied o a string of radius R is whirled in a vertical cirele as shown in Fig. P1.13. (a) Find the tension in the string at different points such as A, B, C, and D. (b) What is the minimum velocity x atthe top point B so thatthe string won’t slack? (©) Graph T and vas a function of @ for given M and R. ® A Figure PL13 1.14, Two particles of masses m, and m; at a distance R from each other are under the influence of an at- . tractive force F If the two masses undergo uniform circular motion about each other with an an- gular velocity «, show that p= (0 a Cee m+ mJ?" ~ (/m,) + fm)26 Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics Chap. 1 1.15. Calculate the height and velocity of a satellite that remains over the same point at all times as seen. from Earth. Assume a circular orbit and express the height in terms of the radius of the Farth, R.- ‘Such a satellite, called a synchronous satellite, goes around Earth once every 24 h, s0 its position appears stationary with respect to a ground station. One such communication satellite was named Earlybird. 1.16. Consider a cone with an apex half-angle 8, as shown in Fig. P1.16. A particle of mass m slides with- out friction on the inside of the cone in a circular path in a horizontal plane with speed v. Draw a force diagram and calculate the radius of the circular path in terms of @, v, and g. Figure P1.16 1.17. Repeat Problem 1.16 for the case when the surface is not frictionless and the coefficient of friction ism. 1.18. Find the mass of the Sun, assuming that Earth moves in a circular orbit of radius 1.496 x 108 m and completes one revolution around the Sun in one year, 1.19, Find the distance between Earth and Mars by first calculating the distances of these planets from the Sun. The revolution period of Earth is 1.00 year and that of Mars is 1.88 years. 1.20. Repeat Problem 1.15 for a synchronous satellite going around Jupiter every 9 h, 50 min. Revolu- tion period of Jupiter is 11,86 years, its mass is 317.80 times Earth’s mass, and it’s ata distance of 677.71 X 10” km from the Sun.Suggestions for Further Reading a SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING Forp, K. W., Classical and Modern Physics, Volume 1. Lexington, Mass.: Xerox College Publishing, 1972, Faexcn, A. P., Newtonian Mechanics, Chapters 7 and 12. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1971. Hawupay, D., and Resnick, R., Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, 2nd. ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1981 Kirtet, C., Kntonrr, W. D., and Ruperman, M.A., Mechanics, Berkeley Physics Course, Volume I. Chap- ter 3. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965. K.epewer, D,, and Kotenxow, R. J., An Introduction to Mechanics, Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973, Sears, F. W., Zemansky, M. W., and Youns, H. D., University Physics, Sth ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley Publishing Co,, 1980. Stepurnson, R. J., Mechanics and Properties of Matter, Chapter 2. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962. Symon, K.R., Mechanics, 3rd. ed., Chapter 1. Reading. Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1971 Tavtor, E.R, Introductory Mechanics, Chapters 1, 2, and 3. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963. Tieter, P. A., Physics, 2nd. ed., Volume I. New York: Worth Publishers, Inc., 1982. Weuoyer, R.T,, in collaboration with Brown, M. E., Elementary Classical Physics, Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1985.Particle Dynamics in One Dimension 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Suppose a particle of mass m is acted on by several forces F,, .F,, The net force F act- ing on the particle is given by the superposition principle as F=F,=F,+ (2.1) and the motion of the particle is described by Newton's second law as dp F-2 2.2 dt (2.28) where p is the linear momentum of the particle. Only when the mass m remains constant may we write ar Fm 5 = ma 2.2b) a (2.2b) If we describe the motion in rectangular coordinates, Eq. (2.2b) may be written in the form of three components as ax = Dh =m Ge ap with similar expressions for F, and F,, If the acceleration a or its components d,, dyy @, are known, then Eq. (2.2b) may be used to solve for the force F. In general, the situation in particle dynamics is just the reverse; that is, we know the net force F acting on a particle and we want ma, (23)Sec. 2.1 Introduction 29 -0 solve Eq. (2.2b) to find the position of the particle as a function of time ¢. In this chapter, since ‘4¢ are limiting our motion of the particle to one dimension, the only equation of interest is Eq. (2.3), which after dropping the subscript x may be written as ax Fam 2.4) moa (4) To be more explicit, we may write this equation as : @ Fosino =m (2.5) where x = dx/dt = vis the velocity of the particle and Eq. (2.5) states that the force acting on zhe particle is a function of position, velocity, and time. Such a problem in which the applied force is a function of all three variables simultaneously is difficult to solve. On the other hand, af the applied force is a function of only one variable, the problem is much simplified. Hence we shall divide our discussion into the following four cases: 1. The applied force is constant; that is, day motion. 2. The applied force is time dependent; that netic waves. 3. The applied force is velocity dependent; that is, F = (1), such as air resistance to falling or rising objects. 4. The applied force is position dependent; that is, F = F(x), such as restoring force to vi- brating springs. = constant, stich as freely falling bodies and every- , F = (Fi), such as in the case of electromag- Before we start solving Eq. (2.4) for these different cases, we may remind ourselves that since dx _ dv wae ee (2.6) Eq. (2.4) may be written in the following different forms: @x Pam (7a) dv Fame (2.70) P= mt 2.7) Also, since momentum p is defined as p = mu = m(de/dt), we may write Eg. (2.7a) as [or di- rectly from Eq, (2.2a) as applied to the one-dimensional case] _ F= dt (2.8)30 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 That is, the applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. If the applied force acts between the time interval 1, and f, then, by integrating Eq. (2.8), we get P2- Py = [ra 29) which is the integral form of Newton's second Jaw, while Eqs. (2.7) are the differential forms. The integral on the right side of Eg. (2.9) is the impulse delivered by a force F during a short time interval (f — f,); that is, the change in the linear momentum is equal to the impulse deliv- ered. Thus Eq. (2.9) is a statement of the impulse-momentum theorem. 2.2 CONSTANT APPLIED FORCE: F = CONSTANT We are interested in studying the motion of a particle when the applied force acting on the par- ticle is constant in time. Since F is constant, so will be the acceleration a, and we may write Newton's second law as dv _F dom = a = constant (2.10) The equation may be solved by direct integration provided we know the initial conditions. Solv- ing Eq, (2.10) gives us the familiar results obtained in elementary mechanics, as we will show now. Let us assume that at f = 0, the initial velocity is uy, and at time f the velocity is v. Thus, from Eq. (2.10), f dy= f adt nb v= uy tat Qu) which on integration yields dit in Eq. (2.11) and again assuming the initial condition that x = xp at ¢ = integration x= co + Ut + Jar? (2.12) By eliminating 1 between Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12), we get vy + a(x — x9) (2.13) Equations (2.11), (2.12), and (2.13) are the familiar equations that describe the translational mo- tion of a particle in one dimension. One of the most familiar examples of motion with constant force, hentce constant acceler- ation, is the motion of freely falling bodies. In this case. a is replaced by g, the acceleration due to gravity, having the value g = 9.8 m/s? = 32.2 fs*. The magnitude of the force of gravity act- ing downward is mg.Sec.2.3 Time-Dependent Force: F = Fit) 31 2.3 TIME-DEPENDENT FORCE: F = Fit} In this case, the force being given by F = F(t) implies that it is an explicit function of time; hence Newton’s second law may be written as dv ¢ 2.44 ma 14) which on integration gives, assuming that v= 1 at # = fo Ae veut o | Fa dt (2.15) Since v = v(t) = dx(t)/dt, Eq. (2.15) takes the form x(t) if’ Om wy | ow integrating again, Tae X= q+ Uy(E =f) + al [f Fa a dt (2.16) ma, iy Since there are two integrations, we may use two variables 1’ and 1” and write Eq. (2.16) as xem talt- at al ar f Fit) dt aan ‘We will ilustrate this discussion by applying it to the interaction of radio waves with elec- trons in the ionosphere, resulting in the reflection of radio waves from the ionosphere. The ionosphere is a region that surrounds Earth at a height of approximately 200 km (about 125 miles) from the surface of Earth. The ionosphere consists of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons forming a neutral gas. When a radio wave, which is an electro- magnetic wave, passes through the ionosphere, it interacts with the charged particles and ac- celerates them, We are interested in the motion of an electron of mass m and charge — ¢ initially at rest when it interacts with the incoming electromagnetic wave of electric field intensity E, given by in(at + ) (2.18) where w is the oscillation frequency in radians per second of the incident electromagnetic wave and ¢ is the initial phase, The interaction results in a force F on the electron given by F = ~cE = ~eEy sin(wt + 4) (2.19)32 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 while the acceleration of the electron is given by a= = 0 sn (eot + ¢) (2.20) m m Let dp = eFo/m be the maximum acceleration so that Eq. (2.20) becomes a= ~aysin(ot + $) (2.21) Since a = du/dt, the equation of motion of the electron may be written as dv : . “a sin(wt + $) (2.22) Assuming initially the electron to be at rest, that is, ¢ = f = 0, vy = 0, the integration of Eq. (2.22) yields y= — 220.606 6 + =X cosen + $) (2.23) mw mo Since v = dv/dt, and assuming that x = xp at f = 0, the integration of Eq. (2.23) yields pe Bang ( Te oy + 2B sinter + #) (2.24) moo mo mo The first two terms indicate that the electron is drifting with a uniform velocity and this veloc- ity is a function of the initiat conditions only. Superimposed on this drifting motion of the elec- tron is an oscillating motion represented by the last term. The oscillating frequency w of the electron is independent of the initial conditions and is the same as the frequency of the incident electromagnetic waves. In the following, we want to investigate how such coherent oscillations of free electrons can modify the propagation characteristics of incident electromagnetic waves. ‘Comparing Eq. (2.19) for F with Eq. (2.24) for x, it becomes quite clear that the oscillat- ing part of the displacement x is 180° out of phase with the applied force that results from the electric field of incident electromagnetic waves. Ordinarily, in a dielectric at low frequencies, the charges are displaced in the direction of the applied force, resulting in the polarization of the charges in phase with the applied force. In such situations, the resulting dielectric coefficient of the material is greater than 1. In the case of the ionosphere, it can be shown that the resulting polarization is 180° out of phase with the electric field; hence the dielectric coefficient of the ionosphere is less than 1. This result has two consequences. 1. The phase velocity v of electromagnetic waves in the ionosphere is greater than the speed of light c, 2. The refractive index of the ionosphere for incoming electromagnetic waves is less than the refractive index of the free space from where the waves are coming (the incident medium, which is a vacuum in this case).Sec. 2.3 Time-Dependent Force: F = Fit) 33 Figure 2.1 Reflection of radiowaves from the ionosphere. The total intemal reflection of electromagnetic waves from the ionosphere. This leads to the possibility of total internal reflection, that is, the reflection of incident electro- magnetic waves from the ionosphere back to Earth, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. > Example 2.1 A block of mass m is initially at rest on a frictionless surface at the origin. At time t= 0, a decreasing force given by F = FOexp(-At), where A = 0.5 is positive and less than 1, is applied. Calculate x(t) and v(). Graph x, v, and F versus 1. Solution Go From Newton's second law, after mero rearranging and integrating, we get the ; velocity v1 at time ¢1 to be A po 2 k tava] [PO a 0 \m/ vie FoLexPC MA) = 1) Gem) xd ‘a Once again rearanging and [tam] soceecane integrating, we get the displacement x1 0 0 Com) to be (exp Atl) + t= 1) (Am)34 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 Ni=100 i=0..N Now we can write expressions for Fj, vi, and xj, keeping in mind that att=0,F=Fo. These calculations are miz2 Fo:=1 made for N = 100 values even though only 15 values are shown in the graph. The values of F, x, and v at four different times are given below. 393 082 xy =3.164 1918 3.72610 Yygel Fg = 1.380107! x59 = 48 Vg =1 (a) Look at the variation in F, v, and x —_— versus t and explain the conclusions l you draw from such variations. fo ie (b) What does the leveling of the re values of F and v for high t mean? 3 + BR (©) What changes in (b) will be a + observed if 2 is 0.01, 1.0, and 5? (You can explain by regraphing for of 5 i is different values of 2.) f Tie Motion due to a decreasing force Exercise 2.1: A particle of mass m is at rest atthe origin of the coordinate system. Att = 0, a force F = Fl — te) is applied to the particle. Find the acceleration, velocity, and position of the particle as a function of time, Graph these values and answer (a), (b), and (c) in the example.Sec. 2.4 Velocity-Dependent Force: F= Flv) 35 2.4 VELOCITY-DEPENDENT FORCE: F = Fiv) There are many situations of common everyday occurrence where, in addition to constant ap- ed forces, forces are present that are a function of velocity. For example, when a body is in a vitational field, in addition to the gravitational force, there exists a force of air resistance on ¢ falling or rising body, and this resisting force is some complicated function of velocity. The same is true of objects moving through fluids (gases and liquids). Such opposing forces to the —otion of objects through fluids are called viscous forces or viscous resistance. In these cases, Newton’s second law may be written in the following form: dv Fv) = m2 ) =m (2.28) dv dx dv Fv) = (2.26) (v) "ed (2.26) Knowing the form of the force F(v), either of these two equations may be solved to analyze the -otion, that is, 10 calculate x as a function of r. Starting with Eq, (2.25), we may write di dt =m Fv) shich on integration yields dv t= tv) =m {2 22 @) mf Fo) A Solving this gives v as a function of f; that is v = v(4), Thus, knowing u(1), we can solve for x. y= f (2.28) v= Fao) (2.28) : dx = u(t) dt hich on integration gives aa aty = fund (2.29) Thus the problem is solved. Similarly, if we start with Eq. (2.26), we get udu co 2.30) Fey ee ahich on integration yields vdv x= x() =m { ay 231) Equations (2.29) and (2.31), which describe the displacement x as a function of ¢, may appear » be quite different, but when evaluated, they yield the same relationships as can be demon- s:rated, We shall divide our discussion into two parts. First, we shall discuss those cases in which36 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 there is no externally applied force besides the viscous resistance opposing the motion of the body, Later, we shall investigate more practical situations in which both types of forces, fric- tional as well as applied, are present. Special Case Suppose an automobile is moving with velocity 1 on a smooth frictionless surface when its engine is suddenly shut off. Let us assume that the air resistance is proportional to velocity; that is, F, = Pv) = —kv (2.32) Assuming that at = 0, v = vp, calculate v and x as functions of ¢. We may write the differen- tial equation of motion as dv Fy = —kv = m9 (2.33) ‘That is, a= — & which on integration gives ({ dv/v = In v) 1--" uo(2) 34) ky, After rearranging v= yen 2.35) That is, the velocity decreases exponentially with time. Substituting v = dr/dt in Eq, (2.35) and rearranging, we get dx = we-W™ dt which on integration, setting the limits as ¢ = 0 when x = 0, and allowing the displacement to be wat time f, gives 2M = etm, 036) Iti clear from Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36) that when f = 0, v = up. x = 0, as it should be. We note from Eq. (2.35) that v = 0 only when ¢ ~ % , and then from Eq. (2.36), x = muyyk = x), where x. is the limiting distance, The body never goes beyond this distance. (But it takes infinite time to reach there! We shall discuss this shortly.) Reconsidering Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36), we know that the motion cannot continue forever and the automobile must come to rest long before the infinite time as calculated earlier. Let us assume that when the automobile reaches a certain minimum velocity vg it has almost reached the f-nal distance x¢. This will be true as long as v is less than the certain minimum value ve.Sec. 2.4 — Velocity-Dependent Force: F = Flv) 37 By substituting v = v, in Eq. (2.35), we can calculate the time f¢ it takes to reach velocity ue; that is, Soe co = af 7 i Za(”) (2.38) Another interesting fact is revealed if we consider the motion in a short time interval when the retarding or the resistive force just begins acting on the moving body. To discuss this, let us expand the right sides of Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36) by using a Taylor series (e* = 1 + x + 7/2! + PB! + +), That is, k E, vey ete yt BO pe = w + aol (2.39) where a, = F,o/m is the acceleration at ¢ = 0. Similarly, = wt + Jaygl? +o (2.40) If we ignore the higher terms, Eqs. (2.39) and (2.40) reveal that they describe the motion of a particle acted on by a constant force provided ris very small. Note that ~Av = Fro = md, o, which is the force acting on the particle initially when t = 0; that is, these equations are simply the equations of motion of a particle under a constant force. General Case The preceding situation was limited to a simple case in which the retarding force F,(v) was pro- portional to velocity. In actual situations. F, is a complicated function of velocity and the solu- tions cannot be obtained by simply using the integration tables. Instead it becomes necessary to do numerical integrations. But, in many cases over a wide range of velocities, itis possible, in practice, to use the following approximation in which the retarding force or frictional force is proportional to some power of velocity. That is, FE, i @ar (¥y where & is the positive constant of proportionality for the strength of the retarding force and n is a positive integer. If n is an odd integer, the negative sign in Eq. (2.41) must be used. If n is an even integer, v* will be positive, and the sign + or — in Eq. (2.41) is chosen in such a way that it gives the direction of F, to be opposite to that of v (F, in the direction of v will be adding energy to the system instead of retarding it!). For small objects moving in air with velocities less than 25 nis, itis found that, if we take m ~ 1, we get good agreement with experimental results,38 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension —_Chap. 2 while for velocities greater than 25 m/s but less than ~ 32 mV/s, the use of n = 2 gives good agreement with experimental values. Let us apply these ideas to the case of a freely falling body, that is, to the vertical motion of an object in a resisting medium, the medium being air in this case. Let us assume that the air resistance is proportional to v, which can be written as —kv, independent of the sign of v. Thus the net force acting on the body is F =F, + F,=—mg~ kv (2.42) and the differential equation describing the motion of the freely falling body is, (2.43) Taking v = vy at f = 0, we may write * mdv m a=- = —" intmg + ko) [4--[ igre" "ek , (2.44) os k mg + ke oe Solving this equation for v, we get me (me (time y= + + 2.45) v ri ( : ne (2.45) Note that if the initial velocity is zero, that is if at ¢ = 0, 1) = 0, we get v=" — ew 2.46) In Eq. (2.45), we may substitute v = v(t) = dx/dt and the limits x = xp when t= O and x = x when t = t. After integrating, we get the following result: muy + ( et mn — elma (2.47) Terminal Velocity Let us consider Bq, (2.45) once again. As f increases, the exponential term decreases and drops to zero when t is very large as compared to ml/k; that is, for 1 > mik, =0 And for such large values of 1, the velocity v reaches a limiting value, which from Eq. (2.45) is v, = — (mg/k). This limiting velocity , is called the terminal velocity of a falling body. The ter- minal velocity of a body is defined as the velocity of the body when the retarding force (the force of air resistance) is equal to the weight of the body, and the net force acting on the body is zero (hence there will be no acceleration of the body); that is, enttlmit = gli 5 g~ or (2.48)Sec. 2.4 —_Velocity-Dependent Force: F = Flv) 39 The magnitude of the terminal velocity, which is equal to mg/k, is called the terminal speed. As an example, the terminal speed of raindrops varies anywhere from 3 to 7 m/s. Different bodies starting with different initial velocities will approach terminal velocities in different times. There are three different possibilities for initial velocities: |vo = 0, |vol <|v,| , and |vol > |vJ. Fig ure 2.2 illustrates the time taken by the bodies to reach terminal velocity for the three cases. Characteristic Time It should be clear from the previous discussion that the dimensions of m/k are time. We define the quantity m/k as the characteristic time 7; that is, from Eq. (2.48) (ignoring the sign), = (2.49) 8g Using the definitions of v, and 7, we rewrite Eqs. (2.45) and (2.47) as Ort (We Oe ae (2.50) X= %y— st gr? + mM ~ eo!) (2.51) Let us consider a special case in which the body starts from rest. Substituting vy = 0 in Eq. (2.50), we obtain v= -y(1 ~ e/) (2.52) and, if t = 7, Eq. (2.52) takes the form v= —u{1 — 1/e) = —0.632, That is, in one characteristic time the body reaches 0.63 of its terminal speed. This allows us to define the characteristic time as that in which the body reaches 0.63 of its terminal speed. If 1 = 2r, then v = —0.87», while for 1 = 107, v = —0.99995y,. Let us go back to Eqs. (2.45) and (2.47) again. Using a series expansion, we can show that these equations reduce to the familiar equations of motion for the case of constant force. For 1<7(=mlk = vfg), we get v=y-st (2.53a) and X= 4%) + uf — jet? (2.53b) ‘That is, for small 1, the effect of air resistance is negligible. On the other hand, for t > 7(= m/k), Eqs. (2.45) and (2.47) reduce to v=-y (2.Sda) me m x= burt (e- pat Xy + ut + (27g — grt) (2.54b)40 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension — Chap. 2 > Figure 2.2 ‘The graph illustrates the time it takes the bodies to reach terminal velocity for different initial velocities for given values of m, g, and k, vt is the terminal velocity, vO1, v02, and v03 are three different initial velocities, e000 ee wo =0 v02 < vt (Forabsotute values) ™:=25 gos 03 > vt Note that the terminal velocity is vt=-4.9 m/sec and, depending on the initial condition, the terminal velocity is, reached between 20 and 30 seconds. (In the graphs, tis divided by 10.) 4 ey Sy yao ET WBq= 4908 WByg 24.901 “ o 06 12 1s 24 3 (a) What are the different factors that affect the ns 2 iomminal Yerociy. Time to reach terminal velocity (b) If the initial velocity is positive and upward, how will it affect the terminal velocity? How will this graph differ from the others before terminal velocity is reached? Graph this,Sec. 2.4 —_Velocity-Dependent Force: F = Flv) a A Better Approximation For small, compact, heavy bodies, a better approximation is that in which the retarding or vis- cous force is proportional to v?. Thus the equation F+F, takes the form Fk? — mg = (2.55) where — kv? is used for rising (or ascending) bodies, while +42? is used for falling bodies. The terminal speed is given by F,+F,=0 or ky? = mg (2.56) mg = IE 57) or w= yy (2.57) and the characteristic time ris given by [m \ rs (2.58) 8 Following the procedure outlined before, Eq. (2.55) can be solved for v and x. The results ob- tained are mdv i . i J rg = Fe FOF Fsing objects (2.59) mdv oe t= [ra pe’ (or falling objects (2.60) which give 1= —rtan ( 2) + Cy for rising objects (2.61) —rtanh~ ( 2) + Cy — for falling objects (2.62) where C, and C; are constants to be determined from initial conditions. Solving these equations for v, we get v= vjtan f= , _ for rising objects (2.63) G v= ~v,tanh’—@, for falling objects (2.64) 7 As compared to a retarding force +kv, the terminal speed for the case of a retarding force kv? is reached much faster, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3. In this case, when ¢ = 57, v = —0.999911, that is, it reaches the same speed in half the time.42 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 b Figure 2.3 ‘The graph shows the motion of a vertically falling object under a linear force and a quadratic force with initial conditions tp = 0, xo = 0 and v Linear retarding force: P=-kx Quadratic retarding force: Fe kv’ The terminal velocity v2 = —0.808 for: Ni=50i=0..N quadratic retarding force (+ kv2) is reached much faster (in about 0.2 seconds) than m:-.1g:=9.8 the terminal velocity vl = —0.653 for a linear retarding force (—kv) is reached in, _m about 0.3 seconds. To calculate v1 and k v2 use Eqs. (2.46) and (2.64). 11 = 0.067 (a) In a given time interval, which object vi := will travel a larger distance and why? vi =0.653 (b) For the vertically falling objects which of the two situations is more Ss] desirable and why? t-e™ (c) What do the values of v1 and v2 at time t = 20 and 30 indicate? vi =-0.508 v2, =-0.677 V1jp=0.621—v2,,=-0.796 Vis= Is V1 yy =-0.652 V1 yg =70.653 a 02 03 oa 05 tyy 206 Speed for quadratic and linear force Note that the terminal velocity v2 is reached much faster (in about 0.3 second) than the terminal velocity v1 (in about 0.6 second). Explain why.Sec. 2.4 — Velocity-Dependent Force: F = F(v) 43 b> Example 2.2 A ball of mass m is thrown with velocity vo on a horizontal surface where the retarding force is proportional to the square root of the instantaneous velocity. Calculate the velocity and the position of the ball as a function of time and graph the results. Solution The retarding force is given by Rearrange this equation and integrate assuming that initial velocity at t= 0 is Fe vi 1 vo and v] at time t]. ee a m simplifies to Solving, we get the value of v1 yo a at time tl as 0 if 2fvim kt ka Integrating v1 we find the ato % ay a displacement x1 at time tI. xl Now we may graph x and v as function of | Ide (fo- tusing Eqs. (i) and (ii), rewritten as (iii) 7 and (iv)a Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 Displacement and velocity versus time Displacement and velocity versus time cement and veloc Dis Time Explain the decrease in v and then the increase in v as a function of time t. How does it affect the value of x? (Refer to the zoomed graph on the right). EXERCISE 2.2 Repeat the example for a retarding force that is proportional to the cube root of the instantaneous velocity. 2.5 POSITION-DEPENDENT FORCES: F = F(x), CONSERVATIVE FORCES, AND POTENTIAL ENERGY This is one of the most important cases considered so far, There are many situations in which motion depends on the position of the object. Examples of position-dependent forces are grav- itational force, Coulomb force, and elastic (tension and compression) forces. The differential equation that describes the rectilinear motion of an object under the influence of a position- dependent force is ax mp =F) (2.65) which may also be written in such a manner that v is a function of position; that is, me = Fix) (2.66) F(x) (2.67)Sec.2.5 Po jon-Dependent Forces 45 Since the kinetic energy of the particle is K = }mv?, we may write Eq. (2.67) as & — Re) 2.68) sshich on integration gives, : K-Ky= J F(x dx (2.69a) a or dm? hm = f ” F(a) de (2.69) The right side is equal to the work done when the particle is displayed from position x9 to.x. Itis convenient at this point to introduce potential energy or a potential energy function cor simply a potential function) V(x) such that ay dx = Fi) (2.70) We define V(x) as the work done by the force when the particle is displaced from x to some ar- bitrary chosen standard point x6; that is, Yoo = [roe = ~[re ds Qn) which is consistent with Eq. (2.70). Thus the work done is going from xy to x is [row = [ [- oo a= i v(x) = - fave . [avo = +V¥(%9) — Via) = - VO) + VO) (2.72) Combining Eas. (2.69) and (2.72), we get K + V(x) = Ky + V(x) = constant = E (2.73) or 3m sy +VQ=E (2.74) This equation states that if particle is moving under the action of a position-dependent force, then the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy remains constant throughout its motion. Such forces are called conservative forces. For nonconservative forces, K + V # constant, and a potential energy function does not exist for such forces. An example of a nonconservative force46 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 is frictional force. (It may be pointed out that if V(a) is replaced by V(x) + constant, the pre- ceding discussion still holds true. In other words, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy will still remain constant and will be equal to E. £ is the total energy, and Eq. (2.74) states the law of conservation of energy, which holds only if F = F(x). A description of the motion of a particle may be obtained by solving the energy equation, Eq. (2.74); that is, (=4)- a) {2 IE - Wo) (2.75) m which on integration yields (2.76) w= Vv oat ME — Voy] and gives 1 as a function of x. [We shall not discuss the significance of the negative sign, which deals with time reversal.] In considering the solution of Eq. (2.76), it is essential to note that only those values of x are possible for which the quantity £ — V(x) is positive. Negative values lead to imaginary solu- tions and hence are unacceptable. Also, the motion is limited to those values of x for which E ~ V(x) = 0; that is, the roots of this equation give the region or regions to which the motion is confined. This is demonstrated in Fig. 2.4. The function 3x? + V(x) is called the energy in- tegral of the equation of motion m(du/dt) = F(x), and such an integral is called a constant of motion. (This is the first integral of a second-order differential equation.) Before we give specific examples of solving the equation of motion for x(t), we shall show that much can be learned about the motion by simply plotting V(x) versus x. Figure 2.5 shows the plot of a potential energy function for one-dimensional motion. As mentioned earlier, the motion of the particle is confined to those regions for which E ~ V(x) > 0 or Vix) < E. Let us keep Eq. (2.75) in mind and discuss different cases. EVE) + Allowed limits of motion of a particle as I I i i i i I Figure 2.4 Allowed regions of motion for a particle in a position-dependent force fieldSec.25 Position-Dependent Forces 47 BHO 4} eee 7 Figure 2.5 The solid curve corresponds to a potential function V(x), and E0, EL, ..., are different energies of a particle moving in such a potential If E = Eo, as shown in Fig. 2.5, then Ey — V(x) = 0 and, according to Eq. (2.75), & that is, the particle stays at rest in equilibrium at x — x9. Let us consider the case in which the particle energy is slightly greater than Ey, say E). For x < x, and x > 2}, v will be imaginary; hence the particle cannot exist in these regions. Thus a particle with energy E; is constrained to move in the potential well (or valley) between x, and x. A particle moving to the right is re- flected back at 2; and when traveling to the leff, itis reflected back at x). The points x, and x; are called the turning points and are obtained by solving E, — V(x) = 0. The velocity of the par- ticle at these points is zero, Between x, and x{, the velocity of the particle will change as V(x) changes. We briefly explain the motion of a particle corresponding to different energies and moving in a potential V(x), as shown in Fig. 2.5. Ey: The particle is in stable equilibrium. E,: The particle moves between the turning points x, and x;. Ez; The particle moves between the turning points x, and x; with changing velocity. While moving between the turning points x and x, the particle has constant velocity and hence is in the region of neutral equilibrium. The particle can also exist in the region for x > x" Ex: When a particle with this energy is at x3, it is at a position of unstable equilibrium. It can also move in the valley on the left with a motion similar to that of a particle with energy E», Once it starts moving to the right, it keeps on moving, first with increasing velocity to x and then with constant velocity up to x. Eg: A particle with this energy can move anywhere. When passing over the hills, it slows down, while over the valleys, it speeds up, as it should.43 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 Continuing our discussion of position-dependent forces, we shall examine two special cases of interest in the next sections: 1. Motion under a linear restoring force 2, Variation of g in a gravitational field > Example 2.3 A particle of mass m is subjected to a force F = a —2bx, where a and b are constants. Find the potential energy V = V(x). Then graph F(x) and V(x). Discuss the mation of the particle for different values of energy. Solution Substitute for F in the expression for V and integrate to get the value of V. The motion is limited to the region x =O and x = a/b eo vel Fex For E < 0, the motion is limited to the left of V(x) and cannot cross j Ve the barrier. 2bxdx — sitnplifiesto Veax+bx (i) For Viximan¢ bx’ xt b For Ly(xye ay 2bxe0 et dx At a 200 Feo at red and 2 > Different values are calculated 2 below By ey - Be i Vyo=0 | ° 5 0 3 F\y=-20 Disuace « (imingV)) =-50 max V) = 150 max F) = 20 min(F) =—40Sec. 2.6 Motion under a Linear Restoring Force 49 (a) Looking at the variation in the values of V and F versus x, what do you conclude from this variation? (b) What are the values of F and V where these graphs intersect? What is the significance of this? Explain. (¢) What is the significance of x = 5 where F = 0 and V is minimum? Explain. EXERCISE 2.3 Repeat the example for Fa _2bx” ‘N 2.6 MOTION UNDER A LINEAR RESTORING FORCE Let the motion of a particle subject to a linear force be given by fe (2.77) This equation is a statement of Hooke’s law. A typical example of such a motion is that of a mass fastened to a spring. The resulting motion is simple harmonic, as we shall discuss in detail in Chapter 3. For the time being, we shall use the energy method discussed in the previous section to obtain the solution. Taking the standard point to be at the origin (also the equilibrium point), that is x, = 0, we may write the potential energy to be Va) =—] Fide = -] (ky de [ be [ 2) d or V(x) = Skx? (2.78) Once again, the total energy is a constant of motion and may be arrived at in the same manner; that is, (2.79) whicb on integration gives50 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 We can now use this equation or Eq. (2.76) with V(x) given by Eq. (2.78) to solve for the dis- placement x. For the conditions f = 0 atx = xo, Eg. (2.80) or (2.76) takes the form (keeping only the positive sign) (2.81) Substituting (2.82) we get (2.83) 1 ‘Therefore, t= —@- 6) o or O= ot + % (2.84) Combining Eq. (2.84) and (2.82), we get “{ fe ) = wt + 6, sin“ 5px) = oF + or X= Asin(ot + 4) (2.85) where A is the amplitude given by 2E A Vz (2.86) Thus Eq, (2.85) states that the motion of the particle is simple harmonic with the coordinate x oscillating harmonically in time with amplitude A and frequency w. A and 6 can be determined from the initial conditions; that is, if £ and xy are given, from Eqs. (2.86) and (2.85) = 3kA? (2.87) and Xy = A sin 6 (2.88)Sec. 2.7 Variations of g in a Gravitational Field 51 2.7 VARIATION OF g IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD For small heights just above the surface of Earth, the value of g is almost constant and is equal ‘0 9.8 m/s? = 32.2 fus*. But at large distances above the surface of Earth, the value of g varies with distance and may be calculated in a simple manner. According to Newton's law of gravita- sion, the force between an object of mass m at a distance x from the center of Earth of mass M is Fa) = -6f (2.89) It we neglect air resistance, the differential equation of motion of an object in a gravitional field may be written as Since v =, we may write mf di = ~ 6mm [ ‘which on integration gives pm? — ot = constant = (2.90a) « imi? + Vi) = E (2.90b) where we have defined the gravitational potential energy V(x) to be Vox) (2.91) We can derive the same expression for the gravitational potential energy by the direct defini- -0n of the potential function. But itis convenient to take the initial conditions to be x, =, in- stead of x, = 0, as we did previously. Thus _ GMm _ GMm va) = ~[ Fever = al 3s defined previously.] We may rewrite Eq. (2.90a) as (2.92) “here the positive sign corresponds to ascending motion, while the negative sign corresponds > descending motion. Equation (2.92) may be solved for x() by integrating; that is, mor de 2 7), [E+ GMa? (2.93)52 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension Chap. 2 veo Figure 2.6 Particle of energy E ina gravitational potential V(x) versus 2. The integration of this equation is not as simple as in the case of a linear restoring force. We shall not pursue this any further at the present time, but shall give a graphical interpretation and discuss some simple cases. The plot of V(x) versus x is shown in Fig. 2.6. It is quite clear that for negative values of E the motion is bound with a turning point at x,. That is, when E = E, the body will go a height X = Xp, come to a stop, and turn around. For values of £ greater than zero, there is no turning point and the body will never retarn to Earth. Thus, for a minimum energy E = 0, the velocity corresponds to v = v,, the escape velocity, which we shall calculate below. We can calculate the turning point by substituting velocity v =< = 0 and x = x; in Eg, (2.92) (by definition vis zero at the turning point), and we get Mm -G—"=E or a= ar Since E is negative, xy will be positive. Let us consider Eq. (2.90a) once again: 1 2 x (2.94) bald = constant (2.95) Let a body be dropped from a height x = x9 with zero initial velocity. That is, substituting v = = Oatx = spin Eq. 2.95), Mi ~G*™ = constant % Using this value for the constant in Eq, (2.95) and rearranging, we get 2am{ +) a4) 5ec.2.7 Variations of g in a Gravitational Field 53 Let go be the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Earth, where x = * so that That is. (2.97) sally the distance is measured from the surface of Earth; hence we may write x Retr, g=F and xy =R+h eh = x) ~ R equals the height (as measured from the surface of Earth) from which the ~ dy is dropped. Using this notation and Eqs. (2.96) and (2.97), we may write v= 26g = za) (2.98) “nus. for r = 0, that is, when the body reaches the surface, » = vy; hence d= twe(e- at) 2.99) R R+h 4 may be written as A = opal (1 +4) | (2.100) sich reduces to vy ~ 2goh if h < R, as it should, Equation (2.98) also applies to the case when - ody is projected upward with a velocity uv, and it will reach a height h when v = 0 We can arrive at an expression for the escape velocity by substitating h = in Eq. (2.99), -ssulting in 2GM 2goR = oR », = V29R = yt = 11 km/s = 7 miles/s (2.101) = we could say that at the surface of the Earth E re Kinetic energy. That is, 0; hence potential energy must be equal to2. 2.2, 23. 24, 25. 27. 2.8, 29, 2.10. 211. Particle Dynamics in One Dimension —_Chap. 2 PROBLEMS Force F acting on a particle of mass m has the following dependencies: (a) Fox.) = fide ) FE) = fe (©) Fix) = fg) Write the differential equations describing these situations. Which of these differential equations ‘can be solved to describe the motion of the particle? Explain, A particle of mass m is acted on by the force (a), (b), (€), (d), or (e) as given below. Solve these ‘equations to describe the motion of the particle. (a) FOR) = ke + 2), fore = 0,2 = xy, and v= = 0 (b) FL, 2) = x2, fort = 0, x = xp, and v = vy (©) FU, ) = Mak + 1), for! = 0,0 = % @ Fx.) = ali (©) FQ, 4,0 = kx + x0) A block of mass m is initially at rest on a frictionless surface. At time ¢ = 0, an increasing force given by by F = kr’ is applied to the block. Find the velocity and the displacement of the block as a function of time and graph x and v versus ¢. A block of mass m is initially at rest on a frictionless surface at the origin. At time 1 = 0, a force given by F = Fote~™'is applied. Calculate x(¢) and v(t) and graph them. What are these values when {a) fis very small, and (b) tis very large? A particle of mass m is at rest at = 0 when itis subjected to a force F = Fysin (at + 4). (a) Cal- culate the values of x(#) and u(t) (b) Make plots of x(¢) and u(t) versus ¢. What are the maximum and minimum vajues of x and v? 5. A particle of mass m is subjected to a force given by F = Foe sin (ot +) Calculate the values of v(#) and x(#) and graph them. What is the magnitude of the terminal veloc- ity in this case? A particle of mass m is at rest at t = 0 when it is subjected to a force F = Fy cos? aot. (a) Calculate the values of x(#) and 1(2) (b) Make plots of x(¢) and u(t) versus ¢. (c) Describe the outstanding characteristic of these graphs. A ball of mass m is thrown with velocity v% om a horizontal surface where the retarding force is pro- portional to the square root ofthe instantaneous velocity. Calculate the velocity and the position of, the ball as a function of time. Discuss any limitations. An object of mass m is thrown up an inclined plane of an angle 6 with an initial velocity vy, If the ‘motion is resisted by the retarding force F, = ~kv, how far will the mass travel before coming to rest? Assuming the same retarding force, how long will it take the object to travel back to the ini- tial position? Repeat Problem 2.9 for the retarding force F, ~ +k. A boat is slowed down by a frictional force F(x), Its velocity decreases according to the relation v = A(t ~ £,)°, where 4, is the time it takes to stop the boat and & is the constant. Calcu- late Fo).Problems 55 2.12. The motor of a speed boat is shut off when it has attained a speed of uy. Now the boat is slowed down by a retarding force F, = Ce", Calculate v(¢) and x(¢), How long will it take for the boat to stop, and how much distance wil it travel before stopping? 2.13. A particle of mass m st with an initial velocity u is acted on by a force F = m(kv + cv), where k and c are constants. Calculate the displacement as a function of time. 2.14. For the situation in Problem 2.12 graph F and x versus t. 2.15. For the situation in Problem 2.13 graph F and x versus 1. Compare the results with those in Prob- Jem 2.14. 2.16, A body of mass m is dropped from a height h. Calculate the speed when it hits the ground if (a) there is no air resistance, (b) air resistance is proportional to the instantaneous velocity, and (c) air re- sistance is proportional to the square of the instantaneous velocity. Graph velocity versus time in cach case and compare the results. 2.17. A projectile is thrown vertically with a velocity vp. Calculate and compare times and maximum heights reached when air resistance is (a) zero, (b) proportional to the instantaneous velocity, and (© proportional to the square of the instantaneous velocity. Graph distance versus time in all cases and compare the results. 2.18. A ball is thrown vertially upward with an initial velocity vy. The air resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity. Show that the velocity with which the ball returns to the original posi- tion is You Vie te where », is the terminal velocity. 2.19. Derive Eq, (2.47); that is, 2, = xy — M4 (™E 4 “tim = xy — Er (ME 4 MOV eam Ee (e ma ems 2.20. Using Eqs. (2.45) and (2.47), show that for ¢ < 7, we get the familiar equations of motion, Eqs. (2.53a) and (2.53b). 2.21. Show that for the case 1 < 1, Es. (2.45) and (2.47) reduce to Eqs. (2.54a) and (2.54b).. 2.22. Starting with Bq. (2.55), derive Bqs. (2.61) and (2.62). 2.23. Starting with Eq. (2.60) and initial conditions that vp = xand v. 2.24. Using the law of conservation of energy, derive the general equations of motion for freely falling bodies, x9 = O at # = 0, find the expressions for 2.25. A particle of mass m is attracted toward the origin by a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance; that is, F = —K/r2. If this mass is released from a distance L, show that it will take time #10 reach the origin, where + is given by ne a a xr)56 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension = Chap. 2 2.26. The velocity of a particle of mass m subjected 0 a certain force varies with the distance according, to the relation v = K/x", where K is a constant. Assuming at ¢ = 0,.x = xo, caloulate the force act- ing on the particle as a function of (a) distance x, and (b) time ¢. (c) Calculate the position of the particle as a function of time ¢. (d) Graph in (a), (b) and (e) and discuss any outstanding features. 2.27, A particle of mass m is subjected to a force given by F = —ax + bx*, where a and b are constants. (a) Find the potential energy V(x). (b) Make plots of F(x) and Vix), (©) Discuss the motion of the particle for different values of energy and also point out the regions in which the motion is forbidden. 2.28. A particle of mass m is subjected to a force represented by a potential function Vix) = —ax? + bx, where @ and b constants, (a) Calculate FQ) (b) Make plots of F(x) and V(x. (©) Discuss the motion of the particle for different values of energy. Also discuss the restrictions on the motion. 2.29, A particle at time # = 0 is at rest ata distance x from the origin and is subjected to a force that is inversely proportional to the distance from the origin, Solve the equation of motion for this parti- cle; that is, find v(#) and x(0). 2.30. A particle of mass mis subjected to a force K Fly = -Cr + x where C and K are constants. (a) Find the potential function Vix). (b) Make plots of F(x) and V(x). (©) Discuss the nature of the motion for different values of E and also find the regions where the motion is not possible, 2.31. The force between two particles in a diatomic molecule is such that it may be represented by a po- tential function of the form Va) = xe where C, and C; are the positive constants and x is the distance hetween the two atoms, (a) Find Fa. (@) Make plots of Fix) and Vix). (6) Assume that one of the atoms in the molecules is very heavy and remains at rest atthe origin. Discuss the possible motions of the other atom in the molecule. 2.32. An alpha particle when inside the nucleus is bound by the potential shown for —® = & 2 Vol 3.3) m If E = Ey, as shown in Fig. 3.1, then Fy — V(x) = O and i = 0; that is, the particle stays at rest in a stable equilibrium at x = x, Let us consider the case in which the particle energy E; is slightly greater than Ep. For x 2, will be imaginary; hence the particle cannot exist in these regions. Thus a particle with energy E, is constrained to move in a potential well ‘or valley) between x, and x), The particle moving to the right is reflected back when it reaches xz, and when traveling to the left itis reflected again at x,. The points x, and x, are called surn- ing points, and the velocity of the particle at these points is zero. These points are obtained by solving E, — V(x) = 0. In between these points, the velocity of m changes continuously de- pending on the value of V(x). Hence a particle in a potential well moves back and forth and os- cillates between x, and x, when its energy is greater than Ey, The position (2) of a particle moving in potential well can be found by integrating Eq. (3.3); that is, (3.4) ve oe ™ Figure 3.1 A particle of mass m and energy £ is moving in an arbitrary poten- tial energy function V(x) shown by the solid heavy curve. The dotted curve is the parabolic potential approximation of the arbitrary potential.60 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 while the time period T of one complete oscillation is given by ae = vanif es 3.5) js, VE — Vix) Equations (3.4) and (3.5) cannot be solved unless we know the form of the potential func- tion V(x). The motion of the particle can be limited to the region in the neighborhood of x, and for small displacements, such as these, itis possible to approximate the arbitrary potential func- tion V(x) by a parabolic potential shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 3.1. As we shall show later, this potential may be written as V(x) = 5&(x — 29)*, where & is a constant, thereby enabling us to solve Eqs. (3.4) and (3.5). ‘Suppose a particle is oscillating about a point of stable equilibrium xo, where the minimum potential is (x) at x = 2. Let us expand the potential function V(x) in a Taylor series about the point xp. T=%Ay-h av av Vo) = Vox) + (2) (em) + ( ae ) eo 1/ av \ 1/ av +-( 3+ — At ee Pat ae We limit our discussion to small displacements in symmetrical potentials. The term X(%o) is a constant term and can be dropped without affecting the results. Also, since x» is a point of min- imum, for stable equilibrium in a symmetrical potential, the odd terms must be zero. [Note that if the expression resulting from the expansion of F(x) were used the even terms would be zero.] ) @— Kite B.6) Therefore, av ) =0, (3.7a) (a) while ( & (3.7b) Define (x=) = G8) PV ( 3 G9) ifda'v a om ‘Then the potential function may be written as V(x!) = dee’? + der'f to (3.11)Sec.3.2 Linear and Nonlinear Oscillations 61 Let us assume that the origin is located at the equilibrium point so that xp = O and x’ = x, and Sy neglecting the higher-order terms in Eq. (3.11), we get Vix) = fhe? + ert (3.12) Furthermore, since the motion of the particle is in a conservative force field, using the definition F(x) i eee dx and substituting for V(x) from Eq. (3.12), we may write F(x) = ~ ke — x? (3.13) Linear Oscillations In the first approximation, we can neglect all terms except the first in Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13) ~o that V(x) = phx? (3.14) F(x) = ~ kx G15) i as ( 7 LL G.16) shere ce (PVidx2)yis always positive, k will be positive also. Hence a force F(x) = —kx is always =:Tected toward the center and proportional to x. Such a force is called a linear restoring force. The potential corresponding to such a force is parabolic as given by Eq. (3.14) and shown by dotted curves in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 for different values of k. The corresponding linear forces == shown by the dotted lines. Physical systems involving springs, pendula, and elastic deformation are described by Eqs. (3.14) and (3.15) and are said to obey Hooke’s law. This is true only if the displacements all and we remain within elastic limits, as shown in Fig. 3.2(a). Moreover, the results ob- zoned are still approximate. We shal] spend most of the time discussing linear oscillations re~ Iking from approximate linear systems. k has been given several names, but is usually called spring constant or stiffness constant, k is defined as the force per unit length with units of tons per meter (N/m). I/k is called the compliance of the spring. Nonlinear Oscillations “ement of the system from stable equilibrium is not small (or if we definitely want -order improvements in the linear approximation), we cannot drop the second term in =4s. (3.12) and (3.13). Thus, according to Eq, (3.13), the force is no longer linear because of “re presence of a.x° term, while the potential is no longer parabolic because of the presence of62 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 Hard Fi) aot ho 0 x * Actual Linea? x Flastio NP limit . Soft Hard (<0 e>0) ve) Parabolic ! i Actual / ® Figure3.2 The plots of F(x) versus x and V(x) versus x for a variety of systems. ‘The magnitude and sign of e determines whether the system is hard or soft. For soft systems, € <0, while for hard systems, € > 0. ax term. Different forms of forces and potentials are illustrated in Fig. 3.2 for systems with large displacements (hence no longer linear). Let us further consider Eq. (3.13) for a nonlinear system; that is, FQ) = ke - 3.13) ‘We must remember that ¢ is a very small quantity as compared to &, but its magnitude and sign affect the linear term — kx, hence the resulting force F(x). If € < 0, the magnitude of the force F(x) will be less than the linear force kx alone and the system is said to be soft. On the other hand, if € > 0, the magnitude of the force F(x) is greater than the linear force kx alone and the system is said to be hard. The forces and potentials of such systems are shown in Fig. 3.2. 3.3 LINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Consider the prototype of a linear or simple harmonic oscillator shown in Fig. 3.3. It consists of ‘a mass m tied to a spring having a force constant k. The spring-mass system oscillates in one di- mension along the X-axis on a horizontal frictionless surface. The system obeys Hooke’s law;Sec.3.3 Linear Harmonic Oscillators 63 k Liemmnnnnr| m F=0 Figure 3.3. Prototype of a linear har- monic oscillator showing the maximum and minimum values of x, v, a and F. rence the system is linear, Measuring the displacement x from the equilibrium position, the po- ential energy Vix) is Von = be? @.17) ahile the restoring force F(x) is F(x) = -ke (3.18) From Newton’s second law, F(x) = m(d?x/d?); therefore, m a =-k (3.19) dx a pt ar 0 (3.20) ahere = Y 2 G21) » is a constant and is called the free natural angular frequency (or free oscillation frequency) of the system, Our aim is to solve Eq. (3.20) for x(2). Before we do this, it must be pointed out that an uation of this form is frequently encountered both in physics and engineering; hence its so- tion must be thoroughly investigated. Equation (3.20) is a second-order, linear, homogeneous64 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 differential equation. The highest derivative that occurs in a differential equation is called its order, while a differential equation is linear if it does not contain terms higher than the first de- gree in the dependent variable [x is the dependent variable in Eq. (3.20)] and its derivative. Ais Eq. (3.20) is homogeneous because it does not contain terms other than the dependent variable and its derivatives. Thus the most general form of a differential equation of the nth order, linear and inhomogeneous, is ax ax Coe +, r pt Cunt get If 6(0) = 0, the equation is homogeneous. The coefficients C,, Cy...» Cy are constants that may or may not be independent of time, but we assume them to be independent of time, We shall be dealing with second-order differential equations. We summarize next some properties of such equations, which will be helpful. dx tet = HO (3.22) 1. The general solution of any second-order differential equation depends on only two arbitrary constants. Suppose we choose C, and C; to be the arbitrary constants; then x= a(t; CG) Cy and C; are arbitrary because any values of C, and C) will satisfy a second-order differential equation. 2. If x:(0) is any solution of a linear homogeneous differential equation, then Cx,(t) is also a solution, where C is an arbitrary constant. 3. If x,(#) and x,(1) are solutions of a linear homogeneous differential equation, then x() + x,(2) or any other linear combination C,x,() + C3x,(0) is also a solution, Let us now go back to Eq. (3.20) and try to find its solutions. To start, we may write it as E+ oe =0 Now, multiplying both sides by 2x, 2 = — aft and integrating, we get i? =~ ab? + C where C is a constant. When x = A, i hence C = wA?. Thus x? = wfA? — 2°) (3.23) which, after separating the variables, may be written as dx Vai of aeSec. 3.3 Linear Harmonic Oscillators 65 Integrating this equation, we get = ot + b “(3) «here is a constant, called the initial phase or phase constant. We may write this equation as Asin(ot + $) (3.24) Thus the solution of Eq. (3.20), which is a second-order differential equation, is given by Eq. (3.24) and contains two arbitrary constants A and ¢ to be determined from the initial con- itions. Equation (3.24) is a solution of a linear oscillator or harmonic oscillator. The graph of versus tis shown in Fig. 3.4. xis called the displacement; the maximum displacement is called ne amplitude of the oscillator and is equal to A. The quantity wy is called the angular frequency and is given by Eq. (3.21). Also, a» = 2arv9, where 1 is called the frequency of the oscillator. The rime period T, of the oscillator is the time required to complete one oscillation. Thus, in sume ¢ = Ty in Eq. (3.24), at increases by 2; that is, To = 2ar (3.25a) (3.25b) The expressions for velocity and acceleration may be obtained by differentiating Eq. (3.24); hat is, = wpAcosagt + 6) (3.26a) — af sin(wpt + 9) = —obx (3.26b) The plots of x, v, and a versus f are shown in Fig. 3.4. The solution given by Eq. (3.24) may be written in a different form as follows: x= Asiniat + 4) = Asin wf cos @ + A cos ays sin & Substituting Acosf = B (3.27a) and Asn gd = C (3.27b) we get X= Bsin at + Coos apt 3.28)66 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 » Figure 3.4 Below js the graph of the displacements 4, 199 a x and x0 versus time t for two oscillators 10 having the same frequency 0. The a = phase difference between the two s 2 functions is = 1/2 or 90 degrees, as. T=—= v=025 illustrated. . x, = Avsin( Ot, +o) max(x) = 0.05 ‘The maximum values of the rmax(v) = 0.078 displacements (amplitudes) of x and x0, velocity v, and acceleration a are as shown, Also, the phase angles may be x0, := A-sin(ox)-t,) max(x0) = 0.05 calculated as . - ‘max(a) = 0.123 ‘Simple Harmonic Motion (20) %) 20-00 21.57 ad i (%~ 20)):20-100 = 89.954 -deg y Displacement Below is the graph of -oost tt Age Nae displacement x, velocity v, and 2 acceleration a versus time t. Time Simple Harmonic Motion (a) If we change the values of 02 100, 1/4, x, 30/2, and 2n, how do these graphs change? (b) What are the phase relations between x and v and between x and a? Diaglcement, velocity, acceleration (c) If the phase of x changes, how will it affect the phase of v and a? o ie 4 6 8 10Sec.3.3 Linear Harmonic Oscillators 67 which is another form of the solution for a second-order differential equation. Squaring and adding Eqs. (3.27a) and (3.27b), we get A=VB+C (3.29a) and dividing Eq. (3.27b) by (3.27a), we get Cc = tal “( = ) 29) ob es (3.29b) Equations (3.27) and (3.29) give the relations between the constants A, g, and B, C. We may differentiate Eqs. (3.28) to get expressions for velocity and acceleration. Equation (3.20) or any other second-order differential equation with constant coefficients may be solved by a trial solution of an exponential form, as explained next. Let the trial solu- tion be x (3.30) where A is a constant to be determined. Substituting Eq. (3.30) into (3.20), Mem + age = 0 +a =0 31) This is called the characteristic, initial, ot auxiliary equation. Thus A= Siwy = +i fe (3.32) m where i = V1, Thus, with two roots Ay = +iay and A; A, and A_ as two constants, ~iap, the general solution is, using x=A,et™ + A ei (3.33) All three solutions, Eqs. (3.24), (3.28), and (3.33), are equivalent, and any one can be derived from the other two. Fach contains two constants, Equation (3.33) may be reduced to the other wo by using the Buler formulas ce = cos 8+ isin 8 (3.34) It may be well to remember that in a solution given by Eq. (3.33), the constants A, and A_ are complex quantities and sometime inconvenient to use. Still another way of writing this general solution is (with A and ¢ as two constants) x= Acie ® = Acos(uyt + @) + iA sin(wyt + ¢) 3.35) where both the real and the imaginary parts of this equation are solutions of a general differen- tial equation.68 Harmonic Oscillators — Chap. 3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator For a simple harmonic oscillator, the displacement is x= Asin(ayt + 4) while the velocity is dx [oo dt and the maximum value of the velocity up is WA cosagt + b) wont Hence the kinetic energy K of the oscillator is K = mi? = ImaA? cosuyt + 8) = K,cos*(ant + ) 3.36) where Ko is the maximum kinetic energy given by Ky = mag? = 3kA? 3.37) ‘The potential energy of the system is equal to the work done by the applied force F, = )) = kx in displacing the system from x = 0 to x = x. Thus Wn =W = F,dx= [keds = Me? 3.38) 0 Substituting for x: V(x) = HA sin2ant + ) V(x) = Vo sin"(agt + $) (3.39) where Vo is the maximum potential energy when x = A; that is, Vy = 4ka? (3.40) ‘Thus the total energy E, which is always constant whenever there is a conservative force field, is Smit? + hha? G41) ‘This equation can be solved for x(t) and provides more information about the problem under consideration, as we shall show next. From Eg. (3.41), wa i= (2% -* “) (3.42a) momSec. 3.3 Linear Harmonic Oscillators 69 de Ik o + =\— [a (3.42b) " J VQE/k — Vin i ‘ . we get the solution for x to be x= Asin(ot + 4) (3.43a) or x = Acos(apt + ¢,) (3.43b) where o, and q2 are constants, while the amplitude A is given by 2E A V c (3.44) This relation tells us that x can vary between +A and ~A, that is, between +e and This has to be true because only then will x be real as given by Eqs. (3.42). The value of x then must lie between two limits that are determined by the energy E and the spring constant k. To find the average values of V and K over one complete time period, we use the follow- ing general expression for the average value of quantity flr): i a Oana. I fo at Gas) That is, r if Vat [ Va sin (yt + ob) dt el el oT [ dt lo (3.46) and similarly (k) = 1K, = fa? @.47) That is, (WV) = (K) =3E (3.48) If, instead of time averages, we calculate space averages over one complete time period, we get (see Problem 3.1) W)egace = HRA? (KYepace = 5KA? (3.49) (Bdspace = W)space + (KY space = (Ehime (3.50)70 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 3.4 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR ‘Theoretically, a linear or a simple harmonic oscillator once set into motion will continue oscil- lating forever. Such oscillations are called free oscillations. In practice, however, in any physi- cal situation there are dissipative or damping forces, and the oscillating system will lose energy with time. Thus the oscillating system is damped and eventually comes to rest. The differential equation for a linear oscillator given by Eq. (3.20) must be modified to include the effect of damping. Once again we consider a mass m tied to a spring, as shown in Fig. 3.5, as a prototype and restrict its motion to one dimension. As the mass moves in a fluid, air or liquid, the frictional force is the viscous force that produces the damping. As long as the speed of the mass is small ‘$0 as not to cause turbulence, the frictional force or damping force F may be assumed to be proportional to the velocity. That is, Fy, = —bu= —br (3.51) where b must be a positive constant. The net force F,,, due to forces ass m as shown in Fig. 3.5is Fig = F + Fy = —kx - be (3.52) Using Newton's second law and substituting Fy. = mx + bk + kx =0 (3.53) in Eg, (3.52), we get which is a second-order differential equation for a damped harmonic oscillator. To solve this ‘equation, we divide both sides by m and substitute 6 => 3.54a ae (3.S4a) and £ (3540) % = . to obtain E+ yi + o =0 (3.55) ‘As before, let us try an exponential solution of the form PDN | Figure 3.5 Forces acting on a proto- m=O type of a damped harmonic oscillator,Sec. 3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator n and substituting in Eq.(3.55), we get eM(A? + 2yA + 8) Since e” # 0, we must have (A? + 2yA + #8) = 0 (3.56) This auxiliary equation has the roots A=—yt VP Th (3.57a) and A= -y- VP ah (3.57b) Thus the general solution of Eg. (3.55) is, with A, and A, as arbitrary constants, x(t) = Aye™ + Ae™ or at) = eo MAse VTS! 4 Aye VF (3.58) ‘The following three cases of this solution are of special interest and will be discussed in some setail. Case (a) Underdamped a>y A; and A, are (oscillatory) = imaginary roots Case (b) Critically damped @ = y” A and A; are real (not oscillatory) and equal roots Case (c) Overdamped a 7: For this case, it is convenient to make 2 substitution: (3.59) ‘Thus the exponentials inside the parentheses in Eq. (3.58) are imaginary, and we may write this equation as x) = eo MAe™ + Ae) (3.60) which is a solution of an underdamped oscillator. Using the relation e *!* = cos @ + i sin 8, we may write Eq. (3.60) as x) e- TWA, — Ay) sin wt + (A, + A;) cos wf] Substituting i(A, — A,) = Band (A, + A;) = C, we obtain an alternative solution: x() = eB sin at + Cos wif] 3.61)72 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 This may still be written ina slightly different form by making the following substitutions in Eq. (3.61) A= VB+C and tand=— BIO Thus we obtain x) = Ae cos(t + ) (3.62) Of the three solutions given by Eqs. (3.60), (3.61), and (3.62), we shall concentrate on Eq, (3.62). It may be pointed out that the constants A, and A, in Eq. (3.60) are complex quanti- ties, while B and C in Eq. (3.61) and A and ¢ in Eq. (3.62) are all real quantities. The solution given by Eq. (3.62) indicates that for a damped oscillator the motion is os- cillatory, but the amplitude of the oscillations decays exponentially, as shown in Fig. 3.6. The natural angular frequency, wn, of the frequency of the damped oscillator is always less than the free oscillation frequency «. The natural frequency «, is not a frequency in the true sense of, the word because the oscillator never passes through the same point twice with the same veloc- ity; that is, the motion is not periodic. But if y is very small, then w; = « (as shown later), and we can call; the “frequency.” If y is small, we can expand Eq. (3.59) (using the binomial ex- pansion) as _Py" we (3.63a) (3.63b) If y< a, 0, = & (3.63¢) According to Eq. (3.62) the case for ¢ = 0 is shown in Fig. 3.6, Equation (3.62) states (and this is demonstrated in Fig. 3.6) that the maximum amplitude of the oscillations decreases expo- nentially with time because of the factor e~ * and lies between the (wo curves given by A) = #Ae™™ (3.64) where A, (1) is the envelope that limits the displacement of the oscillations. For comparison the 4p graph represents the oscillations for a free oscillator, that is, for y = 0. The graphs with dif- ferent dampings are shown in Fig. 3.6. Plots x, and xs represent the envelope of the damped mo- tion (y # 0) that (due to the presence of the cosine term) touches the envelope at cos wt = +1, that is, at times at, = nar or ¢, = n/a, where n is an integer. The period of the damped os- cillacion is T, = 27/a. Since w, < ap, that is, the damped frequency is smaller than the freeSec. 3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 3 ) Figure 3.6 For undamped and underdamped oscillators, N:=100 n:=0..N Below is a graph of x versus t for the following degrees of freedom: x0 Undamped, 4=0 AL Lightly damped, 7 not 0 Moderately damped, y not0 3 20714 x3. Heavily damped, y not 0 n x0, = A-cos(01+,) xl,:=Ae” “cos(ot-t \dand x5 are two envelopes for" . : plot x1 showing that the amplitude : : of the oscillations decays aces cos(a24,) _x3,:=Ae” eos(as,) exponentially. x4, =Ae! ‘« x5, eee ; +a) What equations (other than cosine and sine) can be used to obtain the same graph? 1b) How do the graphs of the rour functions differ in their :ime periods, amplitude, and requencies? Explain.“ Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 frequency, the period 7; of the damped oscillation is longer than the free period Ty. This is clear from the comparison of the « values of the plots in Fig. 3.6. It is worth noting that the points of the curve that touch the envelope are 7/2 (= /«,) apart, but the maxima and the minima of the curve, even though separated by 7\/2, do not coincide with the points of maxima and minima of the undamped motion curve. Figure 3.6 shows the plots of x(4) versus ¢ for different degrees of damping. The ratio 4, determines the essential feature of these plots. If yw, < 1, the amplitude envelope 4,(0) given by Eq. (3.64) changes very slowly with time, while the cosine term in x(é) makes several zero crossings. Such a system is said to be lightly damped. On the other hand, if yan, > 1, the sys- tem is said to be heavily damped because A(t) will decrease very rapidly and goes to zero, while the cosine term makes only a few zero crossing. In either case, the ratio of the two successive maxima is given by Act Aew™% Ae™ Ae X41) (3.65) where f; = fy is the time when the first maximum occurs and f = fy, + 7; is the time when the next maximum occurs, 7; being the time period of the damped oscillation. The quantity exp (yf) is called the decrement of motion, while its logarithm, 7M}, is called the logarithmic decre- ment, 5; that is, o=mem =r, -(2\(22)- 22 (3.66) 2m Nw, }~ may Case (b) Critically Damped, w, = y*: For this case, the two roots A, and A, given by Eqs. (3.57) are equal, that is, and the general solution given by Eq. (3.58) takes the form x(t) = (A, + Aye“™ = Be™ where (A, + A,) = B, = constant. This is not a general solution because it contains only one constant. We can show that in such cases, if e~ ” is a solution, =te* (3.67) is also a solution, Substituting in the differential equation E+ yk + ofr =0 we get (i - Pe* =01 Sec. 3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 75 Since wy = +, the equation is satisfied, and te ~ “is also a solution. Thus, for a critically damped case, the general solution is a linear combination of e ~ * and te ~ *; that is, x(t) = (By + Byde™ (3.68) where B, and B, are constants to be determined by the initial conditions. Figure 3.7 represents three cases of interest (for a critically damped oscillator) resulting from the solution given by Eq. (3.68). If we differentiate x with respect to f and equate to zero, ‘we get the positions of maxima in the plot of x versus t. Thus dx/dt = 0 gives 2m + > (3.69) It Be on Be an ee Gl es the curves for x versus have maxima at t = 0 and 1 > 0, as in Fig. 3.7. Bon a ay the curve does not have a maximum for ¢ > 0, as demonstrated in Fig. 3.7. Critical damping plays a very important role in the design of such instruments as gal- \anometers, hydraulic springs, and pointer reading meters. Itis desired that the system attain an equilibrium position rapidly and smoothly in the presence of frictional damping. Be Case (c) Overdamped, of, < y: If the damping increases such that 7? > of, then the wo roots A, and A, are real. If we represent the general solution given by Eq. (3.58) takes the form x) =e MTAe™ + Ase] (3.70) Note that «, is no longer a frequency because the motion is no longer oscillatory. The exponents are real, and both terms on the right decay exponentially, one faster than the other. As shown in Fig. 3.8, for the case (0) # 0, (0) # 0, the displacement goes to zero asymptotically, but not as rapidly as in the case of a critically damped system. For the case when x(0) > 0 or < 0, Fig. 3.8, shows how x(t) varies with time. For i(0) > 0, x(t) reaches maximum for ¢ > 0. For 10) <0, but small, x(t) has no maximum for t > 0. For x(0) <0, but sufficiently large, x(t) has a maximum for ¢ > 0, as shown,76 D Fire 37 For a critically damped oscillator (not oscillatory) Plots are for the same values of B1 and B2 but different values of y. For the present situation, BY/B1 = 0.5, whiley = b/2m. The graphs for three different values of y and b are below. (a) What is the effect of increasing the value of 7. Explain (b) What causes the changes in the values of BI and B2? Explain (c) How will a change in the value of b and m change the values of B and y? (d) What is the significance of the following maximum values in the three cases? min(x1) =6 max(x1) = 13.48 min(x2) =0.016 ‘max(x2) = 6.406 Displacement min(x3) =2.03410% — max(x3) =6 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 ay N50 n=0.N 122 Bii=6 ysl pM BaT oe x1, = (BI+B24,)-¢ Taos 12, !=(B1+ B24,)-€ “4, 33, :=(B1+ B24, Critically Damped Oscillator s x, Nas 2 / 75 aa ° tee (e) How does the graph of a critically damped oscillator differ from that of an undamped oscillator in terms of frequency of oscillations and amplitude? 4Sec. 3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 7 Figure 3.8 For an overdamped oscillator oN ef At 0 x0 v0 not oscillatory) Below is the graph of x versus t {or three different initial conditions. bi=6 kid Mal ‘a) How do different values of the 2M coefficients B, C, and D affect different plots? 0 =2 1b) What causes the change in the salue of @ and how does it affect she graph? (oxy) +c) Explain why the two values of x1 and x3 have opposite signs. Overdamped Oscillator 10 srax(x1) =6.382— max(x3) mun(xl) =0.219—— mim(x3) =~1.683, Displacement /78 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 > Example 3.1 Consider a damped harmonic oscillator and graph its motion using the following data and the initial conditions, where m = mass, k = spring constant, and b = damping constant m:=005 k=5.0 x0: 01 vw=0 N 20 0=0..N (a) bL=O.1 (b) 62 © Solution Approach using Eq. (3.63): (a) Underdamped oscillator with b = 0. bis 7 ares ‘oo? Assy ¢qfn?= 00? 12-1 — 417-0? ol =9.95 ALL =-1 49.95: AM A and are determined from initial conditions. See 40,1 the alternative approach below. 1.951 (b) Critically damped oscillator with b = 1.0 * 12, =A0 Dcostort + (©) Overdamped oscillator with b = 5.0 3 b3i=5 B=50 0 “lr 0 =1079 932 12-8 - 87-0 932 =-98.99 apt 333, =Ae Po i+ 6) ry Under, critically, over damped Sec. 3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 2 2 [e fe ~e 2BL-B+VB ~ 03 = 48,99) B1=101 eal 6:5 -O.lerad ou 0.05! i an aa \\ 3, of ts my Dott | -1 ° 5 @l =9.95 o2=0 max(x11) =0.1 smax(x22) = 0.1 min( x11) =-0.071 min(x22) =O Alternate approach Using Eqs. (3.60), (3.61), and (3.62): +a) Underdamped oscillator with y= 1.0 Guess A'=.-m Given 1BA-cost) Evaluate the constants 2y using the initial o1 conditions and Eq. (3.61). Find(A.#) = ie 4 03 =48.991 smax(x33) =0.1 +0,004) ‘min(x33) = 5. sisi0® 9: brad OF A:cos(d)~ 10-A-sin(6) — @SI-rad AzO1 @-1 O=0180 Guess ALL Given AI+A28.1 fo.t0!\ in alee) Find at.A2)={ oO) ar soo (6) Overdamped Oscillator with 7 Guess BI a roapize(*) a1 O14 -a0s (b) Critically damped oscillator with y = 10 Azle. AL ~ 99-A280 ADT Bust B2- 108120 B2:=-0,001 x3, (areas part Ble + Bre Harmonic Oscillators ant EXERCISE 3.1 Discuss the motion of a harmonic oscillator with the same i as in the example, except that (a) the mass is changed to 1.0 kg while keeping the k the same and (b) the k is changed to 10 N/m while keeping the mass the same, cis clear from these two graphs that both approaches give the same results. The third treatment mentioned in Section 3.4 also will yield the same results.Sec.3.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator 81 Energy Considerations The total energy (1) of a damped harmonic system at any time ¢ is given by E(®) = EQ) + W, 3.71) where (0) is the total energy at time ¢ = 0 and W; is the work done by friction in the time in- terval 0 to 4. Assuming the dissipative frictional force f= ~ bi = — bv, we can calculate W, as follows: W,= [fas = [ dt= J fear = if = but dt (3.72) lo Thus the rate of energy loss by friction may be written as dE {_ dW; ‘ ae Safe 3.72) dt ( dt ) 7 @.72) \which is negative and represents the rate at which energy is being dissipated into heat, Since W, <0, E, continuously decreases with time and may be calculated in the following manner: E(t) = K() + UO) = Fn? + phx? (3.73) From Eq, (3.62), x(0) = Ae“ cos(wt + 4) 3M = ~oyAe™™ [since + ¢) 4 costes 1 4] Let us assume that the system is lightly damped so that ya, < 1, and neglecting the second term on the right in the preceding expression for x, we can substitute for x and x in Eq. (3.73): E(t) = $42 ?"[mak sin(at + ) + kcos wit + $)} Since we assumed light damping, we may write wo? = «wf = kim; hence this equation takes the form E(t) = $kA2e?" (3.74) while the initial energy of the system is obtained by substituting r = 0 in Eq. (3.74); that is, Ey = 3kA* (3.75) Thus E(t) = Eye™ (3.76) ‘Thatis, the energy decreases (or decays) exponentially at a much faster rate (e~ >) than the rate at which the amplitude decreases or decays (e~ *). The time in which E decreases to Ife ( = 0.368) of its initial value is called the char- acteristic time or decay constant and may be evaluated by substituting E(t) = Eo/e and = rin Eq. (3.76): 4 = Eye?r 7 Eo82 Harmonic Osciflators Chap. 3 or Qyr= ‘That is, alan 2y 2b If yis very small , 73% , and if yis very large, r—> 0. Also, using Eq. (3.76), we may write the logarithmic derivative of E as m 7 G.77) (3.78) (I/E\dE/at) represents the fractional rate of decrease in energy. Since the rate of energy loss is proportional to the square of the velocity (Eq. (3.72b)], the loss in energy is not uniform. dB/dt will be maximum when ¥ is maximum (near the equilibrium), and it will drop to zero when £ is zero near maximum amplitude. The plots of E and dB/dt are shown in Fig. 3.9, 3.5 QUALITY FACTOR ‘The quality factor Q, or simply Q value, is a frequently used term in mechanical oscillatory sys- tems, as well as electrical oscillatory systems. Q is a dimensionless quantity and represents the degree of damping of an oscillator. The quality factor is defined as 27 times the ratio of the en- ergy stored to the average energy loss per period. Thus energy stored in the oscillator Raa LAT ToT woe PET RE RUE SROOTEI 3.79) average energy dissipated in one time period ° Q=2r If P is defined as the power loss or the rate at which the energy is dissipated, and the time pe- riod of oscillation T, = 2m/«,, we can write the denominator as PT, = P2ma,, and hence Eq. (3.79) as E E Q= 2 Bala, ” Phen, (3.80) But 1/o; is the time of motion for 1 radian. Thus g = —Stetey stoned inthe oscillator _ oy average energy dissipated per radian {As should be clear, for the lightly damped oscillator, Q will be very large, while for a heavily damped oscillator, it will be very small. We can calculate the Q value of the lightly damped os- cillator as follows. The energy of the oscillator and the rate at which it loses energy are given by [Eqs. (3.76) and (3.78)] EW) = Ee** (3.76)Sec.3.6 Quality Factor » Figure 3.9 Below are the graphs of energy E and the rate of energy loss ET = dE/dt versus time t fora damped oscillator For clarity, instead of graphing ET, we have graphed EDS “2, (a) Why is E positive and se ET negative? [ (b) Is the rate of loss of energy ET in phase with or out of phase with energy E? What is the significance of this? = L 0 24.472 ol =4.465 ot" o{al4, +4) +keos(ot-,+6)] | ol f sin(el-t,+¢) + (cox(ot, +6) 250] 2004 150 S00} $5 t" etic 05 43 35 Energy and rate of energy loss84 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 dE < = -2yE 783 and a 7 2Y (3.78) ‘Thus the energy dissipated in time Ar will be dE AE [a = 2yE At (3.82) If Aris the time for 1 radian of oscillation, Ar = 1/a,; hence E E oe ee = 3.83) 2 NE 2yflo, 27 (383) For light damping, «, ~ ay; hence ae Oo (3.84) If yis small, Q will be large, and vice versa, Ordinary mechanical systems, such as loudspeak- ers and rubber bands, are heavily damped and may have Q values from 5 to 100. On the other hand, systems such as tuning forks and violin strings may have a Q value as high as 1000. A typical microwave cavity resonator has a @ value of about 10%, Systems with extremely light damping are excited atoms (Q ~ 107), excited nuclei (Q = 10"), and gas lasers (Q = ac » Example 3.2 Consider a critically damped oscillator of mass m, damping coefficient b, and initial displacement A. Calculate the rate of energy dissipation and the total energy dissipated during the time interval t = 0 and t = m/b. Solution ‘According to Eq. (3.68), the solutions of the : critically damped oscillator for x and v are sSCB1+ BR" (where y = b/2m) ya(B2~ (BI + B2+)-y)-exp-70) : . 20 A a0 Using the initial conditions at t= 0, x = A. and v = 0, the values of the two constants BISA -B2ByA BI and B2 are as shown The resulting equations for x and v are (using y= b/2m)Sec.3.6 Forced Harmonic Oscillator (Driven Oscillator) 85 Substituting the values of v above into Eq. (3.72), the time rate of change aw s tle . aia’ of energy dissipation through damping is ayes 16m Integration with respect to t gives the energy dissipated in time t Y Using the values given in Example 3.1,we calculate the energy dissipated between (= Oand t= m/b = 1/27. Wi =-1.839 bie BEMOMSEE a - O5g AssObm t= O.S+sec P = rate of energy dissipation P=2.29%10° *kg* see? WI =9.19710* ekg? esec™® EXERCISE 3,2 Make plots of W and P versus t for the situation given in Example 3.2. { 23 FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (DRIVEN OSCILLATOR) +, ree oscillator will oscillate forever. But, in reality, every system has some damping present ¢ energy is dissipated, say in the form of heat) and the system will eventually stop oscillat- 3. To maintain the oscillations, energy from an external source must be supplied at arate equal che energy dissipated by the oscillator in the damping medium. Such motion in which energy supplied externally is called forced oscillations or driven oscillations, while the system is ied a forced oscillator ot a driven oscillator. If the system is acted on by a driving force F, en the net force, Fy. acting on the system is given by Fyq = Fz + Fy + Fy (3.85)86 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 where F,= ky Fy = —bi and from Newton’s second law F,., = mi. Equation (3.85) cannot be solved unless we know the form of the applied force F,. Since we have been limiting our discussion to linear oscilla- tors, it is easier if we assume that the driving force has a sinusoidal form given by F, = Fy costwt + 8) 3.86) We have good reasons to assume this form for the driving force. First, many actual situations involve just such a force, as, for example, the response of a bound electron when electromag netic waves are incident on it, that is, in the scattering of light from bound electrons. Second, any periodic function of time can be represented as a sum of several harmonics (or sinusoidal) terms. Using the techniques of Fourier series, one can solve for the motion of the system under any periodic driving force (as discussed in Chapter 4.). ‘We may combine these equations and write the following equation that describes the mo- tion of a driven harmonic oscillator: mi + bi + kx = Fy cos(ot + 0) (3.87) ‘This is an inhomogeneous, second-order, linear differential equation. The solution of Eq. (3.87) is given by the sum of two parts according to the following theorem: If x{0) is a particular solution of an inhomogeneous differential equation and the comple- mentary function x(t) is the solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation [that is, Eq. (3.87) with the right side equal to zero}, then x(t) = x(t) + x,(t) is also a solution off the inhomogeneous differential equation. Thus the general solution of Eq. (3.87) is x(t) = x(t) + x0. (3.88) where x, is the solution of the homogeneous equation, mi + bi + kx = 0 From Section 3.4, the general solution of this homogeneous equation is given by any one of the| three forms, Eq. (3.60), (3.61), or (3.62); hence (0 = eM Aye t+ Age] (3.89a) x() = eB sin at + Ccos wt) (3.89b) 2) = Aye™™ cost + $4) 3.89 Since the oscillations of a damped oscillator eventually decay to zero, the x, part of the solu tion is called the transient term. After a certain time, the x, part of the solution is of no conse- ‘quence; hence, for a steady-state solution we must concentrate on finding the particular solution| xft).Sec.3.6 Forced Harmonic Oscillator (Driven Oscillator) 87 According to Eq, (3.87), the applied force varies sinusoidally, so we expect the resulting steady-state solution x(() to vary sinusoidally. A solution of the form x = A cos wt would have seen perfectly acceptable if the left side of the equation did not have an ¥ term. To take care of -his situation, we must have a solution of the form x= Acos(wt+ $) (3.90) Let us assume a solution of the form x, = A cos(at — ) 3.91) To calculate A and 4, we substitute for x, in Eq. (3.87), and after setting @ = 0, we get —mw°A cos(wot — $) — bead sin(at — 6) + kA cos(wat — ) = Fy cos wt Rearranging, {kA cos — mw*A cos $ + buA sin $) cos wt — (KA sin @ — mwAsin 6 — bwA cos $) sin wt = Fy cos wt For this to hold for all values of f, the coefficients of the cos wt and sin w terms on each side aust be separately equal. That is, (k — me?) cos b + basin 6 = 4 (3.92) (k — ma”) sin @ — bwcos 4 = 0 3.93) Fram Eq. (3.93), we obtain an expression for the phase angle to be tan = 7 fe, = ea (3.94) sing the usual notation k/m = aj and y = b/2m, we get tan 6 = (3.95) “som which we obtain ad cos ¢ = 3.87) we substitute these in Eg. (3.92), we get EE 3.98) V(a§ — 0)? + ayo?88 Harmonic Oscillators ‘Thus a particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation is Fi xO =e 3.99) Vai — 0 2 where = tant aoa (3.100) {A slightly different procedure for obtaining the general solution is more convenient when the driving force F, given by Eq. (3.86) is written in exponential form as Fy = Fett ® (3.101) and we can obtain the same results. ] Using the solution given by Eq. (3. by Eq. (3.89c), we get the general solution 99) together with the homogeneous solution x, given xx = Aye Teostat + 4) + 7 os(wt — 4) (3.102) tains two arbitrary constants (of integration) A, and ¢y, while dis rot a constant and is given by Eq. (3.100). The first part of the solution oscillates with a natural frequency «,. Because of the damping, the oscillations die out for large values of time, that i fort > 17, The homogeneous solution x, is called the #ransient solution, while the particular solution x; is the steady-state solution. The general solution x will be independent of the influ- ence of the initial conditions except in the beginning when the transient term is still contribut- ing, Figure 3.10 illustrates this for two special cases: (a) for w < wy that is, the driving fre- quency is less than the natural frequency; (b) for w > «, that is, the driving frequency is greater than the natural frequency. For both cases, the plots of the homogeneous solution x, versus 1 8 well as plots of the particular solution x, versus f are shown. The resultant of these two, that is the plots of x, ~ x, + s,versus fare also shown. As is clear from these plots, the transient solu- tion gis effective only in the beginning and decays to zero as time passes, while the steady- State olution remains constant with time. Thus the transient solution effects the general solu- tion only in the beginning, Furthermore, if w < «y, the transient term x, causes distortion of the resulting sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig, 3.10(a). On the other hand, if « > a, the tran- sient term x, instead of causing distortion, has the effect of modulating the oscillations due to the force function as shown in Fig. 3.10(b). Of course, in both cases, after the transient term has ddied out, the oscillations are governed by the force function. In addition to the relative values of ‘o and «initial conditions will also affect the detailed motion, but only in the beginning, Itis important to note that the transient terms play an important role in electrical circuits. In design- ing such circuits, itis necessary to avoid peak voltages and currents when intially the circuits are closed. Since for 1 > I/y, x = x}, We shall concentrate on the discussi tion, that is, the particular solution x; given by Eqs. (3.99) and (3.100). pendent of the initial conditions. As required, this solution cont n of the steady-state solu- ‘This solution is inde-Sec. 3.6 Forced Harmonic Oscillator (Driven Oscillator) 89 Five 3.10 Below are two special cases of the influence of the transient term on the Ni=30 n0.N yet steady-state solution. (a) When the driving frequency @ (=10) is greater than the Mor a i6 Fo=50 natural frequency © (2.828), this leads to distortion, as illustrated. eb Displacement x90 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 (b) When the driving frequency « (=3) a ae is less than natural frequency ol (9.95), this leads to modulation, en 7 O90 @O:=10 as illustrated. ot =(|o0" ol =995 ahzAe cos(colt, +4) xi, cox(ort, + gi) ah, xi, Modulation 2 i i eee a % Z 1s 2 Bes ot If the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency, what effect it will have on the amplitude? » Example 3.3 Consider a damped oscillator, for which y = ay/4, acted on by a driving force F = Fo cos wt, Find the general solution x(t). Solution ‘The second-order differential equation describing the driven oscillator is mi + bt + kx = Fycos wtSec. 3.6 — Forced Harmonic Oscillator (Driven Oscillator) or E+ ant + be Boos wr where y= an/4 and oF = (af ~ 7)? = 0.9705 The transient (or the homogeneous) solution 24(0) = eA, 608 wyt + Ay sin et) takes the farm. x4) = eA, cos 0.97t + Ay sin 0.972) Let us assume the particular solution for the applied force F = F, cos wt to be 20) = B, cos wf + By sin at (0 = 08, sin ot + 0B, cos of (0) = — 0B, cos wt ~ wB, sin wot Substituting these three equations in Eq. (i) and rearranging gives 2; FY . Fy (—w°B, + 2ywB, + ofB,) cos wt + (— 0B, — 2ywB, + aRB,) sin ot = —* cos wt Equating the coefficients gives Fa (ah ~ @)B, + 2yeB, = -2yw0B, + (08 — 0B, Solving these equations for B, and By in terms of Fy gives Hence the general solution is given by x(t) = x,() + x(0) = eA, cos 0.971 + A; sin 0.971) + B, cos wt + B, sin wt (yy Ww (vi) (vit) (vii (ix) & (xi) (xii) (xil) where B, and B, are given by Eqs. (xi) and (xii), while A, and A, are to be evaluated using the initial con- ditions in Eq. (xiii) by the usual procedure (see Example 3.1). EXERCISE 3.3 Complete the example for the driving force F = Fy sin wt with initial conditions t = 00) = , and (0) = 0, that is, calculate A, and A>, Also graph xp x, and x, — x, +92 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 3.7 AMPLITUDE RESONANCE The amplitude A and the phase angle @ of steady-state motion according to Egs. (3.98) and 3.100) are (3.103) (3.104) Fora fixed value of ay, the variations in A and ¢ with the driving frequency w for different val- tues of yare shown in Fig. 3.11. As illustrated, the behavior of these quantities strongly depends on the ratio aren, ‘As stated earlier, ¢ represents the phase difference between the driving force F and the re- sulting motion x; that is, it represents a delay between the action and the response. As shown in Fig. 3.11, this phase lag, which is @ = 0 when w = 0, increases to = 72 for w = ay and reaches ¢ = 17 as w—> © ; that is, at very high frequencies the oscillations of the system are 180° out of phase with the driving force. It is interesting to note that as ‘y — 0 the phase change occurs more and more rapidly, and in the extreme case when y = 0, the phase changes suddenly from 0 to mat @ = a. From Fig. 3.11, itis clear that, depending on the values of , there is a certain driving fre- quency at which the amplitude A has a maximum value, The frequency at which the amplitude is maximum is called the amplitude resonance frequency «,. This frequency «w, may be calcu- fated from Eg. (3.103) by setting a (3.105) Upon solving the resulting equation, we get (@§ — 2°)” (3.106) which states that as the damping coefficient decreases the resonance frequency increases, and in the limit as ‘y —> 0, @, — p, decreases the natural frequency of a free oscillator. In the case of extremely small damping, we can express the right side of Eq. (3.106) by using the binomial theorem; that is, 127? ) w= Tbe “3 ¥ or @, =a - = (3.107) % Equations (3.106) and (107) for a driven oscillator may be compared with the case of a damped oscillator discussed previously; that is, @ = (as ~ 7)?Sec. 3.7 Amplitude Resonance 93 > Figure 3.11 ta) The graph below shows een emi ates amplitude resonance in the variation of A = amplitude A versus frequency ratio wo D2 F401 m In zor different values of y. fo) o 2 FO:=6 Miss P| 7 6 T Aun ® 4 aoe Amplitude Resonance | 0033) 0667 13331667 v hal o tb) The graph below shows the phase angle variation in the phase angle 6 versus frequency ratio «w/a.94 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 2h 8 gy *=atan| — ae a. fo)? {®) Phase Angle | 8.1 94,2228 £4 #078 ° ‘What is the effect of using values of y greater than 1 in (a) we eee" and less than 1 in (b). Freweey eo and, for small -y, # =a - 2 3.108 ver, | 2wy ¢ ) while for a free oscillator @% = k/m. Thus a, lies to the right of w,, while a is still farther away from q,, as shown in Fig. 3.12 where 47/43 = 1 at w = @,. ‘Thus the maximum amplitude A = Ag that occurs at @ = @, may be obtained from Eqs. (3.103) and (3.106) to be = —fin 3.109) Vek =F In the case of small damping, we assume that -y—> 0; hence Ay = ft = Fo (3.110) 2mya, bay It is clear that if 6 is small or y— 0, the amplitude Ap becomes very large. For undamped sys- tems, b = 0 and hence Ap = & ; but there are hardly any systems that are undamped.Sec.3.7 Amplitude Resonance ie 3.12 The graph below shows the relative positions of the resonance frequency wr, the natural trequency (01, and the natural free frequency «0. Q(«) are the positions of the resonance amplitude for frequencies @r, @0, and 1. The graphs are the ratio of the square of the amplitudes versus an - or. Ni=50 n:=0..N ®, Fo '=2 oT ysl Mel ot = 6.857 ol =6.929 FO. 405 Tayeo 40 =0.143 ; are different values of Q for different : x % ~requencies. xj and yj are plotted against [ar Ge] |=) fon \j- r. Note the small differences inthe |! 6.925] ©) | Trois} positions of the resonance frequencies. a 7 [aca 7 Positions of Resonance Frequencies How do you explain the gradual change in Q for different values of ?96 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 ‘The fact that the amplitude of the oscillations of the system is very large at the resonance frequency has both desirable and undesirable effects. In the case of electrical circuits that are used in tuning radios and in certain types of musical instruments such as organ pipes, it is de- sirable to have a large response for a small driving force. On the other hand, it is very undesir- able to have a very large amplitude in mechanical systems, such as in the springs of an auto- mobile or in the spring mounting of an electric motor. There the aim is to minimize the transmission of vibrations. 3.8 ENERGY RESONANCE In most practical situations involving oscillating systems in nature, the quantity observed ex- perimentally is energy and not amplitude. Also, the total energy of an oscillating system is pro- portional to the square of the amplitude near resonance; hence we should look for the variation of A? versus w. Once again we assume that pis fixed. For steady-state motion, the amplitude Ais constant, and we may write x= Acos(et + ) (.111a) and — @A sin(wt + 6) (3.111) which gives us *(ot + $) (3.112) KW) = 3 jma) U(O) = hkx? = kA? cos (ot + $) (3.113) E(t) = K() + UW) = 4A2[ma? sin*(ot + 4) + kcos*(or + g)] (3.114) Let us now calculate time averages of K(#), U(), and E() in the case when A changes with @, and remembering that (cos*(at + @)) = (sin%(w + $)) = } for an average over one period. Substituting for A from Eq. (3.103) into Eq. (3.112), we get i Fejm? : = = se : . KO = sma" (Zaye tO G.115) ‘That is, a y= 14 G.116) 4m (wh The value of w for which (K) is maximum is obtained by setting (3.117)Sec.3.8 Energy Resonance 97 which gives @, = a» (3.118) That is, the kinetic energy resonance occurs at the natural free frequency 4p, Since U(®) = 3/2, the potential energy resonance must occur at the same position as the amplitude resonance; that is, the potential energy resonance frequency «, from Eq, (3.106) is 0, = 0, = (wp — 27)? 3.119) Ir should not be alarming to find that the kinetic and potential energies resonate at different fre~ guencies. This is because we are dealing with a damped oscillator, which is a nonconservative system. The energy is continuously being drained by the damping medium. The average total energy (E) from Eq. (3.114) is (E) = $A2ma%sin*(at + )) + 1kAXcos%we + 4)) = 142(nw? + &) = bnA%w? + of) (3.120) Substituting for A from Faq. (3.103), we obtain Ln 4m (a? {Ey = (3.121) For very weak damping, -y < a, and we may write 20 ©? — af = [a + ew ~ ay)] = 2a — «) “sing this in Bq. (3.121) and noting that £ is a function of w, we replace E(t) by E(w) and simplify wo + a may) = Fe__! CO) = 32 @ rapt (3.122) Rewrite this as 8m a: Oe Ga (3.123) here the function L(«) contains all the necessary frequency dependence of (E(w)). A plot of Zanction L(w) is called a resonance curve or Lorentzian. Figure 3.13 shows several such plots or different values of y. Note that for large the function is effectively zero except near the res- nance frequency a The maximum height of the resonance curve occurs at a and is equal to 1/77. This value +l fall to one-half its maximum value when [from Eq. (3.122) or (3.123)] (o- a) = 7 (3.124))> Five 3.13 Below is the graph of the resonance curve (or Lorentzian), that is, the graph of L(c) versus « for different values of y. What causes the change in the values of L? (b) What determines the width of the energy resonance curve? (©) What does the following analysis indicate about the location of the resonance frequency on the @-axis? max(L1) =1 max(L2) = 0.25 uy LQ, Lorestan max(L3) = 0.111 1, Lys = 0.038 12,,=0.034 12,, = 0.034 13,5=0.029 3, =0.029 oas| os 025 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 n'=0..200 ©, 0 50 ps2 wel pe3 Lt, 38 or This equation states that the resonance curve drops to half its taximum value at @, @— w = ty (3.125) ty on the higher frequency side of ta and at w= a — yon the lower frequency side of w, Thus the full width of the curve at half-maximum, called the resonance width, is given by w, + @. = 2y. We call Aw the resonance width; hence (3.126)Sec.3.9 Rate of Energy Dissipation 99 As ydecreases, the width Aw of the curve also decreases, which means that the resonance curve becomes higher and narrower. This implies that the range of frequencies to which a system will respond becomes narrower; that is, an oscillating system becomes increasingly selective in frequency as is obvious in Fig. 3.13. The frequency-selective property of an oscillating system is characterized by the quality ‘actor Q. In Section 3.5, we defined the quality factor as the ratio of the total energy stored in the oscillator to the energy dissipated per radian of oscillation. For a lightly damped oscillator, we showed (Eq. (3.84)] that o=> (3.84) ie When such an oscillator is driven, we get a resonance width Aw = 2, and we may write resonance frequency - ne eney ____ (3.127) equency width of resonance curve We can prove that Q = «/2+y by directly applying the energy definition of Q to a driven oscillator, It becomes clear that systems with a high value of Q have a very narrow resonance width and hence are very highly selective to a frequency response when external driving forces are ap- plied. If the resonance curve is sharp, a system will respond only when the driving frequency is equal to the resonance frequency. As mentioned previously in Section 3.5, Q may vary from 5 to 100 for mechanical systems, to = 10° for atomic systems, and to ~ 10" in the case of gas ‘asers. Such facts have been utilized for defining and making time standards using atomic clocks, 3.9. RATE OF ENERGY DISSIPATION Finally, let us calculate the rate at which energy is being dissipated, which should be equal to che rate at which work is being done. Starting with the general equation for a forced oscillator, with @ = 0, mi + bx + ke = Fycos wt (3.87) and multiplying both sides by x, mix + bi? + kot = Foi cos wt We may write this as a ) + bi? = (Fy cos athit (.128a) d 2 * or a ++ bE? = (Fy cos ani (3.128b)100 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 That is, Time rate of Rate at which Rate at which energy change of K | =| energy is being | + | is being supplied by and U dissipated the driving force \ / By substituting for x and ¥ from any particular solution (Eq. (3.90)] we can prove that the av- erage power {P) at which the driving force does work is = (2) = Ganycos on or (P) = bigFy sin b (3.129) where &,, is the maximum velocity, which occurs at @ = a», Furthermore, we can show that (after transients have died out) (P) = (bx) (3.130) as it should be. Let us consider the right side of Eq. (3.128b), which, after substituting for x, may be writ- ten as Xq Fy cos wt FywA cos wt sin(wt — $) = FywA(cos? wt sin — cos wt sin wt cos $) (3.131) The first term on the right is positive, which means that the driving force is sypplying energy, while the second term is negative, which means that the driving mechanism is receiving energy, that is, the driving force is altemately supplying and absorbing energy. This may appear strange, bur that is what actually happens. But it may be pointed out that the average value of cos? wr is 3, while that of (sin or cos wf) is zero. Hence, on the whole the driving agent supplies more en- ergy than it absorbs. PROBLEMS 3.1, Prove the following results for a simple harmonic oscillator; that is, prove Eqs. (3.49) and (3.50): Wace = 5kA7,—(Kagace = 3A? Bhgue = Wayne + (Race = (Eine 3.2. A liquid in a U tube is in equilibrium. When the liquid is stightly displaced, it executes simple har- monic motion. Calculate the frequency of such oscillations.Problems 101 Equilibrium Figure P3.2 3.3. A small mass m is in a box of mass M that is tied to a vertical spring of stiffness constant &. When displaced from its equilibrium position yg to y, and let go, it executes simple harmonic motion. Cal- culate the reaction between m and M as a function of time. Does the mass m always stay in con- tact with the box? If not, what determines that it will not be in contact with M? Calculate the value of A as measured from the equilibrium position for which the contact is lost. 3.4, A wooden block of cross-sectional area A and mass density p when floating in water dis volume V. Ifa person of mass m jumps on this block, calculate the period of small oscillations. 3.5. One end of a spring of spring constant k is fixed while the other end is pulled horizontally with a force F for a time fp, starting from its equilibrium position xo. Show that E k k cont E(on{Eu-w conf) 3.6. A block of mass M is tied to a horizontal spring of stiffness k. A small mass m is placed on M. The coefficient of friction between M and m is 1. For what value of the amplitude A will the mass m slip away from M? Clearly describe the conditions that lead to this. 3.7. A mass of 0.2 kg is attached to a spring having a spring constant 12 N/cm. The mass is displaced 6 cm and then released. Calculate vp, Toy Yonxs and total energy. Graph these as a function of time. 38. In Problem 3.7, if the mass is released with a velocity of 5 cm/s from its displaced position, cal- ulate Vo, To, Ypyes A, the maximum potential energy, the maximum kinetic energy, and the total energy. 3.9. Suppose the motion in Problem 3.7 is taking place in a viscous medium. In 16 seconds the am- plitude reduces to half of its initial value. Calculate (a) the damping constant, (b) the period 7; and ftequency %, and (c) the decrement of motion, What are the significant differences in the two situations? 3.10. A pendulum with a time period 7 spends time Ar between x and x + Ax. Calculate the value of AUT and make a plot of Ai/T versus x for different values of amplitude A. Calculate the area under each curve. What is the significance of this result? Note: At T 3.11. Derive Eq. (3.62) directly from Eq. (3.60).102 Harmonic Oscillators Chap. 3 3.12. Explain why the constants in Eq, (3.60) are complex, while B and C in Eq, (3.61) and A and din Eq, (3.62) are real? 3.13. An oscillator when undamped has a time period Ty, while its time period when damped is T. Sup- pose after n oscillations the amplitude of the damped oscillator drops to He of its original value. Show that and 3.14, Consider a harmonic oscillator of mass m under a restoring force ~kx and damping force ~ bi. It is displaced a distance +A and then released with zero velocity. Find the equation representing the underdamped, critically damped, and overdamped motions. 3.15. Discuss Problem 3.14 if mass mr is released with velocity 1, from the displaced position. 3.16, In the case of a damped harmonic oscillator, find the position of x(2) when its values are maximum and minimum. 3.17. Discuss the motion of a damped oscillator subject to a constant force Fo. 3.18. In the case of a critically damped oscillator for which the velocity at the equilibrium position is vp and that is subject to a force Fo cos wr, calculate the value of x(t) and make a graph for some mean- ingful values of the constants. 3.19, In the case of a critically damped oscillator for which the velocity at the equilibrium position is vp and that is subject to a force F, sin wf, calculate the value of x(0) and make a graph for some mean- ingful values of the constants. 3.20. Consider a damped oscillator for which y = ay/4, having a velocity vp at xp at r= 0. After a time = Infay, a force F = F, cos ws is applied. Calculate x(t) and make a graph for some meaningful values of the constants. 3.21. Consider a forced oscillator for which ¢ = 0 at = O and F = Fy cos(ot + 6), Find the particular solution and the general solution and make a graph for some meaningful values of the constants. 3.22. Consider a damped oscillator for which y = ax/4. If the driving force is given by F = A, cos at + Ay cos 3a calculate the value of x(0). 3.23. One end of a massless spring of natural length Ipis attached to a fixed point, while the other end is attached to a mass m. The whole system is being immersed in a viscous medium that exerts a force ‘on m proportional to the velocity of m ( = kv). The force constant of the spring is of the form K2/4m. Initially, the spring is stretched to a length x, and released. Find the position of m as a function of lime; evaluate all the arbitrary constants in terms of the initial conditions. Calculate the rate at which the total energy is changing at time 1 = mmuk, and graph this as a function of time. A mass of 0.1 kg is attached to a spring of stiffness constant 20 N/em. The mass is displaced 10 cm and released in a viscous medium. In 12 seconds the amplitude reduces to L/e of its initial value. Calculate (a) the damping constant, (b) «, (¢) the decrement of motion, (d) the characteristic time, and (e) x(2), and graph it. 3.25, In the case of the forced oscillator considered in the text, using the solution x = A cos(ax + 8), solve for x; 3.24,Suggestions for Further Reading 103 3.26. Prove Eq. (3.124); that is, the maximum height of the resonance curve falls to one-half its value when = (@ ~ a)’ 3.27. Show that the maximum height of the resonance curve is 1/77. 3.28, Prove Eq. (3.129); that is, (P) = 4x, Fy sin & 3.29, In Eq. (3.129), substitute the value of sin ¢ and state the final result in terms of «, a, and . 3.30, Derive Eq, (3.130). 3.31. Consider a damped oscillator with m = 0.2 kg, k driven by a force F = (1.6 N) cos 20r. {a) If the displacement is given by x = A cos(wt ~ 8), what are the values of A and 8? (b) Calculate the energy dissipated in one cycle. (©) What is the average power input? (@) Graph the energy and energy dissipated versus time. 100 N/m, and b = 5 N-s/m. The oscillator is SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING Awtuur, W., and Fensrex, S. K., Mechanics, Chapter 6. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969. Baxcer, V., and Orsson, M., Classical Mechanics, Chapter 1. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973. Becxer, R.A., Introduction to Theoretical Mechanics, Chapter 7. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1954. Davis, A. Douatas, Classical Mechanics, Chapter 3. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1986. Fowtss, G. R., Analytical Mechanics, Chapter 3. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1962. Frencu, A. P., Vibrations and Waves, Chapters 3 and 4, New York: W. W. Norton and Co.,.Inc., 1971 Hauser, W., Introduction 0 the Principles of Mechanics, Chapter 4. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1965. Hocustapr, H., Differential Equations—A Modern Approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Ine., 1964, Krrret, C,, Knicur, W. D., and Ruperman, M. A., Mechanics, Berkeley Physics Course, Volume 1, Chap- ter 7. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965. Kizppne, D., and Kotenkow, R. J., An Introduction to Mechanics, Chaptet 10, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973. Marion, J. B., Classical Dynamics, 2nd. ed., Chapters 3 and 4. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1970. Menpny, G. M., Ordinary Differential Equations and Their Solutions. New York: Van Nostrand Rein- hold, 1960. Rosssexo, K., Analytical Mechanics, Chapter 10. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1983. Staten, J. C., Mechanics, Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1947, SrepHenson, R. I., Mechanics and Properties of Matter, Chapter 5. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962. Symon, K. R., Mechanics, 3rd. ed., Chapter 2, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1971Oscillating Systems 4.1 INTRODUCTION We continue our investigation of oscillating systems by dividing our discussion into oscillations in electrical circuits and phase diagrams of nonlinear systems. To start, we extend the results de- rived for mechanical linear oscillating systems to electrical oscillating systems. There is a com- plete analogy between electrical and mechanical systems; hence we need not derive all the re- sults. A portion of this chapter will be devoted to the study of nonlinear systems. We shall introduce several techniques for solving oscillating systems, as well. Chapter 3 was completely devoted to the study of linear oscillating systems. This type of simple harmonic motion, although extensively used in physics and engineering problems, is truly applicable to only a limited number of cases: Nature does not allow such simplicity. Os- cillating motion, in general, is nonlinear, A departure from linear motion occurs whenever the restoring force does not have a linear dependence on displacement; furthermore, the damping force may not have a linear dependence on velocity. Thus an equation representing the free mo- tion of an oscillating system may be written as mx + GO) + FQ) = 0 4.1) where F is nonlinear function of x and G is a nonlinear function of & For arbitrary functions F and G, the general solutions of Eq. (4.1) are not known. Equa- tion (4.1) can be solved only for some particular cases. In general, we must use approximate methods to get some idea of the nature of the oscillations. Each particular situation must be treated as a special case and solved individually. We should keep in mind that the nonlinear na- ture of oscillating systems is, in general, due to the large amplitudes of oscillating systems. To get approximate solutions, several techniques have been developed. It is not possible to trat them at any length in this chapter. We shall introduce the principle of superposition and 104Sec. 4.2 Harmonic Oscillations in Electrical Circuits 105 the techniques of Fourier analysis, which are extremely helpful in solving nonlinear systems We shall employ the method of Green’s function whenever the system is acted on by a large force for a short interval of time, We shall extend our discussion to symmetrical and nonsym- metrical nonlinear systems and use the techniques of series expansion and successive approxi- mations in solving such problems. We shall conclude the chapter with a qualitative discussion of these nonlinear systems employing the method of phase diagrams. 4.2 HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ‘There is a complete analogy between the free, damped, and forced oscil ticle, which we discussed in Chapter 3, and several clect Furthermore, this analogy extends to many physical situations in nature, including atomic, mol- ecuilar, and nuclear physics. Some time ago, electrical circuits were constructed by analogy with mechanical systems, but recently the situation has been reversed, Electrical circuit designs are now so advanced that mechanical engineers use them extensively in investigating mechanical vibrational problems Figure 4.1(i) shows the three mechanical systems that we have been discussing and Fig. 4.1(ii) shows the corresponding electrical oscillating systems. Table 4.1 shows the corre- sponding mechanical and electrical quantities in the oscillating systems. We shall discuss this analogy presently. To start, let us consider Fig. 4.1(a)(i), which shows a simple oscillator con- sisting of mass m tied to a spring of spring constant k. The mass moves on a frictionless surface and hence behaves like a free oscillator. Its motion is represented by the equation ok OQ 0 tex m mii + kx 0 (4.2) which has a solution X= % C08 wnt (43a) where a is the free natural frequency given by fk =y- 4.30) oy jz (4.3b) The electrical analogy to this, shown in Fig. 4.1(a)(ii), consists of a capacitor C and an induc- tor L, Let Q = Q(t) be the charge on the capacitor at any time ¢ and / = I(t) be the current through the inductor. The relations between / and Q are aad a Ae Q= f Idt (4.4b) The voltage drop across the inductor is dl vs 45) dt106 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 k Lennte[ =| S&S @ mi bke= 0 (a) Free oscillations b Pa anni c a (i) mi + bE + k= 0 i) B+ RO+hQ-0 (©) Damped oscillations SANNA Ce IAT i ( mit bit ben F @ 18+ ROrkO~6 {c) Forced oscillations N Figure 4.1 Analogy between (i) a mechanical system and (ii) an electrical sys- tem: (a) free oscillations, (b) damped oscillations, and (c) forced oscillations. Table 4.1 Analogy between Mechanical and Electrical Quantities Mechanical Electrical Displacement xOQ Charge Velocity soQ=l Current Mass mol Inductance ‘Compliance Uke Capacitance Damping constant bOR Resistance Applied force Foe Applied emfSec. 4.2 Harmonic Oscillations in Electrical Circuits 107 and across the capacitor it is Q 1 v,.=2=4 A cme oft 46) Thus the sum of the voltages encountered in going around the whole circuit must be zero; that is, by applying Kirchhoff’s rule, we get Vv, +Ve=0 or zl Idt=0 (4.7) Using Eqs. (4.4), we get 16 +19-0 « 6++9-0 48) too ee ae ' ¢c ic This equation is identical to the mechanical system given by Eq. (4.2) provided Qox Gok, Lom, and CO lk Assuming Q = Qo at t = 0, the solution is Q = Qycos wot (4.9) with the free natural frequency fi Vie iar) If we differentiate Eq. (4.9), we may write do _ dt Let us now consider the damped oscillator shown in Fig. 4.1(b)(i). Note that we have added a dashpot filled with viscous fiuid to indicate damping with damping constant b. The dif- ferential equation representing the motion of a damped oscillator is T= ~@Qp sin age = —Iy sin at 4.11) mi + be + ke =0 (4.12) while Fig. 4.1(b)(ii) shows the equivalent electrical circuit, where we have added a resistor R, which is equivalent to the damping or frictional force in mechanical systems. The electrical equation analogous to a mechanical system is 1 +Rd+ho=o (4.13)108 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 Figure 4.1(c)(i) shows a mechanical driven oscillator represented by the following equation: mi + by + kx = F = Fycos ot 4.14) Figure 4.1(¢)(ii) represents an analogous electrical driven oscillator with an emf source given by & = & cos wt. The corresponding equation is i 16 + RO + 0 £9 £08 wt (4.18) To extend our analogy still further we give another example, shown in Fig. 4.2(a) and (b). Suppose we apply a force F to a system consisting of twa springs in line (Fig. 4.2a)(i)]. The net displacement x is given by the sum of the displacement x, and.x, caused by the two springs. ‘Thus (4.16) ~ a+ > a G i ANNA —— ky es kek th C=Q+G @ “i © Figure 4.2 Analogy between mechanical and electrical systems: (a) series sys- tems, and (b) parallel systems.Sec. 4.2 Harmonic Oscillations in Electrical Circuits 109 When the springs are in parallel (Fig. 4.2(b)(i)]. k=kt+h (17) When the capacitors are in series [Fig. 4.2(a)(ii)], the equivalent capacitance Cis He 1 1 Seer acer (4.18) Cec » and when the capacitors are in parallel [Fig. 4.2(b)(ii)], the equivalent capacitance Cis given by C=G+6 (4.19) Energy Considerations For a free oscillator the total energy—the sum of the kinetic and potential energy—is always constant as long as there is no damping and is given by 4x? + hex? = constant (4.20) Either by analogy with this equation or from Table 4.1, and using Eqs. (4.9) and (4.11), we get 1 1Q g GLP +8 = (& = constant (4.21 2 C= 26 beay :LP is the energy stored in an inductor and is equivalent to the mechanical kinetic energy ime; 30°IC is the energy stored in the capacitor and is equivalent to the mechanical potential energy $x”. Let us extend this analogy to a damped oscillator. Starting with Eq, (4.13), 1 LO +RO+—Q=0 and multiplying both sides by Q yields Q 160 + RG? + FG -0 mite d/(le 55 7 ae )+ 3G “) - RO (4.22) Since @ = I, we may write 4(lip e)-- 2 (ju oe C RE (4.23) This equation states that the rate at which the energy is being stored in the inductor and the ca- pacitor is equal to the energy dissipated in the resistor, as it should be. For mechanical systems, Eq. (4.22), after proper substitution, takes the following form: d/l 1 Fl ne 4 te) = pe? a (5m ee pa) bx (4.24)110 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 The preceding analogy can be further extended to a driven oscillator, getting its solution and then writing an expression for average power dissipation, resonance, and quality factor. 4.3 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION AND FOURIER SERIES ‘The principle of superposition is used throughout physics. Most students encounter this princi- ple in the following simple form while studying wave motion and optics in general physics, Principle of Superposition. When two or more waves travel simultaneously through a por- tion of a medium, each wave acts independently as if the other were not present. The re- sultant displacement at any point is the vector sum of the displacements of the individual waves We now extend this principle to the case of harmonic oscillators and to linear operators in gen- eral. Ifx,(2),x,(2), ... are the solutions when the forces acting are F,(i), F,(2),..... respectively, then x(t) (0) + x(t) + --- is a solution when the force acting on the system is F(f) = F(t) + F(t) + ---. We may further generalize as follows. The second-order linear differential equa- tion describing a forced harmonic oscillator given by ae —y + 2y— + hx = Fi) (4.25) ap OY Gy tee FO -— may be written in general form as & day ae = 4.26) (S08 +o) = Ko (426) We define a linear operator, L, as the quantity in the parentheses on the left; that ag ta(S+at4 4.2 (S+04+0) (427) Thus Eq. (4.25) or (4.26) may be written as Lx) = FO) (4.28) According to the superposition principle: If a set of functions x, (0), 2 = 1, 2, 3, ..., comprises solutions of a linear differential equation Lx) = F,@ (4.29) then the function x(0), which is a linear combination of X, (1), that is, xO =D C,x,0 (4.30) where C, are constants, satisfies the differential equation Lit) = FO 431)Sec. 4.3 Principle of Superposition and Fourier Series 1 where FI) = DCF (4.32) We can prove this statement by substituting Eq. (4.30) into Eg, (4.31); that is, Lx{t) = fs caso =D 6,440 =D 6,.F,0 = FO as it should be. Let us apply these results to the general case of the driven harmonic oscillator we have discussed in detail. Suppose the individual driving forces F,(¢) have a harmonic dependence of the form cos(w,¢ — 6,), so that FW) = DC, cosw,t — 0,) (4.33) When the force was of the form Fo cos(wt + 6), the steady-state solution was given by Eqs. (3.99) and (3.100). Thus for F(s) given by Eq. (4.33), the steady-state solution is a) = s2 costa,s — 0, — 4,) (434) where 20, ) a8 (435) The general solution is the sum of the transient and the steady state and is given by Cy coset — 8, — m Vuh, — 0)° + 4y*oh where the constants A and 6’ are to be determined from initial conditions as usual. Similar re- sults can be obtained if F(t) has a dependence of the form sin(w,f ~ 0). With the help of the Fourier theorem we can extend the preceding type of consideration to the case in which the driving force is periodic (but not harmonic) and is a continuous or piece- wise continuous function. F(t) is a periodic function if it satisfies the condition Fit +T) = Fa) (4.37) where 7'= 2m/wis the period of the applied force. According to the Fourier theorem, any arbi- trary periodic function, which is continuous or piecewise continuous, having only a finite nuum- ber of discontinuities over a time period, can be expressed as a sum of harmonic terms. Thus any function F(s) that is defined within a time interval —7/2 <1 < 7/2 Jor a function F(x) within atime interval —7 [Auf os nas cos mon dt + B, [sinner cosmo a Since m and n are integers, forall values of m and n, we obtain +m J cos nux cos mat dt = 0, ifm # nand = TRifm = m +m { sin nest cos mat dr = 0, forall values of m and n -m +m f cos mat dt = 0, ifm # Oand = Tifm=0 -m Thus the values of Ap and A, are oe Ag= Fl Fa) dt (4.392) Thain 2 ptTa Ae i F(t) cos nox dt if nis aninteger (439b) - —T/ That is, n = 1,2,3,.... Similarly multiplying Eq, (4.38b) by sin moo and integrating, we obtain 9 ptm B, = if FO) sinnot dt — if nis animeger (4.390) sm = 1,2,3,..., Hnecessary we can replace the integration limits —7/2 (= ~ m/w) to TI (= + mle) by 010 T (=2710), First one has to determine the appropriate number of terms that must be used in the Fourier series to approximate the arbitrary driving force. This is illustrated in two cases: (1) a rectan- gular function, and (2) a sawtooth function, as we shall discuss shortly. Once we know the se- ries, each term used in the applied force has a corresponding solution. By adding all these so- utions we obtain the general solution of a damped harmonic oscillator driven by an arbitrary force. In actual practice, obtaining solutions by this method is quite tedious, but in some situa- tions itis helpful.Sec. 4.3 Principle of Superposition and Fourier Series ) eompl 4 Consider the function F() given by the equations and graphed below. Find a Fourier series expansion of the function F(@), where @ (= wt) is a function of time t and angular velocity «. Solution Redefine function F(@) in terms of function {(@). Graph {(@) for the different values of @ given below. x <0 Foye S between -n00 Se RO x <0 Fees paar tebe (6) if(0>0,F(@),-F(0)) In order to find the Fourier series expansion a that will result in function f(@), we evaluate the coefficients AO, A, and B by using Eq. (4.39). Let T be the time period. As t wo changes from -T/2 to 'T/2, @ changes from -n tom. =1,2..10 coin oe! | costn-8) 48 sin(n-6) €8 2L0 B, The values of the first two are - A0=0 Aa=0 For Bo even terms are 0, hence the expansion series Ce 1 [cs consists only of odd sine terms. lo oF 10 oO Fr6)m2 sin(8) + 2-sin(3-0) + 2-sin( 5-8) F ase Lisaz10} [0286] 7 3 3 a 0 Asan example, HI, H12, and H13 represent series using 0 2: = n= 1,2, and 3 terms, respectively. 7 nn“ 2.6, nie? 2 sinfo,) + 2.sin(3-0,) 2 ee (0,) +2-sin(3-0)) + 2-sin(s-0 ) THe) Ea6o) ao, 2 113,242 , 2 sinfo my)114 Oscillating Systems — Chap. 4 Now we change the range number nis0..15 2000 50.1 nto the desired value. We plot the functions H (replacing F) using fa different numbers of terms. HL mn =22) S° (Aycos(me,) + 8,sin(n-8)) means 1 term, H3 means three 2 : ‘ terms, HS means 5 terms, and so on. Itis clear from the graph below that the H function #3, approaches the F function as the number of terms increases. For example, using n= 15 terms, H almost coincides with the f(@) plot Using more terms will make the graph still closer to the rectangular graph, (a) Write H5 in terms of an expansion series. (b) How will the graph look if A0 is not zero but is constant? Draw the graphs. (©) Graph for 30 terms and 50 terms. What results do you expect? (@) How will the plot of H versus 0 differ from H versus t? EXERCISE 4.1 Consider the function shown in Fig. Exer. 4.1 in the interval — 7 < @< 7. Find a Fourier series expansion of this function.Sec. 4.4 Harmonic Motion and Green’s Function Fo) Figure Exer. 4.1 4 4.4 HARMONIC MOTION AND GREEN'S FUNCTION Impulsive Force When a very large force F() acts on a system for a very short interval of time At, an impulse is said to be imparted to the system. It is the same thing when a force F(@) applied to a system has 4 small value for a short interval of Ar, while almost negligible before and after this interval. By applying the impulse-momentum theorem and the superposition principle to the oscillating sys tem, we can arrive at many interesting and useful results. According to the impulse-momentunt theorem, ap Par | Fat (4.40a) or Ap = Fat (4.40b) F and Av= —At (4.40) m We consider the application of this to several situations Case (i) An Oscillator Initially at Rest: To start, let us an undamped oscillator at rest; that is, x = 0 and i the oscillator so that its velocity right after the impuls ime that we are dealing with 0. At time ¢ = f an impulse is given to is v, Thus from Eq. (4.40b), Ap = my = F at (4.41a) . w= eas (4.41b) m116 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 Since at # = fg, x = 0 the displacement x of an undamped oscillator is, x= Asinlat ~ 1] (4.42a) where A is to be determined from initial conditions. (Note that we have neglected any short dis- placement that may result during a short interval At when the force is applied.) Differentiating Eq, (4.42a) and substituting i = u, when f = fy, we get co A cos{ax(t — 1] (4.426) and Y = oy ‘Therefore, oe (4.43) Thus the general solution is fort < ty x0) fort > fy (4.44) ‘This procedure can be easily extended to the case of damped harmonic oscillators at rest, for which x= Ae? sinfea(t = f))] (4.45) and the final solution after the impulse has been applied i 0, fore < fy xp) = FAP eH -sintwy(e — 4)), fort = ty (4.46) mo, Case (ii) An Oscillator Initially Not at Rest: Once again let us start with an undamped oscillator, but this time initially it has a displacement xy and velocity vp, Thus, starting with x = Bos agt + Csin ayf (4.47) and applying the initial conditions at f = fp, x = 9, and X = vp, we get x = Xp c08 aylt — f) + - sin ox(t — h) (4.48) Let us now apply a force F(¢) at t = fg for short interval Az. According to the impulse-momentum theorem, Ar Ap=Fat or Av=F~ (4.49) m where Av is a small additional velocity given to the system, which already has some velocity % at time fo. The additional displacement resulting from the impulse may be calculated as if AvSec. 4.4 Harmonic Motion and Green’s Function 117 were the initial velocity: that is, by replacing v in Eq. (4.48) by Av given by Eq. (4.49), we get the additional displacement x, to be Fat. may SE 4) (4.50) Thuss the total displacement is the sum of x and x, given by Eqs. (4.48) and (4.50): oe Far 2(0) = 9608 a(t ~ to) + *© sin aag(t = &9) + —— sin aylt — %) (451) @® may ‘We can extend this treatment to the case of a damped harmonic oscillator that at ¢ = fy has x = xq and ¥ = vy while an impulse is given at f = fy. (See Problem 4.23.) Before the impulse the motion is described by = e7™ [Bos wt + Csin o,f] (452) After the impulse the motion is described by e i fae Had (ro0os a(t — ) + i w(t — ‘) + ar X sinfax(t — | (4.53) Continuous Arbitrary Force and Green’s Function As long as we are considering a linear oscillator, we can extend the application of the impulse- momentum theorem to the case of an arbitrary force function. The solution is based on the mnethod developed by George Green. According to Green's method, an arbitrary force function Fit) can be thought of as a series of impulses, each acting for a short interval of time At and de- ‘ivering an impulse F(t) At, as shown in Fig. 4.3, Thus FO= > Fw (4.54) where FO), ft, <<, 0, it hy Fp} (4.55) and 1 = n At. It is clear from Fig. 4.3 that if At > 0, the sum of the series of impulses ¥ F,(t) approaches F(t) If the system is linear, we can always apply the principle of superposition. This allows us to write the inhomogeneous part of the differential equation as the sum of the indi- vidual impulses. That is, for mii + bs + ke = DFO (4.56)8 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 Fo RE An pans 4 ty Soot ' lar Figure 43. Arbitrary force function as a sum of a series of impulses. the general steady-state solution is the sum of the individual solutions resulting from each F,(1). The individual solutions are of the type given by Eq. (4.46) for a single impulse. Thus the steady- state solution of Eq, (4.56) is ‘ xo= 3 Bo e) sinfo(t — t,)) (457) mo which includes all solutions up to and including the Nth impulse. We can replace the summa- tion by imtegration when At — 0 and 1, = #'. That is, 1 FG x) = i rey 79 sinfa,(t — 1')) dt! (4.58) = Me, We define Green's function G(t, 1") as ewe ——sinfo(t— fy), forr = may forr<1' (4.59) Gt) = ‘Thus, in terms of Green’s function, we may write the steady-state solution (Eq. (4.58)] as x) = J FUG) dt" (4.60)5% Sec. 4.4 Harmonic Motion and Green’s Function 19 The main advantage of this method is that the solution is already adjusted for initial conditions; for example, in this case it is for a damped oscillator that is initially at rest at the equilibrium position. We must add the transient solution to the steady-state solution [Eq. (4.60)] to obtain a complete solution. For different initial conditions, solutions may be obtained by the same pro- cedure. (See Problems 4.24 and 4.25.) }) Example 42 ‘A damped oscillator is acted on by the force function below. Using Green's function, graph the response function as well as the applied force. F)=0 if t<0 F(t) = Fo exp(-yt) sin(@t) if t >0 Solution Let us assume the values of the different variables are The acting force F(t) may be written as (This means that if < 0, F(t) is zero; otherwise graph the third term in ( ).) “0 sna| (t,t) if] t<0, 0, FO Mol | Using Eq, (4.59), the corresponding Green's function may be written as The resulting displacement x is given by The graphs of x and F versus t are as shown. How do you explain the variation in x with — time from the nature of the applied force? EXERCISE 4.2 Repeat the above example for the case in which the sine term in the force function is replaced by a cosine term. What difference do you observe in the two graphs? (120 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 ) exomple 43 Consider a damped harmonic oscillator that is suddenly acted on at ¢ = 0 by a decaying force FO = Fe 1>0 Find the general solution by using Green's function. (A typical example of such a force is the decay volt- age on a capacitor.) Solution Since Fi) = Fr) = Frye @ using Green's function, Eq. (4.59), the general solution, Eq. (4.60) is Lf rye eH sinftt — 1) at? w ma) ao = [ Feary ae If we substitute (ii) a dt’, or a Me), dy then the limits change from 0 — r to wt —> 0. Therefore, nl sin y dy xo = Ie é b mai In order to plot x versus t, we first solve oO this equation for x. Solving for xt and i ae ; xe Ee int) dy simplifying, the resulting equation is mol” (6ol-cos( ol-t) — sin(col-t)-+ sintal-t)-y) ary oho Oso esa [mor 2 any frorl] epee (C-2ey For) Using wl! and A given below, x can be written as Fo a sealer (k- y+ ol * cos(wt-t) - sin ot-t) o \ olSec. 4.4 Harmonic Motion and Green's Function Below we graph x versus t for 30 values of t and for 3 values of the damping constant y. hy + 10.2} foal T al -% \ ote” {cos(a, x) - "info, 1) ue a a \ ° | » x1 fork>y x2 fork =y > x3 fork y and both are small compared to w, [w, = (af — y*)'?] the term e~ has an effect only for a short time in the beginning. (b) When k = -yand both are small compared to wp, Eq. (v) takes the form. 2) = Fie (1 = cos wf) wi) i This means that the response function is plitude, as shown. till oscillatory, but with an exponentially decaying am- (©) Ifk < +, the forcing function F(@) given by Eq. (i) takes over the oscillatory motion; that is, the amn- plitude of the oscillations starts decaying exponentially after an initial increase over a short inter- val of time, as shown, EXERCISE 4.3 Discuss the example if the decaying force at r= O is F(t) = —kt?, —— |122 Oscillating Systems — Chap. 4 4.5 NONLINEAR OSCILLATING SYSTEMS Before starting with this section, it will be worthwhile to review Section 3.2, where we explained the difference between linear and nonlinear systems. We have already seen that linear systems (systems in which the force is negatively proportional to the displacement) lead to harmonic os- cillations (oscillations of one frequency). The condition imposed was that the motion must be limited to a small region near the equilibrium point. Let us now consider systems in which the motion is not restricted and hence the restoring force is not proportional to the displacement. In general, mi + F(x) = 0 (461) where F(x) is the restoring force and is no longer linear. If damping is present, we shall have an- other free function G(x), which may also be nonlinear. One outstanding characteristic of a non- linear system is that, unlike linear systems, the time period of nonlinear systems, in general, de- pends on the amplitude. (There are several good textbooks on nonlinear mechanics; we simply introduce the subject here.) Consider a system displaced to a position x from its equilibrium position xy and under a force F(x). Let us expand F(x) in a Taylor series about xo; that is, dF" 1(@F 1 (dF . P(x) = Fla) + (¢) (ex) + 3(@) (ey) + a(S) (ea xy to 4.62) 5 % % where F(x) = 0 because x is the equilibrium point. Let x = 0 be the origin. Define 1 (3) glar (4.63) 6 \ de Jy and write Eq. (4.62) as FOR) = ky + yx? + ky to (4.64) We need not carry higher terms. If we consider only those forces that lead to stable equilibrium for symmetrical systems, the even terms must vanish; that is, ky = ky = “> = O and F(x) = yx + kx? (4.65) This force is symmetrical about the equilibrium x = 0; that is, the magnitude of the force ex- erted on the system is the same for x and —x. If we set ky = —k, where k is positive, and ky = ~e, we get F(x) = ~ke — ex? (4.66) Remember, if ¢ > 0 the system is hard and if € <0 the system is soft. For this force, the corre- sponding symmetrical potential is given by (force F = —dVidx) Vix) = 3 kx? + pect (4.67)Sec. 4.5 Nonlinear Oscillating Systems 123 On the other hand, if the system is asymmetrical, the force, from Eq. (4.64), after substi- tuting ky = ~k, ky = A and setting ks = 0. is F(x) = —ke — dx? (4.68) Hence the asymmetrical potential is Vay =p ke + 5a? (4.69) We shall now discuss some situations dealing with symmetrical and asymmetrical potentials. Symmetrical Nonlinear System Consider a mass m which is suspended between two identical strings (or springs), as shown in Fig, 4.4(a). The strings are elastic with a force constant ky and tied to points A and B. When this system is in position AOB itis in equilibrium and the tension in each string is S, as shown, Let us now displace the mass m horizontally through a distance x, as shown in Fig. 4.4(b). The change in length of each string is (/ — /,); hence the restoring force is ke(! — ,). The tension $ in each string when itis in the displaced position is S= Sy + kill - h) (4.70) ‘We resolve S into components. The vertical components cancel each other, while the sum of the horizontal components is —2S sin @. Thus the motion of the mass m is described by the equation mi = —28 sin 0 4.71) o" 1 = unstretched length of a string or spring '% Fecoset 1 = sreiched length ofa string or sping (@) Equilibrium position (b) Displaced position Figure 4.4 A mass m tied to two strings (or springs) constitutes a symmetrical nonlinear system: (a) in equilibrium, and (b) in a displaced position.124 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 Remember that we have assumed no damping and also no driving force. (Later we shall apply the force Fy cos wf and again solve the problem.) From Eqs. (4.70) and (4.71), we obtain mi = -2[S) + ka(l — hl sin (4.72) From Fig. 4.4(b), we can calculate the values for / and sin @ to be ey 1= (Rt xy" = {1 + =| (4.73a) 4 and va : ae sin 6 = : = (8 +2) = AG +3 (4.73b) WV & ‘Substituting in Eq, (4.72) yields ava 2\-12 mnt = 255+ to{(1 + 5) -blE (i+ 5) (4.74) B 0 8 Since x°/R is a small quantity, we can use the binomial theorem to expand (4.75) (4.76) mi = —kx - &? (4.77) which is the required equation representing a nonlinear system. Note that ¢ is a small quantity that is positive for a hard spring and negative for a soft spring. Let us assume that the approxi- mate solution of Eq. (4.77) is still sinusoidal as in the linear systems. This should be approxi- mately true because ¢ is a small quantity. Hence, x = Acos of (4.78) Substituting for x = x, and x? = x7 in the right side of Eq. (4.77), we get a new equation in x; that is, —kA cos wt — €A} cos? wt (4.79)co) 16) ity "8) Xi Sec. 4.5 Nonlinear Oscillating Systems Substituting cos? wr = 4(3.cos wt + cos 3ef) in Eq, (4.79) and rearranging, mi, = —(kA + 3643) cos at — 1eA? cos 30t (4.80) which on integration (assuming the integration constants to be zero) gives the required solution: 1 3 sai (kA nar et?) cos at + mor 4 A? 360208 3" (4.81) This is the solution for a first-order approximation, To find the relation between w and A we can make use of the assumption that ¢ is small. Thus, substituting a first-order approximation x = x, = A cos at given by Eq, (4.78) in Eq. (4.81) and dropping the last term, or by comparing terms (the second term on the right is zero), we get (4.82) m which indicates that the natural frequency « and hence the period 7’ = 2m/w are functions of the amplitude A. The quantity «? increases or decreases from of by an amount (36/4m)A? depend- ing on the magnitude and the sign of . If there were an external driving force # = Fy cos wt acting on the system, as shown in Fig. 4.4(b), Eq. (4.77) would take the form (4.83) Following exactly the outlined procedure, we obtain the following solution (see Problem 4.26): 3 1 3 A Ae aad (muster 7 2) cos a + 362 C08 3" (4.84) ‘We shall not carry on with the discussion of resonances in this case; although they do occur, they are quite different from those discussed in linear systems. Asymmetrical Nonlinear System According to qs. (4.68) and (4.69), the asymmetric force and potential representing such a non- linear system are F(x) = ~ kx — ax? (4.68) Vir) = fee? + La (4.69) ‘The differential equation describing such a system without damping is mi + ke + AP = 0 (4.85)126 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 Dividing by m and substituting k/m = a} and N/m = Ay, we get E+ ay tax? =0 (4.86) ‘To obtain an approximate solution we use a perturbation method, as explained next. If there were no nonlinear term (A,x”), the solution would have been x, Since A, is a small quantity, the correct solution of Eq. (4.86) can be obtained by adding a small correction term to Xo; that is, x(t) ~ Xp + Avr, (487) [To have higher-order corrections we must write A(t) = Xq + Ayn, + Ajxy + Ajay + + Substituting Eq. (4.87) in Eq. (4.86), we get Gig + eobyg) + H+ wbx, + XDA, + Qxye AT + FA] = (4.88) Neglecting the higher-order terms in Aj and A} results in (Gig + ebay) + Gy + eb, + BA, = 0 (4.89) For this equation to be valid for any value of Ay, each term must be zero; that is, Gig + wba) = 0 (4.90) G+ of, +3) =0 4.91 ‘Thus the solution can be obtained by first solving Eq. (4.90) for x, substituting this in Eq. (4.91), and solving for x,. Hence the final solution will be x) = x) + Apt (4.92) ‘Suppose the initial conditions are such that we have the following solution for Eq. (4.90): Xp = Asin wnt (4.93) Initial conditions are included in this solution; hence we need not include the transient solution. Substituting Eq. (4.93) in Eq. (4.91) yields 2 B+ age, = — A? sin? apt =--(0 ~ cos Zope) (4.94) The general solution of this is x) = Boos 2uyt + C (4.95) Substituting in Eq. (4.94) and rearranging, we get 2 - 30j8) cos 2ant + (+ o+ «ac} 0 (4.96)Sec. 4.6 Qualitative Discussion of Motion and Phase Diagrams For this to be true for any value of we must have 2 = —3ufB=0 or B 497) x +7 + eiC=0 or Casa (4.98) Substituting in Eq. (4.95), we get a a = ‘pies a) => Gg 008 Deas +3 (4.99) Thus the general steady-state solution for a first-order approximation in A (A, = Mm) is : aa? A) = y+ At = A sin ont + -G 608 Dans + 3) (4.100) That is, the solution contains not only the free natural frequency «ay, but also its higher har- monic 2a», This method is not without fault. If we make the next approximation, we obtain term 1 (a secular term) in the solution, which is physically not acceptable for the present situation. 4.6 QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION OF MOTION AND PHASE DIAGRAMS Energy Diagram The following equations (Eqs. (3.2), (3.3), and (3.4)] were obtained in Chapter 3: E = 4mi? + Vo) (4.101) 2 f= +" 1E- vel (4.102) m im de and n-ne ty5] (4.103) Ane BV )., VE- Ven) » ‘Once we know V(x) and E, we can solve Eq. (4.103) to get a relation between x and r, But much an be learned about the qualitative nature of motion without actually solving these equations. This can be achieved in two ways: (1) by plotting V(x) versus x, and (2) by plotting x versus x. Before we discuss this, we must note the following: 1, Kinetic energy cannot be negative; this will also assure that v is not imaginary. 2, Potential energy V(x) cannot be greater than the (otal mechanical energy E of the system, If V(x) = E, kinetic energy K must be zero; hence the system must be at rest.Chap. 4 Oscillating Systems Let us consider an arbitrary potential plot V(x) versus x shown by the boldface curve in 2). (A similar situation was discussed in Chapter 2, but now we discuss it by two slightly x methods.) Suppose a particle of mass m can assume different energies, as discussed ret: Particle with energy E,: This energy corresponds to minimum potential energy Vp and the secscle is at tp in stable equilibrium. While at x9 the kinetic energy is zero; and if the particle is aced slightly it will return to 29. | Particle with energy E,: This energy is greater than the minimum potential energy V) and particle will oscillate between x, and x}. Since for this low energy £, the potential energy senveen x, and xj is symmetrical, the oscillations will be simple harmonic. While oscillating, -re kinetic energy and the velocity are maximum when in between the points x, and xj; it has 210 velocity at x, and xj. As the particle approaches x, or 44, its velocity decreases, it comes to = stop, and it then reverses its direction of motion at either of the two points x, and x. These zvints are called the turning points and the particle at these points has zero kinetic energy and vaximum potential energy. The particle cannot exist in the region for which x <.x, or x > x1 >ecause this will result in an imaginary velocity. (2) Particle with energy Ey: The particle can either oscillate between x, and x; or be at rest and in stable equilibrium, x3, There are two turning points x, and x. Since the potential Vo, (>¥,) does not correspond to the lowest energy state (which is Vo), itis called a metastable state. Also, the potential Vix) between x, and x; is asymmetrical; hence the oscillations are nonlinear. Again motion is not permitted in the regions x < x, and between x; and x9. (3) Particle with energy Ey: There are four turning points, xy. x,, and x3, xf. Because of the asymmetrical nature of the potential between x3 and x;, the oscillations are nonlinear in this val- ley. On the other hand, the potential between xy’ is parabolic and hence symmetrical, thereby resulting in linear oscillations in this valley. Once again motion is not permitted in regions for XS xX) x" (4) Particle with energy Eg: When the particle is at x7, the potential energy is maximum (one of the maxima); hence x7 is a position of unstable equilibrium. If slightly displaced it could os- cillate between x, and x? or between x and_xj; in both cases the motion is nonlinear because of asymmetrical potentials in both regions. Also, when the particle reaches x7, it could move in ei- ther region. Again, for x x,, motion is not permitted because it results in negative kinetic energies and hence imaginary velocities (5) Particle with energy Es: There is only one turning point, x5. The particle traveling from the right with energy E when it reaches x. comes to a stop, reverses its direction, and travels back to the right. While coming or going, the particle moves over hills and valleys. As it passes over the hills its velocity decreases; while passing over the valleys the velocity increases. Also, the deeper the valley, the higher the velocity is; and the higher the hill, the lower the velocity. That is, the particle will decelerate as it passes over the hills and accelerate as it passes over the valleys.Sec. 4.6 Qualitative Discussion of Motion and Phase Diagrams 129 vob (a) Energy diagram an (b) Phase diagram Figure 45 Motion of a particle with different energies E in an arbitrary poten: tial Vix) represented as (a) an energy diagram in which Via) is plotted versus x, and (b) a phase diagram in which + is plotted versus x130 Oscillating Systems Chap. 4 () Particle with energy Eg: There are no turning points. The particle simply keeps on mov- ing, slowing down over the hills and speeding up over the valleys. The preceding discussion is the result of the energy conservation principle given by Eq. (4.101). Also, when the particle has energy £; and Ey, the motion of the particle is unbound, while in all other cases the motion is bound. Phase Diagrams To completely specify the state of motion of a one-dimensional oscillator, two quantities must be specified. According to Eq. (4.102), we have a. \e [E- Vio) (4.102) If we know V(x) as a function of x, the motion may be represented by plotting x versus x. (This is in accord with a second-order differential equation in which two constant quantities are needed to describe motion.) The coordinates {(1) and x(#) uniquely describe the state of motion for any time in two dimensions. Any point P(X, x) describes the state of the motion in the phase plane, and the locus of such points is called the phase diagram, phase portrait, or phase tra~ jectory. In general, if we are dealing with n-dimensional motion or the system has n degrees of freedom, 2n coordinates will be required to describe motion in a 2n-dimensional phase space. Also, for a constant value E, that is, for a conservative system, the motion in a phase plane is periodic, x(t + T) = x(f) and x(¢ + T) = 2(1), and the paths are closed curves. ‘The phase diagram shown in Fig. 4.5(b) for potential energy V(x) and for different values of E in Fig. 4.5(a) can be understood after we discuss the following, Asa first illustration, let us apply the preceding ideas to the case of a one-dimensional sim- ple harmonic oscillator for which V(x) = $x? Thus, for conservation of energy, Smi? + tex? = EB (4.104a) ee ee (4.1040) - = = . 2EIk ~ 2EIm € which is an equation of an ellipse with V2E/k and V2E/m representing the semimajor and semiminor axes, respectively, and each E representing a unique ellipse. For different values of E we get a family of ellipses, as shown in Fig. 4.6. The same result can be arrived at by starting with the solution of a simple harmonic oscillator; that is, x= Acos(uyt + 6) (4.105) = ~ aA sino + ) (4.106) F< cote + &Sec. 4.6 Qualitative Discussion of Motion and Phase Diagrams > Figure 4.6 Below is the phase diagram for a one-dimensional simple harmonic oscillator for different values of E. For given values of M, k, b, Mal and the phase angle @, we can calculate the values of w0 and y. Cd As we know the total energy E and E3 for three simple harmonic oscillators, we can calculate the corresponding amplitudes. AL 23273 A3 =3.162 T2100 10.5 x1, =Al-cos{a0st, +6) vj =-@0-Al-sin( 00+, + 6) With these values, we can now write ; the expressions for the displacements x and the corresponding velocities v (by differentiating x with respect to t) for the three harmonic oscillators and graph them. Phase diagram for one dimension SHO ( 12, 2 A2-cos{ai4, + 4) 0-A2-sin(est, +9) ( 13, A cos(ui+ 6) @0-A3-sin(o0-t,+ 6) ta) If the phase angle @ is 1/2, how do the phase diagrams change? ‘b) How does the increase in the values of M, k, b, and y affect the d graphs? Velocity ‘¢) What factors affect the change in the values of the amplitude, frequency, 4 ° and energy of the oscillating system? xy Verify your answer by graphing. caters