Dr.

Bore Gowda S B
ECE Department
Manipal Institute of Technology
Manipal-576104

Introduction
What is computer ?
Programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and
process data.

or

A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a

list of instructions.
Classification of Computers (power and price)
Personal computers
Mainframes
Supercomputers
Dedicated controllers Embedded controllers

Evolution of Computers
First generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube
Second generation (1954-1959) transistor
Third generation (1959-1971) IC
Fourth generation (1971-present) microprocessor

Input
Devices

Central Processing
Unit (CPU)

Memory Devices

Output
Devices

Computers organization
What is Microprocessor?
It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital
data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its
memory, and provides results as output.
The P is the brain of the microcomputer
It is a single chip which is capable of
processing data
controlling all of the components which make up the
microcomputer system
P used to sequence executions of instructions that is in
memory
P Fetch , Decode , and Execute the instruction
The internal architecture of the microprocessor is complex.

Intel 80x86 Processor Evolutions

ps

Year

Transistor
count

Clock
(MHz)

Internal External Addre

data
Data bus
ss
bus
bus

Memory

4004

1971

2250

0.108

4-bit

4-bit

--

---

8080

1974

6000

2-3

8-bit

8-bit

16-bit

64KB

8085

1976

6500

3-8

8-bit

8-bit

8086

1978

29000

5-10

16-bit

16-bit

16-bit 64KB
20-bit 1MB

8088

1979

29000

5-8

16-bit

8-bit

80286

1982

134000

8-12

32-bit

16-bit

80386

1985

275000

16-33

32-bit

32-bit

80486

1989

1.2million

25-100

32-bit

32-bit

Pentium

1993

3.1million

60-233

32-bit

64-bit

Pentium Pro

1995

5.5million

64-bit

Pentium II

1997

7.5million

150-200 32-bit
233-400 32-bit

Pentium III

1999

28.1million

550

32-bit

20-bit 1MB
24-bit 16MB
32-bit 4GB
32-bit 4GB
32-bit 4GB
36-bit 4GB

Micro Processor Unit

Microprocessor Unit (MPU) typically contains
Registers: Temporary storage locations for program
instruction or data.
The Arithmetic Logic unit (ALU): This part of the MPU
performs both arithmetic and logical operations
Timing and Control Circuits: that keep all of the other
parts of system (Regs, ALU, memory & I/O) working
together in the right time sequence

What are microprocessor-based

systems?
Microprocessor-based systems are electrical systems consisting of
microprocessors, memories, I/O units, and other peripherals.
Microprocessors are the brains of the systems
Microprocessors access memories and other units through buses
The operations of microprocessors are controlled by instructions
stored in memories

Microprocessor-Based System with Buses

Introduction to 8086
Released by Intel in 1978
Produced from 1978 to 1990s
A 16-bit microprocessor chip.
Max. CPU clock rate :
5 MHz to 10 MHz
Package: 40 pin DIP
The 8086 gave rise to the x86
architecture of Intel's future
processors.
Common
manufacturer(s):
Intel, AMD, NEC, Fujitsu,
Harris (Intersil), OKI, Siemens
AG,
Texas
Instruments,
Mitsubishi.

16-bit Arithmetic Logic Unit

16-bit data bus

20-bit address bus - 220 =

1,048,576 = 1 Mega

It requires single phase clock

with 33% duty cycle to provide
internal timing.

8086 Architecture
The 8086 has two parts, the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and the
Execution Unit (EU).
The BIU fetches instructions, reads and writes data, and
computes the 20-bit address.
The EU decodes and executes the instructions using the 16bit ALU.

BIU

8086 Architecture

EU

Address bus (20 bits)

Execution Unit
(EU)

AH

AL

BH

BL

CH

CL

DH

DL

General purpose
register

SP

Segment
register

BP
SI
DI

CS

Data bus
(16 bits)

DS
SS

ALU Data bus

(16 bits)

ALU
Flag register

ES
IP

Instruction Queue
EU
control

Bus
control

External bus

1 2 3 4 5 6
Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

BIU Operation
The BIU fetches instructions using the CS and IP, written
CS:IP, to construct the 20-bit address.
Data is fetched using a segment register (usually the DS)
An effective address (EA) computed by the EU
depending on the addressing mode.
Components in BIU
Segment register
The instruction pointer
Address generation adder
Bus control logic
Instruction queue

EU Operation
1. Fetch an instruction from instruction
queue
2.

According to the instruction, EU control

logic generates control signals.
(This process is also referred to as instruction
decoding)

3. Depending on the control signal,

EU performs one of the following
operations:
An arithmetic operation
A logic operation
Storing a datum into a register
Moving a datum from a register
Changing flag register

AH
BH
CH
DH

AL
BL
CL
DL
SP
BP
SI
DI

ALU
Flag register

General purpose
register

ALU Data bus

(16 bits)

EU
control

instruction
1011000101001010

Components in EU
Arithmetic logic unit(ALU)
Status and control flags
General-purpose registers
Temporary-operand registers

Instruction Queue and Pipelining

While the EU is decoding an instruction or executing an
instruction which does not require use of the buses, the
BIU fetches up to six instruction bytes for the following
instructions. The BIU stores these prefetched bytes in a
first-infirst-out register set called a queue.
This prefetch-and-queue scheme greatly speeds up
processing.
Except in the cases of JMP and CALL instructions, where
the queue must be dumped and then reloaded starting from
a new address.
Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction
executes is called pipelining.

8086 Programming Model

16-bit Registers
ES
CS
SS
DS
IP

BIU registers
(20 bit adder)

AX
BX
CX
DX

AH
BH
CH
DH

16 bit arithmetic

Stack Segment
Data Segment
Instruction Pointer
AL
BL
CL
DL

SP
BP
EU registers

Extra Segment
Code Segment

SI
DI
FLAGS

Accumulator
Base Register
Count Register
Data Register
Stack Pointer
Base Pointer
Source Index Register
Destination Index Register

Flag Register
Flag register contains information reflecting the current
status of a microprocessor. It also contains information
which controls the operation of the microprocessor.
Called as Program Status Word (PSW)
15

14

13

12

11

10

OF DF

IF

TF SF ZF

Control Flags
IF:
DF:
TF:

Interrupt enable flag

Direction flag
Trap flag

AF

PF

CF

Status Flags
CF:
PF:
AF:
ZF:
SF:
OF:

Carry flag
Parity flag
Auxiliary carry flag
Zero flag
Sign flag
Overflow flag

Memory Address Space and Data

Organization
8086 has 20 bit address bus, and it
supports 220 = 1,048,576 i.e. 1 Mbytes of
external memory.
The memory of an 8086 is organized as 8bit words, not as 16-bit words.
An 8-bit data is stored in a location
A word i.e. 16-bit data is stored in two
locations,
Lower byte is stored in lower address
memory location
Higher byte is stored in higher address
location

Segment Registers and Memory

Segmentation in 8086
The addresses of the active segments are stored in the four
internal segment registers: CS, SS, DS, ES

15

CS

Code Segment

DS

Data Segment

SS

Stack Segment

ES

Extra Segment

Segment Registers and Memory

Segmentation in 8086
In 8086 1 MB of physical memory is divided into 16 blocks
of 64KB, out of these the 8086 defines four active 64KB
memory blocks or segments.
A segment represents an independently addressable unit of
memory consisting of 64K consecutive byte wide storage
locations.
Each segment is assigned a base address that identifies its
starting point.
Only four segments can be active at a time:
Code segment to store instructions code of a program
Stack segment to store stack of data using PUSH/POP
Data segment to store data bytes/words
Extra segment additional segment for storing data
4 LSBs of base address should be always 0H

Segment Registers and Memory

Segmentation in 8086

DS: E000

CS: B300

SS: 7000

ES: 5D27

Segment Registers and Memory

Segmentation in 8086
User accessible
segments can be
set up to be
contiguous,
adjacent, or even
overlapping.

Segment Registers and Memory

Segmentation in 8086
Advantages of memory segmentation
Allow the memory capacity to be 1Mb even though the
addresses associated with the individual instructions are only 16
bits wide.
Facilitate the use of separate memory areas for the program, its
data and the stack.
Permit a program and/or its data to be put into different areas
of memory each time the program is executed.
Multitasking becomes easy.

Instruction Pointer (IP)

The instruction pointer (IP) identifies the location of the
next word of instruction code to be fetched from the current
code segment of memory.
The offset in IP is combined with the current value in CS to
generate the address of the instruction code.
During normal operation, the 8088 fetches instructions from
the code segment of memory, stores them in its instruction
queue, and executes them one after the other.

General Purpose Registers

Data Registers
Data registers are used for temporary storage of frequently
used intermediate results.
The contents of the data registers can be read, loaded, or
modified through software.
Each register can be accessed either as a whole (16 bits)
for word data or as 8-bit data for byte-wide operation.
15

Data Group

8 7

AX

AH

AL

Accumulator

BX

BH

BL

Base

CX

CH

CL

Counter

DX

DH

DL

Data

General Purpose Registers

General Purpose Registers

Pointer and Index Registers
0

15

SP

Stack Pointer

BP

Base Pointer

SI

Source Index

DI

Destination Index

These four registers must always be used for 16-bit operations

General Purpose Registers

Pointer Registers

Index Registers

The pointer registers are used to

store offset addresses of memory
location relative to the stack
segment register.
Combining SP with the value in
in SS (SS:SP) results in a 20-bit
address that points to the top of
the stack (TOS).
BP is used to access data within
the stack segment of memory.

The index register are used to

hold offset addresses for
instructions that access data in
the data segment.
The source index register (SI)
is used for a source operand,
and the destination index (DI)
is used for a destination
operand.

Generating Memory Addresses /

Physical address
Segment Register Defaults

Generating Memory Addresses /

Physical address
8086 has 20 address pins, so each memory
location connected will have 20-address, i.e. from
00000h to FFFFFh. The 20-bit actual address of
memory locations is called physical address (PA).
Memory address / Physical address is obtained by
adding the shifted value of base address in
segment register to Effective Address(EA).
= Segment Registers X 10H + EA
where
EA = offset address + displacement(if any)

Generating Memory Addresses /

Physical address
If the content of code segment register is 2500h and the
content of IP is 0002H. What is the physical address of the
instruction?
Solution:
[CS]=2500h---segment register
[IP]=0002h ---offset value
EA= offset value + displacement
EA=0002h+0 = 0002h
PA=segment register X 10h + EA
PA=2500h X 10h + 0002h
PA=25000h+0002h=25002h

Generating Memory Addresses /

Physical address
Calculate the memory address of the data in the
instruction MOV AL, [5923h]. Assume that [ds]=7000h.
PA= 7000h X 10h + 5923h
= 70000h + 5923h
= 75923h
If MOV DL, 0Ah[SI], What is the address of data in the
memory? Assume that [ds]=8500h, [si]=1234h
EA= SI + 0Ah=1234h + 0Ah = 123Eh
PA= DS X 10h + EA = 8500h X 10h + 123Eh
= 85000h + 123Eh
= 8623Eh

Generating Memory Addresses /

Physical address
Calculate the PA of the data in the instruction MOV AL, [SI][DI]10.
Assume that [ds]=7000h, [SI]=0500h, [DI]=0012h.
EA= SI + DI + 0Ah=0500h + 0012h + 0Ah = 051Ch
PA= DS X 10h + EA = 7000h X 10h + 051Ch
= 70000h + 051Ch
= 7051Ch
If ADD DL, [BP], What is the address of data in the memory?
Assume that [SS]=3000h, [BP]=1234h
EA= BP + 0=1234h + 0 = 1234h
PA= SS X 10h + EA = 3000h X 10h + 1234h
= 30000h + 1234h
= 31234h

Addressing Modes
When a Microprocessor executes an instruction, it needs to
know where to get data and where to store results. Such
information is specified in the operand fields of the
instruction.
An instruction acts on any number of operands. The way an
instruction accesses its operands is called its Addressing
modes
Operand is data on which microprocessor operates
Operands : in Registers, Memory, I/O ports, and within
Instruction
Operands types
Implicit
Explicit
Both Implicit and Explicit

Classification of Addressing Modes

1.
2.
3.
4.

Implicit addressing mode

Immediate addressing mode
Register addressing mode
Memory addressing modes
a. Direct addressing mode
b. Indirect addressing modes
I. Register indirect addressing
II. Indexed addressing
III. Register Relative
IV. Based indexed addressing
V. Relative Based indexed addressing
5. I/O port addressing
a. Fixed port addressing
b. Variable port addressing

Addressing Modes
1.

Implicit addressing
The data value/data address is implicitly associated with the
instruction.

In the instruction neither the source nor the destination is

specified.
Examples: DAA, AAA, STC, AAM
2. Immediate addressing

Operand is stored as part of the instruction

Appears in the form of successive byte or word

Resides in the code segment not in the data segment

faster to execute an instruction

Examples: ADD AL, 25H
SUB AX, 1200D
MOV SI, 25H
AND CH, 01110010B

Addressing Modes
3.

Register addressing mode

8-bit/16-bit data required for execution is stored in 8-bit/16bit registers

The names of registers are specified in the instruction
All the registers except IP may be used in this mode

Examples: MOV AL, BH

ADD AX, BX
MOV SI, DX
AND BH, CL

Addressing Modes
4.

Memory addressing modes

Memory (RAM) is the main component of a computer to
store temporary data and machine instructions.
In a program, programmers many times need to read from
and write into memory locations.
8-bit/16-bit data required for executing the instruction is
present in the memory location.
a. Direct addressing
16-bit offset address of the memory location is specified
directly in the instruction as a part of it
Examples:

MOV AL, [1500H]

ADD AL, ES:[3400H]

Addressing Modes
4. Memory addressing modes (Contd)
b. Indirect addressing mode
I. Register indirect addressing mode
Offset address of memory location is specified in the
register [BX] or [SI] or [DI]
The default segment is either DS or ES
Offset Address = [BX] / [SI] / [DI]
Examples: MOV CX, [SI]

ADD AH, [BX]

Addressing Modes
4. Memory addressing modes (Contd)
II. Indexed addressing mode

Offset of the operand is stored in one of the index registers

DS or ES are the default segments for index registers SI and
DI respectively
Effective Address = [SI] / [DI]
Examples: MOV DL, [SI]
ADD BH, [DI]

Addressing Modes
4. Memory addressing modes (Contd)
III. Register Relative addressing mode
Data is available at an effective address formed by
adding an 8-bit or 16-bit displacement with content of
any registers
Effective Address = [SI] / [DI] / [BX] / [BP] + 8/16-bit
displacement
Examples: ADD DL, 99h[DI] or ADD DL, [99h+DI]
MOV AH, ES:6500h[SI]

Addressing Modes
4. Memory addressing modes (Contd)
IV. Based Indexd addressing mode

Effective address of the memory location is obtained by adding

base register content i.e. [BX] or [BP] to the index register i.e.
[SI] or [DI]
Effective Address = [BX] / [BP] + [SI] / [DI]
Examples: MOV DL, [SI][BX] or

MOV DL, [SI+BX]

Addressing Modes
4. Memory addressing modes (Contd)
V. Relative Based Indexed addressing mode
Effective address of the memory location is obtained by
adding base register content i.e. [BX] or [BP], index register
i.e. [SI] or [DI] along with 8/16-bit displacement
Effective Address = [BX] / [BP] + [SI] / [DI] + 8/16-bit
displacement
Examples: MOV DL, 12h[SI][BX]
[SI+BX+12h]

or

MOV DL,

Addressing Modes
5. I/O port addressing
8086 can be interfaced to 8/16-bit I/O devices using either
I/O mapped I/O or memory-mapped I/O.
I/O mapped I/O uses the instructions IN and OUT
8086 can transfer 8/16-bit data to or from a peripheral
device
All I/O transfer between the 8086 and the peripheral devices
take place via AL for 8-bit ports and AX for 16-bit ports.
The I/O port addressing can be done either directly or
indirectly as follows:
a. Direct port addressing
b. Indirect port addressing

Addressing Modes
5.
a.

I/O port addressing

Direct port addressing/Fixed port addressing
In this mode 8-bit port address is part of an instruction
It is also called as fixed port addressing, because the port address
is constant.
IN AL,75h or IN AX, 78h
OUT 23h, AL or OUT FAh, AX
b. Indirect port addressing/ Variable port addressing
In this port addressing, the 16-bit port address is specified in
DX register
It is also called as variable port addressing, because the
program instructions can able to change port address in DX
register
IN AL, DX or IN AX, DX
OUT DX, AL or OUT DX, AX

Instruction Format
General Format of Instructions
Label: Opcode Operand1, Operand2

; Comment

Label: It is optional. It provides a symbolic address that

can be used in branch instructions
Opcode: It specifies the type of instructions
Operands: Instructions of 80x86 family can have one,
two, or zero operand. If the instruction has two operands,
they must be separated by comma
Comments: Only for programmers reference

Instruction Set of 8086

Based on the type of the operation performed, the 8086
instructions are classified into following groups
Data transfer instructions
Arithmetic instructions
Branch instructions
Logical instructions
Shift and Rotate instructions
String instructions
Processor control instructions
Subroutine and Interrupt Instructions

Data transfer instructions

MOV:
XCHG:
LEA:
LDS:
LES:
XLAT:
PUSH:
PUSHF:
POP:
POPF:
IN:
OUT:
SAHF:
LAHF:

Move to/from register/memory

Exchange byte or word
Load effective address
Load pointer using data segment
Load pointer using extra segment
Translate byte
Push word onto stack
Push flags onto stack
Pop word off stack
Pop flags off stack
Input byte or word from port
Output byte or word to port
Store AH into flags
Load AH from flags

Passing parameters to procedures

Types:
1.In registers
2.In memory locations
3.With pointers possessed in registers
4.With the stack

Passing parameters to procedures

Types:
1.Using registers
2.Using memory locations
3.Using pointers
4.Using stack

Passing parameters using Registers

Program to convert the given 2-digit Hex number to ASCII
.model small
.stack 20
.data
Hex_Num DB 3Fh
Asc DB ?, ?
.code
Start:

MOV AX, @DATA

MOV DS, AX
MOV AL, Hex_Num
CALL CONV
MOV ASC, AL
MOV AL, Hex_Num
MOV CL, 4
ROR AL, CL
CALL CONV
MOV ASC+1, AL
INT 3

CONV

PROC NEAR
AND AL, OFH
CMP AL, 0AH
JC ADD30
ADD AL, 07
ADD30: ADD AL, 30H
RET
CONV ENDP
END Start

Passing parameters using Memory

location
Program to check whether the given byte is bitwise palindrome or not
.model small
.stack 20
.data
Num DB 3Fh
Res DW ?
.code
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX
CALL Check
INT 3

Start:

Check

PROC NEAR
MOV CX, 8
MOV AL, Num
MOV BL, 0
UP: ROR AL, 1
RLC BL, 1

Exit:
Check

LOOP UP
MOV Res, 5555H
CMP BL, NUM
JE Exit
MOV Res, 0AAAAH
RET
ENDP
END Start

Passing parameters using Pointers

Program to convert 2-digit BCD number to Hex

Start:

.model small
.stack 20
.data
BCD_Num DB 3Fh
Hex_Num DW ?
.code
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX
LEA SI, BCD_Num
LEA DI, Hex_Num
CALL BCD_to_HEX
INT 3

BCD_to_HEX

Check

PROC NEAR
MOV AL, [SI]
MOV BL, AL
AND BL, 0FH
MOV CL, 4
ROR AL, CL
AND AL, 0FH
MOV DL, 0AH
MUL DL
ADD AL, BL
MOV [DI], AL
RET
ENDP
END Start

Passing parameters using stack

Program to find square of 8-bit unsigned number

Start:

.model small
.stack 20
.data
Num DB 3Fh
Res DW ?
.code
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV BL, Num
MOV BH, 0
PUSH BX
CALL Square
POP BX
MOV Res, BX
INT 3

Square

Square

PROC NEAR
POP AX
MUL AL
PUSH AX
RET
ENDP
END Start