licht.

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Roads, paths and squares

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licht.wissen

01

03

Roads, paths and squares

Editorial
Dear readers,
Modern lighting is a future-proof investment for any town or city. Good lighting ensures
safety for passers-by, reduces the risk of traffic accidents and, as an element of design,
plays a significant role in creating an attractive urban environment.
In recent years, demand for energy-efficient lighting solutions has increased sharply at
municipal level. A new statutory environment and the switch to LED lighting technology
present major challenges for municipal authorities and reveal the need for action in this
area. In addition, current societal developments such as the increasing concentration
of population in urban areas show the need to adapt urban environments and their
transport networks to these circumstances. In order to guarantee high quality of life in
the long term, targeted investment in sustainable infrastructure with intelligent lighting
solutions is required. Recent assessments of the street lighting situation in Germany
show that the efficiency of lighting installations in many localities is poor. Lighting for
public roads, paths and squares alone still currently accounts for 30 to 50 percent of
municipal power consumption. That causes high costs and negative climate impacts.
Energy-efficient lighting solutions are major opportunities to cut costs and help mitigate
climate change.
A front-line role in energy-efficient outdoor lighting is currently played by LED technology. Its massive potential permits high luminous efficacy at very low levels of energy
consumption. Switching from conventional light sources to innovative LED systems with
intelligent control, for instance, can reduce energy input and carbon output by 80 percent or more.This booklet presents model solutions for optimising public lighting in line
with the latest technological developments, current standards and legal requirements.
It is intended as an orientation aid for local authority decision-makers and planners
involved in modernisation projects. Valuable background information is also provided by
clear tables and illustrations, e.g. on the basics of lighting design.
Useful checklists and tools as well as an overview of current incentive funding options are included to facilitate practical implementation. After all, future-proof lighting
concepts will benefit towns and cities in many ways: they will reduce environmental
impacts, enhance the quality of urban life and lend impetus to responsible use of limited
energy resources. Use of more efficient technology is vital if we are to achieve the ambitious savings targeted in Germany and Europe through to 2020 and 2030. Without a
switch to new lighting technologies, especially to LED, it will be very difficult to reach
the goals set.

Parliamentary State Secretary Andreas Scheuer

[Cover] The primary task of street lighting is to

ensure good visibility and safety on the roads. It
is particularly important in conflict areas, where
different types of road users are present at the
same time.
[01] Lighting enhances the visual impact of
building facades at night and lends atmosphere
to the urban environment.

licht.wissen

Roads, paths and squares

03

Municipal lighting
tasks
Page 06

Erhhung der Umgebungsleuchtdichte

sichtbar

The basics of lighting

Page 08

unsichtbar

sichtbar

sichtbarer Bereich
Erhhung der
Umgebungsleuchtdichte

unsichtbarer
Bereich

Sustainability and
environment
Page 14

LED-Leuchten / Leuchten mit Reektortechnik

Keine Abstrahlung in den Nachthimmel und in die Huser
Licht strahlt nur dorthin, wo es wirklich bentigt wird
Sehr guter Wirkungsgrad

Product quality
Page 16

licht.de

Side streets and

traffic-calmed zones
Page 20

Trunk roads
Page 22

Motorways and other

roads for motor
vehicles only
Page 24

Pedestrian precincts
and squares
Page 26

Lighting Specials

Lighting design and standards

Page 10

Lighting management
Page 18
Autarke Lichtsteuerung

Lichtsteuerung ber Powerline-Verfahren

Steuerung wird an jeder Leuchte direkt programmiert

Steuerung nur vor Ort mglich
Keine automatische Meldung von Lampenausfllen

Das vorhandenes Stromnetz wird zur Steuerung genutzt

Automatische Meldung von Lampenausfllen mglich
Steuerung von einem zentralen Ort aus

licht.de

licht.de

Street lighting and safety

Page 38

Parks and gardens

Page 28

Station forecourts,
bus stations and
car parks
Page 30

Pedestrian crossings
and street
crossing aids
Page 32

Conflict areas
Page 34

Tunnel lighting
Page 36

Kostenverteilung im
Lebenszyklus einer Straenleuchte

Energy efficiency
and costs
Page 40

Instandhaltung
32%

Energieverbrauch
39%

Investition
29%

Standards, literature,
useful websites
Page 48

Series of publications
Imprint
Page 54

The refurbishment process

Page 44

Model refurbishment projects

Page 46

Luminaires and their applications

Page 50

Light sources
Page 52

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

02

03

04

Municipal lighting tasks

Thanks to modern LED technology, lighting for public spaces is in transition. Lighting has never before been so
innovative, flexible and efficient which opens up totally new possibilities and perspectives for technical and
decorative municipal lighting.
Road safety, energy efficiency, life cycle
costs, the need for refurbishment, procurement of spare parts, resident and user
satisfaction modern municipal lighting
can throw up lots of questions but also
present myriad opportunities. That said,
the requirements that good lighting needs
to meet are the same as ever.
Greater road safety
The most important task that road lighting
needs to address seems easy: to create
conditions enabling all road users to see
well enough. But accomplishing that task
involves negotiating a number of hurdles.
Where a lighting plan is drawn up for a
public space, the minimum normative
requirements set out in DIN EN 13201
need to be observed. Those requirements
take account of all major factors such as
traffic density, carriageway width, mounting height of light sources, column spacing
and road type. As a matter of principle,
all roadways should be illuminated so that
every road user is able to adapt to changing traffic situations. Sudden holdups need
to be clearly perceptible from a distance
so that prompt and correct responsive action can be taken. Street lighting plays an
active role here in lowering accident risk,
both on roads and in other traffic areas.

[02, 03] Modern lighting can make for

attractive skylines and streets without
putting pressure on budgets and the
environment. LED technology has made
huge advances in recent years and done
a lot to reduce energy bills and carbon
emissions.

A greater sense of security for passers-by

Good and above all adequately bright
lighting for paths and squares helps
significantly reduce assaults on passersby and property. High illuminance has a
deterrent and preventive effect. It helps
make the features or intentions of an approaching figure easier to recognise and
thus permits an appropriate response. So
people have a greater sense of personal
safety and shady characters are deterred
from the outset.

[04] The primary task of municipal lighting is to promote safety wherever there is
traffic. Applications range from motorways
and expressways to paths through parks.

More attractive urban environment

Lighting plays a significant role in shaping
the face of a municipality. During the day,

the physical presence of the luminaires

either as discreetly embedded elements
or outright eye-catchers adds attractive visual details to the urban landscape.
At night, the light that is emitted determines whether people can see well and
feel comfortable in their surroundings.
Although functionality is a prime requirement here, lighting is also instrumental
in defining atmosphere and ambience.
Charmingly illuminated towns and cities
attract visitors and customers for the local
business community.
Lower costs plus lower carbon emissions
In recent years, LED technology has also
gained acceptance in the area of street
lighting. LEDs have massive performance potential and their light can be very
precisely directed with minimum scattering loss. They can also be dimmed to
deliver no more light and consume no
more power than is actually necessary.
For a given lighting task, an LED luminaire
requires up to 80 percent less energy and
generates as much as 80 percent less
CO2 than a conventional street light. Operating costs and negative environmental
impacts can thus be reduced. However,
that potential can only be fully exploited
if quality luminaires are used. All components from housing to control system, to
lighting technology need to be properly
coordinated.

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

The basics of lighting

Correct lighting makes for safety and comfort in towns and cities. Anyone who has anything to do with lighting or
lighting design should be familiar with the basics of lighting.

The four basic lighting quantities

1) Luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm)
and defines the visible light radiating from
a light source in all directions.
2) Luminous intensity, measured in candela (cd), is the amount of luminous flux
radiating in a particular direction. Luminous emittance is a distinguishing feature
of many different luminaires and reflector
lamps. It defines how their light is distributed on the road.
3) Luminance is the brightness of a luminous or illuminated surface as perceived
by the human eye. Measured in candela
per square metre (cd/m), it expresses the
intensity of the light emitted or reflected
over a defined area of the surface.
4) Illuminance is the luminous flux falling
on a given surface from a lamp. The unit
of measurement is lux (lx), one lux being
the illuminance produced by one lumen of
luminous flux spread evenly over an area
of one square metre. Example: the flame of
an ordinary candle produces approximately one lux from a distance of one metre.
Level of brightness needs to be appropriate
for visual tasks
An adequate level of brightness (lighting
level) is a fundamental requirement for
being able to see well outdoors. It needs
to take account of the visual tasks performed by road users and to support the
various activities required to reduce the
risk of accidents. Illuminance, the reflective
properties of the illuminated surface and
luminance are crucial for this. Illuminance
(lx) here defines the luminous flux falling
on a particular area from a light source.
Luminance
Luminance (cd/m2) expresses the subjective impression of brightness. It is the
brightness of an illuminated or luminous
surface as perceived by the human eye.

Crucial here is the intensity of light in relation to the size of the surface. Luminance
and the way it is distributed over the task
area or the area around it influence how
quickly, reliably and easily objects can be
identified and responsive actiontaken.
Reflectance
Reflectance indicates how much incident
luminous flux is reflected by a surface.
The brighter the surface is, the higher the
reflectance and the greater the illumination
of the surroundings. Reflectance can reach
85 percent in the case of light-coloured
facades and averages 27 percent in the
case of a standard concrete road surface.
Adaptation time of the eye
The time it takes for our eyes to adapt
to bright and dark lighting situations has
major implications for visual performance.
Visual impairment occurs when our eyes
have too little time to adjust to differences
in brightness, especially marked differences. Light adaptation, i.e. adapting from
dark to light, is a faster process than dark
adaptation. When our eyes have to adapt
from light to dark, they require significantly
more time to do so (in some situations
several minutes). That is why adaptation zones are provided e.g. at tunnel
entrances and exits to make for a safe
transition from light to dark and vice versa.
Glare and veiling luminance
Visual performance is severely impaired
and visual comfort sharply reduced by
glare. Glare can be direct (caused by luminaires, the sun or very bright daylight) or
reflected (due to light reflected from shiny
surfaces). Luminaire glare can be limited
by appropriate optics.
Veiling luminance occurs where light from
a source close to the object viewed interferes with vision by generating a powerful light stimulus and casting scattered
light onto the retina. This spreads over

the retina like a veil and reduces contrast

perception. Driving at night with oncoming
traffic is a classic example of a situation
where veiling luminance can occur. The
brighter the light source and the closer
it is, the greater the visual impairment.
In older people, the effects of light scatter are more pronounced than in younger
people because the lens of the human eye
becomes more opaque with age.
Assessment of glare on the basis of glare
rating values (glare rating method)
Glare is caused by patches of brightness
within the visual field and significantly
interferes with perception. In many people,
glare also gives rise to discomfort, insecurity and rapid fatigue, e.g. when driving a
car at night. In this case, experts speak of
discomfort or psychological glare. To avoid
errors, fatigue and accidents, it is important to limit glare. The degree of direct
glare from luminaires or other light sources
impairing visual performance is defined for
outdoor workplaces and sports facilities by
glare ratings GR.

Colour rendering
The colour rendering index Ra indicates
how well colours illuminated by artificial
light can be accurately perceived. The
colour rendering of conventional lamps
ranges from Ra 20 toRa 100 and depends
crucially on the quality of the light source.
Where the colour rendering index Ra is
100, colour rendering is optimal and all
colours appear natural. Metal halide lamps
reach values between Ra 60 and Ra 95.
LEDs can also have very good colour
rendering indices between Ra70 and Ra95.
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps, by
comparison, have a significantly lower
index, typically Ra25. The main benefit
of a high colour rendering index is visual
comfort, so it is particularly appropriate for
pedestrian precincts and for illuminating
facades and buildings.

Increase in ambient luminance

Assessment of glare on the basis of percentage threshold increments (TI method)

In road lighting, glare rating is based
on an assumed viewing direction for the
motorist. The parameter used for measuring physiological (disability) glare is the
percentage threshold increment TI and
the control requirements are set out in
DIN EN 13201.
Light colour
Light colour is the intrinsic colour of the
light radiated by an artificial light source.
The lower a lamps Kelvin (K) rating, the
warmer its light appears. Low colour
temperatures produce a warm yellowish
or reddish white light, as in the case of
sodium vapour lamps, halogen lamps and
warm white fluorescent lamps. Highcolour
temperatures produce cold bluish white
light colours similar to daylight (at around
6,500 K) on an overcast day. Examples
include neutral white and daylight white
fluorescent lamps as well as metal halide
lamps. As a general rule, a distinction
is made between three light colours:
warm white below 3,300 K, neutral white
from 3,300 to 5,300 K and daylight white
above 5,300 K.

More information on this subject

is found in licht.wissen 01 Lighting with
Artificial Light.

visible

invisible

visible

visible

L BL

increase in
ambient luminance

L0

LS
L

05

Under glare-free road lighting at night, the eye

adapts to the average luminance of the road (L).
In this case, persons or objects on the road are
recognisable if their luminance contrast in relation to their surroundings is L0. Where dazzling
light sources occur in the visual field oncoming
vehicles, for instance they produce scattered light
which spreads like a veil over the retina.

invisible
L + Ls

The eye tries to compensate for the glare and

veiling luminance (LS) and adapts to a higher
level L + LS. Objects on the road can then
no longer be made out. Raising the ambient
luminance from L0 to LBL renders them
visible again.
licht.de

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

Lighting design and standards

Correct lighting is a major factor for safety on roads and paths. Lighting, normative and design requirements
are very high and call for designers and professionals with extensive expertise. Below is a brief overview of the
key parameters.
The requirements that need to be met by
lighting are determined by the hazard
potential of the stretch of road in question.
As traffic increases, so does the risk of
collisions. What is more, if the space on
and alongside the road is used by different road users, such as motorists, cyclists
and pedestrians, the hazard rating is
significantly higher because of the marked
differences in velocity, size and recognisability. Another parameter is the clarity of
the road, which depends on the course
and width of the road and the speed limit
that applies on it. All of these factors need
to be considered when assessing the lighting level required. Basically: the higher the
risk of accidents, the more light the street
lighting needs to provide.
Lighting level
Lighting level is one of the most important criteria for municipal lighting. Here,
planning is based on different lighting
variables, depending on speed limits.
Where they are higher than 30km/h, as in
the case of trunk roads, motorways and
even tunnels, luminance (candela per m)
is the yardstick used. Where speed limits
are 30km/h or less, e.g. in traffic-calmed
areas or car parks, illuminance (lux) is the
required design criterion.
Roadway luminance
Luminance (L) on the road is essentially
determined by two factors: the illuminance
and reflective properties of the illuminated
surfaces. Illuminance depends on the
number and arrangement of light sources,
the way their light is distributed and the
luminous flux of the lamps used.
Reflectance
The darker and matter a surface is, e.g.
the surface of the roadway or a building
facade, the lower its reflectance and the
more light is needed to illuminate it. Help is
available for designers in CIE publications
94:1993 and 136:2000, which contain rec-

10

ommended minimum illuminance values

for taking account of the reflectance of
illuminated surfaces.
Duty to ensure safe roads
To cut costs, some local authorities switch
off every second street light during the
quiet night hours between 11 p.m. and 5
a.m. The resulting partial lighting creates
dangerous dark camouflage patches,
which significantly increase the risk of
accidents. This dubious money-saving
practice breaches a local authoritys duty
to ensure safe roads. If accidents occur,
court cases and compensation claims are
pre-programmed. In a ruling delivered
on 3 May 2013, Limburg Regional Court
ordered the municipal authority of Herborn
to pay compensation to a passer-by who
suffered injury at night where street lighting
had been deactivated.
According to DIN EN 13201, the lane
ahead of the motorist needs to meet particular requirements in terms of uniform distribution of luminance and illuminance (see
also Figs. 06 and 07 on the facing page).
Where individual luminaires are deactivated, accident risk increases. This is largely
because motorists are confident that they
can see and fail to recognise other road
users in the dark zones until it is too late.
So, for motorists and pedestrians alike,
camouflage zones are a safety hazard. To
eliminate such hazards from the outset and
still enjoy energy economies, new technologies are the answer. Modern controllable LED luminaires, for example, enable
the lighting level of all the luminaires on a
stretch of road to be electronically dimmed
without creating dark patches. More information on this is found in the chapter on
lighting management on pages 18-19.
Approach for determining road lighting
quality features
DIN 13201 classifies local conditions and
defines lighting quality features in a series

of steps. The basic approach for defining

lighting performance requirements is as
follows:
1. Classification of the road according to
the lighting situations A1 to E2 defined in
DIN 13201-1 (see Fig. 08 on the facing
page).
2. Selection of the lighting class on the
basis of the standard and supplementary
tables (1.4-13) in DIN 13201-1 and DIN
EN 13201-2. The planning aid on page 13
offers help here.
3. Establishment of the lighting design
requirements on the basis of tables 1.4-16
to 1.4-18.

[06, 07] Switching off every second

luminaire creates camouflage zones, which
present a major hazard on roads. Dark
patches can be avoided by uniformly dimming all luminaires.
[08] Applying basic parameters enables the type of road to be assigned to
one of the lighting situations set out in
DIN EN 13201.

06

07

Lighting situations according to DIN EN 13201

Situation

Speed of main
user

Main users

Other allowed users

A1

A2

> 60 km/h

Motorised traffic

B1
30 - 60 km/h
B2
5 - 30 km/h

D1

Motorised traffic,
slow moving vehicles

Cyclists, pedestrians

Motorised traffic,
slow moving vehicles,
cyclists

Pedestrians

Cyclists

Pedestrians

Motorised traffic,
pedestrians

D2
5 - 30 km/h
D3

Motorised traffic,
cyclists

D4

Motorised traffic, slow

moving vehicles, cyclists,
pedestrians

Motorways and roads for

motor vehicles only

Cyclists, pedestrians

Major country roads, poss. with

separate cycle- and footpaths

Minor country roads

Trunk roads, through roads,

local distributor roads

Motorised traffic,
slow moving vehicles

Cyclepaths, cycle/footpaths

Slow moving vehicles,

cyclists

Motorway service areas

Station forecourts, bus stations,
car parks

Slow moving vehicles,

pedestrians

Local access and residential

streets, 30 km/h-zone streets
(mostly with footpath)
Local access and residential
streets, 30 km/h-zone streets
(mostly without footpath)
Motorised traffic,
slow moving vehicles,
cyclists

Walking speed

08

Slow moving vehicles,

cyclists, pedestrians

Slow moving vehicles,

cyclists

E1

E2

Application examples

Slow moving vehicles,

cyclists, pedestrians

A3

C1

Slow moving vehicles

Excluded users

Pedestrians

Motorised traffic,
slow moving vehicles,
cyclists

Pedestrian and shopping

precincts, footpaths
Pedestrian and shopping precincts with loading and feeder
traffic, traffic-calmed zones
(home zones)

11

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

09

Lighting class planning aid

The Lighting class planning aid checklist
helps the designer compile the information needed to select a lighting class. The
different lighting class requirements are
clearly listed under 3 main parameters.
Before the checklist is used, a lighting
situation between A1 and E2 (see table
08, page 11) should be established. The
letters A-E in brackets indicate which fields
are relevant for which lighting situation.
Standard tables: assessment criteria
according to DIN 13201-1 and DIN EN
13201-2
Average traffic volume
Intersection density lots of closely
spaced intersections increase the risk of
collisions
Difficulty of the navigational task, e.g.
where the presence of different road users travelling at different speeds means
that analysing information calls for more
attention than usual
Physical traffic-calming measures need
to be reliably identified.
Supplementary tables: assessment criteria
according to DIN 13201-1 and DIN EN
13201-2
The supplementary tables include more
assessment criteria for classifying roads.
These may raise the requirements which
the lighting needs to meet:
Conflict areas (intersections, roundabouts)

12

10

Vehicle sparked at the side of the road

Complexity of the visual field (advertising
hoardings, media facades, etc.)
Ambient luminance, e.g. bright floodlighting for a nearby sports facility that could
interfere with visual perception on the
road
Facial recognition, permitting early anticipation of the intentions and behaviour of
approaching persons
Crime risk this is factored into planning
by comparing the crime rate in the immediate vicinity of the road to the crimes
rates in the wider area around it.
Additional data for calculating road lighting
in line with DIN EN 13201-3
Manufacturer, type, lamping and intensity
distribution curves of the luminaires
Maintenance factor of the lighting installation
Details of the geometry of the road,
cross-section of the road or location plan
with dimensions
Definition of the relevant areas
Details of the positioning of luminaires,
with distance from the road
Mounting height of the light sources.
Maintained values
As a lighting installations time in service
increases, illuminance and luminance decrease due to aging and soiling of lamps,
luminaires and reflective surfaces. Maintained illuminance in this context is the average value below which illuminance must

not fall. To compensate for the decrease

in illuminance, the installation needs to be
designed for higher illuminance when it is
new (value on installation). In lighting design, the decrease in illuminance is taken
into account by the maintenance factor
and applied in the equation:
Maintained Value = Maintenance Factor x
Value on Installation
To ensure that the minimum illuminance
required for the visual task is actually
provided under operating conditions, the
illuminance and luminance values recommended in the relevant standards are
defined as maintained values.
Maintenance factor
In lighting design, a maintenance factor
is applied from the outset to guarantee
standard-compliant illuminance throughout
an installations service life. A maintenance
factor of 0.8, for example, means that the
100% luminous flux on installation will
decrease to 80% by the end of the maintenance interval. The maintenance factor
(MF) is the product of:
Lamp Survival Factor (LSF)
This allows for lamp failure over an installations service life
Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor (LLMF)
This allows for the decrease in lamp luminous flux over an installations service life
Luminaire Maintenance Factor (LMF)
This allows for the accumulation of dirt on
a luminaires optical systems. It depends

Lighting class planning aid

Parameter

Options

Answers

Area (geometry)
Separation of carriageways (A*)

Types of junctions (A)

yes
no
interchanges
intersections

Interchange spacing,

> 3km

distance between bridges (A)

3km

Intersection density (A, B)

< 3 intersections / km
3 intersections / km

Conflict area (A, B)

yes
no

Physical traffic-calming

yes

measures (B, C, D)

no

Traffic use
on the IP (Ingress Protection) rating of
the luminaire, the level of exposure to dirt
from the environment and the cleaning
intervals defined (a four-year interval is
standard)
Room Surface Maintenance Factor (RSMF)
This allows for the decrease in reflec tance of ceiling and walls, e.g. in pedestrian underpasses, tunnels, etc.

Traffic flow of motor vehicles

< 7.000 vehicles

per day (A, B)

7.000 - 15.000 vehicles

MF = LSF x LLMF x LMF x RSMF

Difficulty of visual task

normal

(A, B, D)

higher than normal

Parked vehicles (A, B, D)

not present

As a matter of principle, the designer of a

lighting installation must specify a maintenance factor and list all the assumptions
made to define it. In addition, a comprehensive maintenance schedule needs
to be prepared, setting out both a lamp
replacement interval and an interval for
cleaning the luminaires and identifying the
cleaning methods that should be used.

15.000 - 25.000 vehicles

> 25.000 vehicles
Traffic flow of cyclists (C, D)

normal
high

Pedestrian traffic flow (D, E)

normal
high

present
Facial recognition (C, D, E)

unnecessary
necessary

Crime risk (C, D, E)

normal
higher than normal

Environmental and external influences

Complexity of the visual field

normal

(A, B, D)

high

Ambient luminance

low

(A, B, C, D, E)

moderate
high

[09, 10] Uniform illuminance of the road

and avoidance of dark patches are important criteria for standard-compliant lighting.
[11] The planning aid provides a template
for compiling the information needed to
identify the lighting class.

Main weather type (A, B)

dry

Note: In Germany, the main

wet

weather type normally selected

is dry
* The lighting situations shown are the ones for which the relevant

11

parameter needs to be assessed.

13

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

Sustainability and environment

A street light shining into the bedroom at night disturbs our rest. But animals and plants also respond
sensitively to artificial light in their night-time habitats. Modern lighting installations significantly alleviate these
problems.
Light pollution and light smog are terms
widely used to refer to the light immissions
that radiate upwards and brighten the
night sky over large conurbations. Artificial
light from street lighting, illuminated buildings, floodlighting and luminous advertising have diverse effects on human beings
and nature. Under Germanys Federal
Immission Control, Act (BImSchG), light
immissions are classed as harmful effects
on the environment which, according to
their nature, extent or duration, are liable
to cause hazards, considerable disadvantages or considerable nuisance to the
general public. It is therefore important to
take account of these factors right at the
lighting design stage.

[12, 13] Sustainable, environmentally

sound lighting can only be achieved by
luminaires with reflector or LED technology.
Light can then be directed precisely where
it is needed and unnecessary scattering
losses are avoided.

12

14

In Germany at present, there are no legal or

administrative requirements setting actual
limits for light immissions in public street
lighting. However, the German Lighting Society LiTG has published details of measurement and assessment methods that
can be used to rate immissions as well as
proposals for maximum admissible levels
(Deutsche Lichttechnische Gesellschaft,
Publication No. 17/1998). Further information in German is available at www.litg.de.
In addition, the effects of lighting system

immissions on residential premises are

summarised in the latest 2012 update of the
lighting guideline on the measurement and
assessment of light immissions developed
by the Immission Control Committee of Germanys federal states (Lnderausschuss fr
Immissionsschutz - LAI). The LAI recommends that the methods and ceilings in the
guideline should be applied by environmental protection agencies. A number of
federal states have already issued lighting
guidelines on the subject. Several European countries, including the Czech Republic,
Slovenia, Italy and Spain have also passed
laws to protect the night sky.
Lightimmissions caused by street lighting
can be effectively reduced by using modern street and outdoor luminaires. There
are a large number of suitable luminaires
on the market. Fitted with energy-efficient
light sources (e.g. LEDs) and sophisticated optics, they direct the light to where it is
really needed.
Protecting insect habitats
Artificial light attracts insects, so it can
severely interfere with their natural habits.
Most nocturnal insects respond significantly
more sensitively than human beings to the

Luminaires without reector technology

LED luminaires / luminaires with reector technology

Light pollutes the night sky

Light radiates into front gardens and homes
High scattering losses, poor energy efciency

No light radiates into the night sky or into homes

Light is directed only where it is really needed
Very good energy efciency

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13

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spectral composition and brightness of the

light from fluorescent lamps and high-pressure mercury vapour lamps. Pale moonlight,
which insects are thought to use for orientation, also appears much brighter to the
insect eye than to humans. The light cast
by a high-pressure sodium vapour lamp,
however, appears darker because most
insects are less sensitive to orange and red
spectral components. LED light can also be
classed as insect-friendly because of the
absence of UV radiation (see also Fig. 14).

High carbon savings with LED

In a study published in August 2011, the
consulting firm McKinsey demonstrates
that LED-based lighting solutions offer
the greatest carbon saving potential of
all climate protection options for future
developments in the lighting industry. The
study concludes that the cost of saving
one metric ton of carbon dioxide a year by
energy-efficient lighting is five times less
than the cost of achieving the same reduction through the use of solar installations.

Positive response to LED luminaires

In the wake of the public lighting competition Kommunen in neuem Licht, surveys
were conducted, with the support of Germanys Federal Ministry for Education and
Research (BMBF), to measure acceptance of LED street lighting. In comparisons with conventional technology, LED
solutions were invariably preferred. They
won high public acceptance, particularly
for colour fidelity, perceived brightness
and sense of security.

Ecodesign Directive (ErP)

On 20 November 2009, the ErP Directive
(Energyrelated Products) also known as
the Ecodesign Directive came into force to
replace the existing EuP Directive (Energy
using Products). It sets out ecodesign
requirements for all products that have an
impact on energy consumption. Under it,
every manufacturer is required to make
technical product information available in
accompanying documentation as well as on
the Internet. The primary aim is to remove
obsolete fluorescent lamps, high-pressure
discharge lamps (especially high-pressure
mercury vapour lamps) as well as inefficient
control gear gradually from the market.
The first stages of the EU regulation have
already been implemented in Germany with
the phase-out of inefficient fluorescent and
incandescent lamps. Street lighting needs
to meet special requirements, such as only
using lamps with high luminous efficacy.
Municipal authorities are thus called upon to
switch from obsolete lighting installations to
energy-efficient technologies such as LED.

Saving electricity
lowering carbon emissions
Every kilowatt-hour of electricity saved
reduces the amount of carbon dioxide
pumped into the atmosphere. So saving
energy also helps mitigate climate change.
The European Commission has set ambitious goals in this respect. In its Roadmap
for moving to a competitive low carbon
economy in 2050, it looks at new ways to
lower greenhouse gas emissions by 80 to
95 percent.

Disposal of spent lamps and luminaires

The German Electrical and Electronic
Equipment Act (ElektroG) regulates the
return and environmentally safe disposal
of electrical and electronic equipment.
Responsibility for this resides with manufacturers and importers, who can assign
the task to third parties. Further information
is provided by the German Electrical and
Electronic Manufacturers Association ZVEI
at www.zvei.org. Spent lamps and luminaires used in street lighting are accepted
in Germany by the joint venture Lightcycle
Retourlogistik und Service GmbH (www.
lightcycle.de). Local retailers and tradesmen also help ensure proper disposal.
Harmful substances in lamps
The Restriction of Hazardous Substances
Directive revised in May 2011obliges
manufacturers of lighting equipment in the
EU to ensure that harmful substances such
as lead, mercury, nickel or cadmium are
used only in specified, minimal quantities.

Number of animals attracted per trap/night

Insect ight towards different light sources

14

240
200

219,7

160
120

127,5
98,9

80

71,6

40

37,4

0
high-pressure
mercury vapour
lamps

metal
halide lamps

high-pressure
sodium vapour
lamps

cold white
LED

warm white
LED
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[14] Study by Prof. Dr. Gerhard Eisenbeis on the insect compatibility of LEDs in
comparison to conventional light sources.
The researcher looks at the behaviour of
insects around six different light sources.
During the period of the study (summer
2011) in Frankfurt am Main, the light
sources tested were placed in receptacles and the insects caught in them were
counted each day. The types of lamp
used were as follows:
high-pressure mercury vapour lamps
metal halide lamps
high-pressure sodium vapour lamps
cold white LED
warm white LED

15

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03

Roads, paths and squares

Productquality
Exterior luminaires are capital goods, in many cases with a service life of well over 20 years. Importance
should always be attached here to long-life, high-quality products. Otherwise, the purportedly more
economical product will, in the long run, turn out to be the much more expensive option.
To identify the right luminaire for the job,
the lighting designer first needs to look at
actual luminaire performance characteristics: luminous flux, power consumption,
lifespan, maintenance factor, anticipated
decline in luminous flux, light output ratio
of conventional luminaires/luminous efficacy in lm/W of LEDs, and whether night
reduction is possible. The important thing
here is always to consider the luminaire
system as a whole, not the individual
components.
Basis for product selection: product and
lighting quality criteria
High-quality housing material (e.g. aluminium, single-pane safety glass, etc.)
High-quality coatings and small number
of loadbearing plastic parts
Even years after purchase, LED components should be available in the same
lighting quality
Replaceable standard components
Good heat dissipation in LED luminaires;
the technical data sheet shows the maximum permissible temperature limits.
A high colour rendering index (Ra), depending on user requirements.

Constant light colour (in Kelvin) and constant brightness level where a number
of luminaires of the same type are to be
used
Good maintenance factor (MF)
High luminaire luminous efficacy.This
should always be appraised in the context of a lighting plan, however, because
the light emitted needs to be assessed in
the intended environment.
Appropriate intensity distribution. A basis
for decisions here is provided by intensity distribution curves (luminaire data
records) and planning support data (e.g.
EULUMDAT).
The power consumption of the luminaire
and the anticipated decline in luminous
flux. For realistic product comparison,
care must be taken to ensure identical
framework parameters.
Thermal management
Good thermal management is essential
for LED luminaires. LEDs can achieve
their long service life and energy efficiency only if they do not overheat in
operation. To permit heat dissipation over
as large an area as possible, there should

failed. Example: B50 indicates the point at

which 50 percent of a number of identi20
cal LED luminaires fall below the declared
percentage of luminous flux (x) at the end
of the monitoring
time (L).
If no 60.000
B value 70.000
is
20.000
30.000 40.000
50.000
80.000 90.000
100.000
0
indicated, Lx is assumed to be B50. In this
0
Lebensdauer in Stunden10.000
case, the entire luminaire is assessed, not
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15
just a component or a single LED.

16

Luminous flux L80 B90 75.000 hrs

Luminous flux L80 B50 60.000 hrs
Luminous flux L80 B10 50.000 hrs

Values extrapolated by the manufacturer

Values measured over a period

of 6,000 10,000 hrs

10.000

Light output in percent

Vom Hersteller extrapolierte Werte

Zeitraum von 6.000 bis 10.000 Std.

Decline
luminous flux of LEDs
Lichtstrom L80 B90
75.000
Std. in flux
Decline
in luminous
of LEDs

Please
note:
values purposes
here areonlyfor illustration
Please note:
The
values
here
areThe
for illustration
[15] The longevity rating of LED lumiLichtstrom L80 B50
60.000
Std.
purposes
and are not universally
valid only and are not universally valid
naires and LED components is established
Lichtstrom L80 B10 50.000 Std.
by measuring luminous flux and failure
100
over 6,000 hours (luminaires) and 10,000
hours (components) respectively. The
lifespan stated for the product is extrapo80
lated by the manufacturer from the data
thus obtained. The luminous flux value
(L value) must always be indicated in
60
conjunction with operating time. The B
value indicates the point by which a cer40
tain percentage of components will have

20.000

30.000 40.000

50.000 60.000 70.000

80.000

90.000 100.000

Life in hours
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be a thermal connection between the

luminaire housing, for example, and the
LED circuit board.
Binning
In the manufacture of LEDs, there are
always differences within batches in terms
of luminous flux, colour temperature and
forward voltage. To guarantee constant
light quality with the same level of brightness and uniform light colour, LEDs in
each batch are binned, i.e. they are sorted
and grouped according to their performance characteristics.
Manufacturer-related quality criteria
Certification to DIN/ISO-9001 confirms that
a manufacturers development, manufacturing and distribution processes are
geared to quality and that standard complaint procedures are in place.
To ensure high product quality and obtain
reliable performance data, the manufacturer should also have its own laboratory or
use a professional service provider.
Maintenance factor and soiling
The maintenance factor of a luminaire (see
also pages 12-13) takes account of cleaning intervals (four-year intervals are fairly
standard). It also depends on environmental soiling, which is divided into the following categories:
Heavy soiling
Clouds of smoke and dust, e.g. in industrial zones.

00
16
26

Average soiling
High traffic volumes with smoke and
dust.
Light soiling
Exclusively in residential areas and rural
areas with no smoke or dust pollution.
Reliability, guarantee, maintenance
Anyone selecting a luminaire manufacturer should always consider quality and
service. The manufacturer has to guarantee the reliability of its products in line
with the stipulations of relevant European
standards. Because some manufacturers
guarantees are subject to restrictions and
are not enforceable if there is a change of
dealer, the scope of the guarantee should
be clearly stated and should include a
binding obligation on the manufacturer. In
Germany, assembly instructions and data
sheets for reliable installation and assessment must be available and need to be in
German for compliance with German law.

information on recycling, dismantling and

waste separation. Care should also be
taken to ensure that as little material as
possible will constitute hazardous waste
on disposal.
www.

The ZVEI guide Planning Security

in LED Lighting offers more information on
the subject of product quality. It is available for download as a PDF at www.zvei.org.

Luminaires should naturally be easy to

maintain and repair. Before and after-sales
service and support ensure conflict-free
operation of a lighting installation for many
years. Technical and regional support as
well as personal contact and training opportunities are also desirable.
Disposal
Even at the acquisition stage, disposal
arrangements should be factored into the
purchase decision. Manufacturers provide

[16] The Ulbricht sphere permits illuminance to be measured by collecting

unevenly distributed luminous flux from
all directions. The photometer inside the
sphere measures the illuminance in lux and
the luminous flux in lumen.

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03

Roads, paths and squares

Lighting management
Lighting management systems make it possible for municipal authorities to realise variable and intelligent
outdoor lighting solutions. They permit a flexible response to fluctuating traffic volumes, allow luminaires to be
individually switched or dimmed and thus significantly lower energy costs in operation.
Lighting management systems in outdoor
lighting enable substantial energy-saving
potential to be tapped. Each individual
light can be activated and deactivated or
dimmed as required. In addition, operating condition, energy consumption and
failure information is collected and stored
on a central computer complete with
precise report time and location details.
Street lighting operators efforts to ensure
road safety are thus supported by a
fine-tuned lighting level. Light failure is
also reported immediately. Anticipatory
maintenance plans can be prepared in
advance and operations thus facilitated.

[17 - 20] There are a wide range of

control options for street lighting. Whether
control should be autonomous or by
powerline or wireless technology is up to
the individual operator. Advantages are
certainly offered by systems that permit
feedback on faults or lamp failure.

Tailored lighting
As a result of the increasingly widespread
use of electronic operating devices
and modern light sources, lighting has
become more flexible. Individual lights or
groups of lights can be digitally switched
or dimmed as required to adapt lighting
levels to actual needs and at the same
time increase road safety. Lighting levels
can be raised when traffic is heavy, where
accident risk is high or when the weather

is bad and they can be lowered at times

when traffic volumes are low.
Lighting management systems reduce
deliberately planned over dimensioning
and dim, for example, a 150 W luminaire
to the required 120 W. This intelligent
intervention enables energy consumption to be lowered. It also reduces carbon
emissions, cuts maintenance costs and
improves reliability.
The advantages at a glance:
energy conservation
lighting level tailored to the situation
lower greenhouse gas emissions
more efficient maintenance
greater safety, damage can be repaired
more swiftly.
Apart from cutting energy and maintenance bills, modern lighting management
system solutions (LMS) also permit individual luminaire monitoring. For example, it is possible to ascertain whether
individual light sources are defective and
how much power a luminaire currently
consumes. The industry offers lighting
management system solutions in various

Examples of components of a powerline or wireless lighting management system

1
2
3
4
5

Central server with user software

Communication path to the server
Luminaire controller communication module
Powerline or wireless transmission
Coupler and EB/luminaire

5
3
17

18

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configurations. Below is a brief description of the different options with a comparison of their pros and cons.
Autonomous lighting control
The simplest variant is autonomous lighting
control, where the control unit is integrated
in the ballast. With this stand alone solution, no additional control lines or controllers are necessary. Technically, it works by
being fitted with a so-called astro-clock
programmed with location data. The lighting can then regulate itself autonomously
according to the programmed times and
lighting level. Depending on the range
of features which varies from one type
of luminaire and manufacturer to another
different brightness levels can also be
programmed.
The advantage of autonomous lighting
control is that no additional components
such as control units or control lines are
necessary. However, each device needs to
be individually programmed. If settings are
subsequently changed, each luminaire has
to be reprogrammed on site by a specialist.
In addition, the system does not provide
feedback on failed light sources, etc.
Telemanagement systems
Unlike autonomous lighting control systems, telemanagement systems regulate
luminaires from a central control unit. Each
luminaire is assigned an address, enabling

it to be precisely controlled and monitored. From the central control point, the
luminaire controller can be addressed or
its programming changed via the Internet.
In the other direction, information about the
lighting installation, e.g. error reports, can
be transmitted for analysis. Data is transmitted between control unit and luminaire or
electronic ballast in one of two ways by
powerline communication or by wireless
communication.
Powerline communication
In a powerline lighting control system,
signals are transmitted via the existing
wiring system. They are picked up by an
appropriate receiver, which turns them into
an exportable form (e.g. DALI). Control
is basically only possible with electronic
ballasts (EBs), for which the signals are
made accessible by a coupling module. A
luminaire controller is also required to issue
the control commands. The advantages of
powerline solutions are maximum flexibility
and reliability.

wireless signals for the ballast. The couplers

also generally serve as repeaters, amplifying the incoming signals, so very remote
luminaires can also be controlled.
Data transmission, both by powerline and
by wireless technology, is reliable and permits bidirectional communication between
controller and luminaire. Reprogramming
can be done from a central point. And
thanks to a common standard, usage is
manufacturer-independent. The technology
is fairly complex, however, so installation
and programming should be performed by
specialist companies.

Wireless communication
In contrast to powerline communication, the
control signals in a wireless system are not
carried by cables but by radio waves. However, the principle is very similar. Here too, a
controller is needed to transmit the signals
wirelessly to the ballasts. If the ballast does
not support the wireless standard, a coupler
again needs to be used to translate the

Autonomous lighting control

Powerline lighting control

Wireless lighting control

Control is programmed directly at each luminaire

Only decentralised control possible
No automatic lamp failure reporting

The existing wiring system is used

Automatic lamp failure reporting possible
Control is centralised

Control signals transmitted wirelessly

Network extended by repeaters in the luminaires
Automatic lamp failure reporting possible
Control is centralised

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19

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20

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03

Roads, paths and squares

21

22

20

23

Side streets and traffic-calmed zones

In local access and residential streets with a speed limit of 30 km/h or less, the primary purpose of lighting is to
protect the weaker road users, whose accident risk exposure is the greatest. To promote a sense of security for
road users on foot, pedestrian area lighting should ensure that passers-by can recognise one another clearly.
Correct lighting is also required in addition to lower speeds to help optimise
motorists and cyclists ability to respond
to changing situations. An adequately high
and uniform lighting level enables persons
and objects that suddenly appear to be
perceived more swiftly and accidents thus
avoided. The risk of accidents is particularly high in local access and residential
streets without footpaths.
Local access and residential streets are
assessed on the basis of average and minimal illuminance. The average illuminance
required ranges from 2 to 15 lux, depending on the individual situation. Traffic-calming measures, parked vehicles and navigation task category are typical selection
criteria that need to be considered separately. But lighting needs to illuminate more
than just the roadway. It must also provide
sufficient illuminance for adjacent areas.
At the same time, care must be taken to

avoid light pollution that would impinge

on residents quality of life. Modern LED
luminaires, for example, illuminate only the
relevant area of the road or cycle/foot path.
Light scattered in the direction of residents
windows and gardens and light emitted in
the direction of the sky are thus reduced to
a minimum.
Light makes for greater security
In addition to road safety, a local authoritys
duty of care towards citizens includes curbing crime risk. Good lighting heightens the
subjective sense of security felt by passers-by and residents. Reliable recognition
of persons also helps enable us to prepare
for and respond to dangerous situations
more swiftly. Criminals shun bright light for
fear of being identified. 2 to 15 lux average
illuminance and 0.5 to 3 lux semi-cylindrical
illuminance, measured at 1.5 m above the
ground, ensure the required degree of
security and comfort.

[21, 22] Lighting in traffic-calmed zones

creates an agreeable atmosphere and
a sense of security. During the day, the
luminaires are perceived as part of the
urban landscape and can thus positively
influence a towns image.
[23, 24] Modern, energy-saving LED
street luminaires are not only better for the
environment; they also have particularly
low maintenance requirements.

Assessment criteria
Local access and residential streets, 30 km/h zones with or
without footpath (lighting situations D3 and D4 according
to DIN 13201):
Local access and residential streets are assessed
on the basis of average and minimum horizontal
illuminance.
Depending on the local situation, 2 to 15 lux average
illuminance is required.
Traffic-calming measures, parked vehicles and navigation task category are typical selection criteria that
need to be considered.
0.6 lux to 3 lux minimum illuminance is needed to
achieve the required uniformity.
0.5 to 3 lux semi-cylindrical illuminance is appropriate. It facilitates recognition of approaching persons
and helps reduce crime.

24

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03

Roads, paths and squares

Trunk roads
Clearly visible from a plane at night, trunk roads run through our towns and cities like arteries in the human
body. Viewed up close, they clearly need good lighting, especially to ensure the safety of all road users.

Traffic on trunk roads, through roads and

local distributor roads as well as in built-up
areas is characterised largely by the fact
that it consists of many different main users. There is schoolchildren waiting for the
bus, employees on the way to work by car
or bike and HGVs delivering fresh stock for
supermarkets. They all need well-lit roads,
cycle tracks and footpaths so they can be
seen by other road users and can themselves recognise objects and obstacles
reliably and in good time.

in a very different way than if cycle tracks

and footpaths are separate. Other crucial
factors are the safety of the road itself,
distractions for road users due to shop
windows, neon advertising, etc. and the
speed at which motor vehicles travel.

To create and compute a good, standardcompliant lighting installation, it is necessary to consider a whole range of criteria.
If the street space is used by motorists,
cyclists and pedestrians together, lighting needs to be assessed and designed

The following questions need to be answered:

Who are the main users?
Are physical traffic-calming measures in
place?
Is visibility obstructed by parked vehicles?

25

22

For standard-compliant lighting, the first

thing that needs to be established is what
special features and circumstances are
present and how they impact on lighting
requirements.

How difficult is the navigational task?

Are there bends or inclines?
Are there conflict areas?
How high is intersection density?
How complex is the visual field?
For higher lighting requirements, DIN
13201-1 includes a detailed selection
matrix with which the required lighting level
can be defined.
The lighting assessment criterion for trunk
roads is roadway luminance from the
vantage of the observer. It depends on the
position of the luminaires, the luminous flux
of the lamps, glare control and the reflectance of the road surface.
To ensure lighting uniformity, the brightness of cycle tracks and footpaths needs

to be geared to the brightness of the roadway. In the case of roads with no adjoining
traffic areas, a balanced ambient illuminance ratio makes for better orientation.

[25-27] Good trunk road lighting makes

for safety. The lighting level needs to be
tailored to users needs and conflict areas
or hazards must be highlighted.

26

Assessment criteria
Trunk roads, through roads, local distributor roads (lighting
situations B1 and B2 according to DIN 13201):
The assessment criterion for trunk road lighting is mean
roadway luminance. In conflict areas or on bends or
short sections of road, mean illuminance and illuminance
uniformity are used instead.
0.3 to 2 candela/m luminance is required, depending on
the local situation.
Selection criteria to be considered: ambient illuminance
ratio, side-switching parking bays, shopping streets,
difficulty of the navigational task.
DIN 13201-1 includes a detailed selection matrix for
higher lighting requirements.
Roadway boundaries and areas adjacent to the roadway
(e.g. cycle tracks and footpaths) require an adequate
level of illuminance, which depends on the minimum
roadway luminance required.
Where there are no traffic areas adjacent to the roadway,
attention must be paid to ensuring a balanced ambient
illuminance ratio.
Other parameters such as overall and longitudinal
uniformity as well as veiling luminance also need to be
considered.

27

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03

Roads, paths and squares

29

28

Assessment criteria
Motorways and roads for motor vehicles only (lighting
situations A1, A2, A3 according to DIN 13201):
Mean roadway luminance is the lighting assessment
criterion for motorways and roads for motor vehicles
only. The following factors have a bearing on the
perceived brightness of the roadway:
- position of the observer
- reflectance of the road surface
- arrangement of luminaires
- intensity distribution of luminaires
- luminous flux of lamps
Appropriate overall and longitudinal uniformity of the
light distributed.
Adequate glare control taking account of the permissible threshold increment (TI).
To permit better orientation, the ambient illuminance ratio needs to be right for the mean roadway
luminance.
An adequate ambient illuminance ratio needs to be observed to gear the brightness of roadway boundaries
and areas adjacent to the roadway (lighting situations
A2 and A3 only), e.g. cycle tracks and footpaths, to the
brightness level of the road.

30

24

Motorways and roads for motor vehicles only

High speed requires particularly good visibility. The three main criteria for street lighting that promotes safety and
thus reduces accidents are brightness, uniformity and glare control. The rule of thumb is: the brighter the street,
the better the motorist recognises obstacles and dangerous situations.
On motorways, expressways and secondary roads, high speed is the order of the
day. However, there are also slower vehicles on these roads, such as HGVs or cars
with trailers. So, street lighting here needs
to provide optimal support for navigational
tasks so that traffic accidents resulting in
injury can be avoided as far as possible.
Greater safety is achieved, in particular,
by ensuring that the road ahead, along
with any hazards or obstacles, is visible
from a good distance. Adequate roadway brightness, uniform illumination and
avoidance of glare go a long way to ensuring safety.

because the human eye needs a little time

to adapt to darkness. In the other direction, i.e. from dark to light, our eyes adapt
much faster.
Avoidance of glare
Any risk of motorists being dazzled by
lighting needs to be totally ruled out. Glare
assessment is based on a predefined
viewing direction for the motorist. DIN EN
13201 also regulates the permissible percentage threshold increment (TI), which is
the yardstick for assessing physiological
(disability) glare.

Roadway brightness
Roadway brightness is the first crucial
requirement for good visibility. It depends
on various factors, such as the reflectance
of the road surface, the luminous flux of
lamps and the arrangement and intensity
distribution of luminaires.
Uniformity
A uniformly illuminated street with minimised patches of shadow and darkness
helps road users move around safely on
the roads at night. Where ambient luminance is higher because of bright areas
e.g. shop windows, brightly illuminated
facades or squares the roadway luminance needs to be adjusted accordingly
so that persons, vehicles and objects are
recognised in good time.
T-junctions or hazard areas need to be
highlighted and thus made safer by
means of higher illuminance. Transitions
from brightly illuminated to less well lit or
even unlit road sections should be gradual

[28, 29] Motorway access points are

particularly prone to accidents. Column
luminaires with a high mounting point help
motorists filter safely into moving traffic.
[30] On busy stretches of motorway, lighting helps motorists get their bearings and
ensures greater safety.

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Roads, paths and squares

Pedestrian precincts and squares

Squares and pedestrian precincts are hubs of city life, places where people go to see and be seen.
Restaurants, bars, cinemas and shops invite residents and tourists to shop, stroll, tarry, enjoy a meal or
drink and unwind.
Lighting for downtown areas such as
pedestrian precincts and squares needs to
be designed, on the one hand, to provide
safety for passers-by and help them get
their bearings. On the other, it should help
create a welcoming, appealing atmosphere
that draws people into the town or city
and gives them a sense that they are in an
attractive place where they feel comfortable. Where accentuated light is used to
highlight a building, artwork or landmark,
for example, it shows a city coming to
terms with its history, with its social and
cultural responsibility. It thus fuels civic
pride. Bright, attractively designed squares
help generate business for shops and
restaurants and at the same time lower
crime risk.
But luminaires are also an important
element of urban architecture. Whether
design-oriented and low-key or eye catchingly ornate, the physical appearance of
luminaires helps shape the face of a city
during the day.

[31] In the evening and at night, the

Universittsplatz in Fulda winner of the
German Lighting Design Award in 2013
comes to life and acquires a whole new
recreational quality thanks to its zonal lighting. Systematic facade lighting emphasizes
the vertical surfaces and creates an agreeable sense of space.
[35] People come to pedestrian precincts
to shop, have a leisurely coffee or simply
stroll around. The right lighting ensures that
safety and easy orientation are guaranteed.

26

Environmental protection
Environmental protection is also an issue
when it comes to choosing the right luminaires. It is important to minimise scattered
light light smog by the use of energyefficient, environmentally sound luminaires
and light sources as well as by choosing
colour temperatures that are less attractive
to nocturnal insects and animals. Precise
optical control prevents scattered light in
the direction of the sky and thus stops light
causing a nuisance by radiating unnecessarily into homes. Quality luminaires with
modern LED technology and intelligent
control reduce energy consumption and
operating costs.
Where events are held in pedestrian precincts and squares, the Ordinance Governing Places of Assembly (VStattVO) needs to
be observed with its safety lighting requirements for escape routes, exits and steps.

Stairs and steps

To avoid accidents, stairs and steps need
to be clearly perceivable even in twilight or
at night. Wall, bollard or column luminaires
with modern reflector technology make it
possible to focus light largely on hazard
areas. Where installation is possible, dedicated step lighting is recommended, e.g.
with recessed LED luminaires.

Assessment criteria
Pedestrian and shopping precincts, footpaths (lighting
situation E1 according to DIN 13201).Lighting situation
E2 applies to pedestrian and shopping precincts where
delivery and feeder traffic is permitted as well as to
traffic-calmed zones (home zones):
The relevant lighting requirements can be ascertained by following the selection procedure set out
in DIN 13201-1 and applying the special decision
criteria it requires.
The assessment criterion for lighting where only
pedestrian traffic is present is average horizontal
illuminance. The maintained illuminance here
should be between 2 lux and 20 lux. Over the
assessment field, a minimum of 0.6 lux to 5 lux is
requiredwith uniformity at 0.4 (for 20 lux).
People and their faces can be rendered clearly
discernible by ensuring that minimum semicylindrical illuminance is 0.5 lux to 5 lux.
Lighting for stairs, e.g. at railway stations, is
covered in DIN EN 12464-2. For stairs that are
only occasionally used, 5 lux is sufficient; for
busy stairs, however, up to 100 lux is stipulated.
Uniformity needs to be at least 0.25 to 0.50.

31

Square lighting variants

Conveying a sense of security [32]: A carpet of light
created by luminaires positioned at the periphery uniformly brightens the square and ensures that people
can be clearly made out and everyone feels safe. Glare
is avoided by arranging mounting heights outside the
visual field of passers-by.

32
Creating atmosphere [33]: Diverse low-mounted lights
arranged in groups make for a relaxing and agreeable
atmosphere. Special features such as trees or monuments are emphasized by bright zones and thus hold
a special attraction for passers-by. In this example, the
upper parts of the surrounding building facades remain
dark and retiring because of the mounting heights of
the luminaires.

33

34

Setting the scene [34]: The facades of the buildings

at the edge of the square and special local features
such as fountains or monuments are specifically and
dramatically highlighted. Architectural elements on the
facades are thus picked out in detail. The floor of the
square in this case recedes and is mainly illuminated
by light reflecting from the walls. Individual dots of light
and bright zones draw the eye of the observer and
make for a stimulating atmosphere.

35

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Roads, paths and squares

36

38

Cycle path lighting

Good cycle path lighting [38] significantly reduces the
risk of accidents in twilight or at night. To avoid collisions, cyclists need to be able to make out other road
users, pedestrians and obstacles from a good distance.
Within built-up areas, cycle path lighting is often
provided by general street lighting. However, suitably
wide-angled light distribution is needed to prevent the
creation of dark patches. Cycle paths away from roads,
in parks or gardens need a dedicated lighting solution
tailored to cyclists requirements. It should facilitate
orientation, mark paths and reveal the condition of the
path surface. When choosing luminaires, care needs
to be taken to ensure appropriate mounting heights,
light colour and optical control. The illuminance values
required for standard compliance are shown in the last
bullet point under Assessment criteria on the right.

37

28

Parks and gardens

Parks and gardens signal an attractive urban environment offering quality
of life. Lighting heightens their appeal by showcasing their features while
also facilitating orientation and ensuring safety.
Parks and gardens are hailed as the green
lung of a city. But apart from their role
as an ecological asset, they also have an
important emotional function. They invite us
to relax and to exercise and they improve
quality of life in an environment dominated
by buildings and streets.

Assessment criteria
Lighting situation E1 (according to DIN EN 13201-1)
applies to parks and gardens where motorised traffic
is not allowed and E2 (according to DIN EN 13201-1)
where cyclists and slow moving vehicles are permitted:
For pedestrian traffic alone, the lighting assessment criterion to be applied is average horizontal
illuminance. Maintained illuminance here should
be between 2 lux (E1) / 3 lux (E2) and 20 lux.
Over the assessment field, a minimum of 0.6 lux
to 5 lux should be achieved with uniformity at
0.4 (for 20 lux).
The lighting level of these installations also
depends on ambient brightness.
If footpaths feature stairs or steps or if their
surface is uneven, a higher lighting level is
necessary.
Semi-cylindrical illuminance should be at least
0.5 lux to 5 lux to enable persons and their
faces to be recognised from a distance. It should
be measured at a point 1.5 m above the ground.
Cycle paths are classed as lighting situation
C1 according to DIN 13201-1. Depending on
ambient brightness and traffic load, the average
maintained horizontal illuminance should be 2
lux to 15 Lux. Over the assessment field, the
minimum must be no lower than 0.6 lux to 3 lux.

Creating a greater sense of safety

When night descends, the positive appeal
of parks and gardens can quickly turn into
the opposite. We all know the uncomfortable feeling of having to walk home in
twilight or at night through a poorly lit park.
Artificial lighting cannot convey the same
sense of security that we feel during the day
but it can go some way towards enabling us
to move around safely in a park after dark
and also to make an assessment of people
coming towards us. What helps us do that
is standard-compliant semi-cylindrical
illuminance, which makes facial features
clearly recognisable (see also the grey box
on assessment criteria as well as Fig. 53 on
page 39).

Emotional appeal for visitors

Decorative function of luminaires
Decorative lighting in urban parks and
gardens plays an important role in modern
city marketing. Visitors are addressed on
an emotional level and can experience
urban quality of life through into the night
because when trees, walls, sculptures,
fountains and buildings are illuminated, a
very special lighting atmosphere is created. Bathed in accentuating light, special
features stand out from their surroundings;
they become luminous eye catchers.
During the day, luminaires perform a
decorative function, which should not be
underestimated. They define the style of the
surroundings. A clear, simple design would
not be right for a baroque garden, for example, but it suits a clearly structured park.
licht.de booklet 16 City Marketing
with Light is packed with examples showing how lighting can be used to enhance
the urban landscape.

Obstacles need to be identifiable

Lighting that marks the route of paths in a
park facilitates orientation and helps us find
our way more easily. Illuminance over the
assessment field here should be at least
0.6 lux to 8 lux so that pedestrians, cyclists,
skaters and scooter riders can make out the
condition of the paths and identify obstacles and differences in level.

[36] Accent lighting casts plants and

fountains in a particularly dramatic light at
night.
[37] Lighting makes for safety, especially
in parks and dark places. High semicylindrical illuminance enables people and
faces to be recognised more swiftly and
accurately.

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Roads, paths and squares

39

Station forecourts, bus stations and car parks

These are often places where first impressions are made on visitors. But they are not always the best calling
card for a city. With the right light, the interfaces of public and personal transport become more attractive
and safer.
In any community, even groups that fail to
agree on anything else generally agree
that public transport should be made more
attractive. But doing so involves more than
just developing the right fare structures
and timetables; it also means ensuring
that the relevant public spaces station
forecourts and bus stations are served
by attractive, safe and functional lighting.
To enable passengers and drivers to get
their bearings reliably, dedicated lighting
is needed to make the entire facility stand
out from the surroundings. Supplementary
lighting can also be used to mark stopping
areas and especially to enable passengers
to identify differences between floor and
ground level so that they can board or
alight safely.
Sense of safety especially safety from
crime is also an important factor defining
how we experience time spent at a bus
or train station. Depending on the level of
crime risk, a higher lighting level may be
required. Perception and recognition of
faces are facilitated by ensuring that semi-

30

cylindrical illuminance is no lower than

1.5 lux to 5 lux. Whether the illuminance
should be lowered at night to save energy
needs to be weighed up against the
risk of criminal assault. As a rule, station
forecourts and bus stations are standard
lighting situations D1/D2 more on that in
the grey box.
Car parks: Preventing accidents takes
priority
In car parks, where motorists and pedestrians are both present, road safety and
accident prevention are even greater priorities. Here too, lighting needs to facilitate
orientation to help motorists find a parking space and their parked vehicles after
dark. Lighting needs to create sufficiently
good visual conditions to avoid collisions
between moving and parked vehicles, pedestrians and obstacles such as trees or
bollards. Special hazards are found at entrances, exits and any other points where
the different traffic streams meet. They can
be highlighted by an appropriate arrangement of luminaires. Safety from crime is

40

also an issue in car parks: an adequate

lighting level with high vertical illuminance
guards against vehicle break-ins and theft
and lowers the risk of physical assaults.
LED technology offers advantages
The advantages of luminaires with LED
technology have also been demonstrated
for these lighting applications. They reduce light pollution, they offer flexible light
distribution, they are intrinsically efficient
and their brightness and thus power
consumption can be regulated as required by a lighting management system.
Typical solutions are column luminaires
with mounting heights up to 4.5 metres for
small car parks and up to 12 metres for
large ones.

41

42

Assessment criteria
Bus stations and station forecourts [41] (lighting situation D2 according to DIN 13201):
The relevant lighting requirements are established by following the selection procedure set
out in DIN 13201 1 and by applying special decision criteria for traffic routes and areas.
The lighting assessment criterion for bus stations
and station forecourts is average horizontal
illuminance. Maintained illuminance needs to be
7.5 lux to 20 lux. Over the assessment field, at
least 0.6 lux to 7.5 lux is required.
Good perception of people and faces is achieved
by ensuring adequate semi-cylindrical illuminance of 1.5 lux to5 lux.
DIN EN 12464-2 for workplace lighting is used
for stair lighting in outdoor public areas such
as stations. For stairs that are only occasionally
used, 5 lux is sufficient; for busy stairs, however,
up to 100 lux is stipulated. Uniformity needs to
be at least 0.25 to 0.50.

Car parks [42] (DIN EN 12464-2 or lighting situation

D2 according to DIN 13201):
Stipulations for average maintained horizontal illuminance in car parks are as follows:
DIN EN 12464-2 stipulations:
- 5 lux (U0 0.25) where traffic density is low
- 10 lux (U0 0.25) where traffic density is
moderate
- 20 lux (U0 0.25) where traffic density is high
DIN EN 13201 stipulations:
- 5 lux (Emin> 1 lux) for e.g. S4 lighting class
- 10 lux (Emin> 3 lux) for e.g. S2 lighting class
- 20 lux (U0> 0.40) for e.g. CE2 lighting class
Good perception of people and faces is achieved
by ensuring adequate semi-cylindrical illuminance
of at least 1.5 lux to 5 lux.

[39, 40] A heightened lighting level

provides a greater sense of security and
makes for better passenger orientation at
bus stations, on station forecourts and in
car parks.

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Roads, paths and squares

Pedestrian crossings and street crossing aids

Strict lighting standards ensure that we can cross the road safely at a pedestrian crossing at night.
Supplementary lighting providing high vertical illuminance is obligatory here. It is also a proven solution for
street crossing aids, for which the regulations are less strict.
The zebra crossing, as the pedestrian
crossing is colloquially known, is a child
of the economic miracle. As motor traffic
increased, so too did the need to make it
possible for pedestrians to cross the road
safely at designated points. The design of
pedestrian crossings is very precisely regulated by law, not only with regard to the
markings on the road and the identifying
sign 293 of the German Road Traffic Ordinance (StVO) but also as far as lighting
is concerned because the safety of pedestrians crossing the road naturally also
needs to be guaranteed at night. Guidelines for the construction and configuration
of pedestrian crossings apply throughout
Germany (Richtlinien fr die Anlage und
Ausstattung von Fugngerberwegen
(R-FG 2001)).
Vertical illuminance required
While light-controlled pedestrian crossings pedestrian lights are treated for
lighting purposes as a conflict area, crossings identified by StVO sign 293 need are
governed by special rules. Pedestrians
using them need to be clearly recognisable from both traffic directions, including
at night or when the road is wet from rain
and not only on the crossing itself but also
in the waiting areas. So supplementary,
stationary lighting is normally required and
needs to comply with the design requirements set out in the standards DIN 13201
and DIN67523.
Vertical illuminance is needed to make
persons stand out brightly against the
background. At pedestrian crossings, it
is provided by asymmetrical luminaires
positioned so that both crossing and waiting areas are illuminated from the relevant
direction of travel. A light colour that
contrasts with the rest of the street lighting
makes for even greater visibility. In the
past, monochromatic yellow low-pressure
sodium vapour lamps were used for this
purpose, then high-pressure sodium

32

vapour lamps; today the requirements

can be effectively and sustainably met
using dedicated LED pedestrian crossing
lights. It is not permissible to deactivate
the supplementary lighting at night. The
only instance in which accentuating light
is not required for a pedestrian crossing
is where the requirements of lighting class
ME2 are met at either side of the crossing
over a fairly long stretch of road throughout the night.
Street crossing aid lighting: not a must but
highly recommended
Where a street does not meet the requirements for a proper pedestrian crossing,
so-called crossing aids can be provided to
help pedestrians cross the road. They include measures such as narrowing, raising
or dividing the carriageway. Lighting is not
mandatory but, according to the Recommendations for pedestrian crossing aids
published by the DIN standards committee
FNL 11, DIN EN 13201-compliant lighting
improves perception in such areas for all
road users.

[43] Pedestrian crossings are particularly

important for children and young teens
as well as for older people. Standard
compliant lighting guards against serious
accidents, especially in twilight or at night.

43

Normative guideline values and stipulations for

pedestrian crossings
In pedestrian crossing lighting [43, 44] the focus is
on vertical illuminance and contrast to ensure that
pedestrians in a waiting area or on the crossing stand
out from the background. Pedestrian crossings are dealt
with in the annex of DIN EN 13201-2, which also refers
to the national standards of the individual member
states. In Germany, the pedestrian crossing guidelines
R-FG 2001 (Richtlinien fr die Anlage und Ausstattung
von Fugngerberwegen) and DIN 67523 Lighting of
pedestrian crossings (sign 293 StVO) with additional
lighting need to be observed:
If the existing street lighting fails to reach the values
required in the standards, stationary supplementary
lighting needs to be installed.
To ensure uniform assessment of the lighting at
pedestrian crossings, a rectangular, horizontal assessment field is agreed (see also Fig. 44):
- 30 lux maintained illuminance is required at
defined points on the central axis 1 m above the
ground.
- Illuminance must be no lower than 4 lux at any of
the defined assessment points in the assessment
field, not even in the waiting area 1 m away from
the road.

Stipulations for pedestrian crossings

Minimum requirements according to DIN 67523
Average vertical illuminance (Evm)
min. 30 Lux
Minimum vertical illuminance (Evmin)
min. 4 Lux

1m

1m
1m

44
The lighting must illuminate the pedestrian crossing
and the adjacent waiting areas from the relevant
direction of travel lighting directly above the central
axis of the crossing is not permitted.
A different light colour from that of the general street
lighting makes for greater visibility.
Pedestrian crossing signs can double as lighting.
In contrast to street lighting, pedestrian crossing lighting
may not be deactivated at any time during the night.

1m

1m

1m

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For 100 metres on either side of a pedestrian

crossing, the luminance of the road needs to be
at least 0.3 candela/m. If necessary, the level
of the existing street lighting needs to be raised
accordingly.
Pedestrian crossing lighting needs to be separately
switchable.

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Roads, paths and squares

Conflict areas
Where different streams of road users travelling at different speeds come together, there is a risk of conflict,
even collision. At crossroads, roundabouts, T-junctions and pedestrian crossing aids, that risk can be mitigated
by a higher lighting level.
Clearly, as long as traffic streams straight
ahead without interference, the risks are limited. But where traffic streams intersect one
another or overlap, the situation becomes
critical, especially if different road users are
involved. So, for hazard zones like that and
the lighting installed for them, the standard
defines the term conflict area. It denotes
an area where special visual attention is
required. Examples of conflict areas on
the roads are crossroads and T-junctions,
roundabouts, lay-bys for buses, toll stations,
roadworks and the pedestrian crossing aids
and pedestrian crossings covered in detail
on pages 32-33. Another criterion identifying
conflict areas is that they are typically used
by motorised traffic travelling at speeds over

45

34

30 km/h, so an additional risk is presented

by the need for faster response times and
the difference in velocity between motorised
and non-motorised traffic. That risk can be
countered by optimised lighting.
More light mitigates risk in conflict areas
Lighting raised to an appropriate level is
a basic requirement for a conflict area.
Because no single observer position can
be defined to determine luminance, the
yardsticks used for assessment are average
horizontal illuminance and uniformity. At the
same time, care must be taken to ensure
that more light does not mean more glare.
The luminaires used need to be designed
for good visual comfort.

The standard sets out a step-by-step

selection procedure based on the area with
the highest lighting class requirements. It
starts with the lighting level of the approach
road with the highest lighting class. The
step-up between adjacent areas must be
no more than two lighting classes. It is also
advisable to create adaptation zones before and after the conflict area especially
where traffic travels at 50 km/h or more to
bridge the gap between brightness levels
and enable the eye to adapt.

tall column on the island, for instance, is

recommended only in exceptional cases,
such as very large and complex gyratory
systems.

Roundabouts a special case

In comparison to crossroads, which are a
typical conflict area (see grey box below),
roundabouts are a generally safer type of
junction. Hence the veritable boom in their
construction in recent years. But roundabouts are still classed as conflict areas
and have special lighting requirements.
To ensure visual guidance, lighting needs
to be from the outside of the roundabout,
not from the central island. A multiple
luminaire arrangement mounted on a

[45] Roundabouts are considered relatively safe but they are still classed as conflict areas, for which adequate EN13201
compliant lighting is required.
[47] In city centres, widely differing road
users come together in a confined space.
Good lighting can direct road users eyes
and reduce the risk of accidents.

46

Assessment criteria
Typical conflict areas of downtown road systems [46]
include crossroads, T-junctions, roundabouts and
pedestrian crossings. The assessment criteria for conflict
areas are regulated by EN 13201 and depend on lighting
situation, velocity, type of road users, etc. Tables in the
standard are used to establish the maintained values
required. Below are a few examples of parameters:
Intersection density: The more closely spaced intersections there are, the better they need to be illuminated.
Roundabouts need to be illuminated if the approach
roads are illuminated.
Footpaths and cycle paths at roundabouts also need
to be adequately illuminated. Guidelines for pedestrian
crossings on approach roads are provided in Germany
by the R-FG 2001 and DIN 67523.
Marked differences in lighting level should be avoided.

47

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Roads, paths and squares

48

50

Bridge lighting
As axial transport links [50] and prominent landmarks,
bridges play an important role in the urban and rural
environment. Accordingly, bridge lighting needs to meet
high requirements, as defined in the street lighting
standard DIN EN 13201. In an urban setting, space
use under a bridge also influences the lighting design,
because if other transport routes are present, they need
to be screened from dazzling light. Modern LED lighting
technology and appropriate mounting heights guarantee
effective optical control and prevent problems with glare.
Accessibility on bridges is also naturally a problem that
the lighting solution needs to address. LED luminaires,
with long maintenance intervals, are therefore particularly
suitable. As a functional alternative to column luminaires,
catenary wire luminaires with asymmetrical light distribution are affixed to bridge arches or steelwork.

49

36

Tunnel lighting
For many road users, driving through tunnels is an unnerving experience and not without reason, as serious
accidents repeatedly show. Correct lighting plays a major role in making for safety here: the road ahead and
any obstacles on it are recognised well in advance, adequate brightness counters the sense of confinement.
It goes without saying that the lighting
requirements that need to be met in tunnels and underpasses are high. Lighting
solutions that take account of both technical aspects and the special psychological
situation for the user promote road safety
and help keep traffic flowing smoothly. This
is particularly important in tunnels because
restricted access means that accidents
inside them present a greater risk to life
and health.

51

Assessment criteria
Road tunnel lighting [51] is regulated by German
standard DIN 67 524 Parts 1 and 2. It is supplemented by international recommendations from the
CIE. There are currently no uniform guidelines for
Europe as a whole because a consensus has not
yet been reached by the EU member states. As a
result, each member state is responsible for its own
national standard. The lighting assessment criterion
for tunnels with vehicle traffic is luminance. It needs
to be highest at the tunnel entrance so that the mouth
of the tunnel does not appear as a black hole and the
human eye has time to adapt to the darkness. After
that, the brightness can gradually be lowered towards
the tunnel interior. The values required also depend
on the maximum permissible speed and the density
of traffic.

Gradual transitions for the eye

Support for the adaptive capacity of the
eye is a high priority in lighting design:
Graduated lighting levels ease the abrupt
transition from daylight to the dark interior of a tunnel and enable the motorist
approaching the tunnel entrance to see inside the tunnel and identify any obstacles.
The lighting solution normally adopted is
an arrangement of asymmetrical luminaires
positioned to provide very high illuminance
at the tunnel entrance without dazzling the
motorist. Then the lighting level is gradually lowered to that of the tunnel interior
lighting. This should be higher than the
level of normal outdoor road lighting in
order to counter any sense of claustrophobia. To make for a safer transition to the
brightness outside, especially during the
day, it is also advisable to raise the lighting
level at the end of the tunnel.
LED technology was used in tunnel lighting
at an early stage in kerbsidemarker lights
installed to help motorists recognise the
course of the road ahead. Today, linear LED
luminaires are also increasingly used in
place of the high pressure sodium vapour
lamps traditionally favoured for thoroughfare
lighting. Here, they play out advantages
such as failsafe design, energy efficiency,
precise light distribution control and good
colour rendering. LED luminaires also lend
themselves better to electronic switching
and dimming, which facilitates the realisation of different day and night scenarios.

Conditions are harsh inside tunnels

Because of exhaust fumes and particulates, harsh conditions reign in road
tunnels and they reign 24/7 in tunnels
that are in constant use. Maintenance
work whether scheduled or unscheduled
generally leads to traffic disruptions. So,
selecting robust, low-maintenance luminaires is as important as correct detailed
design. Lines of lights should always be
mounted to one side of the central axis of
the tunnel so that only one lane is blocked
when maintenance work is carried out.
Light gives a sense of safety underground
In underpasses and pedestrian tunnels,
the emphasis is on the subjective sense
of security of passers-by. Here, particular attention should be paid to adequate
semi-cylindrical illuminance so that other
persons can be recognised and assessed
more easily.

[48] During the day, the lighting level at

a tunnel entrance needs to be particularly
high so that motorists eyes have time to
adapt to the darker environment.
[49] LED marker lights make for more reliable recognition of the course of the road. A
higher lighting level at the end of the tunnel
helps the eye adapt to the daylight.

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Roads, paths and squares

52

Street lighting and safety

Well lit streets, paths and squares help make for road safety and also help prevent crime. We know this not just
from personal experience but also from a whole range of studies. The weakest road users pedestrians, cyclists,
senior citizens are the ones who benefit the most.
Accidents: the risk increases at night
What extensive studies by the International
Commission on Illumination (CIE)showed
back in 1993 is corroborated by current
research findings, such as those of the
Dutch Institute for Road Safety Research
SWOV: although there is less traffic at
night, accident risk is higher and the
accidents that occur are more serious. Accidents at night, for example, claim nearly
twice as many lives per journey as during
the day.
According to the Federal Highway Research Agency, night-time accident figures
in Germany have improved over the last
ten years. Accidents involving personal
injury have fallen by around 20 percent
and accidents involving serious injury and
fatalities are around 40 percent down. For
the most part, however, this is probably
due to better vehicle safety features such
as ABS, airbags and ESC. All the more
important, then, that lighting should also
play its part in lowering accident risk.
Visual performance is key
There are naturally other factors involved
in the accident rate at night fatigue or

38

alcohol abuse, for example. Nevertheless,

loss of visual acuity in darkness remains
the main cause of accidents. At night, it is
harder to gauge distances, colour perception is reduced and visual performance
is impaired by glare. The answer is to upgrade road lighting, especially at danger
spots such as intersections and pedestrian
crossings.
Studies show positive effects
Not only the risks on the roads at night but
also the positive effects of lighting have
been amply researched. Building on another 1993 study by the CIE which found
that good lighting resulted in a 30 percent
reduction in accidents on average and a
45 percent reduction on secondary roads,
dangerous road sections and intersections a Dutch meta-analysis (Elvik et al.)
looked at before-and-after figures for unlit
and lit roads in 2009 and found that fatal
accidents fell by no less than 60 percent!
Similar findings emerged from a 1994
study conducted in six German cities for
the Federal Ministry of Transport. There,
the total number of accidents decreased
by 28 percent. Better street lighting
benefits weaker road users, in particular.

Semi-cylindrical illuminance

Dependence of crime rate on lighting level

Dependence of crime rate on lighting level

10

Crime rate darkness/day

6
4
2
0

6,4

10

16

ber 16

< 1,6

2,5

Beleuchtungsstrke in Lux
00
53

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In the cases studied, accidents involving

pedestrians and cyclists fell by an astonishing 68percent.
Switching to LED yields more benefit
than switching off
So, lighting has been shown to increase
road safety. Even so, one in two street
lights and around three quarters of traffic
lights across Germany are still deactivated
at 10 p.m. to save energy and cut costs.
The practice of switching off every second
street light is also still common, resulting
in contrasts and dark patches that overstretch the adaptive capacity of the eye.
More sustainable success in reducing
energy consumption and operating costs
is likely to be achieved by switching obsolete lighting installations to modern LED
technology. In contrast to conventional
luminaires with discharge lamps, dimming
systems can then be integrated to regulate
the lighting installation flexibly as required.
Studies also show that the distribution,
brilliance and spectral composition of LED
light make a positive subjective impression: road users feel safer.
Criminals fear light
Even though the effect of lighting on crime
rates is not as well researched as its
impacts on road safety, the studies that
exist allow two conclusions to be drawn:
good lighting for roads, paths and squares
not only deters criminals; it also gives users of public space a greater subjective

6,4

10

16

> 16

Illuminance in lux
54

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sense of security an important goal in

the drive for higher residential quality and
quality of life. It is apparent that crimes like
burglary, mugging and theft are more commonly committed in dark, secluded places,
where perpetrators reckon they have a
better chance of not being identified. By
the same token, people who move around
in darkness are easier prey for shady
characters.
Higher illuminance generally is not the only
key to good visual perception, especially
for pedestrians. Good semi cylindrical
illuminance i.e. high vertical illuminance
- plays a particularly important role. It
enables us to recognise persons and their
intentions from a distance and to react
accordingly.
If better lighting results in a subjective
sense of security that allows women and
older people, for example, to venture
out more often at night, that in itself is an
achievement because surely nothing is
as effective against crime as intact social
life in public space.

[52] Pedestrian underpasses are often

approached with apprehension. As in this
example, lighting installations can harness
coloured light and high illuminance to create
a more agreeable and safer environment.
[53] Semi-cylindrical illuminance is the
crucial factor for facial recognition, even
from a greater distance. Light from the front
illuminates faces and enables features and
expressions to be made out.
[54] As numerous studies have shown
time and again: where illuminance rises,
crime rates fall.

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Roads, paths and squares

Energy efficiency and costs

For municipal authorities, the provision of lighting for roads, paths and squares is normally not optional; it is
part of their duty to ensure safe roads. The costs need to be contained within tight local authority budgets but
thanks to advances in energy efficiency, modern lighting technology is a financially attractive option.
The dictates of the time have placed
street lighting squarely on the agenda for
local government policy makers. On the
one hand, municipalities see a massive
investment backlog; every second local
authority taking part in a survey by the
German Energy Agency DENA rated its
lighting as being in need of modernisation
or even badly in need of modernisation.
On the other hand, LED technology today
offers practical refurbishment solutions
that produce not just gradual but marked
improvements in energy efficiency. All
street lighting investment decisions need
to be based on a detailed review of costs
including all the factors influencing them
in the long term because street lighting
is a long-term asset. As a general rule,
installations have an anticipated life of
around 25 years.

Savings potential in exterior lighting

[55] Modern LED street luminaires save

electricity, lower operating costs and provide light where it is needed in the street
without any scattering loss.
[56] Combined with light regulation, modern lighting installations permit up to 80%
savings in exterior lighting.
[57] With obsolete luminaire technology,
energy consumption is the biggest cost
factor in exterior lighting.
[58] A whole range of costs are incurred
over the life cycle of a street luminaire. The
most important ones are listed here.

40

55

Energy consumption the predominant cost

factor
The total cost of street lighting is made up
of capital costs, financing costs and operating costs. Capital costs are the costs of
buying and installing the lighting systems
and their components. Operating costs
comprise costs for energy, maintenance/
servicing and lamp replacement. Life
cycle cost analysis, which is explained in
more detail below, shows that the biggest
cost element by far is the cost of energy.
So that is where the biggest difference
can be made in a drive to reduce lighting
cost in the long run a powerful argument
for the use of innovative energy-efficient
lighting technology.
Lowering costs by dispensing with lighting or by deactivating lights for certain periods of time is not a real option because
local authorities have a duty to ensure
safe roads enshrined in Germany in Section 823 of the Civil Code which includes

a duty to provide lighting. However,

liability risks of that kind are not easy to
factor into the cost calculation. Nor is the
economic cost of road accidents, which
runs to billions. With better street lighting,
that cost could at least be reduced.
Refurbishment makes sense for the environment and for budgets
There are lots of arguments for refurbishing obsolete street lighting. They may be
financial, prompted by the high failure rate
of old luminaires or by problems in sourcing lamps that are no longer manufactured.

56

Possible cost breakdown in

street lighting
Possible cost breakdown in
street lighting
Maintenance
32%

Life cycle costs of a street luminaire

Life cycle
costs of
street luminaire
From
acquisition
to adisposal
From acquisition to disposal

Energy
39%

Life cycle costs (TCO = Total Cost of Ownership) are incurred over a
defined period (e.g. 20 years) and include all costs from initial outlay
through operation (incl. energy) to disposal

Capital
29%
The biggest cost factor in street lighting
is energy consumption. With obsolete
luminaire technology, energy costs can
account for significantly more than the
percentage shown above.
57

licht.de

Capital costs

Operating costs

End-of-life costs

Cost of the lighting

installation
Installation costs

Energy costs
Maintenance costs
Cost of spare parts
Ordering costs
Storage costs

Disposal costs
Dismantling costs

58

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41

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03

Roads, paths and squares

Comparison of maintenance
examplesexamples
Comparison
of maintenance

Lighting installations
installationswith
withlow-quality
low-qualityluminaires
luminaires

Illuminance on installation

Average illuminance

Illuminance after maintenance

Maintained illuminance with
3-year maintenance interval
Illuminance without
maintenance

Operating time in years

Commissioning

1st maintenance
after 3 years

2nd maintenance
after 6 years

3rd maintenance
after 9 years

4th maintenance
after 12 years
licht.de

Low-quality luminaires
Maintenance every 3 years
Greater susceptibility to failure
Higher costs due to more frequent maintenance
59

They may be environmental, rooted in a

commitment to climate targets. Or they may
be promotional, aiming at making a town
or city more attractive at night. In view of
budgetary constraints, however, many local
authorities are focused on lowering lighting
costs in the medium term to ease the pressure on budgets. Life cycle cost and net
present value analysis shows that thanks to
the huge technological advances made in
lighting, the two aims of economic efficiency
and resource conservation can be perfectly
combined. They thus play a central role
in the refurbishment process, which is described in detail on the following pages.
Energy efficiency factors
Designers and operators have a whole
range of options for improving the energy
efficiency of street lighting. Opting for
modern luminaires with LED light sources
is certainly the most obvious one. But the
effect of that decision can be enhanced by
the addition of intelligent lighting management, which makes it possible for lights to
be dimmed late at night, for example after
midnight. Careful lighting design is also
important, because only an installation that
optimally meets the specific requirements
of the lighting situation in question fulfils the
criterion of economic efficiency.
Local authorities awarding public contracts
are obliged to decide in favour of the most
cost-effective bid, i.e. they need to consider

42

more than just price. An assessment matrix

is a simple, practical and flexible tool for
including selection criteria and lighting
stipulations in an invitation to tender. The
authority can thus be sure that the lighting
installation offered meets the planning and
other requirements that ensure that optimal
energy efficiency and lighting quality are
delivered throughout the life cycle of the
installation.
The lessons of life cycle analysis
Street lighting life cycles are long. An
operating time of 25 years is a ball park
figure that is often and even significantly
exceeded. That longevity is a good reason
for not focusing cost and expense analysis
exclusively on the point of investment. The
entire operating life of the asset needs to be
considered.
Any review of the life cycle costs of a lighting installation needs to take account of a
number of factors especially the price of
electricity in the future. And there is absolutely no reason to assume that there will be
significant falls in energy prices in the coming years. The observation period selected
naturally needs to be applied equally to all
the alternatives considered. So do approximate values for the labour costs incurred for
maintenance and servicing.
Relevant cost elements include maintenance, energy, repair, interest and ac-

Lighting installations with

luminaires Leuchten
Beleuchtungsanlagen
mithigh-quality
qualitativ hochwertigen

Illuminance on installation
Average illuminance

Illuminance after maintenance

Maintained illuminance with
4-year maintenance interval
Illuminance without
maintenance

Operating time in years

Commissioning

1st maintenance
after 4 years

2nd maintenance
after 8 years

3rd maintenance
after 12 years
licht.de

60

High-quality luminaires
Maintenance every 4 years
Maintenance with documentation permits a longer maintenance interval up to 6 years
Fewer failures

quisition costs as well as disposal costs.

Luminaire manufacturers need to state
a failure rate for their products. The corresponding cost of replacement over the
observation period also needs to be taken
into account.
One crucial insight provided by the life
cycle analysis of long-life assets such as
street lighting is that installations requiring a
higher initial outlay and thus generally with
a longer payback time can still save more
costs in the long term than installations
that are amortised faster. So payback time,
which is often longer for new technologies
like LED than for conventional alternatives,
should not be the ultimate decider: in many
cases, a variant that costs more to buy
e.g. an installation with high-quality new
LED luminaires has the lowest life cycle
costs.
For the experts: net present value
A method widely used in business management to assess the profitability of an investment can also be applied to street lighting
especially where operators are private
companies acting under municipal supervision or contracting agreements. The method
is known as net present value analysis and
it takes particular account of the kind of long
term savings presented by innovative LED
solutions because it applies an imputed
rate of interest to the earnings resulting from
energy savings. The interest is equivalent

to the yield that could be obtained from an

alternative investment (for example in the
stock market). Net present value ultimately
expresses the anticipated increase or
decrease in the value of a financial asset
assuming a given rate of interest over a
given period of time. In the case of LED
luminaires, the net present value is positive
even for periods less than 10 years, which is
a comparatively short time for an asset with
an operating life of 25 years. Major factors
shaping this result are the potential savings
in comparison to the old installation as well
as the price of electricity and the assumed
annual rise in electricity prices. Net present
value thus provides a new basis for the
debate on the cost-effectiveness of refurbishment.
Availing of incentives
One last positive cost factor that local authorities should not underestimate are incentives offered for certain types of investment,
for example under federal government or
EU programmes. Intensive consultation with
experts at the Germany Energy Agency
DENA or the funding banks or energy agencies of the federal states is recommended.

[59, 60] Two different maintenance examples compared. Fig. 59 shows a 3-year
maintenance interval after commissioning,
Fig. 60 a 4-year interval. These examples
show that selecting high-quality luminaires
makes financial sense.

43

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Roads, paths and squares

The refurbishment process

Once the question why street lighting should be refurbished has been answered, the question how needs to
be addressed. Time-honoured tools and methods from best practice examples pave the way for successful
refurbishment projects.
On the previous pages, many reasons
have been given for refurbishing street
lighting. Apart from the central issue of
cost, they relate largely to the better quality
of light delivered by modern installations,
the added safety resulting from it and the
reduction of carbon emissions and light
pollution. Local government decisionmakers are not alone in this situation.
Refurbishment projects are the order of the
day all over Germany. Many have already
been successfully concluded and both
public and private consultancy organisations stand ready to support more. Projects
typically unfold in the following stages.
Project launch
It all starts with the development of political
will and the involvement of lots of municipal actors. The aim is to win the support
of both administrative bodies and policymakers for the refurbishment project.
Informationmedia like this booklet supply
important arguments. The next step is the
formation of a project team. It bundles

[61] Apart from improving energy efficiency and driving down costs, refurbishment is also an opportunity to modernise
the urban landscape.
[62] Example of an assessment matrix
(certain columns omitted) with the key cost
criteria needed to compare six different
bids from six bidders and identify the option that is the most cost-effective in the
long term.

44

61

the diverse competencies that are crucial

to the success of the project through the
different phases from financing and
planning to procurement and implementation. If assignments are clearly distributed
and everyone involved is convinced of the
need for the forthcoming measures, the
project can proceed to the next phase.
As-is analysis
In the next phase, a detailed analysis of
the existing lighting installation is performed as a basis for further planning.
Savings potential becomes apparent
here and a structured approach can be
developed. Creating a lighting register of
this kind is time-consuming but it provides
the underlying data for prioritising measures on the basis of economic aspects.
Services tasked with maintaining and
operating the lighting public utilities, for
example should be involved in developing the register because they often already
have data on electricity consumption and
costs. The data gathering itself should be

62
licht.de

performed by a specialist team. Alternatively, specialised service providers may

be contracted. A complete lighting register
contains a record of not only the number
of luminaires installed but also the nature,
condition and technical details of each
one. Illuminance measurements should
be carried out to ascertain how well the
lighting meets current service requirements and the relevant standards. Random connected load checks should also
be performed to establish actual power
consumption, which, in the case of old installations, is generally significantly higher
than indicated by power ratings.
Planning and financing
The first step in planning is to define
targets: refurbishment targets should be
geared to clear objectives such as saving
energy or improving lighting quality, they
should be measurable and quantifiable
and they should be realistic, specific and
realisable within a specified time-frame.
On this basis, and with professional planners and designers, a concrete action
plan can be developed. To ensure that the
measures projected present no procurement problems later, procurement-relevant
criteria product quality, technology and
cost-effectiveness should be defined
at this stage. Project financing is also
on the agenda at this point, if it has not
already been dealt with. DENA surveys

have shown that unsettled financing is the

most common cause of failure in refurbishment projects despite the fact that there
are many different types of financing and
incentive schemes available. On the previous pages, it has already been explained
how life-cycle cost analysis can help ease
possible pressure on municipal budgets.
KfW loans or other incentive scheme funding can give municipalities more room for
manoeuvre. Another option is contracting,
where a private-sector supplier finances
the refurbishment and then operates the
installation for a contractually agreed period. The municipality has no capital costs
of its own but the operator charges a contracting fee over the term of the contract to
recoup its investment and make a profit.
Procurement and implementation
The municipal procurement process in
Germany takes place in a strict regulatory
environment (VGV, VOL, VOB). Crucially
important is consideration of energy efficiency and product quality. Life-cycle cost
and yield analysis also helps identify the
most cost-effective option in the long run.

der with the most cost-effective offer. By

including quality features and adjusting
criteria and weighting, the project team
can tailor the assessment matrix to the
specific acquisition. The implementation of
the street lighting, i.e. the actual installation, is generally performed by specialised
service providers. When inspecting the finished installation for approval, the municipality needs to verify that the services that
were agreed have indeed been rendered.
To ensure a long-term supply of spare
parts and good service, it is always advisable to choose established manufacturers
with good references.
A version of the LED assessment
matrix in German is available on the
Internet at www.ptj.de/klimaschutzinitiativekommunen/projektlaufzeit.

Assessment matrix
A tried-and-tested tool here is an assessment matrix in the form of a spreadsheet
that makes it possible to compare a
number of bidders on the basis of freely
selectable criteria and to identify the bid-

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Roads, paths and squares

Before refurbishment

63

After refurbishment

64

Model refurbishment projects

He who hesitates now wastes money. Examples of successful street lighting refurbishment projects all over
Germany show that thanks to technological advances and targeted public incentive schemes, now is the
right time to act.
Best Practice: Knigsfeld im Schwarzwald,
networked for successful refurbishment
As a member of the Black Forest LED
network (LED-Netzwerk Schwarzwald),
the spa town of Knigsfeld was among the
award winners in the municipal lighting
competition Kommunen in neuem Licht
initiated in 2010 by the Federal Ministry of
Education and Research (BMBF). Using
the support funding to switch the obsolete town lighting to energy-efficient LED
technology, the project team focused on
developing LED-based lighting concepts
for typical street and square situations that
could also be used in other municipalities.
The project was undertaken in cooperation
with manufacturers in the region as well as
scientists at Furtwangen University (HFU)
and Technische Universitt Darmstadt.

[63-65] Best practice in Knigsfeld im

Schwarzwald. After refurbishment, lighting quality rose and energy costs were
reduced.
[66-68] Best practice in Bielefeld.The
difference between the two photographs
is particularly striking if one compares the
bright facades and comparatively dark
road before refurbishment with the bright
road and reduced scattered light on walls
afterwards.

46

New luminaires tailored to the relevant

environment
The municipality decided on neutral white
LEDs for residential and commercial areas
and cold white LEDs for arterial roads. The
Rathausplatz square in the centre of town
was furnished with completely new column
luminaires to enable uniform light distribution with no dark patches or glare to be
achieved by adjusting mounting heights
and luminous intensity. In the spa gardens,

the 38 old lanterns were replaced by 66

LED luminaires in a turn-of-the-20th-century
design. Groups of trees and facades are
accentuated by supplementary recessed
ground lights, achieving a significant
improvement in atmosphere and sojourn
quality for visitors.
Energy consumption more than halved
As a result of the switch from conventional
lamps to LED light sources, Knigsfelds
annual energy needs are down from 86,889
kWh at 37,747 kWh. That is a 56.6 percent
reduction and saves 27.3 metric tons of
CO2a year.
Total
kW/h
per year
86.889

-57%
Total
kW/h
per year
37.747

OLD

65

NEW

CO saving per year

27,3 metric tons
licht.de

Evaluation by citizen survey

Parallel to lighting measurements, Furtwangen University conducted citizen
surveys. In them, 69 percent of respond-

Before refurbishment

66

ents said they were happy with the new

LED lighting and thought they delivered
optimal brightness. Over 75 percent of
respondents think the new lighting is
right for the situation: that is nearly 38
percent more than said the same about
the old installation. The significantly better
lighting level also helps create a sense of
security: 70 percent of respondents said
they had a very great sense of security
when they were on the roads at night. In
comparison to the old installation, that is a
42 percent increase.
Best practice: Bielefeld, lower energy
costs higher lighting quality
The city of Bielefeld reduced the amount
of electricity consumed by public street
lighting by 3.8 million kWh a year just by
replacing existing street lights with modern LED column luminaires. The largescale switch brought the city considerable
benefits in terms of energy savings, a
smaller carbon footprint and better lighting quality.
Good reasons to change
In 2010, Bielefeld still had around 16,000
mercury vapour street lights in operation. The mandatory introduction of EU
Regulation 245/2009 (Ecodesign Directive)
banning mercury vapour lamps from being
placed on the market from April 2015 onwards meant that the city was forced to act.
The municipality focused from the outset
on sustainable LED technology and was
able, as a result, to meet part of the capital
cost of the project with financial support
from the Federal Environment Ministry.

After refurbishment

67

Modular LEDs for tailored

lighting distribution
The LED luminaires selected have a
power rating of just 21W,compared to the
89W rating of the opal glass mushroom
luminaires they replace. What is more,
thanks to custom-tailored optical components, they cast significantly more light
where it is needed and avoid unnecessary scattering loss.
The luminaires installed now provide
much brighter illumination for traffic
areas in what are generally eight to ten
metre wide residential and local access
streets. For these lighting situations, the
luminairesare fitted with special lenses for
asymmetrical light distribution. Thanks to
their precisely controlled beam, there are
no longer any problems with light shining
on bedroom or living room windows. The
luminaires permit around a 50 percent
power reduction between 10.30 p.m. and
4.30 a.m. Exceptionally wide footpaths
behind the columns and footpaths or cycle paths set back from the road can also
be illuminated well by supplementary LED
bars. With columns up to 40 metres apart
and five metres high and with streets up
to 10 metres wide, road and path surfaces are significantly better and more
evenly illuminated.

saving of around 32%. As a result, CO2

emissions will be reduced by 2,200 metric
tons a year and energy consumption cut
by 3.8 million kWh/year. What is more, the
luminaires emit insect-friendly light and
there is less light pollution in residential
and local access streets because light is
directed onto road and path areas.

Total
kW/h
per year
11,9 Mio

-32%
Total
kW/h
per year
8,1 Mio

OLD

68

NEW

CO saving per year

2.200 metric tons
licht.de

Incentive schemes
Last but not least, the best practice examples show how decision-making and refurbishment processes are facilitated for municipalities by the use of incentive funding.
Important addresses for financial support
for refurbishment projects are the Federal
Environment Ministry and the governmentowned KfW bank. More incentive schemes
are in place at federal, state and European
level; information about them is available,
for example, from the federal and state
energy agencies.

Energy savings add up

An 83 percent energy andCO2savingis
achieved for every HQL luminaire replaced. With around 31,000 luminaires in
Bielefeld, the replacement programmes in
2011and 2012/2013 made for an energy

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Roads, paths and squares

Standards, literature, useful websites

Municipal lighting is a complex subject. Standards are revised and new incentive schemes introduced,
modified or discontinued. The latest information is mostly found on the Internet but specialist literature can
also provide bearings for anyone lost in the street lighting jungle.
The most important standard for street
lighting is DIN EN 13201. At present at
the beginning of 2014 it is being revised.
No publication date has yet been set.
DIN 13201-1 (Part 1) refers only to Germany. Parts 2 to 4 are also European
standards. Part 1 describes a comprehensive system for identifying typical street
and road lighting situations. These are divided into different lighting classes, which
in turn define the minimum lighting values
that need to be reached.
DIN EN 13201-2 defines more requirements for the different users and the values
needed to meet them.
DIN EN 13201-3 stipulates how quality
features should be mathematically defined
and applied.

[69] Luminaires with projector/reflector

lighting systems provide glare-free, homogeneous lighting for pedestrian precincts
and squares. The fountain lighting adds a
decorative feature to the urban landscape.

48

69

DIN EN 13201-4 defines the different methods for measuring quality features and
street lighting installations.
Other standards, guidelines and publications supplementing DIN 13201:
DIN EN 12464-2
Light and lighting Lighting of work places
Part 2: Outdoor work places
DIN 5340
Terms for physiological optics

DIN 67523
Lighting of pedestrian crossings with additional lighting
Part 1: General quality characteristics and
guide values
Part 2: Calculation and measurement

R-FG 2001
Richtlinien fr die Anlage und Ausstattung
von Fugngerberwegen (Guidelines for
the construction and configuration of pedestrian crossings), published in Verkehrsblatt (VkBl) 2001, page 474
(www.verkehrsblatt.de)
DIN 67524
Lighting of street tunnels and underpasses
Part 1: General quality characteristics and
guide values
Part 2: Calculation and measurement
CIE publication 88
Guide for lighting of road tunnels and underpasses, 2nd edition, Vienna 2004
(www.cie.co.at/cie)
RABT
Richtlinie fr die Ausstattung und den
Betrieb von Straentunneln (Guidelines
for the equipment and operation of road
tunnels), Cologne 2006, published by
Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und
Verkehrswesen e.V. (FGSV) as title 339
(www.fgsv-verlag.de)

Life behaviour of discharge lamps for

general lighting
Fachverband Elektrische Lampen, ZVEI
Zentralverband Elektrotechnik- und
Elektronikindustrie e.V., Frankfurt am Main
2005 (www.zvei.org)

Hinweise zur Messung und Beurteilung von

Lichtimmissionen (Guidelines on the measurement and assessment of light imissions) Lnderausschuss fr Immissionsschutz (LAI) resolution of 10 May 2000
(www.lai-immissionsschutz.de)

Publication No. 17:1998

Straenbeleuchtung und Sicherheit (Street
lighting and safety)
Deutsche Lichttechnische Gesellschaft
(LiTG) e.V., Berlin (www.litg.de)

Further links and useful websites

Publication No. 12.3:2011

Messung und Beurteilung von Lichtimmissionen knstlicher Lichtquellen (Measurement and assessment of light immissions
from artificial light sources)
Deutsche Lichttechnische
Gesellschaft(LiTG) e.V., Berlin
(www.litg.de)
Publication No. 15:1997
Einwirkung von Auenbeleuchtungsanlagen auf nachtaktiveInsekten (Impact of
outdoor lighting installations on nocturnal
insects) Deutsche Lichttechnische Gesellschaft (LiTG) e.V., Berlin (www.litg.de)

DENA street lighting guide

http://www.lotse-strassenbeleuchtung.de/
Overview of incentive funding options
Incentive database
http://www.foerderdatenbank.de/
KFW promotion programmes
http://www.kfw.de
Tool and decision-making aid for LED
luminaire selection
http://www.zvei.org/Verband/Publikationen/
Seiten/Arbeits--und-Entscheidungshilfezur-Auswahl-von-LED-Leuchten.aspx
Assessment matrix for street lighting
www.ptj.de/klimaschutzinitiativekommunen/projektlaufzeit

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Luminaires and their applications

Modern luminaires offer myriad opportunities to design outdoor space for comfort and safety without ignoring
normative illuminance requirements. Below is an overview of the most important types of luminaire, along with
details of their specific product features and tips on correct use.

Which luminaires produce what kind of

light? Which lighting technology is the
right choice? And which type of luminaire
should be used to ensure compliance
with standards? Selecting the right luminaires is not always easy for an operator.
There are innumerable stipulations and
just as many design options for municipal lighting. The first question that has
to be answered is: What lighting task will
the required luminaire need to perform?
The lighting tools required to illuminate a
multi-lane highway, for instance, are very
different from those needed to illuminate a
facade. The types of luminaire shown on
these pages give an idea of the range of
functions and applications.
The key criteria for luminaire selection are
generally technical ones: luminous intensity, lumens per watt, mounting height and
beam angle are examples. But choosing
the right lighting technology calls for a
fundamental decision. LED luminaires
and LED modules have revolutionised the
market in recent years and have already
superseded former market leaders such
as metal halide lamps, high-pressure
sodium vapour lamps or fluorescent
lamps in many areas. Their allure resides
largely in high energy efficiency and long
product life.
Luminaire design also plays an important
role in product selection. The shape of
a luminaire should suit the surrounding
architecture to create a coherent picture
overall. A luminaires visual impact during
the day should not be underestimated. It
is an object in the public space and as
such is an important part of the urban
landscape.

50

Linear recessed ground lights are popular

for decorative street or square lighting. The
continuous rows can also work with RGBcontrol and coloured light to provide special
accents.

Recessed ground luminaires can illuminate

trees and shrubs from below and thus accentuate them in their surroundings. However, their narrow or wide-angled glancing
light can also be used to cast facades or
walls in a dramatic light.

Catenary-wire luminaires are perfect

problem-solvers. Suspended over the middle of streets or alleyways, they provide
optimal illumination.

Side-entry column luminaires, mounted

singly or in pairs, are universal, energyefficient street lighting solutions. Two-arm
models are predestined for illuminating
wide streets or car parks.

Post-top luminaires with secondary lighting

technology, also known as projector/reflector systems, provide uniform, glare-free
lighting by bouncing light off a reflective
surface. They are an ideal choice for pedestrian precinct and square lighting.

Decorative post-top luminaires provide not

only functional lighting but also design
highlights for squares, pedestrian precincts,
parks or paths. They can be combined to
good effect with wall luminaires from the
same product family.

High-performance column luminaires

in floodlight designs provide efficient,
homogeneous illumination even over large
areas such as motorway service areas, car
parks, industrial sites or sports grounds.

Column luminaires and light pillars areused

as technical and decorative exterior luminaires for illuminating roadways, paths and
squares. In some cases, functional elements
such as connections for gas, electricity, water, etc. can be combined with the luminaires.

Recessed/surface-mounted ceiling luminaires

provide light in arcades, under canopies
or overhangs. Discreetly integrated in the
architecture or conspicuously presented as
a decorative luminaire, they can be used to
create outdoor light spaces.

Media facades permit ever-changing

presentations of still or moving images and
thus become giant screens that constantly
restructure facades or grab attention with
advertising messages.

Floods and spots are used for large-area

illumination of buildings, monuments or
places of interest. Mounted on buildings or
columns, they are also suitable for distant
illumination.

Bollard luminaires are generally used for

path lighting in parks and gardens but
also for zonal lighting in squares. They
facilitate orientation and play a decorative role in the landscape.

Underwater luminaires, operating with LEDs

or optical fibres, offer advantages in terms
of maintenance and permit dynamic lighting
effects with white or coloured light.

Recessed wall luminaires facilitate orientation, e.g. on stairs or as route markers, and
make for a greater sense of security.

Surface-mounted wall luminaires can be

used to illuminate adjacent areas such as
paths and squares or to provide special
accentuating light for facades.

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Roads, paths and squares

12
11

5
4
7

9
8
10

6
70
Nr.

Lamptype

Power rating classes

(nominal rating in Watt)

Luminous flux
(Lumen)

Luminous efficacy
(Lumen/Watt)

Light colour

Linear fluorescent lamps

Fluorescent lamp 26mm

18 70

870 6,200

61 89

ww, nw, dw

Compact fluorescent lamps

2-tube lamp, elongated

16 80

950 6,500

67 100

ww, nw, dw

1-, 2- or 3-tube lamp, compact

10 42

600 3,200

60 75

ww, nw, dw

Metal halide lamps

Single-ended with ceramic technology

20 400

1,600 41,000

80 108

ww, nw

Double-ended with ceramic technology

70 150

5,100 14,500

73 104

ww, nw

Double-ended

1,000 2,000

90,000 230,000

90 117

nw, dw

Ellipsoidwith ceramic technology

35 150

3,200 13,700

84 94

ww, nw

Tubular with ceramic technology

45 315

4,300 37,000

96 120

nw, dw

High-pressure sodium vapour lamps

Ellipsoid design

50 1,000

3,800 130,000

88 150

ww

10

Tubular design

35 1,000

2,200 128,000

63 139

ww

11

LED modules
LED module (manufacturer-specific and ZHAGA-compliant),
without optics or heat sink

18 75

2,500 10,000

110 140

nw, dw

12

LED module, technical lighting (manufacturer-specific),

with optics, without heat sink

15 45

2,100 5,000

111 139

nw, dw

13

LED module, technical lighting (manufacturer-specific),

with optics and heat sink

32 60

2,700 6,000

87 100

ww, nw

14

LED module, technical lighting (manufacturer-specific),

without optics, with heat sink

21

2,600

120

ww, nw, dw

ww = warmwhite colour temperatures up to 3,300K

52

nw = neutral white colour temperatures 3,300K to 5,300K

dw = daylight white colour temperaturesover 5,300K

Light sources
As of 13 April 2015, new high-pressure mercury vapour lamps may
no longer be placed on the market in the EU. Here we show the most
important current LED modules and lamp types facilitating the switch to
efficient lamp technologies.
Linear fluorescent lamps and compact
fluorescent lamps [1-3]
The distinctive features of linear fluorescent lamps and compact fluorescent
lamps are high luminous efficacy, good
colour rendering and longevity. For outdoor
applications, special variants delivering
uniformly high luminous flux over a temperature range from 5 C to 70 C should
be used. The lamps can be dimmed with
appropriate electronic ballasts.

13

14

Colour renderimg Index Ra

(in some case as range)

Base

85 98

G13

80 93

2G11; 2G7

80 90

G23; G24; 2G7; GX24

80 85

G8,5; G12; G22

GU6,5; GU8,5; GY22

75 95

RX7s; RX7s-24

65 90

K12s

85 93

E27

60 90

PGZ12; PGZ18

25

E27; E40

25

E27; E40

>70

>70

>70

>80

Metal halide lamps [4-8]

The impressive feature of metal halide
lamps is their brilliant light, which makes
for an attractive urban landscape. Lamps
with ceramic burner technology are
extremely energy-efficient, achieving a
luminous efficacy up to 100 lm/W, and are
thus significantly more energy-efficient
than lamps with quartz burners. Because
of their good colour rendering and highquality light, they are particularly suitable
for prestige applications such as the illumination of monuments, fountains or historical buildings. Variants specially developed
for street lighting have a long service life
and are optimised for long replacement
intervals.
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps[9-10]
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps are
noted for very high luminous efficacy up to
150 lm/W and longevity. Variants for street
lighting have a very low premature failure
rate of just 5% at 24,000hrs. Six-year
replacement intervals are thus realised.
However, compromises need to be made
in terms of light quality because the lamps
have a colour rendering index of only Ra
25 and cast a yellowish light. Some variants permit a simple one-for-one switch
from high-pressure mercury vapour lamps
to high-pressure sodium vapour lamps.

LED modules [11-14]

LED modules are light sources that work
with individual LEDs mounted on printed
circuit boards (PCBs). Depending on
configuration, modules may be fitted with
light-controlling optics and a heat sink.
Modern modules achieve very high luminous efficacy ratings. What is more, the
light sources have a very long life. Luminous efficacy and longevity are dependent
on the temperatures to which the LEDs are
exposed in operation. Low temperatures
extend life and heighten efficiency and
thus enable LED modules to play out their
strengths in full.
LED modules form an integral part of LED
luminaires. With appropriate optics incorporated in the luminaires, scattered light
and glare can be optimised for energy
efficiency and lighting comfort.
An LED module always requires appropriate control gear. The control gear
used should always meet the standards
required for street lighting. A high degree
of protection and overvoltage protection is
also important. Which ballasts are suitable
for use with which LED modules can be
established by asking the manufacturer.
Special versions come with different control interfaces (e.g. DALI or AstroDIM) or
with additional functions such as luminous
flux adjustment.
Available light engines (LED modules and
control gear) are either manufacturer-specific or defined by e.g. Zhaga. Zhaga is an
initiative developing uniform standards for
light engines.

53

licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

Each booklet!

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The licht.de series of booklets

licht.wissen 16
City Marketing with Light
40 pages on distinctive urban
lighting. Booklet 16 explains how
attractive, energy-efficient lighting
design can sharpen a municipal
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of practical examples present good
city marketing solutions.

[Booklet 01] 60 pages on the

basics and art of artificial lighting.
Booklet 01 describes the physical
components of light and conveys
key information about lighting
technology.

[Booklet 02] 56 pages of com-

[Booklet 13] 32 pages on lighting for

prehensive information on efficient

professional lighting for educational establishments. Booklet 02 also
shows how good lighting can boost
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outdoor work operations.Booklet 13

explains what criteria need to be met
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EN 12464 Part 2 and other norms.

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licht.wissen in English Free pdf downloads from www.all-about-light.org/en/publications

01
02
03
04
05
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54

Lighting with Artificial Light (2008)

Good Lighting for a Better Learning Environment (2012)
Roads, Paths and Squares (2014)
Office Lighting: Motivating and Efficient (2012)
Industry and Trade (2009)
Shop Lighting Attractive and Efficient (2011)
Light as a Factor in Health (2012)

08
09
10
11
12
13
14

Sport and Leisure (2010)

Refurbishment in industry, trade and administration (2014)
Emergency Lighting, Safety Lighting (2012)
Good Lighting for Hotels and Restaurants (2005)
Lighting Quality with Electronics (2003)
Outdoor workplaces (2007)
Ideas for Good Lighting for the Home (2009)

15
16
17
18
19
20

Good Outdoor Lighting for the Home (2009)

City Marketing with Light (2010)
LED The Light of the Future (2010)
Good Lighting for Museums, Galleries and Exhibitions (2006)
Impact of Light on Human Beings (2010)
Sustainable lighting (2014)

All about light!

Impartial information
licht.de provides information on the advantages of good lighting and offers a great
deal of material on every aspect of artificial
lighting and its correct usage. The information is impartial and based on current DIN
standards and VDE stipulations.

Imprint
Publisher
licht.de
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Lyoner Strae 9, 60528 Frankfurt am Main
Tel. 069 6302-353, Fax 069 6302-400
[email protected], www.licht.de
Editing, copywriting, design and realisation
LightAgentur, Bonn
Copy Editor
Christiane Kersting, Ldenscheid

licht.wissen
The booklets 1 to 19 of the licht.wissen
series provide information on the use of
lighting. Themed and packed with practical examples, they explain the basics of
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ISBN no. PDF edition 978-3-926193-93-3 (English)
ISBN no. print edition 978-3-926193-91-9 (German)
ISBN no. PDF edition 978-3-926193-92-6 (German)
02/14/10/03V-E
The publication takes account of current DIN
standards and VDE stipulations. Reproduced with the
permission of DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.
V. The authoritative version of the DIN standard is that
with the most recent date of issue, which is available
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Reprints of licht.wissen 03 in full or in part only with
the permission of the publishers.
Acknowledgements for photographs
Numbering of photos on back page:

71
72

73

74

75

76

77

Photographs
[16]Alexander Ring, Ldenscheid; [31]Claudia
Dreye, Dortmund; [70] Blitzwerk, Mhltal und LSD,
Darmstadt
All other photographs, 3D visualisations and illustrations
were made available by licht.de members or produced
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55

licht.wissen

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licht.wissen

03

Roads, paths and squares

Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht

Lyoner Strae 9
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Germany
phone +49 (0)69 63 02-353
fax +49 (0)69 63 02-400
[email protected]
www.licht.de

56