Solution of IAT 1 (**Figures to the right indicate scheme of marking)

1. a) Analogous electrical elements in forcevoltage analogy for the elements of mechanical

translational system:
(2)
Mechanical System

Electrical System

Force

Voltage

Velocity

Current

Mass

Inductance

Compliance (Reciprocal of Stiffness)

Capacitance

Damping

Resistance

b) Transfer Function: It is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output of a system to

the Laplace transform of input given to that system when all initial conditions are assumed to
be zero. i.e.,
Transfer Function, G(s) = C(s)/R(s) where, C(s) is
the output and R(s) is input when all initial
conditions are zero.
(1)
Type of a system: It is defined as the no. of poles located at the origin. E.g. let,
( )
(
), as there are two poles at origin, so the system is of type-2.
(2)
c) Comparing with general 2nd order system characteristic equation,
we get the value of
and,

(1)
(2)

i.e.,

i.e.,

d) Rise Time: It is defined as the time required

for the system waveform to go from 10% to 90%
of its final value. It is denoted by Tr.

(1)

Settling Time: it is the time required for the

system to settle within 2% to 5% of the final
value. It is denoted by Ts.
where,
frequency,

is undamped natural

is damped natural frequency and

is damping ratio.

(2)

e) A system is classified in four groups depending on the value of the damping as,
i.
Undamped system with
ii.
Underdamped system with
iii. Critically damped system with
iv.

Overdamped system with

(2)

f) Four steps of block diagram reduction:

i.
Cascade form: When multiple subsystems are connected in cascade form, then final
output TF of equivalent single system is the product of all TFs of the subsystems.

ii.

Parallel form: When multiple subsystems are connected in parallel form, then final
output TF of equivalent single system is the sum of all TFs of the subsystems.

(1)
iii.

Feedback form: When multiple subsystems are connected in feedback form, then
final output TF of equivalent single system will be as below,

iv.

Moving blocks: The blocks can be moved either to the left (fig. a) or right (fig.b) to
the summing junction as follows,

(2)
2. a) Block diagram reduction:
Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

(5 Steps X 1 = 5)

Step 4:

Step 5:

[*** Each step carries 1 mark.]

b) Mathematical modelling of Mechanical system: To develop free body diagram for the
given system, we sum all the forces to zero.
There are four forces,
i. An external force, F
ii. A force from the spring. To determine the
direction consider that the position "x" is defined
positive to the right. If the mass moves in the positive "x" direction, the spring is compressed
and exerts a force on the mass. So there will be a force from the spring, k*x, to the left.
iii. A force from the dashpot. By an argument similar to that for the spring there will be a
force from the dashpot, b*v, to the left. (The velocity, v, is the derivative of x with respect
to time.)
iv. Finally, there is the internal force which is
defined to be opposed to the defined direction of
motion. This is represented by M*a to the
left. (The acceleration, a, is the second derivative of
x with respect to time.)
Free Body Diagram
So,

( )

( )

( )

i.e.,

This is the differential equation of a mechanical system as provided.

Force to Voltage Analogy: Analogous equations are described in the following table,

(3)

Electrical Equation

Mechanical Analogy (Force to Voltage)

(5)

So, Force-Voltage analogy is,

Mechanical System Component
Force (F)
Velocity (v)
Displacement (x)
Mass (M)
Damping Coefficient (b)
Compliances(=1/Stiffness) (1/K)

3. a) RH Criterion:

Electrical System Component

Voltage (e)
Current (i)
Charge (Q)
Inductance (L)
Resistance (R)
Capacitance (C)

F(s) = s6 + 2s5 + 8s4+12s3+20s2+16s +16 = 0

s6

20

16

s5

2 (1)

12 (6)

16 (8)

s4

2 (1)

12 (6)

16 (8)

s3

0 (4) (1)

0 (12) (3)

s2

1/3

s0

Since, row of coefficient of s3 becomes zero,

so the auxiliary equation, A = s4+6s2+8 = 0
So,

(3)

No sign change in first column. But, there is a row of zeros. So, there is a possibility of roots
lying on the imaginary axis.
Auxiliary polynomial, s4 + 6s2 + 8 = 0
let x = s2. This gives, x2 + 6x + 8 = 0
Solution of this 2nd order equation is, x = 2, 4
So, s = 2 and 4 = +j2, j2, +j2, j2

Roots of auxiliary polynomial are also roots of characteristic equation. Hence 4 roots lie on
imaginary axis and remaining 2 roots lie on left half of s-plane. Hence, the system is
marginally stable.
(5)
b) Steady State Error for different Inputs & system Types: Steady State Error is defined as
the difference between desired input and measured output when the system ultimately
reaches to the steady state after its transient nature. So, e(t) = r(t) c(t)
Or, in s-domain, E(s) = R(s) C(s)
Steady-state error can be calculated from the open or closed-loop transfer function for unity
feedback systems. For example, let's consider the system given below.
Since, the feedback H(s) = 1, error E(s) actually implies E(s) = R(s) C(s)
But, C(s) = G(s). E(s) So, E(s) = R(s) G(s) E(s)
( )
E(s) =
( )
( )
e() =
( )
( )
Now, let's plug in the Laplace transforms for some standard inputs and determine equations
to calculate steady-state error from the open-loop transfer function in each case.

Step Input (R(s) = A / s): e() =

( )

Where, Kp = position error constant =

Ramp Input (R(s) = A/s2): e() =

Where, Kv = velocity error constant =

Parabolic Input (R(s) = A/s3): e() =

Where, Ka = acceleration error constant =

( )

( )

( )
( )
( )

( )

( )
( )
( )

( )

( )

(2)

The number of poles at the origin of the loop gain transfer function (i.e. the number of
integrators) defines the systems type number. For the following system, n represents the
type of the system.

(3)

Type
Type 0
system
Type 1
system
Type 2
system
Type 3 &
higher
system

Steady state
error formula
Static error
constant
Error
Static error
constant
Error
Static error
constant
Error
Static error
constant
Error

Step Input

Ramp Input

Parabolic
Input

1/(1+Kp)

1/Kv

1/Ka

Kp = constant

Kv = 0

Ka = 0

1/(1+Kp)

Infinity

Infinity

Kp = infinity

Kv = constant

Ka = 0

1/Kv

Infinity

Kp = infinity

Kv = infinity

Ka = constant

1/Ka

Kp = infinity

Kv = infinity

Ka = infinity

(5)

--THE END--

Solution of IAT 2 (**Figures to the right indicate scheme of marking)

1. a) State Controllability: A system is said to be controllable at time t0 if it is possible by
means of an unconstrained control vector u(t) to transfer the system from any initial state
x(t0) to any other state x(tf) in a finite interval of time (tf-t0) 0.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) to be completely
For an LTI system,
controllable, it is necessary and sufficient that the following matrix has a rank of n.
[
]
(2)
b) Phase Margin: Its a measure of relative stability, defined as the additional phase lag
for the open loop system required at unity gain (i.e. at gain crossover frequency, c) to
make the closed loop system unstable. Mathematically,
PM = 180o + G(jc)H(jc)
(1)
Gain Margin: Its a measure of relative stability, defined as the change in open loop gain,
expressed in Decibels (dB), required at 180o of phase shift (i.e. at phase crossover
frequency, p) to make the closed loop system unstable. Mathematically,
GM =

| (

) (

(2)

)|

c) Centroid: If there are n no. of poles and m no. of zeros, then (n-m) no. of root locus
branches tends to infinity along straight line asymptotes drawn from a single point on the
real axis. This point is called Centroid. Mathematically it can be calculated as,
Centroid = ( poles zeros )/(n-m)
(1)
Angle of Departure: It is an angle made by a complex pole to find the root locus of a
system when open loop gain K is varied from 0 to . Mathematically it is calculated as,

d) Nyquist Stability Criterion: If a contour A that encircles the entire RHS plane, is
mapped through G(s)H(s), then the no. of closed loop poles in the RHS plane (Z) which is
equal to the no. of open loop zeros, is always equal to the difference between no. of open
loop poles (P) in the RHS plane and the no. of counter clockwise revolutions (N) around
-1 point of the mapping. i.e. Z = P-N. So if there is no encirclement around the point
(-1+j0), it implies that the system is stable.
(2)
e) Provided, ( ) ( )

)(

So, open loop poles are at

. So there are 3 poles (i.e., n = 3) and no
zeros (i.e., m = 0). So, no. of asymptotes = n m = 3.
(

k = 0, 1, 2

So, angle of asymptotes are 60o, 180o and 300o (-60o)

(2)
8

f) Principle of Optimality: The system design is said to be optimal if it minimizes a

specified performance index (PI and/or cost function) with no constraints on the
controller configuration. A design becomes optimal when the system parameters are so
adjusted so that PI attains an extremum, normally a minimum value. Such a design should
provide a system that is not merely stable but also satisfies a specific criterion based on
minimization of settling time, peak overshoot or steady state error and has the desired
bandwidth, hence the word OPTIMAL.
(2)
2. a) Bode Plot: Transfer function, as given is converted into standard form as,
( )

(
(

)(

Next substitute s = j in the standard form,

(

( )
(

Phase angle, ( )

( )

Pole at origin,

3.

1st order pole,

4.

1st order pole,

5.

1st order zero, (

3.
4.

( )

(1)

Magnitude Curve

Phase Curve

Straight line at 20 log K = -2.5 dB

=0

Straight line of slope -20 dB/dec

passing through = 1, 0 dB point

= -90

Line slopes are,

a) 0 dB/dec for 2
b) -20 dB/dec for > 2
Line slopes are,
a) 0 dB/dec for 10
b) -20 dB/dec for > 10
Line slopes are,
a) 0 dB/dec for 5
b) +20 dB/dec for > 5

Table 2: Magnitude Plot Table:

Sl
Factors
Resultant slope
no
1.
K
Straight line at -2.5 dB
2.

(2)

Gain, K= 0.75

2.

)(

( )

Table 1: Table of Factors:

Sl
Factors
no
1.

= -tan-1(/2)

= -tan-1(/10)

= tan-1(/5)

(3)
Start point

End point

0.1

-20 dB/dec

0.1

-20+(-20) = -40 dB/dec

-40+20 = -20 dB/dec

10

5.

-20+(-20) = -40 dB/dec

10

(4)

Table 3: Phase angle table:

( )

0.1
1
2
5
10
50
100
1000

-90
-90
-90
-90
-90
-90
-90
-90

-2.86
-26.5
-45
-68.2
-78.7
-87.7
-88.85
-89.85

-0.572
-5.71
-11.31
-26.56
-45
-78.7
-84.3
-89.42

( )

( )

1.15
11.3
21.8
45
63.43
84.3
87.13
89.7

-92.3
-110.9
-124.5
-139.76
-150.26
-172.1
-176.02
-179.55

Figure below shows the Bode plot for the system.

(5)

Fig: Bode Plot

b) Root Locus Plot: Provided,
( )

(
)
i) Poles: s = 0, (-3+j4) and (-3-j4) [So, n=3]
There are two complex poles. So a root locus branch exists between origin and .
ii) Zeros: There are no zeros. So, m=0
iii) No. of Asymptotes: (n-m) = 3

10

iv) Angle of Asymptotes:

= 60o, 180o, 300o

v) Centroid: C = ( poles zeros )/(n-m) = (0-3-3)/3 = -2

vi) Breakaway Point: Characteristic equation, 1+G(s)H(s) = 0
(

So,

gives
)

(1)

yields

and for this value of s, the

value of
But to be an actual breakaway point, corresponding K value must be real and positive.
Hence neither of these two points are breakaway points.
(2)
vii) Imaginary Axis Crossing: Substitute s=j in the characteristic equation,
=> ( )
( )
( )
After simplification, (
)
(
)
Which yields = 5 and K = 150.
(3)
o
viii) Angle of Departure: OA = (-3+j4-0) = 5126.87
AB = (-3+j4-(-3-j4)) = j8 = 890o
(
) (
)
So,

(4)
Figure below shows the root-locus plot for the system.

Fig: Root Locus Plot

(5)

3. a) Nyquist Plot: For the system as given,

( ) ( )

)(

poles are, s = 0,-2 and -10. Since there are no poles on the RHS plane, hence P = 0. So for
stability, no. of encirclement about the point (-1+j0) in the CCW direction should be zero
i.e. N = 0.
(1)
Modified Nyquist contour is shown in fig (a) as there is a pole at origin.
Nyquist Paths are,
11

1.
2.
3.
4.

Path a-b: s = j
Path b-c-d: s =
Path d-e: s = -j
Path e-f-a: s =

; 90 -90
; -90 90

Path a-b: Here s = j gives the polar plot (

| (

) (

)|
(

) (

) (

)(

( )

At = 0; (

) ( )
Polar plot is shown in fig (b).

and at = ; (

) (

Fig (a)

(4)

Fig (b)
; ( ) ( )

Path b-c-d: Here s =

)(

[As, R].

So this path maps to the centre.

Path d-e: Here s = -j. This is a mirror
image of path a-b.
Path e-f-a: Here s =
( ) ( )

;
)(

Since there is a pole at origin, there is a

semi-circle in CW direction from e to a.
The entire Nyquist Plot is shown in fig
(c).
Fig (c)

(5)
12

b) Controllability & Observability: Provided,

[

[ ]

Controllability matrix, Qc = [B AB A2B], since A is of order n = 3.

AB = [

][ ]

So, |Qc| = |

[ ] and A2B = A*AB = [

][ ]

Qc is a non-singular matrix and hence, rank of Qc = order of A = 3.

So the system is controllable.
Similarly, Observability matrix, Qo = [

CA = [

][

CA2 = CA*A = [
So, |Qo| = |

(1)

][

[
]

(3)

So, Qo is a singular matrix and hence, rank of Qo order of A.

So, the system is unobservable.

(5)

--THE END--

13