Fingerprinting

Forensic Serology

Chapter 15

Fingerprinting
Courtesy of C.
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Crystal Violet

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Red Fluorescent

Inked

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

History

The first systematic attempt at personal identification was

devised by a French police expert, Alphonse Bertillion.
The Bertillion system relied on a detailed description of the
subject, combined with full length and profile photographs
and a system of precise body measurements called
anthropometry.
In 1892 Francis Galton published his classic textbook
Finger Prints.
Cont.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Chapter 15

Fingerprinting
At Galtons insistence, the British government adopted
fingerprinting as a supplement to the Bertillion system.
The next step was the creation of classification systems
capable of filing many thousands of prints in a logical and
searchable sequence.
Dr Juan Vucetich devised a classification system still used
in most Spanish-speaking countries, while Sir Edward
Henry devised another classification system used in most
English-speaking countries.
Cont.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Chapter 15

Fingerprinting
In 1903, when the Bertillion system could not distinguish
between two men (one Will West and the other William
West), it was fingerprinting that clearly distinguished
them.
After the Will West incident, the use of fingerprinting by
the New York City Civil Service Commission in 1901, and
the training of American police by Scotland Yard
representatives at the 1904 Worlds Fair, fingerprinting
began to be used in earnest in all major U.S. cities.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Fingerprint Principles

Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin ridges

found on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs.
The basic principles underlying the use of fingerprints in
criminal investigations are that:
1. A fingerprint is an individual characteristic
because no two fingers have yet been found to
possess identical ridge characteristics
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Fingerprint Principles

2. A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an

individuals lifetime; and
3. Fingerprints have general ridge patterns that permit
them to be systematically classified.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle One

Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two

identical fingerprint patterns in the worlds population is
extremely small.
Besides theoretical calculations, of the millions upon
millions of individuals who have had their prints classified,
no two fingerprints have been found to be identical.
Cont.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle One

The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its

general shape or pattern, but by the careful study of its
ridge characteristics, known as minutiae.
It is the identity, number, and relative location of these
minutiae that imparts individuality to a fingerprint.
There are as many as 150 minutiae on the average finger.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle One

After a three year study, it was determined that no valid

basis exists for requiring a predetermined minimum number
of friction ridge characters which must be present in two
impressions in order to establish positive identification.
In a judicial proceeding, an expert must demonstrate a
point-by-point comparison in order to prove the identity of
an individual.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Two
The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, while the
dermis is the inner layer of the skin.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Two

The dermal papillae is the layer of cells between the

epidermis and dermis, that is responsible for determining
the form and pattern of the ridges on the surface of the
skin.
Once the dermal papillae develop in the human fetus, the
ridge patterns will remain unchanged throughout life
except to enlarge during growth.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Two

Each skin ridge is populated with pores leading to sweat

glands from which perspiration is deposited on the skin.
Once the finger touches a surface, perspiration, along
with oils that may have been picked up by touching the
hairy portions of the body, is transferred onto that surface,
leaving the fingers ridge pattern (a fingerprint).

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three
All fingerprints are divided into three classes on the basis
of their general pattern: loops, arches, and whorls (L.A.W.).
A loop must have one or more ridges entering from one
side of the print, recurving, and exiting from the same side.
If the loop opens toward the little finger, it is called an
ulnar loop.
If the loop opens toward the thumb, it is called a radial
loop.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three

All loops must have one delta, which is the ridge point
at or directly in front of the point where two ridge lines
(type lines) diverge.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three
Whorls are divided into four groups: plain, central pocket
loop, double loop, and accidental.
All whorl patterns have type lines and a minimum of two
deltas.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three

A plain whorl and a central pocket loop have at least one

ridge that makes a complete circuit.
The double loop is made up of two loops combined into
one fingerprint.
An accidental either contains two or more patterns, or is
a pattern not covered by the other categories.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three
Arches, the least common of the three general patterns,
are divided into two distinct groups: plain arches and
tented arches.
The plain arch is formed by ridges entering from one side
of the print, rising and falling, and exiting on the opposite
side (like a wave).
The tented arch is similar to the plain arch except that
instead of rising smoothly at the center, there is a sharp
upthrust or spike, or the ridges meet at an angle that is less
than 90 degrees.
PRENTICE HALL Cont.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Principle Three

Arches do not have type lines, deltas, or cores.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Primary Classification

Fingerprint classification systems are based on

knowledge of fingerprint pattern classes.
First, fingers are paired up, placing one finger in the
numerator of a fraction and the other in the denominator.
The presence or absence of the whorl pattern is the
basis for the determination of the primary classification.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Primary Classification

If a whorl pattern is found on any finger of the first pair,

it is assigned a value of 16; on the second pair, an 8; on
the third pair, a 4; on the second pair, a 2; and on the last
pair, a 1.
Any finger having a loop or arch is assigned a 0.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Primary Classification

After values for all 10 fingers are obtained, they are totaled,
and a 1 is added to both the numerator and denominator.
The fraction thus obtained is the primary classification.
Approximately 25 percent of the population falls into the
1/1 category; that is, all their fingers have either loops or
arches.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Primary Classification

A fingerprint classification system cannot in itself

unequivocally identify an individual; it will merely provide
the fingerprint examiner with a number of candidates, all
of whom have an indistinguishable set of prints in the
systems file.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

AFIS

The heart of AFIS technology is the ability of a computer to

scan and digitally encode fingerprints so that they can be
subject to high-speed computer processing.
AFIS aids in classifying and retrieving fingerprints by
converting the image of a fingerprint into digital minutiae
that contain data showing ridges at their points of
termination (ridge endings) and their branching into two
ridges (bifurcations).

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

AFIS

When the search is complete (a computer can make

thousands of comparisons per second), the computer
produces a list of file prints that must be examined by a
trained fingerprint expert.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Latent Prints

Once the finger touches a surface, body perspiration

and/or oils present on the finger ridges are transferred to
that surface, leaving an impression.
Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye
and are commonly referred to as latent or invisible
fingerprints.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Visible Prints

Visible prints are made when fingers touch a surface after

the ridges have been in contact with a colored material such
as blood, paint, grease, or ink.
Inked

Courtesy of C.
Fanning

Crystal Violet
Courtesy of C. Fanning

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Visible Prints

Plastic prints are ridge impressions left on a soft

material, such as putty, wax, soap, or dust.
Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene
normally presents little problem to the investigator,
because these prints are usually distinct and visible to
the eye.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Latent Prints

Latent prints deposited on hard and nonabsorbent surfaces

(e.g., glass, mirror, tile, and painted wood) are preferably
developed by the application of a powder; whereas prints on
porous surfaces (e.g., papers, cardboard, and cloth)
generally require treatment with a chemical.
Examiners use various chemical methods to visualize latent
prints on porous surfaces, such as iodine fuming, ninhydrin,
and Physical Developer.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Latent Prints

Super Glue fuming develops latent prints on nonporous

surfaces, such as metals, electrical tape, leather, and plastic
bags.
Development occurs when fumes from the glue adhere
to the print, usually producing a white latent print.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Detecting Prints
A devise called the Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging System
(RUVIS) can aid in the detecting of latent fingerprints,
without chemicals or powder.
Once located, the crime scene investigator can develop the
print in the most appropriate fashion.
Powders, available in a variety of colors, can be applied
with a brush or magnetic wand, and adhere to perspiration
and/or body oils of the print.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Detecting Prints

Iodine fuming involves heating iodine crystals that cause

vapors which combine with latent prints to make them
visible.
Iodine prints are not permanent and will fade, making
it necessary to photograph the prints immediately.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Detecting Prints
Ninhydrin reacts chemically with trace amounts of amino
acids present in latent prints to produce a purple-blue
color.
Physical Developer is a silver nitrate-based reagent used
to develop prints when other chemical methods are
ineffective.
Super Glue is approximately 98 to 99 percent
cyanoacrylate ester, a chemical that actually interacts with
and visualizes a latent fingerprint.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Detecting Prints

Super Glue fuming can be accomplished by using either a

fuming chamber (for up to six hours) or a handheld wand
that heats a small cartridge containing cyanoacrylate.
The high sensitivity of fluorescence serves as the
underlying principle of many of the new chemical
techniques used to visualize latent fingerprints.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Detecting Prints

Fingerprints are treated with chemicals that would induce

fluorescence when exposed to lasers, or high-intensity light
sources (alternate light sources) such as quartz halogen,
xenon arc, or indium arc light sources.
Once the latent print has been visualized, it must be
permanently preserved for future comparison and for
possible use as court evidence.
A photograph must be taken before any further attempts at
preservation are made.
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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Transporting Prints

If the object is small enough to be transported without

destroying the print, it should be preserved in its entirety.
Prints on large immovable objects that have been
developed with a powder can best be preserved by lifting
with a broad adhesive tape.
Then, the tape is placed on a properly labeled card that
provides a good background contrast with the powder.

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Fingerprinting
Forensic Serology

Digital Imaging
Digital imaging is the process by which a picture is
converted into a digital computer file.
With the help of digital imaging software, fingerprints,
which are often not in perfect condition, can now be
enhanced for the most accurate and comprehensive
analysis.
An important and useful tool, especially for fingerprint
identification, is the compare function that places two
images side by side and allows the examiner to chart the
common features on both images simultaneously.
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