Beginning

Vibration
Analysis
Connection Technology Center, Inc
7939 Rae Boulevard
Victor, New York 14564
www.ctconline.com

Data Collection
Loop Power Output

Velocity (inches/second peak)

0.6
0.5
0.4

Fault
Alert

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0:00:00

12:00:00

24:00:00

36:00:00

48:00:00

60:00:00

Time (minutes)

Portable
Route Based

2013

Permanent, Continuous, On-line

Portable Data Collectors

Route Based
Frequency
Spectrum
Time Waveform
Orbits
Balancing
Alignment

2013

Data Analysis
History
Trending
Download Data
Upload Routes
Alarms
Smart algorithms
4

Permanent Monitoring
Continuous
Measurement
Permanent
Sensors
Frequency
Spectrum
Time Waveform
Orbits
2013

Data Analysis
History
Trending
Ethernet
Connection
Alarms
Smart
Algorithms
5

Whats This ?
1
0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz
2013

100 Hz
7

FFT, Frequency Spectrum,

Power Spectrum
1
0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz
2013

100 Hz
8

Scaling X & Y
1
0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

100 Hz

X
2013

Scaling X & Y
A
M

1
0.0002
inch
Peak

P
L
I

Magnitude

T
U
D
E
2013

0
0 Hz

FREQUENCY
10

100 Hz

Scaling X & Y
1

H
o
w
B
a
d

0.0002
inch
Peak

Magnitude

i
s
i
t
2013

0
0 Hz

What is it
11

100 Hz

Whats That ?
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s
2013

7.996094 s
12

Time Waveform
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s
2013

7.996094 s
13

Scaling X & Y
1
0.0004
inch

Real

-0.0004
0 s

7.996094 s

X
2013

14

Scaling X & Y
A
M

1
0.0004
inch

P
L
I

Real

T
U
D
E
2013

-0.0004
0 s

TIME
15

7.996094 s

Scaling X & Y
H
o
w
B
a
d

1
0.0004
inch

Real

i
s
i
t

2013

-0.0004
0 s

What is it
16

7.996094 s

The X Scale

What is it ?

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17

Single Frequency
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:706.8129 mV

1
V
rms
Magnitude

55 Hz

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:18.18848 ms
Time 1
1
V

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:2.449082 mV

18.18 ms

Real
-1
0 s
2013

62.46948 ms
18

Frequency & Time

fHz = 1/tSec
tSec = 1/fHz
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19

Frequency & Time

FT = 1
If: F = 1/T and T = 1/F
Then: FT = 1

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Concept !
FT = 1
If:

F increases

Then: t decreases
If:

T increases

Then: f decreases
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Single Frequency
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:706.8129 mV

1
V
rms
Magnitude

55 Hz

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:18.18848 ms
Time 1
1
V

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:2.449082 mV

18.18 ms

Real
-1
0 s
2013

62.46948 ms
22

Multiple Frequencies
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:706.8129 mV

1
0 Hz
X:78 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.9236 mV

1
0 Hz
X:21 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.7825 mV

1
0 Hz
X:42 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:706.9266 mV

1
0 Hz
2013

100 Hz
23

Multiple Waveforms
Time 55 1

55 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 78 1

78 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 21 1

21 Hz

1
V
0 s

62.46948 ms

Time 42 1

42 Hz

1
V
0 s

2013

62.46948 ms
24

Real Life Waveform

55 Hz + 78 Hz + 21 Hz + 42 Hz = Trouble !
TIME 1
4
V
Real
-4
0 s

2013

62.46948 ms

25

FFT Capabilities
TIME 1
4
V
Real
-4
0 s
X:21 Hz
X:42 Hz
X:55 Hz
X:78 Hz
FREQUENCY 1

62.46948 ms
Y:706.7825 mV
Y:706.9266 mV
Y:706.8129 mV
Y:706.9236 mV

1
V
rms
0 Hz
2013

100 Hz
26

Lines or Bins
The FFT always has a
defined number of
lines or Bins.

1
0.0002
inch
Peak

This spectrum has 800

lines, or the X scale is
broken down into 800
bins.

100, 200, 400, 800,

1600, and 3200 lines
are common choices.
Magnitude

0
0 Hz

2013

100 Hz

27

LRF
The Lowest Resolvable Frequency is determined by:

Frequency Span / Number of Analyzer Lines

The frequency span is calculated as the ending frequency minus the
starting frequency.
The number of analyzer lines depends on the analyzer and how the
operator has set it up.
Typically, this is the value that can be measured by the cursor
Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 lines
Answer = (400 - 0) / 800 = 0.5 Hz / Line

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Bandwidth
The Bandwidth can be defined by:
(Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function
Uniform Window Function = 1.0
Hanning Window Function = 1.5
Flat Top Window Function = 3.8

Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window

Answer = (400 / 800) 1.5 = 0.75 Hz / Line

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Resolution
The frequency resolution is defined in the following manner:

2 (Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function

or
Resolution = 2 (Bandwidth)
Example: 0 to 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window
Answer = 2 (400 / 800) 1.5 = 1.5 Hz / Line

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Using Resolution
The analyst wishes to measure two frequency
disturbances that are very close together.
Frequency #1 = 29.5 Hz.
Frequency #2 = 30 Hz.
A hanning window and 800 lines will be used.
What frequency span is required to accurately measure
these two frequency disturbances ?

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Using Resolution
Resolution Required = 30 - 29.5 = 0.5 Hz
Resolution = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5
0.5 = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5
0.5 = 3 (Frequency Span) / 800
400 = 3 (Frequency Span)
133 Hz = Frequency Span
Therefore, the frequency span must be 133 Hz or less to measure the
desired resolution of 0.5 Hz.

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Data Sampling Time

Data sampling time is the amount of time required to take one record or
sample of data. It is dependent on the frequency span and the number of
analyzer lines being used.

TSample = Nlines / Fspan

Using 400 lines with a 800 Hz frequency span will require:
400 / 800 = 0.5 seconds

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Average & Overlap

TR#1

Average - On
Overlap Percent - 50%
Overlap is the amount
of old data that is used

TR#2

TR#3

0% Overlap
50% Overlap

TR#1
TR#2
TR#3

How long will it take for 10 averages at

75% overlap using a 800 line analyzer
and a 200 Hz frequency span?

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75% Overlap ?
10 Averages
75% Overlap
800 Lines
200 Hz

Average #1 = 800 / 200

Average #1 = 4 seconds

Average #2 - #10 = (4 x 0.25)

Average #2 - #10 = 1 second each

Total time = 4 + (1 x 9)
Total time = 13 seconds

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Filter Windows
Window filters are applied to the time
waveform data to simulate data that starts
and stops at zero.
They will cause errors in the time
waveform and frequency spectrum.
We still like window filters !

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Window Comparisons

Real Time

No Window
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Window Comparisons

Real Time

Hanning Window
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Window Comparisons

Real Time

Flat Top Window

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Window Filters
Hanning (Frequency)

Force Exponential

Window Factor 1.5

Amplitude Accuracy 18%

Force/Expo Set-up
Requires Channel 1 Input
Force (Hammer)
Requires Channel 2
Response (Sensor)
Response/Force
(Channel 2/Channel 1)
Normalizes data based
on response to force

Flat Top (Amplitude)

Window Factor 3.8
Amplitude Accuracy 1%

Uniform (Impacts)
Window Factor 1.0
Amplitude Accuracy 56%

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Filter Windows
Use the Hanning Window for normal
vibration monitoring (Frequency)
Use the Flat Top Window for calibration
and accuracy (Amplitude)
Use the Uniform Window for bump testing
and resonance checks (No Window)

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The Y Scale

How bad is
it ?

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Amplitude
Acceleration = gs rms. or peak
Velocity = inch/s rms. or peak
Displacement = mils peak to peak
Note: 1 mil = 0.001 inches

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Pk-Pk (Peak - Peak)

The Peak - Peak value is

expressed from the peak to
peak amplitude.
The peak to peak value is
measured in the time
waveform.

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

Y:1.999169 V

2
V
Pk-Pk
Magnitude
0
0 Hz

100 Hz

X:22.43042 ms
dX:9.094238 ms
Time 1

Y:-993.8563 mV
dY:1.994871 V

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

2013

Peak - Peak. = 2 V

44

62.46948 ms

Pk (Peak)
X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

The time wave has not

changed. The Peak value is
expressed from zero to the
largest positive or negative
peak amplitude.
The peak value is measured in
the time waveform.

Y:999.5843 mV

1
V
Peak
Magnitude
0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:4.516602 ms
Time 1

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:997.4356 mV

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

62.46948 ms

Peak. = 1 V

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RMS (Root Mean Square)

The time wave has not
changed.
The rms. value is expressed
from zero to 70.7% of the
peak amplitude for a single
frequency.
The rms. value is calculated
for the spectrum.
In a periodic time wave, the
rms. value must be calculated
in the FFT. It will represent
the overall energy of the
FFT.

2013

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1
1
V
rms
Magnitude

Y:706.8129 mV

rms. = 707 mV

0
0 Hz
X:27.00806 ms
dX:2.288818 ms
Time 1

100 Hz
Y:3.579427 mV
dY:709.1976 mV

1
V
Real
-1
0 s

46

62.46948 ms

Unit Comparison
X:27.00806 ms
dX:2.288818 ms
Time 1

RMS

Y:3.579427 mV
dY:709.1976 m

Magnitude

Real

0
0 s
X:27.00806 ms
dX:4.516602 ms
Time 1

62.46948 ms

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:999.5843 mV

2
V
Peak

1
V

Magnitude

Real

0
0 s
X:22.43042 ms
dX:9.094238 ms
Time 1

0 Hz

62.46948 ms
Y:-993.8563 mV
dY:1.994871 V

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

100 Hz
Y:1.999169 V

2
V
Pk-Pk

1
V

Magnitude

Real

-1
0 s

2013

0 Hz

Y:3.579427 mV
dY:997.4356 m

-1

Peak - Peak

Y:706.8129 mV

2
V
rms

1
V

-1

Peak

X:55 Hz
Pwr Spec 1

62.46948 ms

47

0 Hz

100 Hz

Changing Units
Many times it is necessary to change between units.

Pk-Pk / 2 = Peak
Peak x 0.707 = RMS

(Peak / 1.414 = RMS)

RMS x 1.414 = Peak

(RMS / 0.707 = Peak)

Peak x 2 = Pk-Pk
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Convert the Unit

x2

Peak - Peak

Peak

x 1.414

2013

Peak

RMS

49

x 0.707

Engineering Units (EU)

Engineering units are used to give meaning to the amplitude of the
measurement.
Instead of the default volts, it is possible to incorporate a unit
proportional to volts that will have greater meaning to the user.

Examples:

2013

100 mV / g

20 mV / Pa

1 V / in/s

200 mV / mil

50 mV / psi

10 mV / fpm

33 mV / %

10 mV / V

50

EUs the Hard Way

Sometimes we forget to use EUs, or just dont understand how
to set up the analyzer. The measurement is in volts!
There is no immediate need to panic if ????
You know what the EU is for the sensor you are using.
Example: An accelerometer outputs 100 mV / g and there is a
10 mV peak in the frequency spectrum.
What is the amplitude in gs ?
Answer = 10 mV / 100 mV = 0.1 g

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Three Measures

Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
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52

Converting Measures
In many cases we are confronted with Acceleration,
Velocity, or Displacement, but are not happy with it.
Maybe we have taken the measurement in
acceleration, but the model calls for displacement.
Maybe we have taken the data in displacement, but
the manufacturer quoted the equipment
specifications in velocity.
How do we change between these measures ?
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Converting Measures
Velocity = Acceleration / 2 f
Displacement = Velocity / 2 f
Displacement = Acceleration / (2 f)2
Where:
Acceleration = gs
Multiply acceleration in gs by (386.1 inches/second 2)/g
Multiply acceleration in gs by (9807 mm/second 2)/g

Velocity = inches/second or mm/second

Displacement = inches or mm
f = frequency in Hz. (cycles/second)
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Converting Measures
386.1

Acceleration (gs)

Acceleration
(inch/s2)

x 386.1
Acceleration
(inch/s2)

Standard Measures
x 2(Pi)f

2(Pi)f

Velocity
(inch/s)

Velocity
(inch/s)

x 2(Pi)f

2013

Displacement (inch)

55

2(Pi)f

Converting Measures
9807

Acceleration (gs)

Acceleration
(mm/s2)

x 9807
Acceleration
(mm/s2)

Metric Measures
x 2(Pi)f

2(Pi)f

Velocity
(mm/s)

Velocity
(mm/s)

x 2(Pi)f

2013

Displacement (mm)

56

2(Pi)f

Acceleration - Velocity
Example: Find the equivalent Peak velocity for a 25 Hz
vibration at 7 mg rms.
Velocity = (g x 386.1) / (2

f)

Velocity = (0.007 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 25)

Velocity = 0.017 inches / second RMS
Answer = 0.017 x 1.414 = 0.024 inches / second Peak

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Velocity - Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent peak-peak displacement
for a 25 Hz vibration at 0.024 in/s Peak ?
Displacement = Velocity / (2

xf)

Displacement = 0.024 / (6.28 x 25)

Displacement = 0.000153 inches Peak
Answer = 0.000153 x 2 = 0.000306 inches Peak Peak
or 0.3 mils Peak - Peak

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Acceleration - Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent Peak-Peak displacement
for a 52 Hz vibration at 15 mg rms.
Displacement = (g x 386.1) / (2

x f )2

Displacement = (0.015 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 52)2

Displacement = 0.000054 inches rms.
Answer = (0.000054 x 1.414) 2 = 0.000154 inches Peak-Peak
or 0.154 mils Peak - Peak

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Radians, Degrees,
or Time

3600 = 2 Radians

900

3600 / 2 Radians
57.3250 / Radian

1800

00
3600

2700

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3
2

0
2

Radians, Degrees,
or Time

2
900

1800

00 0
3600 2

2700

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3
2

Radians, Degrees,

or Time
2
900

00

1800
Period

3600

(seconds/cycle)

2700
3
2
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2013

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Sensors

Speed

Displacement
Frequency

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2013

65

Accelerometers
Charge Mode

IEPE
Internal Amplifier
Industrial

2013

External Amplifier
High Temperature

66

Accelerometer
Requirements and Applications
Requirements
Functionality
Durability
Affordability

Applications
Trending
Alarming
Diagnostics

Remember
One sensor does not
fit all applications
Fit, Form & Function

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Accelerometer
Advantages
Measures casing vibration
Measures absolute vibration
Integrate to Velocity
Easy to mount
Large range of frequency response
Available in many configurations
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Accelerometer
Disadvantages
Does not measure shaft vibration
Sensitive to mounting techniques and
surface conditions
Difficult to perform calibration check
One accelerometer does not fit all
applications

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Mass & Charge

Mass
Ceramic
Base

2013

Relative movement
between base & mass
creates shear in ceramic
producing charge.

70

Typical Accelerometer
Parameters/Specifications
Specification
Sensitivity

Value

Alternate Value

100 mV/g +/-5%

Frequency Response
+/-3dB

30 900,000 CPM

0.5 15,000 Hz

Frequency Response
+/-10%

60 420,000 CPM

1.0 7,000 Hz

Frequency Response
+/-5%

120 240,000 CPM

2.0 4,000 Hz

Dynamic Range
Resonant Frequency

2013

+/- 80 g peak
1,560,000 CPM

71

26,000 Hz

Typical Accelerometer
Frequency Response
Amplitude

Transmission Region
The usable frequency range of the accelrometer

Amplification
Region

Isolation
Region

The natural frequency is

excited causing gain
around resonance

Phase between
sensor & machine
is shifted by 180
degrees and signal
rolls off to zero

based on acceptable amplitude limits

+/- 3dB

+/- 10%

+/- 5%

Frequency

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Accelerometer Mounts

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Realistic Mounting

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Sensitivity, Range
& Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2013

Application
A 10 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 500 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
They are typically used for machinery
that is generating high amplitude
vibrations. With the large dynamic
range, they are much less likely to
become saturated as a result of the
high amplitude vibrations.

75

Sensitivity, Range
& Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

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Application
A 50 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 100 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
They are typically used for general
purpose machinery measurements,
and are sometimes offered as standard
sensors for data collectors.

Sensitivity, Range
& Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

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Application
A 100 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 50 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
Approximately 90% of all vibration
analysis and data collection is
accomplished with a 100 mV/g
accelerometer.
Some sensors are also available with
a +/- 80g dynamic range for measuring
larger signal amplitudes.

Sensitivity, Range
& Application
Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g

+/- 500 g

+/- 5 VAC

50 mV/g

+/- 100 g

+/- 5 VAC

100 mV/g

+/- 50 g

+/- 5 VAC

500 mV/g

+/- 10 g

+/- 5 VAC

2013

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Application
A 500 mV/g accelerometer will have a
dynamic range of +/- 10 gs, and a
dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC.
This high output sensor is typically
used for low speed equipment, low
frequency measurements, and low
amplitude analysis.
The high output provides a much
better signal to noise ratio for low
amplitude signals.

Mounting Locations
These mounting
locations also conform
the the right hand rule
for phase analysis.
(Cartesian Coordinates)

Vertical (Y)

Horizontal (X)

Load Zone
2013

Axial (Z)
79

Mounting Locations
Load Zone
Axial (Z)
Radial
Vertical (Y)
Horizontal (X)

2013

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2013

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Velocity Sensors
Self Generating no power supply
required
Magnet inside coil generates velocity
proportional to vibration
Spring mass system
10 Hz. to 1000 Hz.
Phase change 900
Directional mounting
Large & Heavy
Output = mV/inch/sec
Wide range of available outputs

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Piezo Velocity Sensors

Remember everything that you just learned about an
accelerometer
The output of the accelerometer has been integrated
to velocity and has a 900 phase change
100 mV/inch/sec (4 mV/mm/sec)
500 mV/inch/sec (20 mV/mm/sec)

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2013

84

Proximity Probes,
Cables, & Drivers

2013

85

5, 7 and 9 Meter Systems

AA = No Thread Length
BB = Case Length
CC = Total Length
2013

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5, 7 & 9 Meter Systems

Extension Cable

Probe Length + Extension Cable Length

must equal 5, 7 or 9 meters in system
length
2013

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5, 7 and 9 Meter Systems

Driver

Electronics tuned for 5, 7 or 9 meter

systems
2013

88

Application
Measure Displacement
Plain bearing applications
Non Contact Sensor
Ideal for measuring:
Shaft vibration
Shaft centerline position (Gap)
Shaft axial position (Thrust Bearing)
Rod drop
Speed (Gear)
Trigger (Key or Keyway)
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Common Applications
Compressors
Steam Turbines
Pumps
Fans
Blowers
Generators
Gear Boxes

2013

Plain Bearings
Journal Bearings
Fluid Film Bearings
Babbitt Bearings
Sleeve Bearings
Tilting Pad Bearings
Recips (cross head)

90

Displacement Probes
Advantages
Non-contact
Measure relative shaft vibration
Measure shaft centerline position (DC gap)
Measure axial position (Thrust)
Provide Speed or Trigger
Flat frequency response dc 10KHz
Simple calibration
Suitable for harsh environments
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Displacement Probes Disadvantages

Probe can move (vibrate)
Doesnt work on all metals
Plated shafts may give
Plated shaft is
false measurement
round, but core
material is not..
Measurement is affected by
scratches & tool marks in shaft
Available system lengths (probe, cable & driver)
5 meter or 9 meter are standard
Must have relief at sensing tip from surrounding
metal (counter bore)
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Technical Background
Driver
Cable

The tip of the probe emits a radio

frequency signal into the surrounding
area as a magnetic field

Probe

Shaft

2013

As a conductive target intercepts the

magnetic field, eddy currents are
generated on the surface of the target,
and power is drained from the radio
frequency signal

93

Technical Background
Driver
Cable

Probe

Power varies with target movement

in the radio frequency field creating
a variation in the output voltage of
the driver
- A small DC voltage indicates that the target is
close to the probe tip
- A large DC voltage indicates that the target is
far away from the probe tip

Shaft

2013

- The variation of DC voltage is the AC dynamic

signal indicating the vibration (displacement)
94

Sensitivity, Range,
& Response
Driver
Cable
Typical non-contact
displacement sensor for
measuring shaft vibration on
a sleeve or journal bearing.

Probe

Sensitivity
Eddy Currents

Dynamic Range

Shaft

Frequency Response
Journal/Sleeve

2013

95

200 mV/mil
(8 V/mm)
10 90 mils
(.25 2.3 mm)
DC 10 kHz

Linearity
Proximity Probe Linearity

Gap

Gap

Output

Nomial Output = 200 mV/mil (8V/mm)

mils

mm

VDC

-18

10

0.25

-2.00

-16

20

0.51

-4.00

-14

30

0.76

-6.00

-12

40

1.02

-8.00

50

1.27

-10.00

60

1.52

-12.00

-4

70

1.78

-14.00

-2

80

2.03

-16.00

90

2.29

-18.00

100

2.54

-20.00

Volts DC

-20

-10
-8
-6

0
0

2013

10

20

30

40

50
mils

60

70

80

96

90

100

Materials & Sensitivity

Typical
200 mv/mil
(8 V/mm)
4140 Steel

Note:
If the shaft or target material is
not 4140 steel, then a test
should be run to determine the
sensitivity of the material being
measured.

Depends on probe,
cable (length), and
driver.
Target material
varies output.
2013

97

Durability is Required
Proximity probes lead a
rough life. Installation,
maintenance and
overhauls require trained
analysts, technicians, or
mechanics to properly
install and remove the
probes. Some probes are
actually encapsulated
inside the fluid film
bearing, and are exposed
to the lubrication and
heat generated by the
bearing. Proper handling
and durability are key
performance factors.
2013

98

Driver to Driven

2013

99

API Standard 670

2013

Industry Standard for Proximity Probes

American Petroleum Institute

4th Edition, December 01, 2000

(5th Edition Pending Release)

www.techstreet.com $200.00 USD/copy

100

Probe Orientation
Vertical (Y)

900

(X) Horizontal

Probe orientation
based on facing
Driver to Driven

Gap
Shaft
Lubricant
Sleeve

2013

101

DC Gap & Dynamic AC

DC Gap

Time Record 1
-9.75
V

30 mV p-p VAC

A negative voltage
level proportional to
the gap spacing

Dynamic
-10.00

Dynamic AC
Real

Varying DC voltage
simulates dynamic
AC voltage for
vibration output

VDC
Gap

-10.25
0 s

2013

79.96092 ms

102

30 mV/(200 mV/mil)
= 0.15 mils p-p

DC Gap & Dynamic AC

Positive Peak =
- 48.57 mils
DC Gap =
- 56.08 mils
Negative Peak =
- 63.59 mils

Dynamic Outputs

Note: The shaft

diameter needs to be
greater than 2 inches to
prevent interference
between the two probes.

900

Vertical for
Amplitude

Horizontal for
Time Base

2013

104

The Orbit Display

Y

2013

105

Machine
Vertical

Rolling the Scope

Machine
Horizontal

450
2013

106

Machine
Vertical

Orbit
Correction

Machine
Horizontal

2013

107

Modern Orbits

2013

108

Modern instrumentation can

compensate for the location of the X
and Y probes providing a true machine
vertical and horizontal measurement.

Clearance vs. Vibration

Diametrical Clearance

Peak - Peak Displacement

If the (Peak Peak Displacement / Diametrical Clearance) x 100% > 50% then
the vibration of the shaft is using more than half of the bearing clearance and
additional analysis may be required to identify and reduce the vibration amplitude.

2013

109

Absolute Shaft
Displacement

Velocity

Displacement

1. Measure the
vertical shaft
displacement.

Vertical Measures
D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650

2. Measure the
vertical casing
velocity.

V = 0.24 IPSpk @ 2110

3600 RPM

3. Include phase
2013

110

Graphical Addition
Vertical Measures
900

D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650

V = 0.24 IPSp @ 2110

3.86 milsp-p
@ 1520

Velocity leads
displacement by 900
2110 - 900 = 1210

1800

Dp-p = 2[0.24/(2f)]

1.27 milsp-p
@ 1210
2.85 milsp-p
@ 1650

Dp-p = 2[0.24/(6.28x60)]
D = 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210
2700
2013

111

00

Mathematical Addition
900

D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650

D = 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210
y = 2.85 milsp-p x sin 1650

1800

y = 0.74 + 1.09 = 1.83 milsp-p

x = 2.85 milsp-p x cos 1650

1.832 + (-3.40)2

@ 1520

1.83 milsp-p

-3.4 milsp-p
900 + acos 1.83/3.86

x = -2.75 milsp-p

900 + 620 = 1520

1210

x = -0.65 milsp-p

2700

x = - 2.75 + - 0.65 = - 3.40 milsp-p

2013

D=

3.86 milsp-p

y = 1.27 milsp-p x sin 1210

x = 1.27 milsp-p x cos

y2 + x2

D = 3.86 milsp-p

y = 0.74 milsp-p
y = 1.09 mils p-p

D=

112

00

Shaft Centerline
Bore Dia.
On
Centers

Zero
RPM

2013

Shaft Dia.

Diametrical
Clearance

113

CCW
Rotation

CW
Rotation

Plotting Shaft Position

Y -450

X +450

At Running Speed
CCW Rotation
Y = -1 mil
X = +2 mils
Shaft Change = 2.24
mils @ 71.60

2013

114

Axial Thrust or Position

Shaft

2013

Two axial oriented probes are used for

redundancy to monitor the axial movement
of the shaft or thrust collar.

115

Rod Drop

2013

116

2013

117

Natural Frequency
A result of the Mass (m) and
Stiffness (k) of the machine design
Resonance occurs when a natural
frequency is excited by a force
Critical speed occurs when the
machine speed matches the natural
frequency and creates resonance

2013

118

Natural Frequency
X:164.0625 ms
dX:554.6875 ms
Time Record 1

Y:1.379613 G
dY:-729.2974 mG

Time Waveform

TIME1.63

2
G

Real

-2
0 s
X:109.125 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1

8 s
Y:214.7374 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ1.63

0.3
G
rms
Real

0
50.00001 Hz

2013

150 Hz

119

INCREASE the
stiffness ( k )

INCREASE the
mass ( m )

INCREASE the
frequency (f)

DECREASE the
frequency ( f )

2013

120

Natural Frequency

10 lbs.

30 lbs.

50 lbs.

95 lbs.

Pull Strength
Frequency Response 2000 Hz.
k/m

2013

k/m

k/m

121

k/m

Bump Testing Set-up

UNIFORM WINDOW

2013

Take your time Bump around

Do not over range or clip the input signal
800 1600 lines of resolution
Try some different frequency spans
Only 1 bump for each time record
About 4 averages (depends on noise)
122

Uniform Window

The Uniform window

should be used for
bump testing.

Uniform

If you use the

Hanning or Flat Top
windows, they will
filter out the response
from the impact

Hanning

Flat Top
2013

123

Bump It !
X:23.4375 ms
dX:76.17188 ms
Time Record 1

Y:1.63297 G
dY:-1.36474 G

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

2
G

Real

-2
0 s

1 s

X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1

Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

0.015
G
rms
Real
0
0 Hz

2013

100 Hz

124

Mental Health Check !

X:23.4375 ms
dX:76.17188 ms
Time Record 1

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

76.17 msec/5 = 15.23 msec

2
G

The frequency
measured in the
time waveform
should be the
same frequency in
the FFT.

Y:1.63297 G
dY:-1.36474 G

Real

F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz

-2
0 s
X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1
0.015
G
rms

1 s
Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

65.5 Hz

Real
0
0 Hz

2013

100 Hz

125

Time Waveform
X:23.4375 ms
X:99.60938 ms
Time Record 1

TIME4.63

A0 = 1.633 G

2
G

Time Waveform

Y:1.63297 G
Y:268.2297 mG

F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz

An = 0.268 G
Real

n = 5 cycles
LN = natural log

-2
0 s

1 s

1. Log decrement = (1/n)[LN(A0/An)] = (1/5)[LN(1.633/0.268)] = 0.36

2. Damping ratio = Log dec/2Pi = 0.36/2Pi = 0.36/6.28 = 0.057
3. Amplification factor = 1/(2*Damping) = 1/(2*0.057) = 8.68

2013

126

FFT or Spectrum
X:58.75 Hz
X:65.5 Hz
X:70.75 Hz
Auto Pwr Spec 1
0.015
G
rms

Y:8.550765 mG
Y:12.23725 mG
Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
F = 65.5 Hz

HZ4.63

f2 = 70.75 Hz

f1 = 58.75 Hz

Real

-3dB
0
0 Hz

100 Hz

1. Find the 3dB points = AF * .707 = 12.24 mG * .707 = 8.65 mG

2. Find the frequencies at the 3dB points (f1 and f2)
3. Amplification factor = F/ (f2 - f1) = 65.5/(70.75 58.75) = 5.46
2013

127

Bump Testing Summary

Take your time
Choose your weapon
Bump around
Uniform Window
Look at the time
waveform
Look at the frequency
spectrum
Do a mental health
check
2013

Calculate the
amplification factor
Change the mass
Change the stiffness
Add damping
Bump around
Compare and verify
results after changes
to the machine
128

1x (Running Speed)
Mass Unbalance 1x

2013

Critical Speed 1x
Misalignment 1x, 2x, 3x
Looseness 1x, 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, .
Runout 1x

129

1x Mass Unbalance
X:30 Hz
X:60 Hz
FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms
Magnitude

Y:584.5464 minch
Y:88.18431 minch

1x

1600 Lines

Usable FFT
2x

0
0 Hz

100 Hz

TIME 1
1.5
inch

Real

-1.5
0 s
2013

fT = 1 ?

15.99609 s
130

1x Mass Unbalance
1600 Lines

FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms

Ft = 1 ?

Magnitude

0
0 Hz

6.4 kHz

TIME 1
1.5
inch

Usable Time
Waveform

Real

-1.5
0 s
2013

249.939 ms
131

1x Mass Unbalance
X:30 Hz
X:60 Hz
FREQ 1
0.7
inch
rms
Magnitude

Y:584.5464 minch
Y:88.18431 minch

1x
FT 1 !

2x

0
0 Hz
TIME 1
1.5
inch

100 Hz

Primarily 1x

Real

-1.5
0 s
2013

249.939 ms
132

But it makes a
nice set of plots
to analyze !

1x, 2x, 3x Misalignment

1x
2x

1x
2x

2013

133

1x, 2x, 3x Misalignment

1x

2x

Angular

Offset

Misalignment

Misalignment

Look for a 1800 phase shift across the coupling in axial

vibration measurements. Be careful with the way you
mount the accelerometer. Dont create the 1800 phase shift
by flipping the accelerometer around.
2013

134

Rolling Element
Bearings

2013

Rolling element bearings will not generate

frequencies that are even multiples of running
speed. They are non-synchronous.
They often generate low amplitudes
They have stages of failure starting with high
frequency stress waves deteriorating to low
frequency components.
When the vibration gets better shut the
machine off immediately!
135

Rolling Element Bearing

Frequencies Inner Race Rotates
FTF = (Hz/2)[1-(B/P)cosCA]
BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA]
BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2}
Where:
Hz. = shaft speed in cps
Inner race and shaft rotate.
Outer race is held or fixed.

N = number of rolling elements

B = ball diameter
P = pitch diameter
CA = contact angle

2013

136

Rolling Element Bearing

Frequencies Outer Race Rotates
FTF = (Hz/2)[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA]
BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA]
No
Rotation

BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2}
Where:
Hz. = shaft speed in cps

Inner race and shaft fixed.

Outer race rotates.

N = number of rolling elements

B = ball diameter
P = pitch diameter
CA = contact angle

2013

137

Rolling Element Bearings (BPFI)

9 - CENTER ROLL
532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL

1.2

Route Spectrum
21-Feb-04 08:37:46

SKF 6326
7.66 FTF
43.01 BSF
61.31 BPFO
95.26 BPFI

PK Velocity in mm/Sec

0.9

0.6

OVERALL= 5.20 V-AN

PK = 2.13
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1174. (19.57 Hz)

0.3

0
0

2013

300

600
Frequency in Hz

138

900

1200

Freq: 589.03
Ordr: 30.10
Spec: .289
Dfrq: 94.91

Rolling Element Bearings (BPFI)

9 - CENTER ROLL
532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL

20

Route Waveform
21-Feb-04 08:37:46

15

RMS = 3.52
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1506. (25.09 Hz)

Acceleration in G-s

10

CF ALARM

PK(+) = 17.23
PK(-) = 17.94
CRESTF= 5.10

5
PK ALARM

Angel Fish

PK ALARM
-5

-10

Impacts create
Resonance of
Inner Ring

CF ALARM

-15

-20
0

2013

50

100
Time in mSecs

150

139

200

Rolling Element
Bearings
ft = 1 ?
t is very small
F is very high
F max
2013

140

Rolling Element
Bearings
ft = 1 ?
t is longer
f is lower
F max
2013

141

Rolling Element
Bearings
ft = 1 ?
T is really long
f is really low
F max
2013

142

Rolling Element
Bearings ?
As the frequency gets lower
bad things are happening !

2013

143

Rolling Element
Bearings ?
No vibration program?
No Reliability!

2013

144

Rolling Element
Bearings ?
You need all of the
rolling elements, a good
cage, and a solid inner
race to have a quality
bearing and low
vibration measurment!

2013

145

Rolling Element
Bearings

2013

Electrifying!

146

Gear Mesh
Number of Teeth x Speed of the Shaft it
is mounted on.
Sidebands around gear mesh will be
spaced at the shaft speed the gear is
mounted on.
Typically the vibration will be in the axial
direction

2013

147

Gear Mesh & Shaft Speeds

1770 RPM

27T

21T

(29.5 Hz)

13.18 Hz (790.85 RPM)

2.42 Hz (145.25 RPM)

47T
147T

Shaft Speeds

Gear Mesh

Inter Speed = 29.5(21/47) = 13.18 Hz

13.18 x 60 = 790.85 CPM
Output Speed = 13.18(27/147) = 2.42 Hz
2.42 x 60 = 145.25 CPM

GMH = 29.5 x 21 = 619.5 Hz

619.5 x 60 = 37,170 CPM
GML = 13.18 x 27 = 355.88 Hz
355.88 x 60 = 21,352 CPM

2013

148

Gear Mesh with Sidebands

of Shaft Speed
X:30.59605 Hz
X:31.82788 Hz
X:33.05971 Hz

Y:31.80463 mpsi
Y:89.65971 mpsi
Y:25.62417 mpsi

1
0.1
psi
rms
Magnitude

Gear Mesh = 31.828

Hz
Sideband spacing = 1.232 Hz
1.232 Hz x 60 = 73.9 CPM
73.9 RPM = Shaft Speed

0
20 Hz

2013

Zoom Window

149

40 Hz

Fans
Blade Pass
Number of Blades x Speed of the Shaft
the rotor is mounted on.
Look at the damper and duct work for flow
and restrictions.
Blade clearance, discharge angle, wear &
tear

Unbalance, misalignment, bearings

2013

150

Pumps

Vane Pass
Number of Vanes x Speed of the Shaft the rotor is mounted on.
Look at the input and output pressures
Vane clearance, discharge angle, wear & tear

Recirculation
Random noise in FFT & Time Waveform
Axial shuttling, High back pressure, Low flow rate
Fluid being forced back into pump

Cavitation
Random noise in the FFT & Time Waveform
Audible noise, Low back pressure, High flow rate
Air entrained in fluid

2013

Unbalance, misalignment, bearings

151

Motors (synchronous)
Synchronous Speed
(2 x Line Frequency)/number of poles

Stator
2 x Line Frequency and Multiples

Rotor
Sidebands Around Running Speed =
Slip Frequency x Number of Poles
with Multiples

Unbalance, Misalignment, Bearings

2013

152

Thank You !
You can find technical papers on
this and other subjects at

www.ctconline.com
in the Technical Resources section
Connection Technology Center, Inc.
7939 Rae Boulevard
Victor, New York 14564
Tel: +1-585-924-5900
Fax: +1-585-924-4680
2013

153