BUTTERFLIES OF BRITAIN & EUROPE COMPREHENSIVE + EASY TO USE + HIGHLY ILLUSTRATED ‘The ONLY portable comprehensive guide tothe butterflies of Britain & Europe Covers all 440 species, with each species fully illustrated with paintings of the male, female and, where appropriate, all major forms. Over 2,000 colour illustrations and more than 400 distribution maps — one for every widespread species. Text covers all taxonomic nomenclature, distribution, flight period, variation, habitat, behaviour, life eyce, food plants and conservation, All the information has been researched for the book from original sources, and covers the whole of Europe and North Africa ~ ideal fr the travelling naturalist. ISBN 0-00-219992-0 £19.90 9 "780002! ll SATIYALOING OF BRITAIN & EUROPE BUTTERFLIES TEXT BY TOM TOLMAN ILLUSTRATED BY RICHARD LEWINGTON THE COMPLETELY NEW FIELD GUIDECOLLINS FIELD GUIDE BUTTERFLIES OF BRITAIN & EUROPEThis small volume is dedicated tothe memory of Dr Lionel G. Higgins and Mr Norman D. Riley, and to all entomologists, amateur and profesional past and present ‘who, collectively, are responsible or the vat, accumulated knosledge ofthe western Palearctic butterfly fauna Contents Personal Tribute to L. G. Higgins and N. D. Riley Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction Basie external anatomy Life-eyele Ident Arrangement of Main Text Description of species Papilionidae Pieridae Lycaenidae Riodinidae Libytheidae Danaidae ‘Nymphalidae Satyridae Hesperiidae (Checklist of Species Glossary Bibliography Index of English Names Index of Scientific Names 10 u n 4 4 15 2B 33 138 139 140 142 185 287 281 293 299 30s 3106 A Personal Tribute to the Memory of Lionel G. Higgins and Norman D. Riley In the course of almost three decades, A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Britain ‘and Europe by L. G, Higgins and N. D, Riley has become an almost indispensable travelling companion for many general naturalists and butterfly specialists alike. ‘Ass familiar prelude to many a reference to the European butterflies, the words «according to Higgins and Riley...’ testify to the heavy reliance placed upon. this standard work, as well as the high esteem in which these authors are universally held. ‘Norman Riley died in 1979, at about the time I began to take an active interest in the butterflies of continental Europe, and, although I never met with this gentleman, I was prisileged to develop a close association with Lionel Higgins in the latter years of hs life. This man, characterized by his mild, unas- suming manner, incisive mind, great enthusiasm, gentle humour and generous, nature, seemed never too busy to give attention to problems of butterfly iden- tification for which T invariably sought his help. I was also impressed by his “uncommon, although tacit regard for the need for circumspection in the pursuit fof science: indeed, I do not believe we ever provided a complete solution to any problem. Our best efforts invariably raised more questions than answers, con- Elusions were, accordingly, always tentative, always calling for more data, more ‘material and, of course, more work, The commendable caution of Lione! Higgins i well epitomized by the last example of our many co-operative efforts to resolve ambiguities In the characters of Wifficult’ butterflies. Two days were spent preparing and comparing dissected components of insects. We each had our Allotted tasks, and, as work progressed, silence prevailed except for essential exchanges, mostly to predetermine the availability of the one and only binocular ticroscope ~ the preferred instrument for insect dissection, During this period, the cramped conditions of Lionel’ insect-storage roomylaboratoryiibrary were transformed into a state of near chaos, with every available work-surface strewn, With books, journals, insect drawers, microscope slides, test-tube racks and a host of other paraphernalia, Only at the end of the second day, when all available avenues of investigation had been exhausted, did [ask the inevitable question "Well, what do you think?” Lionel’s furrowed brow provided the answer before he spoke ‘Hmmm... any chance of getting more material, Lionel Higgins will always stand out in my mind as one who needed no reminding that only fools. rush in where wise men fear to trea. ‘After a brief illness, Lionel George Higgins died on October 9th 1985, at the age of 94, We spoke for the last time, by telephone, shortly before his death The brief conversation — about butterflies, as usual ~ended with Lionel making a joke, and the very'last thing I recall were not words, but hearty laughter. A fitting, final farewell from a very fine, old gentleman and one whom I shall always feel honoured to have been able to call my friend Preface ‘Since the first edition of A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Britain and Europe by LG. Higgins and N. D. Riley in 1970, Europeans have witnessed many changes. ‘Overall economic growth, reflected in greatly enhanced personal disposable income, increased leisure time, a vastly improved road network and, in most recent times, the very welcome removal of previously inhioiting travel restrictions in eastern Europe, have concerted in presenting the butterfly enthusiast with ‘ateater opportunities for travel within the subcontinent than perhaps might hhave been imagined or hoped for three decades ago’ Indirect consequence of fone change, namely, the ever-growing interest in the butterflies of the Greek islands, those of the eastern Aegean region are covered by the Field Guide for the first time. These islands hold several species which are o be found nowhere else in the geo-political region of Europe. In the last decade or so, other additions to the list of Europe's butterfly fauna have brought the total, recognized and described in this work, to 440. TThe previous field guide was intended largely for use in the field for the purpose of butterfly identification. The present volume, whilst, hopefully, fulfilling this same basic need, endeavours to encourage wider and deeper interest in the butterflies themselves. As most people, including most children know, a bbutterfy arises from a chrysalis, which, in turn, comes irom a caterpillar. That these three states of development equate to one and the same entity, argues convincingly that no knowledge of the adult butterfly, however extensive, can be complete without that of its life-history. Moreover, the benefits bestowed by a wider understanding of the biology, ecology and Lelraviour of buterflies extends significantly beyond any theoretical consideration. In illustration ofthe practical benefit of wider knowledge, familiarity with habitat character, coupled with awareness of larval host-plants, is a general and often considerable advantage in locating adult butterflies, especially those of very restricted or uncertain distribution. Again, for purely practical purposes, knowledge of the carly-stages of butterflies commends itself as a tool of potentially considerable convenience for searching out these insects even when they are not flying. As fan activity far less susceptible to the vagaries of the weather, and one offering {greater option in the use of time, searching for eggs or caterpillars can, through choice, be conducted in much more leisurely fashion, Of course, the concomitant advantage of almost inevitable, incidental discoveries of value to science is the -Breater source of gratification. ‘Within the constraints imposed by the size ofthis volume, every effort has bbeen made o facilitate and encourage these potentially highly rewarding pursuits, A strong; personal commitment to the notion that no facet of butterfly science should suffer needless neglect, has provided more than sufficient stimulus for the task of extending the previous field guide. IF this stimulates the reader to peer amongst leaves and flowers for butterfly eggs or caterpillars, oF to pay closer attention 10 the activities of the adult insects, as well asthe character of the habitat in which they reside, then the effort expended in preparing this work will have been justified.Acknowledgements ‘No work of the present kind is possible without the collective efforts of a great many people, As the content of scientific journals provide the indispensable basis of this volume, the author is deeply indebted to all who have taken the trouble to publish their observations, For their direct assistance, in providing, information, helpful discussion and access to private butterfly collections, the ‘writer also wishes to express his gratitude to te following ~ Dr Stanislav Abadiiew nstitute of Zoology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia ~ BU), Professor Zolta Balint (Magyar Természettudoményi Mazeum Allattira, Budapest - H), Mr Dubi Benyamini (Santiago - Chile [Israel]), Mr Lubos Bieber (Lipuvka - Czech Republic), Dr Jean-Pierre Borie, (Compiégne - F), Mr Nils Brostrom_ (Hasselby - $), Dr John Brown (Department of Physiology, University of Cam- bridge -U.K.), Dr Clair Brunton (Department of Geneties, University of Cs bridge - U.K), Professor Jaroslaw Buszko (Institute of Biology, Copernicus University, Torun - PL. Mr Paola Casini (Firenze - 1) Sir Cyril Clarke (West Kirby - UIK.), MrJohn Coutsis (Athens ~ GR), Professor Sir John Dacie (Wim- bledon - U.K), Mr Charles Derry (Ironbridge - U-K.), Mr Jos Dils (Hoevenen = B), Mr Roland Essayan (Dijon - F), Me David Hall (Litchfield - UK), Mr Hans Forslind (Kalmar - 8), Mr Jargen Fuchs (Feucht - D),Mr Nicos Ghavalas (Athens - GR), Mr Yves Gonseth (Neuchatel - CH), Dr Jacques Hutsebaut (Brussels - B), Mr and Mrs David Howell (Broadstairs - U-K.), Mr Hans. Henrickson (Stenstrup - DK), Dr David Jutzler (Effretikon ~ CH), Mr To. Kreutzer (Arden - DK), Dr ‘Torben Larsen (London - UK.), Mr Ronnie Leestmans (Vilvoorde ~ I8), Mr and Mrs Staf de Louker (Bouwel - B), Dr ‘Marchi (Universit degli studi di Cagliari, Sardinia -1), Mr Francisco Martinex. (Valencia - E), Professor Steffen Oemig (Leverkusen - D), Mr Alain Olivier (Antwerp - B). Professor Dennis Owen (Oxford Brookes University - U-K.). ‘Mr Jim Phelpstead (Southampton - U-K.), Mr‘Tony Pittaway (Moulsford « U.K.), Me Dirk van der Poorten (Antwerp - B), Mr Willy de Prins (Antwerp - B), Mr Alex Riemis (Turnhout - B), Dr Patrick Roche (Sant fulié de Loria ~ Andorra), Dr Klaus Schurian (Kelkeim-Fisehbach - D), Professor C. B. Stace (Department of Botany, Leicester University ~ UK.), Mr Per Tangen (Askim = N), Monsicur Michel Tarrier (Malaga - E[F]). Dr George Thomson. (Lochmaben - U.K.), Mr Jerry Tremewan (Truro ~ U-K.), Mr Rainer Utrich (Wiesbach - D), Mr Ken Wilmott (Leatherhead - UK), Mr and Mrs Joachim Wolf (Neu-Isenbure - D). Stall of the Departments of Entomology of ~ Institut voor Taxonomische Zoologie, Amsterdam (Holland); Natural History Muscum, London (U.K.)s (Oxford University Museum (Hope Department] (U:K.) for arranging access tobutterfly collections and entomological libraries. Also, to Dr Stephen Simpson and Dr George McGavin of the Hope Department, and members of Vlaamse Vereniging Voor Entomologie, Antwerp for the loan of specimens used for illustration. Dr Roberto Crnjar (Universita degli stud di Cagliari, Sardinia - I) for check ing and amending the text relating to the butteriies of Sardinia and Corsica ‘Mr Martin Gascoigne-Pees (Stonestield - U.K.) and Dr Peter Russell (East Wittering - UK) for checking the main text, furnishing much useful comment and the loan of many specimens used for illustration: Dr N. Savenkov (Latvijas BUTTERH.IES OF EUROPE 9 Dabas Muzejs - Latvia) for detailed distributional and historical data on the ‘butterflies of Latvia: Mr ohn Tennent (Fylingthorpe - UK.) for very extensive and much needed information on the butterflies of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, For their willing assistance in the identification of larval host-plants ~ Dr Brian Adams and Professor Frank Bisby (Department of Botanical Taxonomy, University of Southampton - UK.); Professor K. Browicz (Pozan - PL); Mr ‘Thomas Cope and Mr David Gardner (Roval Botanic Gardens, Kew - UK.), Dr D. Champluria and Professor D. Fergusson (Rijksuniversitair Centrum Antwerpen (Antwerp B); Mr Wolfram Hannig (Schladming - A); Dr Alfred Hansen (Botanical Museum, Copenhagen - DK); Dr Stephen Blackmore and ‘Mr Nick Turland (Botany Department, Natural History Museum, London), Dr P.H. Boting (Antwerp - B) for identifying many ant species, and to Dr Konrad Fiedler (Theodor-Boveri-Instiut far Biowissenschatten (Biozentrum] ‘der Universitit Wurzberg - D) for rendering a similar and extensive service, and for many helpful discussions on the Lyeaenid butterflies: for assisting Dr FFiedler in the identification of some ant species from Greece, thanks are also due to Dr Donat Agosti (Ziirich - CH), Finally, itis with particular pleasure that I express my deep and heartfelt gratitude to my wife, Sally, for her dedicated and indispensable assistance in field work, especially in connection with the tedious and time-consuming tasks ‘of locating and rearing the early-stages of butterflies: invaluable help in literature research is no less appreciated, as is her uncommon capacity to respond with patience and tolerance to the often immoderate restrictions imposed upon her life by her husband's entomological pursuits,Mt/Mss, Mee. N NE NW pd Pi. Pro, Peo. 5 s SE sw s. spJspp. sspJsspp. syn: Ths unt ‘unk up vuph ups. % 2 ¢ Abbreviations Barranco chromosome number Djebel (Mount/Mountain) ‘east form fore-wing fore-wing length (from apex to point of attachment to thorax) ground-colour hind-wing larval host-plant(s) metre millimetre ‘Mountain/Mountains ‘Moun/Mountain orth northeast northwest post-discal Planina (mountains) Passo Puerto space (referring to the area of wing-membrane between the veins) south southeast southwest Sierra species (Singular) /species (plural) subspecies (singular)/subspecies (plural) synonym “Type-locality fore-wing underside hind-wing underside fore-wing and kind-wing undersides fore-wing upperside hhind-wing upperside fore-wing and hind-wing uppersides variety west male female n Introduction Butterflies (Rhopalocera) and moths (Hetrocera) together comprise the vast order of insects known as the Lepidopters ~ a word of Greck origin meaning wings with scales (lepis = scale, preron = wing). In most of Europe, butterflies ‘may be distinguished from moths by one or more of the following chatacterisics: 1) Butterflies have clubbed antennae: those of moths are usually fine and filamentous and often markedly different between the sexes, 2) Unlike butterflies, moths possess a coupling device, linking fore-wing to the hind-wing during fight, 3). Butterflies roost with their wings tightly closed in the vertical plane above the body: moths usually roost and rest with the wings in roughly the horizontal plane with the fore-wing obscuring the hind-wing, 4) The flight of butterflies is confined mnostly to sunny or at least bright conditions: most moths fly at night; those chat fly in the daytime are easily recognized by their antennae and resting pose, ‘The basic external anatomy of a butterfly Antenna Eye Palp Proboscis ‘Tibia Tarsus Figure 1, Main external features. ‘The head, which is capable of very limited movement, carries two large, ‘compound eyes giving virwally all-round vision, but of low resolutional quality the eyes are, however, very sensitive to movement in the field of vision. The frons ~ face’ is located between the eyes often bearing a hair-tuft, In place of jaws, the coiled and extendable proboscis, formed from two, co-acting tubes, finely tapered at their extremities, is an organ through which fluid nutrients are2 [BUTTEREIES OF EUROPE obtained by sucking. Located symmetrically about the proboscis, is a pair of jointed sensory organs know as the palpi.’The clubbed antennae, important sensory ongans, arise from the upper part of the head from between the eyes. hind the head is the thorax, Which carry’ the two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs: ia some groups, the first pair of legs are degenerate and useless for walking, and may not be apparent without close inspection. All functional legs, are jointed and comprise a femur, tibia and tarsus: the structure of the tarsus varies but usually terminates in a pait of claws. Olfactory sensors are present oon the antennae, palpi, head, proboscis and legs. Compared to the head and thorax, the abdomen is soft and relatively much more flexible. It contains the organs of digestion and reproduction. The abdomen of a female, as it contains the eggs, is usually noticeably “fatter’ than that of the male. Male genitalia are ofien of critical value in the identification/separation of species. However, as the structural complexity of these essentially internal anatomical organs are not adequately deseribable without pictorial representation, reference to genitalia is limited to those instances where alternative, superficial diagnostic features, are absent ‘Androconia (singular, androconium) are specialized wing-scales (often referred to as scent-scales or androconial scales) possessing gland cells containing special chemicals known as pheromones which are released by male butterflies in courtship. Andronconia usually differ markedly in shape from. ‘ordinary scales and often have a terminal fibrous tuft. Androconia may be distributed and effectively hidden amongst ordinary wing-scales, or grouped in conspicuous patches: these sex-brands, as they are often called, are usually ocated wn the upper surface vf Use fore-wing, lia Tew species, anidevcunti ate held in a kind of envelope formed by a fold in the fore-wing costal membrane. An ordinary wing-scale is a very small, thin, chitinous platelet with a tiny peg at its base by which means itis attached (o the wing-membrane. Wing- ‘scales are usually pigmented, but bright ‘metallic colours of butterflies, such as the blues” and ‘coppers’, are due entirely to the diffraction of incidence light by the microscopie structure of the scale. The same phenomenon is responsible for the ‘rainbow’ colours ereated by a thin film of oil on water. The colours of these interference patterns, they are called. are very sensitive to viewing angle, and explains why the purple flush of the Purple Emperor, for example, (see front book-cover) is not visible on both sets of wings at the same time. The subtle variations inthe tone of the greenish or brassy iridescent sheen of many: satyrid butterflies is similarly explained. ‘The wings are of prime importance in the identification of butterflies. To facilitate the description of wing-markings, the wing-surface is divided into specific areas as shown in figures 2 and 3, ‘The terminology and vein-notation is standard, Although demarcation of adjacent wing-areas is somewhat arbitrary, confusion over the described location ‘of markings need never arise: for example, whether a row of spots is designated as ‘post-discal or ‘submarginal’ is immaterial if no other markings are present in this general region. All terms are explained in the glossary (page 293): abbreviations are given on page 10. The notation used for the veins and intervening spaces is self-explanatory, and designed to accommodate slight differences in venation between families without the need for altering the ‘numbering system. Where, for example, one or more of the veins branching BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE B Fore-wing a ve Costal vein Costa vein Precostal vein Subcostal vein Discoidal veins ‘Medial vein Figure 2. Wing venation. Proximal (internal) Distal (external) Dalen) Anterior — Fore-wing eae Submargin Margin ‘Outer margin ‘Anal angle Apex Submargin Margin ‘Outer margin Hind-wing > Posterior ‘Anal angle Figure 3. Wing-area notation.“4 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE from the fore-wing subcostal vein (v7, v8 or v9) are absent, the space above vein 6 is still called space 6. In the case of the Papilionidae, where v1a is absent fon the hind-wing, v1b becomes v1 and the spaces below and above v1 becomes, sla and s1 respectively. One or more of the three discocellular veins on the hind-wing may be absent, in which case the cell is said to be open. The finer detail of venation in a dead butterfly can be seen more easily if the wings are ‘moistened with a drop of petroleum spirit: this renders the wings briefly trans- Tucene without damage to the scales. (Organic solvents should only be used in ‘well-ventilated areas, well away from naked flames: inhalation and contact with the skin should be avoided) The life-cycle of a butterfly ‘The egg (ovum) caterpillar (larva), chrysalis (pupa) and adult butterfly imago) are the four distinct stages in the life-cycle, Ths remarkable process of trans- formations is known as metamorphosis, (Ova are usually laid on the plants upon which the larvae subsequently feed, (Ova vary considerably in external appearance, and may be bottle-shaped, disc shaped, spherical or dome-shaped according to the family to which they belong, TThe ovum stage lasts a few days, a few weeks or several months if hibernation (over-wintering) occurs in this stage. Larval development proceeds in stages (instars) corresponding to the need for skin-changes to accommodate growth. ‘Most European species hibernate in the larval stage. Between families, a ‘considerable variance in larval shape, colouring and markings, together with a ‘wide range of adaptive behaviour, reflect a correspondingly wide range of survival strategies: similar adaptive variation is shawn by pupae, the hibernation stage for many species. Butterfly identification With the exception of the Danaidae, comprising the two, very distinctive species shown on Plate 96 a representative sample of each European butterfly family is, illustrated on Plates A and B. A comparison of one or more of the characters of size, wing-shape and wing-markings of an unidentified specimen, with those of the sample, will shaw the group to which the specimen most probably belongs. By referring to the plate indicated by the number adjacent to the species bearing the closest resemblance to the unknown specimen, an immediate identification. is sometimes possible, if not, reference to neighbouring plats, illustrating other species within the same family or genus, will usually prove more productive Page numbers given for each species illustrated in the main plates, refer to the location of the species’ description and other relevant information in the text. and, by this means, any tentative identification can be checked. All possible cchecks should be made, including a comparison with similar species and of the site of observation of the newly identified butterfly with its known geographic altitudinal range. Its prudent, of course, to assume that nota s known about the distribution of European butterflies; itis, accordingly, always best to expect the unexpected. In particularly difficult cases,it may be helpful to listall possible candidates, and, after systematic elimination of the least likely, focus attention ‘on the diagnostic features of those remaining, Arrangement of the Main Text The following annotated description of subtitled elements of the main text, is intended to illustrate the essentially interactive nature of insect behaviour, ecology and biology, including that pertaining to early-stages, as well as demonstrating, its relevance to the identification of butterflies and the investigation of their taxonomic relationships, Range Unless otherwise qualified, range denotes the known, global limits of distribution, Species name, author and date: type-locality: synonymy This brief, unsubtitled section, gives the Latin (scientific) name of the species, along with the author and date of its original description: the origin of the specimen (the type-specimen) pertaining to this description isthe type-locality ‘The Latin name may be written as binomen or trinomen, ¢.g., Pieris napi (in abbreviation, P:napi) or Pieris napi napi (in abbreviation, /?n.nap1): these names refer to exactly the same entity: the trinomen is required only to distinguish the ‘nominate subspecies (strictly, nominotypical subspecies) from other subspecies; g., Pieris napi napi and Pieris napisegonzaci. Only the more recent or commonly encountered synonyms are given, and are restricted to species name. “Taxonomic classification is often the subject of much contention, However, such matters need not be a source of confusion or constemation ifitis recognized that, in realty, a great deal of taxonomic classification equates to hypotheses yet to be tested by the rigorous application of investigative biological methods, ‘As no universally accepted arrangement of butterfly taxa appears to exist, the systematic order adopted by Higgins and Riley (1383), with 2 few minor adjustments, has been followed: this may prove convenient for readers familiar ‘with the previous field guide. For the general purpose of this book, departures from the more recent and possibly more rigorous taxonomic evalvations is of litle consequence. All butterfly axa are indexed, and their location within the text should present no difficulty Distribution The geographical area covered is indicated on the map in figure 4 and includes the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores, and the Aegean Islands of Greece, but excludes Cypris and eastern Mediterranean islands not under European political administration. The map provided with each species is intended as a rough, graphical summary of distribution. Ie will be appreciated that information is often incomplete, especially in some eastern regions. It should also be noted that, in general,a species will not be found at al sites within the designated area of distribution. The regions of temporary occupancy of migrants is indicated by a tint. The predictability of migration near the limits of migratory range, varies appreciably for species as does uncertainty regarding residency near the often ill-defined boundaries of permanent occupancy. Altinidinal range is included with distribution, Apart from the advantage in locating butterfly habitats, knowledge of altitudinal range usually serves to account for otherwise anomalous disjunctions in the two-dimensional6 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Figure 4. Distribution map. Gistributional representation of many species: cursory inspection of the maps will reveal recurring distributional patterns closely associated with higher ‘mountain massifs, suggesting a restriction to colder conditions athigher altiude, a situation usually confirmed by the altitudinal range given in the text. Cold conditions also occur in higher latitudes, and some species found in central Europe only at high altitude, ‘reappear’ at or near sea-level in the arctic region, ‘Whilst these examples furnish useful ecological information, other disjunctive patterns, equally evident in the maps, reveal, or atleast suggest, a continuity of distribution in the distant past, subsequently disrupted by climatic change in ‘more recent geological time: the study of these and related events in respect of ‘other animals as well as plants ~ palaeobiogeography ~ often provides significant clues to the processes of evolution. BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE 7 ‘The quoted lower limit of altitudinal range, approximating to sea-level, has been refined, as far as available data allow, in an attempt to accommodate the significant and often rapid transition in habitat character, reflected in vegetation, zones, Which can occur between low-lying, inland coastal districts and the shore- Tine itself. Description For several reasons, quantified estimates of butterfly size have been omitteds the best indication of approximate size is provided by the illustrations, No valid representation of size-variance is easily interpretable, nor indeed, easily ‘obtainable: an estimate of the range of fore-wing length is apt to be misleading, as geographical variation is often appreciable and it is almost always possible 10 find individuals whose size falls beyond either limit of the range commonly quoted for most species, With few exceptions, descriptions are restricted to important disgnostic {features and characters not apparent in the illustrations, In cases where confusion between closely similar species may arise, comparative data are included with each description Variation ‘The great many types and sources of variation, including that of larvae and pupae, ae given in the text Flight-time For many geographically wide-ranging species, voltinism, the number of annual bbroods (generations), may vary appreciably according to general geographical location, altitude and regional climatic conditions. species, single-brooded in colder, more northerly locations or at higher altitudes, may produce two or ‘more broods in warmer regions at low altitudes, Some multiple-brooded (polyvoltine) species may be on the wing from early Spring until late Summer ‘or Autumn in North Africa or coastal Mediterranean regions, or throughout the year in the Canary Islands. As a rule, a species occurring at low altitude in _more southerly regions will emerge earlier. Emergence dates may also be infla- ‘enced significantly by seasonal conditions and may even affect voltinism. A late Spring, combined with a cool Summer, can delay the emergence of some arctic, species by more than a month: prolonged periods of drought may delay entirely the ciemgence of some devert-dwelling (eremic) Butterflies for one oF More seasons. Habitat Whilst many widespread species are frequently found in commonly occurring habitats, others live in relative isolation in habitats of special character. The general character of habitat is described, along with any readily discernible features. Geology/soil-type isa factor of considerable, and sometimes definitive importance in respect to the character of vegetation, including, of course, larval hhost-plants. In company with other information, a knowledge of habitats is often very useful in locating butterflies, especially those having very specific requirements18 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE story “The limitation of space precludes detailed description of life-history. Larval host-plant (LHP) data have either been personally verified, or taken from sources, deemed to be reliable, Uncertainties, in plant identity and use as LHP, are indicated as appropriate: thus; (2) Centaurea scabiosa signifies confirmation of plant identity at species level, but only its suspected use as a LHP: Centaurea (©) seabiosa signifies a confirmed LHP whose identity has been determined with, certainty at generic level, but only tentatively at species level: Centaurea sp. indicates confirmation of a LHP whose identity has been confirmed at generic, bbut not species level. Suspected, but unconfirmed errors in LHP records are indicated by the expressed need for confirmation. Where the reliability of a dita source cannot be established with confidence, many, often very old records have been omitted without comment. Wherever possible, plant taxonomy! nomenclature follows that of Flora Europaea: beyond the geographical range covered by this work, other standard floras, e.g, Flora of Turkey’ and original source publications have been consulted. The distinction between the plants which butterfly larvae will accept as food in captivity and those selected in nature, is very important. The behaviour of any animal, including man, can be expected to change according to circum~ stance, most especially where survival is threatened. It should not be assumed that a species which accepts a particular plant as a food-source in captivity \would thrive or survive, or, indeed, make any attempt to exploit the same plant. in the wild, As the captive behaviour of larvae, as well as that of butterflies themselves, provides no dependable guide to natural behaviour, the sole, reli- able criterion of a LHP is the plant upon which larvae are known to feed in nature. That not all butterflies lay their eges on the plants upon which their larvae subsequently feed, argues strongly for caution in the interpretation of field observations. For many reasons, a knowledge of LHPs is of great importance. Their distribution may reveal much of interest concerning that of the butterfly itself in some cases, for example, the rarity andfor distributional pattern ofa butterfly may correspond very closely with that ofits LHP. Such information may be quite sufficient to locate a butterfly in its early stages, including that of hibernation: on this account, and as already indicated in the Preface, the field study of butterflies need not necessarily be confined to the period in which they normally fly. For many reasons, it makes good sense to ensure that all necessary care is exercised in effecting the identification of LHPs. Given that mainland Europe hosts something of the order of 20,000 flowering plants, the scope for mis identification is considerable, and the responsibility for identifying LHP is, in general, best delegated to the professional botanist. Behaviour For our own species, success in life very much depends upon our behaviour. This is no less true of a butterfly. Of course, butterflies do not make choices, in the sense that we understand, but respond instinctively to specific stimuli as well as gradual seasonal or other changes in its environment. For this reason it is probably more useful, and certainly instructive, to regard a butterfly, not as a living creature, but as a small miniaturized, biological machine equipped with BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE 19 aan array of sensors linked to a central processing unit (equivalent more to a computer than a brain) preprogrammed with al necessaryinherited information required to ensure its survival. On this premise, we would at once dispose of any notion that a butterfly is capable of being ‘frightened’: instead, we would, consider that it was programmed to react swifly to any sudden movement in its immediate vicinity, simply to avoid being eaten by a bird: in reality, the ‘butterfly is probably incapable of distinguishing a bird frem a butterfly net or a ‘windblown leaf. Through the process of natural selection, the genes carried by those insects failing to react appropriately to threat, would be quickly eliminated. By this means, the need for choice of action, which weuld imply intelligent behaviour, is also eliminated. In more complicated examples of behaviour, it ‘would eppear that programmes are often interactive, For example, in considering, the factors controlling the emergence date of a spring butterfly which has hiibernated as @ pupa, itis clear that cemperature is not the sole determinant: if it were, the insect might well emerge, prematurely, in winter and well out of synchronization with, say, the development of its LHP In fact, tis virtually certain that butterflies have built-in clocks just like modern computers) and are able to respond to the seasonal changes in day-lengtt (photoperiod), In view of the importance of camouflage as a survival strategy, itis not surprising that the behaviour of a butterfly is often highly correlated with its physical appearance and the character of its habitat, The presumed need for good underside camouflage of the Purple Hair-streak (Quercusia quercus) for example, required to evade the predatory attentions of birds whilst sitting on the leaves of oak trees — a common occupation — explains, so it would appear, the otherwise anomalous underside rrarkings, mitely the silvery-greyish ground-colour which mimics, not the green pigment of the leaf itself, but the reflections ofthe shiny leaf-surface,and the white discal line which corresponds. to the highlighted reflection from a leaf-vein, As may be canfirmed by reference to the illustrations and main text, the underside ground-colours ofthe Brimstone (Goneptoryx rhamn), the Peacock (Inachis io) and the Comma (Polygonia c- albu), three species which hibernate as adults, corresponds closely with the character of their respective hibernation quarters. Refinement in the adaptive colouring of a species 1o suit the particular character of a particular habitat is also to be expected and in company with butterfly behaviour, often appears to explain local variation in wing-markings In the genus Pseudochazara, for example, local variation in wing colouring and. pattern, especially on the underside of the hind-wing, is observed frequently and is often presented as justification for subspecific separation. However, considering the unvarying preference of the genus for resting on or amongst rocks, superficial differences between populations, corresponding to refined adjustment to local geological conditions,are as readily attributable to the need for good camouflage. Roosting occurs in concealment amongst stones or in rock crevices. That such retreats are invariably cool, relative to ambient, sur~ face conditions, precludes the predatory attention of lizards — always a serious threat to adult Pseudochazara species ~ but a roosted insect loses this security once it has crawled up towards the light, seeking the warmth of the morning sun, for then it becomes visible and, in its still orpid state, especially vulner- able: here, the importance of underside hind-wing camouflage is most obvious. The warming-up process always seems 10 be conducted in the same way, with2 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE the same meticulous care: thus, situated very close to or even in contact with a stone, the insect adjusts the plane of its tightly closed wings perpendicularly to the sun, thereby maximising exposure to its rays. Some vertical tting is often necessary fo gain precise adjustment, and it is noteworthy that subtle correc tions corresponding to the movement of the sun are often observed during this ‘normally lengthy procedure. It is apparent from these observations, that by exploiting the potential for heating both hind-wing surfaces simultaneously ~ the stone against which the butterfly stations itself will already have warmed ~ the period of greatest threat from predation is minimized. Here, itis interesting, to reflect upon the interaction of elements within an ecosystem, for it appears that the behaviour and adaptation of a Pseudochazara species is intimately and. competitively associated with the behaviour and aduptation of lizards. Aparallel example of adaptive colouring is apparent for the genus Hipparchia. However, itis often found that the range of variation in the underside hind-wing is fereater than at first sight might be expecteds possibly, because of equivalent variation in the character of the surfaces upon which the butterflies rest or roost for example, the bark of a pine tree, favoured resting site, usually displays a ‘most complex array of colours, pattern and hard shadows created by texture. An inceresting survival stratony adopted by some species is that of migration. ‘With seasonal regularity, such species ~ the ‘nomads’ of the butterfly world ~ disperse, sometimes in prodigious numbers, from areas of permanent residence, taking up accommodation in more or less any suitable site encountered along ‘migratory routes. Colonies thus established, provide for further migration and colonization, In this way, the Painted Lady (Kanessa cardui), one of the better known migits, extends its range progressively from easly Spring onwards through Summer, from north Africa, throughout Europe, to well within the “Arctic Circle: itis one of very few migrants to reach Iceland. The process of breeding and dispersion continues until the onset of eold weather, when all or nearly all colonists and offspring are presumed to perish in the winter months however, the loss of such huge numbers of butterflies is of litle or no conse~ quence, as it is not the survival of individuals, but that of the species which determines its overall success. As a broad, unrefined hypotheses, the basis of migratory behaviour as a survival strategy is easily understood, for in the event of general climatic change, inevitable in geological time, some colonies, some~ where, are likely tobe favourably placed for the purpose of establishing a new, permanent base from which future generations can migrate. Characteristically. migrants have, through necessity,adapted either to a wide variety of larval host= plants or atleast one of common and widespread occurrence: ‘A few species, such as the Swallowtail (Papilio machaon) and the Netile-iree Butterfly (Libyrhea celts) appear to disperse with seasonal regularity, as indi cated by their frequent occurrence in locations well-removed from porential breeding sites, that i, those containing larval host-plants. However, unlike typical migrants, dispersion is confined largely within the boundaries of permanent residence, Conservation Nature conservation is the collective responsibility of all individuals, not just the relatively very few, active conser vationists. Securing the very necessary wider commitment to the protection of the environment presents a problem of truly BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE. 2 global dimensions for which no proportionately adequate solutions are currently available Enhancing the security of the natural world means damaging or destroying 4s ltde of it as possible. Given our present circumstances, responding to the challenge of meeting our responsibility to future generations will doubtless call for very profound and, quite possibly, very rapid changes to social, economic and, by implication, personal philosophies. tisall but a certainty that our survival depends upon divesting ourselves of the mythical belief inour own adaptability Contrary to popular conviction, man s not the most adaptable of species: indeed, in direct consequence of his much celebrated superior intelligence, man distinguishes himself by being the only species not to have adapted to his ‘environment. In contradistinction, the butterfly ~ a ‘humble’ creature of no intelligence ~ ‘learned’ to look afte itself, with great proficieney, many millions ‘of years before man frst walked the Earth, Ir continues to live in harmony’ with the rest of nature. To ensure our own survival, we must learn to do the same. Exploiting the popular appeal of creatures of great natural beauty, such as, but not exclusively butterflies, which arouse spontaneously our protective instincts, would appear to afford the best chance of securing the all-important protection of natural habitats. The late L. G. Higgins once remarked to the ‘writer, that ‘all butterflies must have @ happy home’, and, as a truism no less applicable to other animals and plants, the protection of a butterfly habitat serves, automatically, to protect all wildlife residing within the same domain, Assuming the efficacy of this aim and method, how is it best exploited? Wide~ spread enlightenment ~ education ~ provides the general answer, but since ch dren are the (uuure custodians of our planet, its perhaps teir instruction which matters most. There are nothing but good reasons for enzouraging children to take an interest in their planet. The wider and deeper the interest, the greater the desire to protect, The mind of a child is active, alert and inquisitive, but above al, itis impressionable, and, like a clean sheet of white paper, it may be the best place ~ it may be the only place ~ to write the messages required 10, reverse the fortunes of our species,23 Papilionidae Latreille 1802 ‘The twelve European representatives of this family include some very large and colourful butterflies, of which the swallowtails are pethaps the best known. Sexual dimorphism is generally not well marked in wing-characters, but appreciable differences in abdominal size, shape, coloar or colour-pattern, ‘enables sexual determination to be made with no difficulty: With the exception of that of the Scarce Swallowtail, larvae have bright ‘warning’ colours and are ‘often conspicuous when feeding or resting. As an additional deterrent 10 predators, the larvae of some species possess an osmeterium, a soft, fleshy, ‘orange-coloured, eversible, forked organ concealed within the first thoracic segment: when erected, this organ emits a powerful and offensive odour, which, ‘coupled with the starting appearance of the osmeterium itself, is said to be an effective defence against predatory birds. Swallowtail (Papilio) pupae, as well, as those of the festoons (Zerynthia), are cryptically coloured: pupae of other species are secreted amongst moss/eaf-litter, under stones or in loose sol Papilio machaon Swallowtail Range. NW Africa and Europe, through Middle East, Near East, Asia (30-70°N) to Japan. Represented in N America by several subspecies/forims, P machaon Linnaeus 1758L: Sweden (Verity 1947) syut: sphyrus Hubner 1823. Distribution. Mediterranean coastal districts of NW Africa Europe to N Fennoscandia and most Mediterranean islands. Absent from Avantic Islands and British Isles, except for a very restricted area of SE England (Norfolk). Wide-ranging but usually encountered only in small numbers in any given site, 0-3000m: ‘common occurrence at 1000-2000m above limit of availabe LHPs ducto strong. dispersive/migratory tendency, Description. Second brood: ups black markings lightly dusted with pale yellow scales; black markings slightly reduced; blue markings better defined. Super- ficially indistinguishable from P saharae (see P sahara), Flight-period. Univoltine, bivoltine or trivoltine according to latitude, altitude and seasonal conditions: February/October, Impression cf fight-period in any given site may be confounded by occurrence of vagrant specimens, Habitat. Diverse. In N Europe, mostly wer places: marshes; fens; river banks. In C Europe, dry or damp, grassy places. In Mediterranean region, general hhabitat character appears to be relatively unimportant, relating more to the fortuitous occurrence of LHPs and opportunism of vagrant, oviposting females, Atlow/moderate altitudes, most egg-laying sites, which may contain very few LHD specimens, comprise hot, dry, sunny places, often areas of cultivation, roadsides, disturbed ground etc., and are often abundant in robust, nectar-rich, plants such as thistes, which offer an efficient means of acquiring the energy needed to sustain a large insect (cf. A. cravaegis Pbrassicas, P apollo) Life-history. LHPs: Apiaceae: Foeniculum vulgare; Peucedanum palustre; P cervaria; Poreoselinum; Poffcinae; Trinia glauca: Laserpitium haller; [latifolia24 [BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Angelica syveseris; A archangelicas Carum carvs Aegopodium podagraria; Anethum sravcolons; Pimpinella xaxifrages Amn visnagas Ridolfiasegetums Silaum sila Daucus carota; See variants S. ibanous; Bupleuruo fraicscens B fleas, etroselinucrispum; Crithnnam maritima Ferula communis; Faleara vulgaris, ‘Mewn athamanticums Selinum carvifolia, Levistcum officinale; Heracleum Ssphondstivm. Rutaceae: Dictams albus, Ruta graveolens, R-anusifoia, R ‘hatepensis, Haplophylbam balzanicions FL ubercaton; loli. nS Europe, ‘Fenlgare is perhaps the most commonly used LHP: in England, exclusively P palustre. Ova laid on leaves. Larvae feed on leaves andlor flowers, depending ‘on LHP. Larvae which lack the normal green colouring may be either substan~ tially black or white with the usual orange segmental dotss such forms have ‘been recorded from very hot localities in the Mediterranean region, Hibernates a a pupa. Pupates on robust stems or dead, woody plants. Pupa variable light green or grevish-bufl. Behaviour. Males frequently “iltop’s several may remain fying together For some hours at mountain summit. Papilio saharae Desert Swallowtail Not illustrated Range. FE Morocco, N and SE Algeria, C Tunisia, N Libya, N Egypt, W Saudi Arabia, W Yemen. Replaces P-machaon in 1N Africa south and east of Atlas Mts, P.saharae Oberthir 1879 TL: Laghouat (Algeria. Distribution. Moroceo: Erfouds Zagora; Tiri-nTinififis ‘Tizi-n-Bachkoum. Algeria: EI Kantara; Laghouat; Biskra: Bou Sada; Oued Mya; Oued Nea; Fl Oulaya. Tunisia: Gafsa: Gabés; Djerba. 100-2000m, Overlaps with P machaon in some areas, e.g. Tizi-n-Bachkourn, Description. Indistinguishable from P machaon on basis of wing-markings; gen tala differ but are too variable for reliable separation; antennal segments 30-31 (33-36 for Pmachaon) — low-power magnification provides ready means of deter- ‘ination in the field; larvae morphologically distinct; divergent ecological needs and hybridization experiments provide evidence of separation at species level Flight-period. Univoltine. Generally mid Aprillate May; records span Febeuaty/ October. Records for most summer months in Middle East suggest partial bivoltinism/polyvoltinism or delayed emergence due to exceptionally dry con- ditions. Pupal diapause may extend over wo or more years, with seasonal population density varying accordingly: in consecutive seasons of exceptional ‘dryness, the butterfly may fail to appear (ef. E. fallow). Habitat. Rocky slopes or gullies with an abundance of LHD; arid, stony, flat tish ground with sparse, low-growing vegetation; desert oases. Life-history. LHPs principally Deverra chlorandhus: also, D. scopularias Secli ‘uariune elsewhere in range, D.torosus; Fea communis sinaicas Pyenocyta placa, ‘Ovipositing and larval feeding behaviour similar to that of P yiachaon. Larval ‘markings (colour/pattern) differ considerably from those of P machaon: also, in P.saharae, osmeterium is brown and twice the length of that of P machaon which is orange, Hibernates as a pupa. Behaviour. Males frequently ‘hiltop’: general behaviour very similar to that of P hospiton PAPILIONIDAE 2s Note. Apparently closely related to P hospiion. Relationship between P.saharae and P machaon appears to parallel that of P glaucus Linnaeus and P2canadensis Rothschild and Jordan in N America Papilio hospiton Corsican Swallowtail Range. Corsica, Sardinia, P.hospiton Géné 1839 TL: Tortoli, Sardinia, Distribution. Corsica and Sardinia, Generally S00-1200m, ‘but records range from sea-level to summits of highest mountains. Flight-period. Univoltine. Generally mid May/late July in, prolonged emergence: records span mid March/mid August, Habitat. Open, grassy hillsides and valleys, often amongst, bushes and rocks. Life-history. LHPs: Corsica, Ferula communis; Rita corsica; Peucedanun Panicilatwn: Sardinia, E communis. Ova laid mostly neat leaf-tips on plants in Partial shade, or on lower, shaded leaves of plants growing in full sun. Larvae feed on leaves. Captive larvae readily accept R.gravcolans. Captive larvae accept Skinmia(?)japonia cultivars (Rutaceae) — plant genus not indigenous in Europe. Hibernates asa pupa. Larvae often parasitized by a large, inky-bhue hymenop- ‘eran (Trogus violaceus), which hibernates 2s a pupa within the pupal case of PZ hospiton, ot that of P machaon subsequent to autumn emergence and parasiti- Zzauion of larvae of the later species, Behaviour. Males regularly ‘hilltop"late morning and early afternoon, Females show no tendency to hilltop’, but territorial range is extensive, Natural hybrids ‘with P machaon have been reported from Corsica and Sardinia, Conservation, Protective European legislation for this species appears to be ‘unwarranted: widely held to be under no threat from any cause, Papilio alexanor Southern Swallowtail Range. SE France, NW and SE Italy, W Croatia, $ Balkans, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, N Ieag, Iran, Transcaucasus, ‘Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, S Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, ‘Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, W Pakistan. P alexanor Espet 1799 TL: Nice and Provenge. Distribution. SE France: Var; Alpes-Maritimes; Alpes-de- Haute-Provenge; Drome; Hautes-Alpes; Isére; S Savoie. Extinct in Ardéche. Italy: Maritime Alps; Aspromonte; NE Sicily (Monti Pelortani).\W Croatia: Istria; Dalmatia, Albania Republic of Macedonia: Treska Valley; Titov Veles (Vardar River system), Greece: ‘Mitzekeli Mts.; Parnassos massif (including Delphi; Arahova); Ghiona massif (including Amfissia); Mt, Hymettus: Mt, Parnissnorthern coast of Peloponnesos; Panahaikion Mts. Mt. Chelmos and environs (including Kalavrita: Zachlorou); Foli Mts. Taygetos Mts; Gythion; Corfu; Kefalonia; Lesbos; Samos. 0-1700m: generally below 100m. Description, Female larger; ups ge distinctly paler yellow26 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE, Variation. On Lesbos and Samos, etschbergeri Bollino and Sala: largers ups ge paler; pd band narrower. (Typical form in W and C'Turkey). Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid Aprilimid July in prolonged emergence. Habitat and Behaviour. Hot, dry, usually steep slopes on limestone or other consolidated calcarcous substrates. In gliding or hovering fashion, both sexes exploit air currents associated with the topogeaphy of the terrain for their re- spective purposes ~ males in pursuit of females, females in search of egg-laying. sites and both sexes open to any opportunity to take nectar. Frequently habitats, provide ideal conditions for Centranthus ruber (Red Valerian) ~a much favoured nectar source, Life-history. LHDs: France and Italy, Opopanax chironium; Seseli montanums Prychotis saxifraga (=P heterophylla]; Trinia glauca [=T. eulgaris|: Greece, Opopanax hispidus; Pimpinela saxifraga; Scalgeriacretica (=S. napiformis]; Ferula ‘communis; Pastinaca sativa. Captive larvae readily accept Carum caret. Ova laid on floret-stem or calyx, or close to tips of filamentous leaves of plants so struc- tured. Larvae feed on flowers or developing seeds. Hibernates as a pupa on robust stems of dead plants, sometimes at base of large rocks. In captivity, pupal diapause may extend over two seasonal cycles. Iphiclides podalirius Scarce Swallowtail Range. N Africa, S and C Europe, Turkey, Middle East, Near East, through temperate Asia to W China [ podaliriusTinnaens 175871 :1ivorno, Tuscany (Verity 1947). Distribution. Widespread, locally common. N Africa. 0- 2700m: generally below 240m, N France and Baltic coast to S Europe and most Mediterranean islands including Corsica but reportedly absent from Sardinia. 0-1500m, Description. First brood: ups gc pale yellow; abdomen black, Second brood: ups ge whiter; black markings reduced: uph inner submarginal and pd bands narrow, grevish, often diffuse; unh win black discal fines not filled with yellow-orange: female larger;abdomen grevish- white with dark grey dorsal line. Variation. In NW Africa, Iberian Peninsula and S France (E Pyrenees), feisthameli Duponchel: first brood; ups gc greyish-whitein male; with faint yellow flush in female; black markings heavier; uph inner black marginal border broad, solid. Second brood: ups ge white in male, female often with pale yellow flush; dark inner marginal and submarginal bands reduced, divided by pale line or narrow band, Flight-period. Univoltine, bivoltine or trivoltine according to locality and altitude: Marchjeasly October. ‘Habitat. Diverse. Bushy places; woodland margins; open grassy places, rocky slopes or gullies, sometimes containing few and isolated LHP specimens; orchards of Prunus cultivars: often in very hot and dry situations. fe-history. LHDs principally Prunus, including most cultivated species: spinosa (sloe/blackthorn); Pamygdalus (almond); Pavium (cherry); Pdomestica (plum, damson, greengage); P persica (peach); Parmeniaca (apricot); Pmahaleb (Mahaleb Cherry); P padus (Bird Cherry): also, Pyrus communis (pear); P PAPILIONID/ n amygdaliformis; Plongipes; Malus domestica; Crataegus monogyna; C.oxyeanthas Sorbus aucuparia. Ova laid on leaves, Larvae feed on leaves. In later instars, the green larva js shorter in proportion to its maximum diameter than any other European species and smoothly tapered towards its "tail in colour, texture and ‘markings, well-camouflaged amongst leaves of principal LHP, Prunus spinosa, ‘When crawling, the larva sways gently backwards and forwards: the reason for this curious behaviour is not clear ~ possibly it confuses predators: other well- camouflaged but very different animals, such as the chameleon and some Mantid species, move in a similar fashion. Pupates on thicker stems of LHP. Hiber- nates a5 a pupa. Pupa is green or buff, according to pupation site and season pupae which hibernate ~ on plant stems devoid of leaves - are buf, Behaviour. Adults are greatly attracted to nectar-rich shrubs and trees such as apple, cherry, lilac and buddleia, Air currents are often exploited in aiding fight. Males sometimes ‘hillop’ Note 1. 1. p. eisthameli considered specifically distinct by some authors: ‘confirmatory experimental evidence (biochemical comparisons, hybridization experiments, ete.) appears to be lacking, Note 2. Apparent absence from Sardinia is curious in view of widespread occurrence in coastal districts of $ Corsica and the scope for fortuitous introduction in consequence of strong, prevailing north-westerly winds, Conservation. Becoming increasingly scarce in C Europe, reputedly in con- sequence of changes in agricultural practices Zerynthia polyxena Southern Festoon Range. Central S and SE Europe, NW Turkey, $ Urals, NW Kazakhstan, Z polyxona Denis and Schiffermiller 1775°TL: Vienna, syn: hypsipyle Schulze 1776: hypermnestra Scopoli 1763 Givalid homonym), Distribution. Widespread but local. SE France; Hérault 0 Ardéche, Hautes-Alpes and Alpes-Maritimes. Italy Sicily. S Switzerland: § Tessin: very local. SE Austria, SE Poland. Slovakia. Hungary. Balkans. Greece. European Turkey Absent from Greek islands. 0-1700m — generally below 900%, Description. Upf without red spots in s1b, 4-6, 59 or cell (f. Z. rumina). Variation. In S Europe, females with ochreous ups ge are common (f-ochnacea Staudinger). In S France and Italy, . cassandra Geyer: ups black markings more extensive; upf red spot usually absent in $9 Flight-period. Univoltine. Late March/early July in prolonged emergence. Habitat. Hot, dry grassy and bushy places; rocky slopes and gullies; cultivated areas, especially neglected terraces, Life-history. LHPs Aristolochia clematis; A, rotunda; A. pallida; A. pistolockia. (Ova laid singly or in small batches on leaves, usually underside, Once estab- lished on a particular Aristolochia species, captive larvae may be reluctant to accept other, natural LHPS. Larvae often rest in full sun, usually on LHP leaves, Pupates on plant-stems, tee-bark or underside of stones. Hibernates as a pupa,8 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE. Zerynthia rumina Spanish Festoon Range. NW Africa, SW Europe Z.rumina Linnaeus 1758TL: § Europe. Distribution. Widespread, locally common, Morocco. Al geria, Tunisia, 0-2100m, generally below 1600m. Portugal. Spain. France: Pyrénées-Orientales to Lovére and Provence: sporadic and local. 0-1500m, generally below 100m. Description. Upf with red spots in stb, s4-6, 57 and cell (ef. Z. pobecena). Variation. F medesicaste Hoffmannsegg: uph red spot some- times present at cell-base — common in some localities in $ France. E honnoratit Roisduval (often spelt honoraui in error): ups and unh red markings greatly extended. In female, f. canteneri Staudinger: ups ge yellow-ochreous (a rare variant in male). In N Africa, {africana Stickel: larger; all markings bolder, well developed: upf without red spot in s1b ~ replaced by black; uph with solid black pd band enclosing red spots: closely similar forms are common in S Spain, Flight-period. Generally univoltine (late March/May) in prolonged emer- ‘gence: records span Februaryifuly:a second brood (August/October) has been reported from N Africa and 8 Spain, Habitat. Hot, dry rocky places amongst scrub, including coastal gullies; margins Of dry riverbeds; cultivated areas: flowery meadows. Life-history. LHPs: N Africa, Aristolochia longa paueinervis Al fontanesi, A rotronda: CVA. pallida: Bucope, A. pitolochia, A. rotinda; A.longas A: Bastia, O¥8 laid singly or in small batches on leaves: subsequent development similar tO that for Z, polyrena, Zerynthia cerisy Eastern Festoon Plate 2 Range. SE Europe, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Iraq, Tran, Z. cerisy Godart 1824 TL: Ourlac [Province of Fzmir} Distribution. SE Serbia. S Romania. Albania. Republic of, ‘Macedonia. Bulgaria. European Turkey. N Greece: provinces of Kastoria, Drama and Evros: very sporadic and generally local: 75-1000m: Aegean Islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Kos, Simi, Rhodes, Kastellorizo and Crete (0-1100m), Variation. Uph submarginal red spots variable in size. Female ge sometimes replaced by ochreous-yellow: On Samos: smaller; female ups gc appreciably darker yellow, red spots prominent. On Rhodes: both sexes: reed spots replaced with orange in about 70% of specimens. On Crete, cretica Rebel: smaller: markings reduced; hw outer margin rounded: accorded specific status by some authors. Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid Marchylate July in prolonged emergence: at highest altitude, emergence generally delayed by 3-4 weeks, ‘Habitat. Open, hot, sunny, dry, grassy places amongst thickets of mature bushes, with dense undergrowth, or bordered by hedgerows with sparse deciduous trees: often in river valleys and cultivated areas, PAPILIONIDAE 2» Life-history. LHPs: N Greece and Bulgaria, Aristolochia clemariis: Samos, A, bodamae: Rhodes A. ?)guichardié A. 2) paroiolia: Crete, .creticas A. 2)semper- virens. Ova laid singly or in small numbers on upperside of leaf: plants in close proximity to bushes or well-shaded by trees are favoured for oviposition. Capt larvae accept 4. ronunda, Pupates at base of woody plants or rocks. Hlbernates asa pupa, Archon apollinus False Apollo Plate 3 Range. Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, N Trag, N Tran, A. apollinus Herbst 1798 TL: Ourlac (Bay of lamin) Distribution. SW Bulgaria: reported in 1991 from ‘Sandanski (Struma Valley). Greece: district of Phessalonika; ‘Acgean Islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Kos and Rhodes, European Turkey: Keban; Kuru Dag: Geliboht Peninsula, 0-1100m. Records from’Thrace (NE Greece and E Bulgaria) are somewhat confused by alterations in political boundaries and place names around the time of the Great War, but appear to relate solely to attempted introductions. In 1918 and 1919, larvae from European Turkey (Kuru Dag) were introduced by Iltschev to Badoma (presently known as Avas ‘or Avandas),an area north of Alexandroupolis. Searches for the species in this, area in 1914 and 1915 had proved negative: several, recent searches (1987 1993) have also been unsuccessful Flight-period. Univoitine, Mid Marchimid April Habitat. Olive-groves; vineyards; rocky places amongst scrub or open woodland, Life-history. LHPs: Lesbos and Samos, Aristolocia todamae: Bulgaria, A. larger; male ups ge deeper orange: female upf yellow spats in black marginal border variable in size and number, sometimes absent. Female f. rebeli Schawerda: orange ge replaced by white Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid June/mid August according to altitude. Habitat. Open alpine grassland, rocky slopes or gullies dominated by LHP36 BUTTERELIES OF EUROPE (1700-2100m); bushy clearings in beech or pine forests at lower altitudes. In Greece, on acidie soil-base (granite) ife-history. LLHPs: Greece and Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chamaseytius hirsutus Bulgaria (Rila Mts), C.ericarpus [= Cyrisus absinthoides), Ova laid on upperside of leaves. Larvae feed on leaves, A second brood is easily produced in captive rearing: in Greece, in near natural conditions (normal photo-period) larval development is rapid, with 100% of pupae consistently producing imagines in ‘August (cf. C, myrmidone). Chamaceytisus hirsutus is apparently repellent t0 grazing animals, Colias alfacariensis Berger's Clouded Yellow __Plate 16, Range. S und C Europe, Turkey, Eastern range uncertain due to possible confusion with C. yale C.alfacariensis Ribbe 1905°TL syn: australis Verity 1911 Distribution. Most of C and $ Europe, including Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sicily, to 54°N in Poland. Absent from " Britain, N Holland and N Germany except asa rare migrant: Gb also absent from N Africa, S Greece, E Thrace, European Turkey and Sardinia, 0-2100m, Description. Resembles C. jute closely: distinction often difficult, especially in female. Genitalia very similar: chromosome numbers identical (CN=31) Readily separable in larval stage. For the male, the following wing-characters of C. alfacarienss, considered collectively, usually allow separation from C Iiyale:- 1. Fw outer margin and apex relatively more rounded. 2. Ups ge slightly deeper tone ~‘warmer' yellow. 3. Upf dark basal shading wedge-shaped, extending along inner margin. (In C. yale, radially more uniform ~ fan-shaped). 4. Uph marginal black border often narrower and le submarginal markings absent or restricted (0 $6 and 87. 5. Uph discoidal spot usually larger and deeper orange, Alfacar, Spain. Variation, Female white ups and uns ge rarely replaced by yellow Flight-period. Bivoltine or trivoltine. ApriljOctober according to locality Habitat. Rocky slopes, gullies, dry grassy places, often with open serub; almost invariably on calcareous soils, --history. LHPs Hippocrepis comosa; Coronilla varias oviposition on upper: side of leaves appears to be restricted to one or other of these plant species, when both are present. In Slovakia, where H. comosa is not native, restricted £0 S. varia, Larva very distinctive: green with yellow dorsal/subspiracular lines and black segmental spots (ef. C. hyale). Hibernates as a small larva, Colas erate Eastern Pale Clouded Yellow Plate 16, Range. SE Europe, NW Turkey, Central W Asia to E Kazakhstan, NW Siberia Afghanistan, N Pakistan, N India, S Mongolia, China, Korea, Japen. Also Ethiopia and Somalia PIERIDA 7 C.erate Esper 1804°TL: Sarepta, § Russia Distribution. SE Europe: distributional detail pootly known ‘owing to migration and establishment of colonies cf indefinite persistance. Resident in Slovakia, SE Poland, F Hungary Romania, Bulgaria, NE Greece and European’Turkey. Sin about 1986, a progressive expansion in S Balkans has re~ sulted in persistent colonies throughout Bulgaria (previously known only from Black Sea coast, Danube Plain and Mt Sakat). Present situation in Republic of Macedoria unclear Colonies established in N Greece (Lake Doirani, Phalakron massive, Rhodopi ‘Mrs, and Evros) in 1986/87 from extensive cross-border migration from gen- erally low-lying areas of Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria had largely expired during 1988/89. Very small, isolated colonies persist in Evros (NE Greece) but their existence before the influx of 1987 cannot be precluded. 0-1700m, Description and Variation. Male fw pointed, outer margin linear, ups ge ure lemon yellow; upf marginal borders uniformly black, but often with yellow spots (f. poliographus Motschulsky) ~ the dominant form in some colonies (see Note 1). Female ups gc and upf-spots in marginal borders yellow or white, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Mid March/October, voltinism and emergence ‘dependent on locality ~ in Slovakia and Bulgaria, 3 to 5 broods Habitat. Found in a wide varity of situations, mostly in regions containing an abundance of LHP in cultivation Life-history. LHP: Europe, Medicago satioa: other genera/species of Fabaceae have been reported from eastern range, Hibernates as a pups Note 1. C.enute 2F. poliographus accorded specific rank by some authors: dis tribution reportedly overlaps that of C. erare in Romania, NW Siberia and Afghanistan, extending eastwards through N Pakistan, Kashmir, S Mongolia, ina and Korea to Japan, Note 2. Hybridization with C.crocea well documemed: in E’Thrace (NE Greece), specimens sharing characters of the nwo species ~presuumed to be hybrids ~ are common (Plate 14). Gonepteryx rhamni Brimstone Range. NW Africa, Europe, Turkey toW Siberia, Kyreyzstan and Mongolia G. shamni Linnaeus 1758°TL: Sweden (Verity 1987) Distribution, Widespread and common, Mountainous regions of NW Africa. 0-2800m, Europe, south of Scotland and 64°N in Fennoscandia, Mediterranean islands of Cor- sica, Sardinia, Sicily, Corfu, Kefalonia, Zakynthos and Kastellorizo. Absent from Atlantic Islands, 0-2500m. Description. Male ups yellow ge uniform (cf. male G. J Jarinosa): female hw shape variable but dentation of inner margin better developed than that of G. cleopatra. Distinction fiom female G,farinosa often difficult ups and uns white, faintly ting Vari greenish jon. Throughout range, hw shape variable, In NW Africa and S Europe,38 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE ofien very large (f. meridionalis Réber) but size locally and regionally variable Gynandromorphism commonly reported, Flight-period. Univoltine. In N and C Europe, JunefJuly: in S Europe and NIW Africa, May/October: hibernated specimens re-appear March/carly May. Confirmation of partial bivoltinism reported for N Africa and S Europe requires, detection of early stages in mid/late summer to eliminate possible confusion caused by disruption of diapause in summerjautumn: males, especially, are readily inclined to leave hibernation on warm days in late winter. Habitat. Damp or dry bushy places especially associated with woodland; open. grassy and rocky slopes with sparse bushes. Ssmpatrc with ,ceopara and G ife-history. LHPs Frangula anus; Rhammus catharticus; RalaternussR. alpinus alpinus: Rea, faliaxs R. myrtifolia; R.oleoides. Ova laid singly on developing leaves or stems. Larva feeds on leaves. Pupates on LHP stems. Hibernates as aan adult, often amongst the leaves of evergreen shrubs and trees Gonepteryx cleopatra Cle Range. Conary Islands, Madeira, NW Africa, § Europe, Turkey, Middle Eas. G. cleopatra cleopatra Linnaeus 1767°TL: Barbaria, Algeria, Distribution. Widespread, generally common. Morocco. Algeria. Tunisia. 0-3000m. Portugal. Spain. Balearic Islands, ‘Sand C France: Pyrenees and Provence to Vendée and Ain. Corsica, Peninsular Italy except C: Apennines: sporadie in, northern districts, Sardinia, Sicily. Dalmatian coast sporadic. Cand $ Greece, Corfu, Kefalonia, Zakynthos, Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Ikaria, Rhodes, Karpathos, Crete, Skiathos, Skyros, Sifnos, Paros and ‘Milos. European Turkey. Not reported from Albania and Republic of Macedonia, Records for § Switzerland, Bulgaria and N Greece appear to relate to vagrant specimens only. 0-1600m: generally below 1200m. Description. Male ups gc yellow; upf with deep orange discal patch: unf discal area yellow, unh and unf costa pale yellowish-green or whitish: in f. italic Gerhard (=f. massiliensis Foulquier], uns dul yellow, except for slightly brighter uupf discal area, Whilst these colour forms occur together in varying ratio in ‘most regions, including NW Africa, f,ialica becomes increasingly common in ‘Mediterranean, comprising 100% of specimens on some E Aegean islands, Female unf with delicate, pale orange streak above median vein; uph often with, faint orange fshshw angular projection at v3 very shallow (cf. female G.rhamni and G.farinosa). Variation. Male upf orange flush variable in size and intensity, In SE Europe, female white ge (normal) sometimes replaced by pale yellow of bright sulphur- yellow (cesembling male G. rham); these forms sometimes occur together, in iocally or regionally widely varying ratios: in N and C Greece, white form preponderates: on Me. Chelmos, mostly bright yellow: in Taygetos Mts. normal and intermediate forms common, the brightest yellow forms infrequent: on Rhodes (f.forif Turati and Fiori), universally bright yellow (a similar form has been reported from Tunisia): yellow variants appear to be rare on Karpathos and absent from Crete and some other F Aegean islands: an intermediate yellow opatra Plate 17 TITER en toe tN PIERIDAE, 59 form has been reported from Milos. On Mallorca, male upf orange flush aver- agely smaller and paler. Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid May/August with hibemated specimens re appearing in early spring (late February/late April), Reportedly bivoltine in S Spain and N Africa, but possible, temporary suspension of diapause in late summer is a potential source of confusion Habitat. Open bushy, often rocky places: often associated with light wood- land, Life-history. LHPs Rhammus cathartcus, R.alaternus; R.myrtifolias R.oleoidess R. alpinus, R.sibthorpianus; R. ()persicifolins (Sardinia). Ova laid singly on developing leaves or stems. Larva feeds on leaves. Pupates on LHP stems, Hibernates as an adult G cleopatra maderensis Felder 1862'TL: Madeira, Distribution. Madeira: Terreirro da L uta; Ribeiro Frio; Encumeada Pass, S00- 1500m, Description, Male upf deep orange with very nartow, yellow marginal borders; fw and hw well marked with a reddish-brown marginal line, slightly expanded at veins: female ups pale greenish with faint yellow flusts unh and unf costal areas dull greenish; unf disc whitish Flight-period. Volinism uncertain due to longevity of adults and perhaps sporadic, temporary suspension of diapause ~ if any. Recorded in all months but commoner April/September, Habitat. Dense laurel forest containing other trees and shrubs including LHP. Butterfly appeare to be confined to auch areas ~ not as wide-ranging as Canes Island Gonepteryx, “history. LHP Rhammus glandulosa, Note. Visibie areas of female underside at rest (hw and fw costa) are non- reflective in UV-light, as are the leaves of laurel (Laurus laurocerasus) amongst ‘which females normally roost, often rest and possibly hibernate: as insectiferous birds have good UV-colour vision, cryptic UV-coloration is an obvious functional advantage in habitat dominated by laurel, Canary Island Gonepteryx butterflies (below) have followed a different evolutionary path, resulting in strongly UV- reflective female undersides ~ an adaptive consequence, apparently, of less parochial behaviour in a more botanically diverse environment containing plants, eg. bramble (Rubus fruticosus), whose leaves are also UV-reflective. Recent DNA studies have demonstrated a much closer affinity of maderensis to the nominate form than the Gonepieryx of the Canary Islands, G cleopatra ceobule Hibbner 1825 TL: Tenerife Distribution. N Tenerife: Las Mercedes; Icod Alto; Anaga; Chinobre, $00- 200m. Description. Fw outer margin almost linear; hw dentation very shallow; fw and hw with conspicuous, often striking, reddish-brown marginal line, slighty expanded at veins: male upf gc deep orange, extending almost to margins; uph yellow; unf greenish-yellow; unh greenish: female ups gc yellow, flushed oranges strongly UV-reflective, Flight-period. Voltnism uncertain (see maderensis). Recorded in all months. Habitat and Behaviour. Sunny clearings in laurel forests, but habitat of more diverse character than that of maderensis. Both sexes tend to fly at lower altitudesHUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE in winter and often feed on Cedronella canariensis blossom, Life-history. LHPs Rhamnus glandulosa: R. cronulara. Larvae have been re- corded in April, August and December. Early stages do not appear to differ from palmae or ever (below). Captive larvae accept R. catharticus Note. Considered specifically distinct by many authors: recent, comparative DNA studies of this and related taxa have proved inconclusive, G. cleopatra palmae Stamm 1963°TL: La Palma Distribution. [-a Palma: Santa Cruz; Quinteros Rio de las Nieves; Barranco del Aguas Bo. de la Galga: Beo. de Jieque; Los Sauces; Los Tilos. 300-1600m, Description. Fw outer margin almost linear; hw dentation very shallow: male pf yellow with diffuse orange discal flush, variable; uph yellow; unh and unt costal area greenish-yellow: female ups very pale yellow —fw discal area almost \white, hw and fw costal areas flushed pale yellow-orange; uns similar. Female ups non-reflective in UV-light Flight-period. Voltinism uncertain (see muderensi). Recorded in March/April, June/September and December. Habitat, Behaviour and Life-history. As for G.c. cleobule G. cleopatra eversi Rehnelt 1974 TL: Gomera. Distribution. Gomera: Las Rosas; Hermigua; La Palmita; Las Hayas; Mt Garajonay; Laguna Grande; Roque de Agando; Montaia Quemada; Valle- hermoso, 500-1400, Description and Variation. Resembles cleobude: upf orange discal lush slightly paler, variable: female resembles palmae: ups lemon yellow; upf often with strong, range discal flush. Female ups non-reflective in UV ight Flight-period. Voliinism uncertain (see maderensis). Recorded in March/May, July/September and December. Habitat, Behaviour and Life-history. As for G.c. cleabule Plate 16 Gonepteryx farinosa Powdered Brimstone Range. Albania, Republic of Macedonia, Bulgar Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, N Iraq, N and W Iran, Cauca” sus to Tajikistan. G farinosa Zeller 1847°TL: Macei (Fethiye), SW Turkey. Distribution. Albania, Republic of Macedonia. Bulgaria: a single ste in Strume Valley. Greece: E Thessaly; Sterea Ellas; ‘Attias Peloponnesos: very restricted in N districts (Kastorias, é Kozani; Drama; Evros): recorded from Levkas, Kefalonia, 3 Rhodes, Kastellorizo. European Turkey. 25-1450m. bed Description. Male upt lemon yellow, with slightly roughened appearance; uph distinctly paler ~ constrast with fw apparent in Might: female ups white, some- times faintly tinged bluish (cf. G. rhamni) Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid June/July: hibernated specimens re-appear MarchiApril Habitat and Behaviour. Hot, dry, bushy places, often on rocky slopes at higher altitudes: very hot, dry low coastal hills amongst sparse bushes of Paliurus spina-christi, In some localities, often roosts in bushes of Phlomis fruticosa Life-history. LHPs Riamnus alpinus fallax; R.sibthorpianus; Rlyioides gragcus, Palnerus spina-chrisi. Ova laid at leaf-nodes on stems. PIERIDA at Europe, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Caucasus to W Siberia and’Tian Shan, L.sinapis Linnaeus 1758 TL: Sweden (Verity 1947). Distribution. Widespread and common in most of Europe south of 66°N in Fennoscandia (very local north of Arctic Circle), including Mediterranean islands of Mallorca, Cor- sica, Sardinia, Elba, Sicily, Corfu, Levkas, Kefalonia, Zakynthos, Skyros, Thassos, Lesbos, Chios, Samos and Crete ‘Absent from Scotland, N England, Holland, N Germany and ‘Denmark except Bornholm. 0-2300m: generally below 190m, Description. Antennal club black with extreme tip brown and small white ventral patch (cf. L. duponchelt). Secondithird broods, dark markings reduced, Resembles 1. reali closely, Flight-period. Generally univoltine in N and C Fennoscandia, June/early ‘August: bivoltine in most of C Europe MayiJune and Jult/August: rivoltne in parts of S Europe, late March/September according to locality and altitude. Habitat. Diverse. Mature deciduous/coniferous/mixed forest clearingsimargins sparse woodland; bushy places; flowery meadows; coastal scrubs less often, grassy, rocky slopesigullies above treeline: most habitat-types associate with ‘wide range of temperature, geology and ground-water conditions. Life-history. LHPs Lathyrus pratensis; grandifiorus ,tuberosus, L.montanus; Tlinijoline, T rermue; L. niger: 1. aphaca; Lotus liginosns; L cornicilatns, Ova laid on underside of leaves of partially shaded LHPs, Larvae feed on leaves, Pupates on robust plant-stems, usually in concealment arrongst grasses. Hiber- nates as a pupa, Leptidea reali Réal’s Wood White Not illustrated Range. Spain, France, S Belgium, N Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, SW Serbia, S Poland, SE Sweden, U 1. reali Reissinger 1989 TL: La Montailla, E Pyrenees. syn: lorkovicti Réal 1988 (invalid homonym) Distribution. Spain: provinces of Cuenca (Usa); Teruel (Albarracin); Alava (Cantabrian Mts.); Lérida (Caldos de Bohit); Gerona. France: Ariége; Pyrénées-Orientales; Aude; Alpes-Maritimes; Alpes-de-Haute-Provenge; Hautes” Alpes, Ardéche; Isére; Jura; Moselle; Meuse. § Belgium: province of Luxembourg. N Switzerland: canton of Luzern (Herigswalds Sérenburg). Slovenia. Croatia, SW Serbia: Mt. Maglic. SE Poland, SE Sweden: Sonde manland (including Island of Ingaré); Uppland. Tentative records for province of Alicante and Corsica require confirmation, 100-2000m. Geographical! altitudinal distribution uncertain due to probable confusion with 1 sinapis: distribution possibly much less disjunctive than present records indicate Description, Resembles J. sinapis but density of black pigmentation in wing- ‘markings averagely greater; in summer broods, female upf black, roundish apical patch usually well represented, Wing-characters variable, inadequate for reliable2 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE determination, but, in either sex, readily separable from L. sinapis by substan- ‘tial morphological and reproductively significant differences in genitalia field ‘observations and laboratory experiments indicate a significant pre-mating bar- rier between the two species: natural hybrids unknown, Flight-period. Limited data indicate voltinism/fight-times similar to that of Losinapis. Habieat. Similar to that of L. sinapis with which itis usually to be found. Life-history. LHP Laviyrus praionss. Life-cycle/eatly-stages similar to that of L. sinapis: pupa slightly more yellowish, reddish lateral lines and wing-case ‘markings less distinct Range. SE France, $ Balkans, Turkey, Lebanon, N Irag, NF and W Iran, Transcaucasts, 1. duponcheli Staudinger 1871 TL: $ France, syn: Jaskyri Duponchel (invalid homonym) Distribution, SE France: Var and Alpes-Maritimes to Drdme and Hautes-Savoie, NW Italy: Maritime Alps: very local, SW Serbia (Montenegro). Albania, Republic of Mac- edonia. Bulgaria: very local and sporadic. N and C Greece, | including Zakynthos: local but widespread. 50-1150m, Description. Fw pointed; uns of antennal club brown (white in L. sinapis) ‘up vi with pronounced “hump” below cell ~ curvature relatively slight in L. sinapis, First brood: colour and pattern of heavy uns markings distinctive, show- ing through to ups. Second brood: markings less intense, Separable from 1. sinapis and L. reali in all broods and both sexes by wing-matkings, antennal club and fw venation, Flight-period. Bivoltine. Mid Aprilfmid May and late June/July. Habitat. Hot, sunny, bushy places; open woodland; rocky gullies. Habitats ‘mote restricted and averagely hotter/drier than those of the more ecologically diverse L. sinapis with which it usually occurs Life-history. LHPs Lathyrus aphaca: L. pratense; Lotus uliginosus, Ova laid on underside of leaves of LHP specimens usually well-shaded by undergrowth or large rocks. Larvae feed on leaves. Hibernates as a pupa. Leptidea morsei Fenton's Wood White Plate 18 uty [SFG Ae Range. Central E Europe to C and $ Urals, S Altai, W Siberia to japan L. morsei major Grund 1905 TL: Zagreb, Yugoslavia, Distribution. S Poland. Slovakia. SE Austria, Hungary. N atia. Romania, Bulgaria. 250-1400m. Description. Fw apex falcate ~ rounded in L.sinapis and real. First brood, unh pattern and tone of ereyish mark- ings distinctive. Second brood, larger; markings greatly reduced. Antennal club resembles L. sinapi. Flight-period. Bivoltine. Mid Aprilmid May and mid June/late July PIERIDAE “ Habitat. Margins/clearings associated with mature, damp deciduous wood- land. Habitat and LHP often shared with Nepus sappho. Life-history. LHPs Lavhyrus verna; L. niger: the latter appears to be the sole LHP in some habitats of N Croatia, despite presence of both plant species.Lycaenidae Linnaeus 1758 ‘This very large family of generally small butterflies, represented in Europe by over one hundred species, include the blues, hairstreaks and coppers. For most, species, sexual dimorphism is especially well marked, and the females of many “blue” butterflies are brown, Close similarity between species sometimes renders identification difficult, but differences ~ often more easily seen than described. in ground-colour and the pattern of markings, particularly on the hind-wing. underside, are generally clear. The greatest difficulties in determination are presented by the distinctive group known as the ‘anomalous blues’, so-called because the uppersides of both sexes are brown: sexual distinction is, however, ‘clearly indicated by a sex-brand on the upper fore-wing of the male."The males ‘of many species will often gather, sometimes in huge numbers and for pro- longed periods, on damp ground for the purpose of extracting sodium salts, from the water. The larvae of the Lycaenidae are shaped much like a wood- louse, are usually well-camouflaged, and often show a high order of adaptation, to larval host-plants, For most species, a ‘honey’ gland (dorsal nectary organ) ‘on the 10th larval segment exudes @ sugary fluid ~a high-energy food ~ which is very attractive to ants. In exchange for this secretion, attending ants actively afford some protection against parasitic flies (diptera) and wasps (hymenop- tera). Whilst some associations (facultative), although mutually advantageous, are not essential, others (obligate) are quite necessary for the survival of some Lycaenid species such as the Large Blue, whose symbiotic relationship has volved to the point of total dependence on (particular) ants species within whose nests the latter stages of larval, as well as pupal development occurs: the butterfly larvae feed exclusively on ant larvae, whilst receiving the Full co- ‘operation and protection of the adult ants. The association of many Iycaenid larvae with ants (myrmecophily) is well-documented, but, as the rapid progress of research suggests, much detail remains to be discovered about these inter esting relationships. Pupae are characteristically ‘dumpy"~ short in proportion to diameter. According to species, pupae may be secured by a girdle of fine silk to leaf or stem, often of the larval host-plant, or, with no attachment, secreted in rolled-up leaves, secured by a few strands of silk, under basal leaves of the larval host-plant, or on the ground under stones, amongst lea-ltter, moss, et. Cigaritis zohra Donzel’s Silver-line Range. Morocco, Algeria, ©. sofia zohva Donel 1847°TL: Djebel Amour, Algeria, Distribution. W and C Algeria: widespread but local: ‘Sebdou; El Bayadh; Aflou; Djelfa; Saidas Kralfalih. Records, from Tunisia (Tozeur; Gata; Moulares) require confirma- tion, Description. Male ups gc orange-brown; submarginal and, ‘marginal dark spots usually confluent; upt markings vari able but usually well developed unh ge brown. All markings subject to marked local variation, Flight-period. Univoltine, Records span May/June. LYCAENIDAE, 65 . zohra monticola Riley 1925 TL: Aghbalu Larbis Taghzeff Pass, Morocco. Distribution. Morocco: widespread but local: Middle and High Atlas (Anno- ceur; Hfrane; Tizi-n-Trettens Boulmane; Col du Zad; Tizi-n-Taghzet). 1600- 200m. Description. Resembles nominate form: smaller; ups ge deeper orange: all ‘markings subject to appreciable variation. Flight-period. Univoltine. MarchiJune according to season. generally late April! May. Habitat. Grassy slopes, Life-history. First and second instar larvae feed on Coronilla minima, thereatier, living in nests of Crematogaser laeserygon until adulthood, Behaviour. Flies close to the ground: fond of resting on bare ground with wings closed. Cigaritis siphax Common Silver-line Plate 21 Range. Algeria, Tunisia C.siphax Lucas 1849°TL: Constantine, Algeria. Distribution. Algeria: Collo; Bone: Aflou; Khenchales “Timgad; Djurdjura massif, Tunisia: Ain Draham; Cap Bors Hammamet. 100-1000m, Variation. Ups markings variable; black marginal spots sometimes absent; unh ge brown to purplish. Flight-period. Voltinism uncertain, possibly trivoltine Records span March/October. Habitat. Dry hillsides with Cists. Cigaritis allardi Allard’s Silver-line Range. Morocco, Algeria, €-allardi Oberthir 1909°TL: Sebdou, Algeria. Distribution. Morocco: W Middle Atlas (Abu SaasAzrous Immouzer: El Harcha El Ksiba; 1200-1600m:W Anti-Adas (Agadir: Tafraoute; Col du Rerdouss 800-1 100%) High Alas (Dj. Aourach; izicn’Ouguerd-Zegzaoune 2000-2400m! Algeria: Sebsious Masser Mines; Dj. Maktar 1500-1800m. ‘Variation. Subject to Variation in ups black markings and gc variable: the following taxa relate wo small bu systematic, Fegional differences: Middle Alas Mts, eccidentals Le Cert: High Adas Mts. (Morocco andW Algeria), meridional Riley: AntieAtias Mes esheraeBrevignon. Flight-period. Univolinc, MarchJune according to location and season, Habitat. Hot, dry, rocky slopes, sometimes serub-covered Life-history. LHPs Genista quadriflon; Cistussalvfolius: Fumana thyifotia, Helianchemum hirtum ruficomtam. Larvae strongly myrmecophilous, atended bby Grematogaster aubertis C.antariss C.seellars Behaviour. Fight very rapid in ho: conditions. Both exesrest on low-growing shrubs and are easily disturbed66 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE. Apharitis myrmecophilia Desert Leopard __Not illustrated Range. Tunisia, S and E Algeria, Libya, Eaypt, Jordan, Cyprus, Saudi Arabia, Oman. A. myrmecophila Dumont 1922 TL: Tozeur, Tunisia. Distribution. F Algeria: Biskra, 100m, Extremely local, usu= ally occurring in very small numbers. More widespread in S Algeria (Hoggar Mis Tassilin’Ajjer) and STunisia (Tozeurs, Nefia) Description. Ups ge bright orange; marginal borders thinly black; upf dark markings variable, prominent or absent; uph, 2 without submarginal and discal markings: both sexes, upf apex with distinctive ‘creamy-white patch (Cigartis spp. and al. acamas,a closely similar species from. SS Algeria, are without a white apical patch) Flight-period. Voltinism uncertain: possibly bivoltine or polyvoltine: records span Aprilfuly: Habitat. Very hot sandy places Life-history. LHP Calligonum comosum (Polygonaceae). Larvae strongly ‘myrmecophilous, attended by Crematogasterauberti(2)Cataglyphis bicolor. Larvae feed at night, residing in ants nests during the day. Pupates in ants nests Behaviour. Aduls often rest on small stones in full sun in the hottest parts of habitat, or bushes to which they quickly return when disturbed. Thecla betulae Brown Hairstreak Plate 19 Range. Europe through Asia to Korea . betulae Linnacus 1758 'TL: Sweden (Verity 1943) istribution. Spain: S.de Gata; Cantabrian Mts; Catalonia E Pyrenees through most of Europe, including W Ireland and § England to $ Fennoscandia, Balkans, N Greece (Voras Mis., Phalakron massif and N Pindot Mts.) and European Turkey: Absent from Portugal, $ Italy and Mediterranean fslands. 50-1500m, ight-period. Univoltine. Late July/carly September Habitat. Deciduous woodland or mature scrub with open, sunny clearings containing an abundance of blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) fe-history. LHP Prunus spinosa. Ova laid, often in pairs, mainly in forks at stem-junctions, usually on young plants, Hibernates as an ovum, Pupae attended by Lasius niger Quercusia quercus Purple Hairst Range. N Afric Kazakhstan, Ik Plate 19 Europe, Middle East, Turkey, Caucasus, Russia, S Urals, Q. quercus quercus Linnaeus 1758TL: England (Verity 1943), Distribution. Common and widespread from Pyrences, eastwards through ‘most of Europe, including Britain, to § Fennoscandia, Greece, European Tur- key and Mediterranean islands of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, Lesbos, Samos and Rhodes. 0-2000m. (Vagrant specimens have been found at 230m). LYCAENIDAE: o Flight-period. Univoltine, Late Junejearly September. Habitat. Diverse. Hot, dry oak scrubs damp or dry deci uous or mixed forests containing oak Life-history. LHPs Quercus spp.s including Q. robur Q. coccifera; O.petraca O. lex; Q.cerris; O. pubvscens. Ova laid at base of leaf buds. Hibernates as an ovum. Behaviour. Adults show litle interest in the nectar of plants, carrion, exerement, and only rarely visit damp soil: nutrients seem to be obtained largely from aphid secretion Choney- dew") on leaves of trees, especially LHP, to which adult activity is largely confined, (Q. quercus ibercus Staudinger 1901 TL: S Spain and Morocco. Distribution, Morocco: Middle Atlas; Rif Mts. Algeria: Middle Ads. 1200- 200m, Portugal. Spain, 900-2100m. Deseription. Resembles nominate form except uns very pale silvery-grey, markings reduced, including anal orange spot and ring, Flight-period. Univoltine. June/mid September. Habitat. Oak (Quercus) scrub; dry, oak woodland: often in very hot places. Life-history. LHP Quercus spp. including Q. coccifera, Q-ilex. Note. Intermediate forms, some closely approzching sbericus, occur north of, Pyrenees in Haute Garonne. Captive rearing in cool conditions produce specimens indistinguishable from nominate form, indicating at least some ecological control over distinctive characters. Laeosopis roboris Spanish Purple Hairstreak Plate 19 Range. Portugal, Spain, $ France L. roboris Esper 1793 T1.: Stated in error as ‘Frankfurt am Main’ Distribution. Portugal except extreme south (Algarve) Throughout Spain in scattered colonies. France: E Pyrenees to Provence, 100-1600m. Flight-period, Univoltine. Late May/late July according to locality and akitude. Habitat. Open flowery bushy places with ash trees. Life-history. LHP Fraxinas excelsior. Ova laid near dormant leaf-buds or main trunk of host-tree, sometimes near ground-level. Larvae feed on flowers and developing leaves. Hibernates as an ovum. Behaviour. In carly morning, both sexes often assemble in large numbers t0 feed on tall umbellifers (Apiaceae), including fennel (Foensculum vulgure). Flight is confined mostly to higher branches of LHP in cooler conditions late afternoon’ carly evening: adults rest on leaves of trees/shrubs during hottest periods. te 19 Satyrium acaciae Sloe Hairstreak Range. Spain, S Europe, Turkey, S Russia 'S. acaciae Fabricus 1787 TL: S Russia Distribution. N Spain and Montes Universales, eastwards through France (to 49°N), Germany and Poland (to 51°N), N Italy to Greece and European68 HUT TERELIES OF EUROPE ‘Turkey. Absent from Portugal, § Italy and Mediterranean islands, 0-2000m, Description, Male ups without sex-brand, Female abdomen with black anal hair-tutt :he-period. Univoltine, JuneiJuly Habitat. Diverse. Dry scrub; open woodland; occasionally, damp forest clearings and open terrain above tree-line, Life-history. LHP Prunus spinosa. Ova laid mostly at stem junctions. Immediately after ovipositing, the female uses the dark abdominal tuft to brush hair-like scales onto the whitish egg, rendering it less visible: as these scales are easily removed (hibernated ova are devoid of scales), the purpose of this practice is obscure. Hibernates as an ovum Behaviour. Both sexes attracted to flowers of dehillea and Thymus. Satyrium ilicis lex Hairstreak Range. Europe, S Fennoscandia, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, [7 Wand Urals, NW Asia, S.Iliis Esper 1779 TL: Erlangen, Germany. Distribution. Portugal, N and E Spain: scattered colonies Balearic Islands, eastwards to $ Fennoscandia, Baltic states, Balkans, European Turkey and Greece, including Corfu, [2 ‘Thassos, Limnos, Lesbos, Samos, Ikaria, Chios, Kos, Simi, Poros and Tenos. 0-1600m. Absent from Britain, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete = Description and Variation. Male upf without sex-brand. Unh somarginal ‘orange spots in sib-s5 clearly defined, conspicuously edged black; white mar= ginal line usually prominent (cf. S. escul). In Portugal, Spain and S France, cerr Hiner upt with variable orange discal pach, usualy beter developed in Flight-period. Univoltine. Late May/early August according to altitude, Habitat. Diverse, Hot, dry Quercus cocciera scrub; dampidry heaths; forest clearings. Life-history. LHP Quercus spp.. including Q, cocifera; Q. les: Q. robur. Ova laid near dormant leaf-buds. Hibernates as an ovum. Larvae attended by Camponowis aethiops; Crematogastor schmidt oF ()ionia . Behaviour. Attracted to flowers of Thymus and Sambucus ebulus Satyrium esculi False lex Hairstre Kk Range. N Africa, SW’ Europe S esculi Hubner 1804°TL: Portugal Distribution. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, 900-2400m. Ibe- rian peninsula except extreme N’and NW; Baleatic Islands (biza and Mallorca). France: E Pyrenees to Alpes-Maritimes, 500-1300m. Description and Variation. Male upf without sex-brand; ups ge light greyish-brown to dark brown; dull yellow-orange suffusion on fw disc and hw submargin extremely variable, often absent; unh reddish-orange submarginal spots in s1b-s5 clearly defined, LYCAENIDAE 0 internally finely edged black; marginal white line vestigial (of Seis): female ups and uns ge generally paler; ups pattern of orange sulTusion similar, averagely better developed. In N Africa (nauretanica Staudinger), range of variation in wwing-markings similar: in some localities, ups orange suffusion extensive and ‘constant (F. powell’ Oberthii): similar forms oceur in Spain (ilicioides Gerhard). Flight-period. Univoltine, Late May/August according to locality. Habitat, Hot, dry flowery scrub or sparse deciduous or mixed woodland, fe-history. LHPs Quercus coccfera; Q lex, Larvae attended by Camponotus Satyrium spini Blue-spot Hairstreak Range. Sand S apni Denis and Shitfermiler1775°TL Vienna. Disteibution, Most of Eurpe to about 54°N in Buc tes Absent from N France, Belgium, Holland, Fennoscandia, Eston, Latvia, Shay and Mediterranean ists, exctpt Mallorca, Carls, Zaksmthos, Kithira and Lesbos 0-2000m. Description. Male up wit sexchrand Hoth sexes, unh wth bie spot in anal ange Variation. In Iberian peninsula, female ups with variable —_ Orange sufasions ranging from smal difuse patch on fs disc and bw anal sale (¢ wandalsia Lederer [21 bncaus Hubner] to most of Ups except mar- tial, costal nd basal areas (lemons Manly): female ups orange suasion fire chewher in Burope Flight-period, Univoline, Late May/at July acording to locality Habitat. How dry scrub; grassy, bushy places woodland clearings exposed mountain meadows with light scrub Lifechistory. LiPs Rhamnaceac, including Rhannus alaterus, Reade, Feaipina ao, Paton spinach (Rhamnaceae) in Greece. Hibernates 2s > Europe Turkey Lebanon Taq and ran, [> Satyrium w-album White-letter Hairstreak Plate 20 Range. C and F 5. w-album Knoch 1782 TL: Leipzig, Distribution, Prom N Spain (Cantabrian Mts); Italy Gin cluding Sicily) and Greece (in Peloponnesos, reported enly from Mt. Chelmos) to $ England and S Fennoscandia. Absent from European Turkey and Mediterranean islands except Sicily. 100-1300. Description. Male upf with smal sex-brand above cel, ht-period. Univoltine, Generally mid Juneflate July emergence may be delayed until Augustin § Scandinavia in unfavourable seasons, Habitat. Mature woodland with open, sunny clearings, Life-history. LHP Ulnus, principally Ulmus glabra, Ovalaid at base of termina Ieaf buds. Hibernates as an ovum, Newly-hatched larvae feed on developing flower-buds in early spring. Behaviour. Both sexes attracted to bramble blossom, jurope, Turkey, Urals, Kazakhstan, Japan,0 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Satyrium pruni Black Hairstreak Range. C and E Europe, § Siberia, Mongolia, Korea, Japan. ‘S.pruni Linnaeus 1758°TL Germany (Verity 1943) Distribution. From E Pyrenees, N Italy (sporadic and very local) and N Greece (district of Drama: extremely local) 10 central $ England, Denmark (restricted to Sjelland and Falster: very local), S Sweden (Skine, Blekinge, Smaland and Oland: very local), Lativa (widespread but scarce), () Estonia and S Finland, Absent irom coastal Mediterranean, districts and islands. 200-750m, Description and Variation. Male upf with small sex-brand above cell, Ups submarginal orange markings variable, better developed in female. Flight-period. Univoltine. Generally mid June/late July: mid May/early July in central E Europe. ‘Habitat. Mature blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) thickets in sheltered, sunny clear ings or at margins of mature, deciduous woodland. Life-history. LHP Prunus spinosa. Ova laid mostly at stem junctions on taller plants. Hibernates asa fully-formed larva within ovum-case, Newy-hatched larvae {eed on flower-buds in early spring and developing leaf-buds towards maturity Behaviour. Adults take nectar from the blossom of shrubs, especialy privet (Lingustrum vulgare) and bramble (Rubus fruticosus) rather than low herbage: bfien rest for prolonged periods in higher parts of LHP. Satyrium ledereri Orang: anded Hairstreak Plate 20 Range. Greece (Samos), Turkey, Lebanon, Iran,Transcaucasus S.ledereri Boisduval 1848 TL: Caucasus. Distribution. Greece: known only from Mt. Karvouni (105 ‘Mt Kerketefs (1000-1400m) on E Aegean island of Samos, Variation. On Samos, christianae Olivier: wing-characters and male genitalia Within range of variation of nominate form, Flight-period. Univoltine. June. Habitat. Above tree-line on exposed, dry, craggy limestone supporting sparse. low-growing vegetation ife-history. LHP Avraphaxis billardieri var. billardieri (Polygonaceae). Ova laid on woody stems of LHP Hibernation stage uncertain: in early spring, torpid, second instar larvae have been found under bark and in crevices on stems of dormant LHP: in captivity, hibernates as a fully-formed larva within ovum cease (cf. S. pruni). Larvae feed on leaves, In captivity, larvae reject Ruomex acetosella, R.acerosa and Polygonum avicular. Note. In North America, Polygonaceae shrubs are widely used by ‘hairstreaks’ of the genera Callophrys and Sirymon. 1145m) and Callophrys rubi Green Hairstreak Plate 20 Range. N Africa, Europe, Turkey, Russia, Siberia, Amur, rubi Linnaeus 1758°TL: Sweden (Verity 1943), Distribution. Widespread and common, Morocco, Algeria. Tunisia. 0-2500m, Throughout Europe, including arctic Fennoscandia, Baltic Islands and most cannons n “Mediterranean islands: reported froma Greckitand-groups ber apparent abvene fom Grete Absent fom Ataree: | Tan (record forTenenfe (1969) remains uncom), | Outer Hebries, Orkney and Shetland Island. 0-230 teneal Blow 3000m Beseripton and Variation, Frons green, ees with very narrow white borders (€. C.ei), Both sexes: ups smoky, revi brovnsunh usualy wth white maken cea some: Fines developed into a doted white mediodical line, more 2 tare) extending across unt ater form relatively common in faba shared ‘wih the similarly marked Cau. In'S urope and NW Afric, jeeide Staudinger ups ge often more redish-trown, ight period, Unilin, Generally Match: sings, fresh specimens are often reorded in July Habitat Diverse Woodland clearings; busy place; scrubland; flowery dmendows; het; marshes; sheltered rocky pices or apine grassland ell bore wee ne Adapted ta remarable range of cat and other ecological Life-history. LHPs include Cys scoparius C. nigricans Cilla Goita tictors Ganglia Gras; G german era (Corsica ana Sarin) Chamacipartiom sap Chaucer hrsunt clas Carbarps Ulex Scraps minos not euler Dorn hrs Dsus (alge); Onchryhs cif Hchahennn mummaarians Rowers Arbus Veco; Khanna Panga Cormas Rus Larvae polsmorphic, {Tsplying a wide celour-ange ~ pile gieefoeblu, sass green or eds Popa hasan ait to make fant sounds by moving abdominal segments ~ Setdlaion liberates asa pupa under stone, eves o moss aba of tes Shrubs or amongst leaves on LAP Plate 20 Callophrys avis Chapman's Green Hairstreak Range. NW Africa, SW Furope C.avis Chapman 1909 TL: S France and Morocco. Distribution, Morocco: Tangiers. Algeria: Algiers: Khe hela; Zehroun, Tunisia: Ain Draham. 200-1700m. 8 Portugal. Spain: provinces of Cadiz, Malaga and “Teruel. S France: Pyrénéet-Orientalis to Alpes-Maritimes. 100-1000m: usually below 700m. 7 Description and Variation. Resembles C.rubi, Fronsand |=! eye borders rusly-red; ups reddish-brown; uns thin white EL line mediodiscal line on both wings (cf. C. rub). Flight-period. Univoltne. ate March/mid June according to locality and altitude, Habieat, Dry scrub containing aréurus wiedo— usually in abundance. fe-history. LHP principally Arbutus unedo: also, Salvia verbenacus Viberntn rinus (NW Africa) and Coriara myrtifoia (NW Airica and Spain), Reported tse of Cynisus malacitanus catalaunicus [=Sarothamnes catalaunicus] and C. grandiflorus [=Sarochanouus grandiflorus| requires confirmation. On A. wnedo ‘ova laid on developing leaves adjacent to withered flowers or fruits on mature plants ~ young or newly coppiced plants are avoided. Fibernates as a pupa,n BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Tomares ballus Provence Hairstreak Maritimes. 300-1300m. ms dull yellow. P " aie Spain, Medicago littoralis, M. truncatula; M. minima; § France, M. lupulina: 'N Hibernates as a pupa. ema changes in wing-angle are made, “ unisia, Lybia, Tomares nogelii Nogel’s Hairstreak Plate 21 Range. Romania, N Iran, T.nogeliidobrogensis Caradja 1895°TL: Tulcea, Romania. Distribution. Information limited, SE Romania: known only from the district of Dobrogea (Galati; Tuleca) Flight-period. Univoltine. Mayiearly July Habitat. Grassy scrub, - Life-history. LHP Astragalus ponticus lurkey, Ukraine, Crimea, Syria, Lebanon, Tomares mauretanicus Moroccan Hairs! Range. NW Africa — E maurctanicus Lucas 1849°TL: Algeria, Distribution. Widespread, often common, Morocco. Algeria, Tunisia, 0-2400m. Variation, Subject to considerable local and individual variation: male uph ‘orange markings in anal angle virtually absent or well represented (F.undidane LYCAENIDAE 2B Gerhard), sometimes projecting to pd area: female uns black ‘markings well developed or greatly reduced. Flight-period. Univoltine.January/April at sea-level, early MarchiJune at higher altitudes. Habitat. Grassy places; ht, dry stony slopes. Life-history. LHPs Astragalus epiglouis, A. pentaglouis, Hedysarum pallidum: Hippocrspis musliquosa; H.minor. Va laid on leaves in small batches ~ an unusual practice for Lycaenidae, Lycaena helle Violet Copper Range. C and N Europe,W Russia, C and § Siberia, Mon- golia, Transbaikal, Amur L.helle Denis and Schiffermilller 1775 TL: Vienna. ibution. Locally very common in small, widely dis: persed colonies. France: E Pyrenees (Ariege) to Jura Mts. Doubs. NW Switzerland: Vaud; Valais; Fribourg: Berne; Luzern; Obwald. S Belgium: Ardennes. S Germany. Poland | (very rare), Czech Republic. Slovakia. Fennoscandia, except $ Norway and Denmark. Extinct in Latvia, 100-1800m, ‘Variation. In Fennoscandia, ups markings generally much reduced, Flight-period. Univoltine, May/July, according latitude and altitude. Habitat. Flowery, marshy meadows, usually associated with rivers or lakes sphagnum bogs, often associated with Kacinium and open woodland, Life-history. LHPs: C Europe, principally Polygonum bitorta: N and scandia, P viviparum: reputed use of Rumex acctoselia and R. acetosa in ‘Scandinavia requires confirmation, Ova lid on underside of leaves. Small larvae feed on lower cuticle creating a characteristic pattern of translucent ‘windows Hibemates as a pupa, Conservation. Drainage and afforestation of habitats poses a serious theeat in Cand F Europe Lycaena phlaeas Small Copper Plate 21 Range. Canary Islands, N and E Central Aftica, Europe, temperate Asia, Japan, NE North America L. phlaeas phlacas Linnaeus 1761 TL: Westermannia, Sweden Distribution. Widespread and common. Canary Islands (eare on Lanzarote: a record for Fuerteventura requires confirmation). NW Africa (0-2700m). South of Atetie Circle to alllarger Mediterranean islands and island-groaps. Absent from Outer Hebrides, Shetland and Orkney Islands. 0-2400m. Variation. First brood; male ups brightly marked: subsequent broods: ups often suffused smokey greyish-brown, sometimes almost obscuring orange ge: thw ‘tail at v2 usually prominent, less marked in female ‘f.efoa Fabricius). Uph sometimes with blue pd spots (. caerulzopunctata Ruhl). Extremely small74 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE specimens, common in late broods in very hot localities, appear to result from. Premature pupation induced by LHP desiccation, Flight-period. Bivoltine in N Europe, May/early October: at least trivoltine in Europe and N Africa, February/late October: polyvoltine in Canaty Islands, throughout the year in a succession of overlapping broods, Habitat. Diverse. Adapted to most habitat spe. Life-history. LHPs Rumex spp., including R. acetosella; R. acetosa; R. ‘ydrolupathums R-scutatus-also,in N Africa, R.thyreoideus,R.papilios R.vesicars, AR. tingitanus: Gran Canaria, LHP determined as R. maderensis or R. eesicarius, Less commonly, Polygonum spp., including P aviculare, especially in very arid places where Rumex spp. are scatce or absent. Hibernates as a small larva, L. phlaeas polaris Courvoisier 1911 TL: Norwegian Lappland, Distribution. Arctic Fennoscandia (66-70°N): generally local. 0-400m, Description. Ups resembles nominate form: unh ge dove-grey or greyish- buff, black spots prominent in contrast, pd series externally edged with whitish striae; submarginal red spots conspicuots, Flight-period. Univoline. Mid June/late july according to season and locality Habitat. Warm, sheltered, grassy, flowery places. 0-350m, L. phlacas phlaeoides Staudinger 1901 TL: Madeira Distribution. Madeira. 50-1800m, Description and Variation. Ups resembles nominate form: unh colour and pattern distinctive; in late summer broods, ups darker; hw with “tail at v2, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. March/October, Habitat. As for nominate form, Life-history. LIP unknown, Captive larvae accept Ruonex acetoslla and R. acetsa, Iycaena dispar Large Coppe Plate 21 Range. Europe, N Turkey. Ldispar dispar Haworth 1803 TL: Cambridgeshite, England, Distribution. Restricted to Friesland, Holland. Became extinct in about 1848 in the fens of E England. Since 1927, colony originating from Dutch race has been maintained at Woodwalton Fen, Huntingdonshire, England. Variation. In Holland, barava Oberthiir: resembles nominate form closely. Flight-period. Univoltine. June/July. Habitat. Fenland. Life-history. LHP Rumex hydrolapathum. Ova laid mostly on upperside of leaves; small lurvae feed by excavating lower cuticle, Hibernates as a small larvae A second or third brood may be induced in captive rearing, L. dispar rutila Werneburg 1864°TL: Berlin Distribution. Extremely local in widely dispersed colonies, France: Gironde; Doubs; Haute-Rhin; Bas-Rhin; Meuse; Ardennes; Nievre; Cote d'Or, Hau Marne; Aube. Doubtful in NW Switzerland, N Italy: W coastal Italy to Golfo di Gaeta, Germany. Latvia. § Finland, Poland to Balkans, N and European Turkey. 0-1000m, LYCAENIDAE, 15 Description and Variation. Resembles nominate form:smaller; unh variable, but generally duller, tending to yellowish-grey’ orange submarginal band paler. In Greece and Hungary, individuals of second brood scmetimes approach or exceed size of bataca, Flight-period, Bivoltine in most localities: late MayiJune and August: univol~ tine in colder, northern districts: a third brood has been reported from some localities in $ Europe. Habitat. Bogey margins of lakes, rivers, ditches and canals, Life-history. LHPs Rumex hydrolapathums R. crispus, R.aguaticus. In second brood, oviposition and development as for nominate ferm. In Greece, larvae of the first brood have been known to enter diapause in June, remaining inactive until following spring ‘Conservation. Changes in land use, particularly drainage of wetlands, pose a serious threat: in Greece, all known colonies appear to be at imminent risk on this account. ‘Note. Variation in voltinism and size tends to diffuse the taxonomic boundary separating rutila and bauava, In general, Variation in these two parameters provides an inadequate basis for subspecific differentiation, especially as voltinism and size are significantly correlated, effectively halving the number Of allowable taxonomic discriminators: in present case, averagely greater size of batana may be attributed to the longer period availabl: for larval growth and therefore causally related to voltinism. Such minor differences in wing-markings as are evident for the above forms, appear to fall within the variance of that which may be regarded as normal for most species. Lycaena vigaureae Scarce Copper Plate 22 Range. Europe, Turkey, C Asia, Mongolia Lvirgaureae virgaureae Linnaeus 1758 TL: Sweden (Verity 1943), Distribution. N Spain: N Cantabrian Mts. Pyrenees. S France: Massif Central. From E Alps eastwards to Arctic Circle in Fennoscandia and NW and N central Greece. ‘Absent from Britain, Belgium and Holland. 1000-2000m, Variation. In N Europe, smaller. In Lappland, f, orunulus Freyer, male ups yellower: black marginal borders sometimes slightly wider: female ups suffused gre. Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid July/mid September, according to altitude and locality. Habitat, Flowery places, often dampish clearings or hillside bogs in wood land. Life-history. LHPs Rumex spp.,commonly R.acetosa. Hibernates as an ovurn or smal larva below crown of LHP In habitats prone to flooding, hibernating larvae are often inundated for prolonged periods, L. vigaureae montanus Meyer-DUr 1851TL: Rhone Glacier. Distribution, Alps of France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, 1700- 200m. Description and Variation. Male ups black marginal borders wider, some16 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE times with very small black discoidal spor: female ups dull golden-yellow with variable grevish suffusion, sometimes obscuring ge Flight-period. Univoltine. Late June/early September. Habitat. Sheltered hollows and gullies on open flowery grassland Life-history. As for nominate form. L. virgaureae micgii Vogel 1857TL: Guardarrama, C Spain, Distribution. N and C Spain: S. de Guardarrama; S, de Gredos: S. del Mon- ceayo% Picos de Europa (Pto. de Pajares; Pto, de los Fiertos). 600-1600m, No recent records from N Portugal Description and Variation. Upf with black cell-bar; black borders widers 5 black pd spots in s2-6; uph with black c black pd spors. Flight-period. Univoltine. July/August. Habitat and Life-history. As for nomina I-bar and sometimes 3 or 4 small ¢ form, Lycaena ottomana Grecian Copper Range. § Balkans, Gre: L. ottomana Lefebvre 1830TL: Greece, Distribution. SW Serbia (Montenegro): Vipazar. Republic of Macedonia. Albania. Bulgaria. Greece, including Corfu and Evia. Absent from § Peloponnesos. A record for Thassos requires confirmation. Widespread but often very local, 50. 1500m ~ generally below Lod0m. Often occurs with L. thersamon Variation. Second brood: unh ge colour somewhat yellowish haw ‘tail’ at v2 generally better developed but variable. Flight-period. Bivoltine. Mid April/late May and Julylearly August Habitat. Dry, generally hot, grassy, flowery places, often amongst bushes or in light woodland. istory. LHP Rumex aceroslla. Ova laid on all plants parts. Larvae feed ‘on leaves, less often on flowers. Captive larvae accept Rumex hydvolapathunts R. dacetosa and Polygonum aviculare. Behaviour. Males of summer brood are especially attracted to flowers of Sambucus ebulus. Females appear to retire to a different part of their habitat after pairing. This behaviour, coupled with relatively subdued female activi ‘may account for the commonly reported ‘rarity’ of females, e where males are abundant. €, Turkey. T nin colonies Lycaena tityrus Sooty Copper Plate 22 Range. Europe, Turkey, Siberia, Urals, Kazakhstan, Altai Mts, -tityrus tityrus Poda 1761 TL: Graz, syn: dorilis Hufnagel 1766 Distribution. From N Spain (Cantabrian Mts, and Pyrenees) throughout Eu- rope to about 58°N in Lithuania. Absent from Britain, Fennoscandia (except Fyen, Denmark) and Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 50-2500m, Austria LYCAENIDAE n Variation, First brood: male ups ge dark grey-brown: female ups orange submarginal bands and orange basal suffusion extensive: in later broods, male ups often with orange sub- ‘marginal spots on hw, sometimes extending to fw; female ups brown, sometimes with orange discal suffusion; orange submarginal spots reduced. Flight-period. Polyvoltine in hot, low-lying regions, mnid ApriljOctober: bivoltine in cooler localities, late Apriljune and July/Sepeember. ~ Habitat. Diverse. Flowery grassy meadows; dry scrub; damp woodland clear- ings; sheltered alpine gullies. Life-history. LHP Rumex spp.. especially R. acerosa. Hibernates as a small larva at base of LHP. L.vityrus subalpinus Speyer 1851 TL: Innsbruck, N Tyrol Distribution. Pyrenees (2100m). Alps of France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, ‘Austria, 1200-2500m. Description. Ups dark brown in both sexes, unmarked except datk ce! and occasional submarginal orange markings, especially in females uns ge yellowish-grey Flight-period. Bivoltine at lower altitudes, Apriljune and July/early September: tunivoltine above (2)1 500m, lace Junc/September. Habitat, Sheltered grassy and flowery places. Life-history. LHP Rumex scurarus. L-rityras bleusei Oberthiir 1884 TL: Escorial and Madvid, Spain. istribution, Spain: S. de Guardarrama; S. de Guadalupe;S, de Gredos. 900- 100m, Description, Male upf ge orange, spots large; female ups orange markings Flight-period. Voltinism uncertain: probably as for nominate form, Habitat. Grassy, flowery, bushy places Lycaena alciphron Purple-shot Coppet Plate 22 Range. Morocco, Europe, Turkey, Iran, § Siberia, S Urals, Mongolia, Altai L-alciphron aleiphron Rotemburg 1775 TL: Berlin Distribution. § France. Germany. Czech Republic Slovakia, Hungary: Lithuania. Latvia. ?)Fstonia. 50-900m. Very sporadic and local. Flight-period, Univoltine. Generally June(July: recorded in April from coastal districts of S France. Habitat. Grassy, flowery places. fe-history. LHP Rumex acetosa L.aleiphron melibacus Staudinger 1879 TL: Greece. Distribution. Widespread and common. Balkans. N and C Greece, including, Lesbos. European Turkey. $0-1750m, Description. Male ups ge orange, suffused greyish with violet or pinkish tones:1” BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE female ups ge medium brown with variable, sometimes extensive orange suffusion, Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid June/July. Habitat. Grassy flowery banks and meadows, sometimes in damp places; sheltered gullies above tree-line Life-history. LHP Rumex spp. near polymorphic R. acetosa, Ove laid mostly at stemleaf junctions, less often on flowers. Hibcrnates as a small larva at base of LHP Behaviour, Both sexes attracted to flowers of Thymus L-aleiphron gordius Sulzer 1776 TL: Graubinden, Switzerland, Distribution. N Portugal. Spain: widespread in mountains. Andorra, S and C France: E Pyrenees; Massif Centrals SW Alps. S Switzerland: Valais to Graubiinden. Italy: Maritime Alps to Dolomites and Calabria (Aspromonte); generally absent from eastern coast. NE Sicily (Monti Nebrodis Mr. Ema), ‘Generally 800-2000m: Sierra Nevada, 1100-2500m, Description, Male ups violet suffusion reduced; uns brighter: female ups clear, bright orange; black markings bold. Flight-period. Univoltine, Late June/early August. Habitat. Sheltered, flowery hollows and gullies, Life-history. LHP Rumer scutavs 1. aleiphron heracleana Blachier 1908 TL: High Atlas, Morocco, Distribution. Morocco: High Atlas; known only from Toubkal massif and Dj, Siroua. 1700-2650m. Description. Resemibles gordnus: large; male ups yellowish-orange without violet or greyish suffusion. Female ups deeper yellow-orange, black markings more prominent, Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid June/fuly. Habitat. Damp grassy places, Behaviour. Males often ‘hilltop’, congregating on barren, stony ground = recorded at 3000m, Life-history. LHP Rumex scusatus; possibly also R. acetosa Lycaena thersamon Lesser Fiery Copper Plate 23, Range. Italy, E and SE Europe, Isracl, Lebanon, Turkey, re frag, Iran, Afghanistan, Unkraine, § Ural, Altai | 1. thersamon Esper 1784 TL: Sarepta, $ Russia, Distribution. Widespread, generally very local, Central Peninsular Italy: E and SE Europe from about 50°N to N Peloponnesos and E Aegean islands of Thassos, Kos and | Rhodes. 0-1600m. In Greece, distribution correlates closely with that of /,ottomana, Variation. Sometimes with filamentous “tail! on hw at ¥2(f. ‘omphale Klug): in Greece, tailed” individuals occur sporadically in first brood, ‘more commonly in subsequent broods, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Mid April/October according to locality and altitude. Habitat. Dry grassy, flowery meadows or scrub clearings; sometimes very hot, dry, rocky places. LYCAENIDAE, ” Life-history. LHP Polygonum aviculare. Ova laid on leaves, stems and flowers, Larvae feed on leaves and flowers. Captive females refuse to oviposit on Polygonum persicaria, Phyuropiperor Rumex acetozella: captive larvae reject these, fas wellas Racetoxaand Cyrisus scoparius (Fabaceae) and Chamaecytisus hirsutus (Fabaceae). The widely quoted use of Rumex and Sarothamnus [=Cyrisus] ap [pears to originate from mis-quotation of an early literature reference (Malicky 1969). On Cyprus, distribution of butterfly is said to correlate with that of “Polygonum bellard? (=P. patulum or P. @)rurivagu} Behaviour. Both sexes greatly attracted to blossom of Thymus and Sambucus ebulus. Frequently, a colony may reveal its existence by the appearance of only fone oF two specimens. e, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Le theris Klug 1834°TL: Distribution. C and S Greece: Mt. Tymphristos; Mt. CGhiona; Mt, Kaliakouda; Mr. Is Mt. Chelmos; Taygetos Mts. 1500-2300m, A record for former S Yugoslavia appears 10 have arisen from confusion with L.ortomana or L.thersamon. Variation. Hw ‘tail’ at v2 sometimes well developed (f. caudata Staudinger): although reputedly associated with a second brood, the species appears to be univoltine through ut its range. In Greece, hephetsis Dils and van der Peorten: wing-characters land male genitalia indistinguishable from nominate form. Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid July/August Habitat. Open, dry rocky sites on limestone supporting low-growing shrubs, including the spiny, cushion-forming LHP which shows a marked preference for consolidated rock formations in upper half of altitudinal range. Habitats may be as small as 2500m?, All known habitats shared with Turanana endymion. -history. LHP Acantholinion androsacewm (Plumbaginaceae), Ovipostion not observed in Europe: in‘Turkey, females have been seen to eject ova into the centre of LHP, Hibernates asa small larva concealed amengst the densely packed stems and dead stem-leaves of LHP. Post-hibernated larvae feed on leaves and are evidently very closely adapted to LHP. Appears to be unique amongst the European Lycaeninac— ‘coppers’ ~ for its independence of the Polygonaceae the ‘dock’ family. Although LHP is shared with Tiranana endymion in the same habitats, competition between the two species appears to be negligible. Behaviour. Both sexes strongly attracted to nectar of Thymus, Conservation. Exploitation of many of the higher mountains of Greece for recreational and other purposes poses a direct threat to habitats Lycaena phoebus Moroccan Copper Plate 23, Range. Morocco. L. ploebus Blachier 1908°TL: High Aas, Morocco. Distribution. Very local but common.W Morocco: region of Marrake El-Kelaa-des-Srarhna; Nid de Cigogne; 400-2200m); High Atlas massif); Anu-AQas (Tafraoute; Tizi-n-Taraktine; Ida-Ougnidl Ti (Asnis faubkal Faghatine:80 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE 1000-1800m). Records for Algeria and Tunisia have been discredited Flight-period. Voltinism uncertain, possibly regionally variable: district of Marrakech, late Aprilllate September in atleast two broods: in hot, dry, barren localities, Marchi May: at higher altitudes in High Atias, late August/September. Habitat. Grassy flowery places especially with Thymus ‘margins (drainage ditches) of cultivation; dry, barren places in Anti-Atlas, Life-history. LHPs: High Atlas, possibly Polygonum aviculare: Anti-Atlas, P equisetiforme. Reputed use of Rumex requires confirmation: field-observations indicate that, where opportunities exist, neither R.papitio nor R.vesicarius, are exploited by ovipositing females Lycaena hippothoe Purple-cdged Copper Plate 23 Range. Europe, G and $ Siberia, S Urals, Alta. L-hippethoe hippothoe Linnaeus 1761 TL: S Sweden. Distribution. N Spain: Cantabrian Mis.;5, dela Demanda: SS. Mancilla;S. Moncayo, From Pyrenees eastwards through ‘much of Europe to about 62°N in Fennoscandi. Absent from Britsin, NW France, coastal § France, N Holland, S Italy, S Balkans and Greece. 400-1800m, Description and Variation. Male ups with striking purple ‘sh: female upf orange discal area variable; uph orange |= submarginal markings prominent; unf orange discal flush variable, In central E Europe, stmadiensis Szabo: resembles nominate form closely: bivoltine Flight-period. Univoltine inW and N Europe (including NW Hungary), June} late July: bivoline in central E Europe (including S and E: Hungary), May and late July/August Habitat. Marshy meadows, hillside bogs. Life-history. LHPs Polygonum bsiorta; Rumex acetosa, Hibernates as 2 small larva 1. hippothoe ewrydame Hoffmannsegg 1806°TL: Mts near Geneva. syn: curybia Ochsenheimer 1808, Distribution. Alps of France, Switzerland, Italy, Austra: also, Apuane Alps and C Appennines. 1500-2500m, Alitudinal range overlaps that of nominate form but not on same mountains Description, Male ups without purple flush; female ups uniform brown, some times with vestigial orange submarginal markings; unf without orange flush, ight-period. Univoltine, Jlymid September according to altitude, Habitat. Damp alpine meadows, Life-history. LHPs Polygonum bistorta; Rumex acetosa, Hibernates as a small larva, L- hippothoe siberi Geshard 1853 TL: Lappland. Distribution. Fennoscandia from about 62°N (Dovrefjeld) to North Cape. Description. Male ups gc lighter golden-red; unf orange discoidal flush and lunh orange band distinct: female upf discoidal area orange extending towards LYCAENIDAE st outer margin. In both sexes, unh ge colour light grevish-bufl; ups and unh submarginal bands well developed. Flight-period. Univoltine, Late June/July Habitat. Grassy places, offen near shoreline on Norwegian coast Life-history. LHP Rumex acetosa, Hibernates as an ovum. Lycaena candens Balkan Copper Range. $ Balkans, Greece, Turkey L. candens Hertich-Schiffer 1844 TL: Turkey Distribution. Locally common. Republic of Macedonia, S Serbia. Albania. Bulgaria. N and C Greece: Varnous Mts. ‘Vora Mts.; Rhodopi Mts; Pindos Mts.; Mt. Olympos. 900- 2000m, Description. Resembles nominate form of I. hippothoe closely: larger; male genitalia distinctive Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid Junejlate July Cece Habitat. Hillside bogs, in beech or pine woodland clearings, containing many distinctive plants, especially Givwm coccinewn ard Silene asterias; less often exposed, dry, grassy places above tree-line. Life-history. LHP Rumex sp. near polymorphic &.acetosa. Hibernating larvae are often inundated in early spring. Lampides boeticus Long-tailed Blue Plate 24 Range. Worldwide temperate zones. E. boeticus Linnaeus 1767 TL: Algeria, Distribution. Canary Islands, NW AMtica, Mediterranean islands and Europe to about 54°N (N Germany). Generally ‘widespread and common in southern areas, Occasionally common in Channel Islands, Rare in $ England and gener- ally scarcer in northern range, where appearance probably depends solely on migration: residency uncertain in most regions, including $ Europe (see below). 0-2700m. Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Canary Islands, throughout year in several, ove lapping broods. In N Africa and Europe, February/November according to locality Habitat. Diverse. Hot, dry, flowery places; cultivated ground, Life-history. LHPs many genera of Fabaceae upon which larvae feed mainly con developing seeds: Canary Islands, Cassa diymabotrsa; Pisum sacuons Cha ‘aeeynisus paliensis: N Africa and Europe, commonly Coluiaa arborescens: also in N Africa, Helianthemum helianthemoides, Sometimes a serious pest on cult vvated Pisum sativum (Garden Pea) and Phaseolus eulgaris (Broad Bean). Whilst captively reared larvae appear willing to accept the seeds or flowers of an extraordinary range of Fabaceae, the natural exploitation of Cris siliguastrum ludas Tree) and Robinia pzeudacacia (False Acacia), common Mediterrancan species with large seed-capsules, does not appear to have been observed. Life cycle in captivity 4-6 weeks, according to temperature, Apparent absent of a Giapause stage suggests residency is possible enly in warmer parts of the82 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE ‘Mediterranean where continuity of larval food source is maintained (ef. D. ‘hrysippus). Larvae attended by Lasius niger; Camponotus compressus, C.cructatus, C. syluaticuss C. foreli; Prenolepis clandestina; Plagiolepis sp.s Tapinoma ‘melanocephalum. Cacyreus marshalli Geranium Bronze Plate 24 Range. S Africa: introduced to § Spain, C. marshalti Butler 1898 TL: § Africa. ‘The immature stages of this South African species are believed to have been accidentally introduced to the Balearic Islands, Spain, through the importation of Pelargonium cultivars. Fist reported in 1990 on Mallorca, the species quickly became a pest throughout this island. It has since extended its range to other Balearic Islands as well as the Spanish mainland: two specimens were captured near Logrone in 1992, another in Granada city-centre in 1995, In 1991, a male specimen was captured in a Brussels garden containing Pelargonium and several colonies were noted in the vicinity of Rome in 1996, The widespread popularity of Pelargonium as ornamental planis would seem conducive o further dispersion, In South Africa, this continuously brooded insect also feeds on Geranium spp. and its establishment in the wild in the warmer parts of the Mediterranean region would seem possible. In captivity life-cycle occupies about one month at 25°C. Whilst a preference is shown for flowers and fower-buds, larvae attack all aerial components of Pelargonium. Larva is pale green with ted markings and long, sifish white hairs: pupa; similarly coloured and ornamented. Plate 24 Leptotes pirithous Lang’s Short-tailed Blue Range. N Africa, S and Saudi Arabia, C Asia, India. Europe, Turkey, Middle East, [5 ar] L. pirithous Linnaeus 1767 TL: Algeria. syn teicamus Lang 1789. Distribution. Widespread and common. N Africa, Medi- | tetranean Europe, including islands, Iberian peninsula. SW. | France: Pyrenees. SW Balkans. Greece, Less common in C !urope to about 48°N as a migrant: residency in most regions unconfirmed (see below). 0-1200m, Not recorded from Atlantic islands, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. February/October. Habitat. Diverse, Hot, dry scrubland; cultivated areas, especially Luceme fields (Medicago sativa) Life-history. LHPs: many genera of Fabaceae: also, Lythraceae (Lythrum salicaria); Plumbaginaceae; Rosaceae; Ericaceae (Calluna vulgaris): in Greece, ‘oviposition has been observed on Sambucus ebulus (Caprifoliaceae) and a Jas- ‘minum cultivar (Oleaceae) (captive larvae accept flower-buds of J.mudilorum) Reported use of Quercus suber FFagaceae) requires confirmation, Ovum stage usually 3 days, somerimes 6 days at same temperature. Life-cycle in captivity 4-8 weeks, depending on temperature. Larvae polymorphic: in Greece, larvae of various colours from pure white to dark green have been recorded on flowers of Galega officinalis (Fabaceae). Diapause stage it any — unknown: attempts to LYGAENIDAE, 83 induce diapause in captivity have been unsuccessful, Resident status in N and E Mediterranean uncertain: occurrence in S Europe may depend on early season ‘migration from N Africa, Qyelyrius webbianus Canary Blue Plate 24 Range. Canary Islands C. webbianus Brullé 1839TL: Canary Islands. Distribution, Restricted to Canary islands: Gomera; La Palmas Tenerife; Gran, Canaria. Generally 200-2500m ~ recorded above this range near summit of Mt Teide, Tenerife (3500m). A single record for Hierro requires confirmation, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Throughout year in a succession of several over~ lapping broods a lower altitudes: not recorded between early October and early May above 2000m on Tenerife (Cafadas Plateau). Habitat. Rocky places amongst scrub at low altitudes; sometimes waste-ground close to human habitation; sheltered hollows with sparse Vegetation on Mt. Teide, 2000-3000m, Life-history. LHPs Fabaceae, including Cytisus canariensis; Spartocytisus rubigenus; Lotus sesiiflis; [.hillebrandit; Lglaucus, Adenocarpus viscous Toline stenopetala, Captive larvae readily accept leaves and flowers of Lotus corniculatus, Leuliginosus and Onobrychisviifolia and the flowers of Lathyrus pratensis, Ulex ‘europaeus, Cytisus scoparius and C. ssiifolius. Diapause stage/winter survival Strategy at high altitade on Tenerife unknown. Behaviour. Adulls atracted to nectar of Pterocephalus lasiospermums Ditrichia viscosa; Micromeria sp. Note. Closest known relative, C. mandersi Druce 1907, endemic in Mauritius and believed to be extinet. Plate 24 Tarucus theophrastus Common Tiger Blue Range. N Africa, Spain, Tropical Africa north of equator, SW Arabia T. theophrastus Fabricius 1793 TL: Moroceo. Distribution. Mainly coastal districts. Morocco: Anti-Atass, High Atlas; Middle Atlas. Algeria. Tunisia, Generally 0- 1400m ~ a single female recorded at 2600m near Oukai- medan, High Atlas. S Spain: provinces of Cadiz; Almeria: Murcia, 25-250m. Reports from NW Sicily and Aspromonte require confirmation, Description. Uns black pd line disrupted by veins on both wings (ef. Tivosaceus and T:balkanicus) Flight-period. Polyvoltine. NW’ Africa, April/November (recorded in all months in southern deserts): Spain, mid ApriliSeprember: first brood often very scarce. Habitat. Hot, dry, open scrubland usually dominated by large bushes of LHP, often in cultivated areas, Life-history. LHPs: Spain, Ziciphus lotus: NW Attica, Ziziphus lotus; Z,jujuba Z. vulgaris; Z. satiea) (cultivated in Mediterranean Europe, naturalized in some areas) and Palivrus spina-ohrist (= Ziziphus spina-chris). (Z. jujuba and8 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE P.spina-christi occur in $ Spain: Z. lous occurs in Sicily: Z.jwiuba is naturalized in § Italy). Ova laid on stems, usually at the base of a thorn, Larvae feed in systematic fashion, excavating adjacent furrows in lower cuticle of leaves, resulting in a characteristic pattern of elongate, parallel, translucent “windows? ‘on unbroken upper cuticle, In Spain, larvae attended by Crematogastor fuente Hibernates as a pupa. In captivity, pupae from first brood may remain in ddiapause unii following spring. Behaviour. During most of the day, adults fly amongst branches or rest on leaves of LHP: in early evening, large numbers may sometimes gather at the tops of grass-stems near base of LHP, Tarucus rosaceus Mediterranean Blue Plate 24 Range. N Africa, Egypt, Isracl, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, S Tran, NW India T rosaceus Austaut 1885TL: Algeria, syn: mediterraneae Bethune-Baker 191 Distribution. Morocco. Algeria. Tunisia, 0-1400m, Description. Unf black pd line unbroken except at v6. amination of genitalia advisable to confirm identification, owing to variation in wing-characters and possible confu- sion with TE sheophrastus and T.balkanicus Flight-period. Polyvoltine. MarchSeptember. Habitat. Hot, diy ground, Habitats usually shared with 7: theophrastus istory. LHP Puliurus spina-christi. In Saudi Arabia, Ziziphus, Larvae tended by Plagiolepis pyemaca; Camponotus sichelt; Monomerium salomonts Tarucus balkanicus Little Tiger Blue Plate 24 Range. NW Africa, Sudan, $ Balkans, Greece, rkey, Israel Lebanon, Iran, Irag, Saudi Arabia, Transeaucasus, C Asia, 1 balkanicus Freyer 1845 TL: "Turkey" Distribution. Very sporadic and local, Morocco. Algeria Tunisia. § Dalmatian coast. Albania, Republic of Macedonia Bulgaria: Kresna; NE coast. Nand C Greece; Corfu. A record for Samothraki requires confirmation, European Turkey. 50- 850m. Description. Resembles T. rosaceus and T: theophrastus but mates usually separable by:- upf large, prominent black discal and pd spots; uns dark pd spots usually confluent: male genitalia distinct. Flight-period. Polyvoltine, Mid ApriljOctober. First brood often very scarce, population density increases rapidly in summer. Habitat. Hot, dry, open scrubland, often dominated of LAP. Life-history. LHP: Europe and N Africa, Raliurusspina-chrst-alsoin N Africa, Ziziphus lotus, Ova laid on stems, usually atthe base of a thorn, Larval feedings behaviour as for T.sheophrastus. Larvae attended by ants. Hibernates as a pupa In captivity, pupae from first brood may remain in diapause until following, spring. the distinctive bushes LYCAESIDAE as Behaviour. Both sexes warm themselves in the early morning by sitting on rocks, usualy with wings closed. In Greece, a small, purple-flowered Micromeria species i a frequently used nectar-source Azanus ubaldus Desert Babul Blue Plate 24 Range, Gran Canaria, and Tropical Africa, EeyptJordan, [5 Israel, Saudi Arabia, S Asia, A. ubaldus Stoll 1782TL: Sri Lanka Distribution. Canary Islands: Gran Canaria (recorded from é Playa del Inglés (1982) and Maspalomas (1992)). § Mo- rocco: 400-1000m. (Also reported from S Algeria (oat least 100m) and $ Tunisia), Description. Resembles A, jesous: both sexes: smaller; unf without cell-spot ~ almost always present in A. jesous. Male, F&—__> ups pale blue; dark marginal borders dark very narrow; upf with wel slightly darker blue androconial patch —a useful diagnostic Feature: androconial scales very narrow; length variable; uph marginal spots in ste and s2 small, obscure; uns ge pale grevish-brown, with transverse whitish striae; unh with ‘wo conspicuous round spots on costa and two larger marginal spots in sl and 52, basal spots smaller, variable, often indistinct: female ups brown, often with obscure, blue basal suffusion; uns whitish striae better developed, other mark- ings as for male. Plight-period. Voltinism uncertain: probably polyvoltine. Kecords tor Gran Canaria relate to late January and late April: records for Morocco span March) late summer: possibly continuously brooded in both regions ~ no diapause stage reported from elsewhere in range. Habitat. Restricied to immediate vicinity of LHP ~ Acacia trees growing in very hot, dry places. ife-history. LHPs: Gran Canaria, not recorded ~ probably Acacia sp. Morocco, Acacia raddtana; A.seyal Larvae attended by Camponotus ps Prenoleps sp. Behaviour. Adults fly rapidly amongst branches of LHP exploiting its flowers as a nectar-source. An entire colony may restrict itself to a single Acacia tree, despite the presence of others nearby. Both sexes take water from damp ground. Note. In Saudi Arabia, apparently subject to very marked seasonal fluctuations in population density (ef. apparent sporadic occurrence on Gran Canaria) Azanus jesous African Babul Blue Plate 24 Range. Africa, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman. A. jesous Guerin 1849°TL: Abyssinia, Distribution. Sand W Morocco: widespread on plains north of Marrakech: more sporadic and local on southern slopes of High Ads and Anti-Atlas. 200-()1000m, most frequent 400-800m: single specimens have been recorded at 1800m on Toubkal massif. (Known to occur at 2000m in Oman).86 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Description. Resembles 4, uhaldus: both sexes: largers unf black cell-spot distinct, very rarely absent ~a useful diagnostic character. Male ups pale lilac- blue; brown marginal borders narrow, proximally diffuses upf with dark spot at cell-end; androconial patch inconspicuous; andraconial scales short, wide, coarsely striated; uph marginal spots in slc and s2 small, obscure; uns ge grey- ish-brown, transverse whitish striae conspicuous; unf with small dark marginal spots in 52-65 unh spots as for A. ubaldus but larger, with an additional, large ‘marginal spot in 6 and two indistinct spots in s4 and sS: female ups ge pale brown, sometimes with blue suffusion; upf dark discoidal spot often enclosed by pale suffusion, usually extending to inner margin; uns markings as for male. Flight-period. At least tivoltine: February throughout summer in overlap- ping broods. Habitat. As for A. ubaldus. Life-history. LHP Acacia gummifera: elsewhere in range, commonly Acacia spp. also, Prosopis fareta (Sinai Peninsula); Medicago sp.; Fntada sp. In Yemen, large numbers of pupae recorded under stones at base of host-tree (Aeacia etbaica). Behaviour. As for 4. ubaldus, (Shows some tendency towards migratory/ dispersive behaviour in Saudi Arabia). Plate 24 Zizeeria knysna African Grass Blue Range. Canary Islands, N Africa, $ Portugal, Israel, Lebanoa, Syria, rag, # Saudi Arabia, S Asia, Australia. 2 knrysna knysna Trimen 1862TL: South Africa, syn: Dysimon Hubner 1805 (invalid homonym) Distribution, Canary Islands: local in coastal districts: La alma; Tenerife; Gran Canaria: very few records for Gomer Hierro;Lanzaroce:a record for Fuerteventura requires confir- mation. 0-100m. Morocco. W Algeria, -1500m, $ Portugal. pain: mainly coastal valleys in Provinces of Cadi2s Malaga; Granada; Almeria also recorded in river valleys on northern slopes of Sierra Nevada and elsewhere in similar inland sites. Recorded from districts of Madrid, Santandar and Benidorm. Apparently extinct in Rio Guadalaviar (S. de Albarracin, Teruel) 25-800m, Variation. Male ups, width of black marginal borders variable: female ups ge brown, sometimes with bluc scaling at wing-bases extending, into diveal area both sexes, uns markings variable, Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Canary Islands: throughout the year in a succession of overlapping broods: NW Africa and Spain, February/ October, Habitat. Damp places in hot, coastal gullies; damp, sunny clearings in densely wooded river valleys: desert oases. ife-history. LHPs: Gran Canaria, Amaranthus sp. (Amaranthaceae): NW Arica, Medicago sativa; M. tribuloides, Acanthyllis sp.i Melilotus messanensis (Fabaceae); Polygonum equisetiforme (Polygonaceae); Armeria delicatila (Plumbaginaceae); Tribulus teresiris (Zygophyllaceae):$ Spain, Medicago min- Jima; M.lupulina; M. sativa (Fabaceae). Elsewhere in range, use of Oxalidaceae, Spain, Egypt key, Cyprus, LYCAENIDAE » Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae has been reported. Csptive larvae (Canary Islands) readily accept leaves and flowers of Lotus corriculatus, L. uliginosus, Trifolvon pratense, T. repens, Coronilla varia and flowers of Ulex europaeus, Cytisus scoparius and C.sesiiolis. Captive larvae (Malta) are sti wo reject Oxalis and ‘Medicago spp. but accept Polygonum aviculare. For some LHPs, larval colora- tion depends upon particular plant parts ingested. Ants attending larvae: ‘Tapinoma melanocephalum; Pheidole sp. Ova parasitized by Chalcididae. On Gran Canaria, larvae parasitized by Cotesia cupreus (Braconidae) Z. knysna karsandra Moore 1865°TL: India. Distribution. Widespread in E Algeria and Tunisia, 0-1500m, Malta. Sicily. Reports from Rhodes and Crete unconfirmed. Distributonal relationship with nominate form in E Algeria unclear Description and Variation. Rescmbles nominate form closely: distinguished by small difference in male genitalia: both sexes, uns markings extremely variable: female ups blue suffusion variable Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Late February/October Habitat. As for nominate form Life-history. LHPs: NW Africa, Melilots indica; Medicago sativa, Everes argiades Short-tailed Blue Range. N Spain, C, S and EF. argiades Pallas 1771 TL: Samara, S Russia (April) Distribution. N Spain (Canarian Mrs.;S.de a Demandas, Pyrenees) through France, C Germany (very local in Ba- varia), Switzerland (sporadic) N and western C Italy, NE Sicily'to Gotland, Lithuania, Latvia, Balkans, European Turkey (Gelibolu) and N Greece (very local). A rare migrant in Britain, more frequent in Belgium, Holland, N Germany, weden (resident only on Gotland), Estonia and S Finland 0-1000m, Description. Male ups violet-blue in first brood, less viole and darker in second ‘broods uph sometimes with small, black antemarginal spotsin slb-s4; unh orange spots in sic and s2; hu ‘tal’ at v2 variable: female ups grevish-brown, often ‘with blue discal and basal suffusion on fw and posterior submargin and disc of bw Flight-period. Bivoltine. Late Aprilfmid June and July:August Habitat. Flowery bushy places, grassy banks, woodland clearings, Life-history. LHs Lotus comiciatus; E.ulginosus; Coronilla varias Medicago sativa; M.lupulina; Trifolium pratense; Astragalus glveyphslos, Larvae cannibalistic Europe, Asia, Japan, Everes decoloratus Eastern Short-tailed Blue Range. SE Europe, (2) Turkey E, decoloratus Staudinger 1886 TL: Vienna, Hungary, Bulgaria syn: sebrus Hubner 1824 (name rejected by ICZN Op. 970) Distribution. S Austria, Hungary. Slovenia, Romania, Republic of Macedonia, Albania. Bulgaria. N Greece: very local: known only from Phalakron massif and foothills of Rhodopi Mis. 250-1000m. Plate 2588 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE, Description. Male ups dusky-blue, scales are easily lost, ving somewhat dull appearance even in fairly fresh speci= ‘mens; black outer marginal borders narrow; indenting along veins; upf with small black discoidal spot (ef. E aleas and E.argiades): female ups dark chocolate brown. Flight-period. Trivoltine. May/June, July/August and Sep- tember Habitat. Flowery, bushy places; sunny clearings in light deciduous woodland, L Life-history. LHPs Medicago lupulina; M. sativa. Ova laid on which larvae feed, Hibernates as a full-grown larva, Everes alcetas Provencal Short-tailed Blue Range. Akai E aleetas Hoffmannsegg 1804TL: Austria, Distribution. Generally sporadic and local, Spain: Pyrenees. S France. N and C Italy, § Austria, § Poland. (?)Slovakia Hungary. Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, (2)Albania Romania, Bulgaria. N Greece. 50-1200m, Description and Variation. Male ups with very narrow | black borders; hw ‘ail’ at v2 offen vestigial; upf without black discoidal spor (et. B decolorasus): female ups dark greyish-brown, In N Greece, unk orange mark in anal angle often reduced or absent Flight-period. Trivoltine. Late May/June, July/August and late September ‘Habitat. Clearings in light deciduous woodland. In N Greece, all known habitats, are associated with rivers, ditches or springs ~ favourable to the establishment of the LHP, Galega officinalis. Life-history. LHPs Coronilla varias Galega officinalis. Ova aid on leaves. Larva feeds on leaves and flowers. Larvae attended by Formica ?)cinerea group. ‘pain, S Europe, Balkans, Turkey, $ Siberia, Urals, Cupido minimus Little Blue Plate 25 Range. to Amur. ¥ and C Spain, through Europe, Asia and Mongolia C. minimus minimus Fuessly 1775°TL: Switzerland, ‘syn: alsus Denis and Schiffermiiller 1775, Distribution. Widespread and common, From Spain (Cantabrian Mts ; Montes Universales; Catalonia; Pyrenees) to Ireland, Britain, S and W Norway to 69°N, § and E Sweden, $ Finland, Baktic states, Balkans and Greece, including Corfu and Kos. 50-2800m, ‘Variation. Male ups pale blue scaling subject to variation, sometimes absent, Flight-period. Univoltine (AprilJuly) or bivoltine (Apriljune and late July September) according to altitude and locality: in very hot conditions, desicca~ tion of LHP may delay or even preclude a second brood, Habitat. Diverse. Open grassy places; dry, rocky slopes and gullies; forest clearings. Restricted to calcareous soils LYGAENIDAE x9 Life-history, LHP Anthylis eulneraria. Ova laid on flowers, usually at base of calyx. Whidsh larva feeds on developing seed through hole at base of calyx. Aligned with the similarly coloured calyx-tube, the larva is well-camouflaged ‘when feeding, resting or during skin-changes (€f. C. carsteell and C. lorguini) Hibernates as a full-grown larva. In captivity, pupation appears to be induced by contact with fresh, spring leaves of LHP. Larva may remain in diapause for 15 months. Larvae attended by Lasius alienus, L. niger, Formica fusca; Frufarbiss Plagiotepis vindobonensis; Myrmica rubra, Pupates in loose soil at base of LHP. C. minimus trinacriae Verity 1919 TL: Palermo, Sicily Distribution. Sicily. 100-1500m. Description. Resembles nominate form: smaller; ups ge black; lacking blue scales, A similar form (noguerae Haig-Thomas) occurs in Montes Universales, Flight-period. Univoltine. April/May. Absence of second brood is possibly ducto loss of aerial components of LHP through desiccation in summer months (fC. minimus) Habitat. Dry limestone rocks Life-history. LHP Anthyiis oulneraria, Cupido carswelli Carswell’s Little Blue Plate 25 Range. S Spain, C. carswell Stempffer 1927 TL: Sierra de Espufia, Spain. Distribution. Restricted to mountains of S and SE Spain. S. de Tejeda; S. de Cazorla; S. de la Sagra; 8. Segura; S. de Alcaraz; 8. de Espuiia. 1000-1800m, (C, lorguintt occurs in S. de Tejeda below 850m.) Description. Resembles C. minimus, except male ups have a small patch of purple scales at the base which may extend, ‘along some veins of the hw, Regarded by some authors as a formssp. of C. minimus, Flight-period. Univoltine. Late Aprlfearly June. Asin the case of C. minimus desiccation of LHP in early/mid summer may inhibit larval development, precluding a second brood in late summer. t. Limestone rocks or dry grassland, often amongst open scrub, history, LHP Anviyllis vuineraria. Oviposition and larval development parallels that of C. minimus: however, LHP isa colour variant in which upper part of calyx tube is sparsely mottled with the same dark reddish hue of the flowers, Similar mottling occurs on the posterior segments of the adult larva, apparent; for the purpose of mimicking the calyx tube, along which, like the larva of C. minus it aligns itself when feeding or resting. The yellow-flowere form of A. vulnenavia, which has a pure white cal¥x, is apparently absent in the range of C. carswlli Cupido osiris Osiris Blue Plate 25 Range. Spain, $ Europe, Turkey, C Asia, C.osiris Meigen 1829 TL: not stated ‘syn: sebrus auct. Name rejected by ICZN OP. 970.a BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Distribution. N, S and E Spain. S France. W Switzerland. NW coastal and central peninsular Italy. 2)Slovakia, Austria. Hungary. Balkans. Greece, including Limnos. European Turkey. 500-1800m. Description. Male ups violet-blue with sharply defined very narrow black marginal borders: female ups dark brown; up with occasional blue basal flush, Flight-period. Univoltine (late May/July) or bivoltine (late Aprilflate June and late Julylearly September) according to locality and altitude: second brood sometimes partial or may Tall © appear in exceptionally dry conditions - LHP desiccation (cf. C. minim). Habitat. Open grassy, flowery places. Life-history. LHPs Onobrychis spp., including O. viiifolia; O. montana; O. larenaria. Ova laid on flowers upon which larvae feed. Hibernates as a larva Larvae of first brood may enter and remain in diapause until following spring. Larvae attended by Lasius aliens Cupido lorquinii Lorquin’s Blue Plate 25, Range. Morocco, Algeria, § Portugal, S Spain. C. lorquinii Herrich-Schatfer 1851'TL: Spain Distribution. Morocco. Algeria. 1400-2700m. $ Portus Serra de Monchique.S Spain: provinces of Cadiz and Malaga (Sierras of Tejeda, Almijara, Mijas, Blanca, Ronda, Bermeja, Crestelina and Grazalema); Granada (Sierra Nevada; S. de Alfacar); Jaen (S. de Jabaleuz). 100-2000m, (C. carswelli ‘occurs above 1000m in S. de Tejeda) Description. Male ups violet-biue with broad black marginal b__.} borders! female ups dark greish brown, occasionally with afew, biue, basal scales Flight-period. Univoltine. Generally mid Aprilimid June, sometimes emerging mid February in Anti-Adas, Habitat. Similar to that of C. carswell Life-history. LHP Anciyiis eulneraria. Ovipositing behaviour larval develop ‘ment and adaptation to LHP, similar to that of C. carsll. Larvae attended by Plagiolepis pygmaca; Tapinoma nigerrimum. Hibernates as a pupa Celastrina argiolus Holly Blue Range. N Africa, Europe, Turkey to C Asia (40-67N), Japan, N America C.argiolus Linnaeus 1758°TL: England (Verity 1943) Distribution. Widespread and common in NW Africe (0- 2600m) and most of Europe (0-1900m), Sporadic in Ireland and N Scandinavia: generally absent from Scotland, where records appear to relate to dispersal from N England or ac- cidental introduction: widespread on Mediterranean islands. Variation, Female seasonally dimorphic: second brood, upf black borders wider, blue basal flush, darker violet-blue; uph black costal margin wider EYCAENIDAE. on Flight-period. Bivoltine. NW Africa, March/May and mid June/August (occasional fresh specimens September/October may represent a third brood or delayed emergence): Europe, early Aprilune and July/August. Habitat. Diverse. Dry or damp bushy places, usually associated with wood land clearings/margins. Life-history. LHPs comprise a wide range of plant families:- Rubus fraticosus, R. idacus; R. discolor; Filipendula ulmaria; Discolores sp3 Pyracantha coccinea (Rosaceae): Ulex europaeus; Genisa tinctoria; Spartium janceum, Dorycnium ‘entaphylium (®)germanicum; Astragalus glveyphyllos; Medicago sativa; Mellons alba; M. officinalis, Galega officinalis; Coluea arborescens; Robinia pseudacacia (Fabaceae): Euonymus europaeus (Celastraceae): (°)Clemauisvitalba (Ranuncula- ‘ceae); Rhammnus cartharticus; Frangula alnus (=Rhamnus frangula} (Rhamnaceae): Humulus lipulus (Cannabacere): Calluna vulgaris; Erica arborea; Arbutus wnedo (Ericaceae): Fscallonia macrantha (Escalloniaceae): Lingustrum vulgare; Syringa vulgaris (Oleaceae): Ilex aquifolium (Aquifoliaceae): Cornus sanguinea (Cornaceae): Hedera helix (Araliaceae): Lyvhrum salicaria (Lytheraceae); (Alnus glutinosa (Betulaceae). Ova laid on calyx or stem of flower-buds or developing seeds: larvae feed on these components, less often on young succulent leaves. In some woodland habitats, LHPs comprise 1. aquifolium (Holly) and H. helix (Ivy) in fist and second broods respectively. Larvae at tended by Las niger, L-alionus; [fuliginosus, Camponotus japonicus; C.nearcticus, Formica subsericea; F truncoruns, Myrmica sp. Hibernates as a pupa. Cyclical variation in inter-seasonal abundance has been attributed :0 larval parasitism. Glaucopsyche alexis Green-underside Blue Plate 27 Range. Algeria, Tunisia, Europe, C Asia, Amur. G. alexis Poda 1761 TL: Graz, Austria, syn: epllarus Rottembur 1775, Distribution. Algeria: scarce and local: Saida; Aflous Batns: Khenchela; overdo; Col de Ben-Chiacao; Lambessé, ‘Tunisia: Hammamet, 500-1300m. Widespread ard common in much of Europe, including S Fennascandia, Corsica, Sicily and many Greek islands including Corfu. Absent from Atlantic Islands; Portugal: W Spain; Britain; N Belgium, Holland, N Germany; Denmark; Baltic states; Balearic Islands; Sardinia; Crete. 25-1500m. Description and Variation. Male ups dark borders sometimes wide and suf- fuses uns light grey, without marginal markings; unf pd spots may be greatly reduced: female ups blue basal suffusion variable. In some populations, in both sexes, unh greenish-blue flush may extend almost to margin ¢, Dijon, S France, In Scandinavia, unh black pd spots greatly reduced. In N Attica, melanoposmater Verity, male uns pd spots and blue basal flush reduced; fewale ups usually with blue basal suffusion: similar forms occur in Europe, :ht-period. Univoltine, Aprilfearly July. Whilst the typical form occurs in N Greece in April, males with wide, ups dark borders have been reported in the same localities in early July: a similar form, emerging early June, occurs in ‘Taygetos Mts. (1400-1600m)2 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Habitat, Diverse, Flowery banks, open scrub, damp meadows, woodland, clearings ife-history. LLHPs:several genera of Fabaceae including, Astragalus onobryehis A.glveyphylios; Galega officinalis; Vicia spp.s Coronilla varia; Calicotome villosa, Spartiume junceum; Medicago spp.s Melilotu albas Onobrychis spp; Cvtisus spp. Colutea arborescens. Ova laid on flowers upon which larvae feed, Larvae are usually greenish or dusky-pink, with brownish variegations, but sometimes pure, bright yellow if reared on the similarly coloured flowers of Spartivom junceum: all larvae tend towards a whitish colour prior to pupation. Larvae attended by Lasius alienus; Formica pratensis; EselyssEfusca; Ecineroa; Enemorais,Fsubrufs Camponotus aethiops; C. maxilienss; Myrmica scabrinodis, Crematogasteraubert, Tapinoma erraticum. Hilbernates as a pupa. In captivity, pupa may remain in diapause for wo winters, Glaucopsyche melanops Black-eyed Blue Range. N Africa and SW Europe. G. melanops melanops Boisduval 1828 TL: Aix-en-Provence, Distribution. SE France: Haute Garonne and Pyrénées- Orientales to Ardéche and Basses Alpes. Italy: W Ligurian Alps, 100-800m Description. Uns pale greyish-brown with Faint marginal ‘markings (cf. G. alexis): female ups blue suffusion variable, ‘may be absent or extend to outer margin, Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid April/May Habitat. Scrub or open woodland, often containing Erica arborea and Spartim Junceun. --history. LHPs: Doryenium decumbens; D.suffruticosums Genista sp. Lotus Iuspides; Anthyllsevtisoides. Ova laid on flowers upon which larvae feed. Larvae attended by Camponotus joel C.cruentatus; C.micans; C.syloatiens, Hibernates 88 a pupa. In captivity, pupa may remain in diapause for two seasonal cycles, G. melanops algivica Heyne 1895 TL: Nemours Distribution. Morocco. Algeria: Algiers; Lambessa. Tunisia, 600-2600m. N Portugal. Spain. 600-1 100m. Description and Variation. Male ups marginal borders 2-3mm wide; uns ‘marginal markings bolder; unh with faint grey marginal and antemsarginal spots female ups basa blue suffusion reduced or absent. Transitional to nominate form in Catalonia. In High Atlas (up to 2600m), alluaudi Oberthiir: male ups tinged violet: dark, marginal borders usually wider; female ups blue suffusion reduced, often vestigial or absent. Flight-period. Univoltine. February/June, Report ofa second brood in'Tuanisia, (September/October) requires confirmation. Habitat. Dry serub containing a tal Broom (?Cyuisns) Lffecstory LHP! Ono aati Ademocarisamazrflus, Hedneram LYCAENIDAE 9 Turanana endymion Odd-spot Blue Plate 27 Range. Greece, Turkey, Turkestan T endymion taygetica Rebel 1902 TL: Mt. Taygetos, Greece. syn: panagaca Herrich-Schatfer 1851 (invalid homonm) Distribution. S Greece: Mt. Chelmos: Mt. Taygetos, 1509-2300, Description and Variation. Male ups dull blue; black marginal borders 2mm wide; upf cell-end marked by fine black, often crescent-shaped mark: uns ge areyish; unf black pd spots large ~ that in s3 conspicuous displaced distads lunh with dull yellow-buiT submarginal spot in s2 (usually vague, sometimes absent in majority of specimens ~ ()seasonally variable): female ups brown; ‘uns ge greyish-brown. Mt, Chelmos: male uns ge distinctly browner; unh sub= ‘marginal spot in 2 orange, usually conspicuous, but sometimes absent even in female, Male genitalia of Mt. Chelmos and Mt,’Taygetos populations struetur- ally identical, but different from that of nominate form (TL: Amasya, Turkey) Flight-period. Univoltine. Late May/mid July in prolonged emergence Habitat. Exposed, dry limestone rocks, supporting low-growing, mostly cushion-forming shrubs. Colonies are generally very small, sometimes limited to afew hundred square metres. All known habitats shared with Lycaena thes Life-history, LHP Acantholimon androsaceum (Plumbaginacese). Ova laid on calyx of flowers, within which the newly-hatched larva feeds, Hbernates as a pupa. Apparently highly adapted to LHP, which it shares with Lyaema thers in the same habitats; however, competition between the two species appears to be negligible. Association with ants does appear to have been observed in Europe. Behaviour. Males sometimes stray considerably from LHP in search of water and have been noted on damp patches at 11 50m. In warm windless conditions, adults sometimes assemble in large numbers on bushes of Cratagens pyenoloba to bask in late afternoon sun, Attracted to the flowers of Thymus Conservation. On Mr, Chelmos, human activity poses a serious threat to this species as well s Lyeaena thet Macutinea alcon Alcon Blue Range. N Spain, C and F Europe, Denmark, § Sweden, Turkey, Caucasus, Siberia, C and’S Urals, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Altai Macon Denis and Schitfermuller 1775 TL: Vienna, Distribution. Very local, sporadic in most regions. N Spain: Province of Santander (Herrera 50m). France. NE Belgium, Germany. SW Sweden and W Denmark, N Italy. Switze land, Austria through (2)Slovakia and Hungary to Poland and Lithuania. Distribution uncertain in some regions owing, to possible confusion with AM. rebeli (below). 0-1000m, Description. Male ups ge dull dusty-blue. sht-period. Univoltine. Mid Junelmid August according to locality and season: peak emergence normally late July Habitat. Marsh meadows, usually associated with flood-plains of rivers or lakes. Life-history. LHPs Gentiana pnewnonanthe, G.asclepiadea: (?) G.cruciata. OV laid singly but often in large numbers, mainly on flower-buds. Small larvae94 RUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE feed and live within the calyces of flowers until late summer, thereafter in sym- biotic relationship with Myrmica ruginodis, M. rubra, or ML scabrinodis ants, Further larval development, hibernation and pupation occurs within nest of adoptive ant species Conservation. As for all wetland species, land-drainage at sites well-removed from habitats may be no less consequential than direct interference, which, if coincident with periods of prolonged drought, pases a serious threat to eco logically sensitive species ~ adverse climatic events are probable rather than possible, and most marshland insects are already disadvantaged by the small Size of most of their habitats. ‘Note. That the reputedly distinctive features of ecology and altitudinal range of M. alcon and M. rebli (below) are not infrequently at variance with wing- morphology, has given rise to uncertainties in identification and distribution, Intermediate forms of the two taxa, reported as MM. rebel, occur at low altitude in the environs of Paris. In S Scandinavia, (2)M. alcon occurs at low altitudes and utilizes Gentiana pnewmonanthe as a LHP, but wing-characters are reported to correspond to those of M. rebel. The only two, known colonies of M.alcon in Belgium occur approximately at sea-level in dampiwet habitats and both utilize G. pneumonanthe: reports of M. rebel in Belgium appear to be unsubstantiated ‘The ground-water level of some habitats of M. rebeltin N Italy and N Greece is more typical of those of M. alcon. A taxon resembling M. alcon but utilizing Gontiana cruciata as 2 LHP in habitat approximating to that of M. reli has been reported from Croatia, In Bakony Mis. (W Hungary), altitudinal separa- tion of M.alcon and M. rebelimay be as litle as 200in. Possibly, M.alzon and M. bell are conspecific, with adaptive wing-morphology corresponding to marked ecological diversity. Within the genus, M, arin displays a wide range of altitudinal variation in wing-morphology: additional, lesser variation, apparently of eco- logical origin but unrelated to altitude, is also apparent. Maculinea rebeli Mountain Alcon Blue Plate 26 Range. N Spain, SC, E and SE Europe. pS 4a Meo Hische 1904 TL: Ausra is Distribution. Very sporadic and very local. N Spain: Picos ig de Europa; S. de fa Demand provinces of Soria; Santander; Huesca (Ordessa); Gerona; (?)Teurel. France: I Pyrenees: ‘Massif Central; Basses and Hautes Alps. Italy: C Apennines: Dolomites; Apuane Alps; C Apennines. Switzerland, $ Ger- many, Czech Republic, Slovakia and S Poland to § Balkans and N Greece (Pindos Mts; Mt. Phalakron; Rhodope Mts Mt Cholomon). 600-2250m. Description and Variation. Resembles M.algon closely: male ups ge brighter blue, lacking violet overtones, In Bakony Mts. (W Hungary), xeropiila Berger resembles nominate form: both sexes larger; female ups ge Very dark grey Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid June/July. Habitat. Typically, damp oF wet meadows, also in drier situations. In N Greece occurs in bogey woodland clearings in Rhodope Mts. (1500m), but in dry, grassy, gullies above tre-line on Mt Phalakron (1450-1850m). Life-history. LHP principally Gientiana eruciata: also, G. germanica; G. LYCAENIDAE 9s asclepiadea, Oviposition and life-cycle similar to Malcom: adoptive ant species ‘Myrmica scabrinedis, M. sabuleti, M. schenki or M. sulcinodss Conservation. Many colonies are vulnerable in consequence of small habitat- size: damage to LHPs from grazing, trampling and, in populated areas, flower- picking, poses a significant threat. Maculinea arion Large Blue Plate 26 Range. Europe, Turkey, Russia, W Siberia, $ Urals, N Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Japan. ‘M.arion Linnaeus 1758 storfer) Distribution. N and C Spain, Italy, N and C Greece and European Turkey to S Sweden, Lithuania, Latvia (rare and local), (@)Estonia and $ Finland, Absent from Portugal, N Belgium, N Holland, N Germany and Mediterranean islands except Corsica. $0-2000m. Indigenous British population extinct. Variation. Coastal regions of SE France, NW Italy and Corsica, f. ligurica Wagner ups black markings well developed ~ similar and transitional forms ‘occur ir most lowland populations. Above 1500m in C Alps, Balkans and Greece, obscura Christ: ups pd areas greyish; black pd markings largely obscured basal Aush dull blue with violet overtone: a closely related, but well-characterised form occurs at 1000-1400m in SE Switzerland and Greece: ups brighter blue flush extending to submargin; black marginal borders and pd markings clearly defined: transitional forms are common in Greece. Progressive ups darkening with increasing altitude would appear to bea clinal adaptation, possibly relating toa compensatory need to absorb solar energy more rapidly in prevailing cooler conditions. Flight-period. Univoltine. Late MayiJuly according to altitude and locality Habitat. Dry, grassy, bushy places; woodland clearings Life-history. LHPs Thymus spp. including 7: serpyllum and T.pracoax. Ova laid on flowers, Life-cycle similar to that for M.alcon:larvae/pupae attended by Myrmica sabulet or M.scabrinodis, 1L: Nuremberg, Germany (Fruh- Maculinea telejus Scarce Large Blue Range. Pyrenees, C Europe, Caucasus, C and $ Urals, Siberia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, N China, Korea, Japan. -M.telgius Bergstrasser 1779°TL: Hanau,W Germany. syn: euphemus Hubner 1800, Distribution. Very scarce and local. France: Gers; Girond Dordogne; Charante; Ire; Savoie; Haut-Rhin. N Switzer land: very local. N Italy: Piedmont; Trieste. C and $ Germany ‘Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, S Poland. SW Latvia: a single known colony. Extinetin Belgium. Reports from Spain (Valle d’Aran) require confirmation. 700-1600m. Often occurs with M. nausithous Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid June/mid August. ‘Habitat. Marsh meadows, containing an abundance of LHP.96 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Life-history. LHP Sanguisorba oficinals. Ova laid on flowers. Life-cycle similar to that for M. aicon: Larvae/pupae attended by Myrmica sabulei, M. rubra, M. scabrinodis or M. vandeli Maculinea nausithous Dusky Large Blue Plate 26 Range. N Spain, E France, C Europe to $2°N, Turkey, Cau- asus, C and § Urals, Altai M. nausithous Bergstrsser 1779 TL: Hanau,W Germany syn: arcas Rottemburg 1775 (invalid homonym), Distribution, Very scarce and local. N Spain: Picos de Europa; Soria; S. de la Demanda. E France: Savoies Iséres Ain; Cote-d’Ors Haut-Rhin; Vosges. N Switzerland. C and S Germany. Austria (absent from Tirol). Czech Republic. Slovakia. Hungary. 700-1600m. Often occurs with M.telejus. Flight-period. Univoltine, Mid June/mid August according to locality Habitat. Marsh meadows, containing an abundance of LHP ~ habitat as for -M. telus, but with some preference for drier margins Life-history. LHP Sanguisorba officinalis. Ova laid on flowers. Life-cycle similar to that for Mi. aleon: Larvae/pupae attended by Myrmica rubra or M,scabrinodis Jolana iolas Iolas Blue Plate 26 sain, SC and SE Europe, Range. Morocco, Algeria, C Turkey, Iran, Liolas Ochsenheimer 1816 TL: Hungary Distribution. Widespread, usually very focal. Morocco: very local: High Atlas (Tizi-n~Test): possibly now extinct in Col de Jerada, E Morocco. Algeria: Medea; Berrouaghia; Blidas, Aflou:El Bayadh; Djelfas Batna. 800-1600m, Sand E Spain: Sierra Nevada; Montes Universales; Catalonia, § France: Pyrenees to Provence and Savoie. Switzerland: restricted to Rhéne Valley. N and C Italy. Austria and Hungary to Balkans and Greece. 100- 170%, Variation. In NW Africa, uns marginal markings indistinetin both sexes; male ups more violet-blue; female ups bluish suffusion extensive (debilizata Schultz) similar forms occur in Spain. Taxon debiliaa accorded specific rank by some authors, with or without further differentiation in recognition of local forms Montes Universales, shomasi Hemming; Catalonia, farriolsi de Sagara Flight-period. Univoltine, May/early July: single or very small numbers of fresh specimens have been recorded in August/September, indicating a partial second brood or possibly delayed emergence due to exceptional weather conditions: state of development of LHP isan important consideration in respect, to cither possibility ~an absence of seed-capsules would necessitate a profound departure from normal, larval feeding regime (sce below) Habitat. Dry, bushy places, usually on calcareous soils, fe-history. LHIPs principally Colutea arborescens: NE Greece, C.cilcica, Ova laid on seed-capsules or inside calyx, Larvae feed exclusively on seeds, som: times in company with larvae of other Iycaenids (L_boeticus; Pargus; C.argiolus, LYGAENIDAE ” G alesis; L.pirithous). Larvae strongly myrmecophilous: attended by Tapinoma erraticum. Pupates under stones. Hibernates as a pupa. In captivity, diapause may extend over two seasonal eyeles, Behaviour. Single males have been recorded several kilometres from areas containing known LHP. Pseudophilotes baton Baton Blue Range. N Portugal, N Spain, France, S and C Europe. P baton Bergstrasser 1779 TL: Hanau, Germany. Distribution. N Portugal. N Spain. France to 49°N. Cor sica. Switzerland. Italy. Sicily. S Germany. W Czech Repub- lic. Poland, W Austria, 200-2000m, Flight-period. Generally bivoltine, AprilJune and late July | carly September: tnivoltine in some localities at higher altitudes, JuneiTuly, Habitat. Dry grassy and flowery places; sheltered slopes rocky gullies. Life-history. LHPs Thymus serpyllum; T. vulgaris; T. nitens; T- praccox @polyerichuss Sanureja montana; S.hortensis; Lavendula staschas; L. angustifolia, L-lauifoia; Mentha suaveolens; M. longifolia; M. rotunda; Calamintha nepeta. Ova laid on flowers, sometimes on leaf stems. Larvae feed on flowers and developing seeds, Like other European members of this genus, captively reared larvae ap= pear to require direct sunlight and high temperatures for healthy development. Larvae attended by Lasius alienus; Moyrmica scabrinodis. Hibernates as @ pupa. Pseudophilotes panoptes Panoptes Blue Plate 27 Range. Portugal, Spain. P panopes Hubner 1813TL: Spain syn: P’ baton panoptes auc. Distribution. Portugal and Spain south of Cantabrian Mis. and Pyrenees: widespread and common. 600-1900m. Description. Resembles 2, éaion, Male unh pale orange or yellow submarginal spots vestigal or absent. Flight-period. Bivoltine. Late MarchiJune and July/August Habitat. As for 2 baton Life-history. LHP Thymus mastichina; T.villosus;S ‘Note. Justification for separation from P baton at species level unclear. Pseudophilotes vicrama Plate 27 CC Asia, Tian Shan, China, Range. E Europe, Balkans, Greece, Turke} P vicrama schiffermuelleri Hemming, 1929 TL: Dom Altenberg; Austra. Distribution. S Finland, Baltic states. Poland, SE Germany. Czech Republic Slovakia, Austria, NE Italy: Trentino-Alto Adige (western limit). Hungary. Balkans and Greece, including Corfu, Kithira, Crete, Skyros, Andros. Paros, Sitnos, Limnos, Lesbos, Chios, Ikaria, Samos, Karpathos, Rhodes and Kos, European Turkey. 0-1900m,98 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Variation. Resembles P baton, Appreciably larger, especially [~ female: unh orange submarginal spots well developed in s1b- 5. Readily separable from Paton by distinctive character of vvalve in male genitalia (individually and regionally variable). Flight-period. Bivoltine. April/early June and July/August according to altitude and location. Habitat. Dry scrubland; grassy banks; rocky gullies; wood- land clearings. Life-history. LHPs Thymus longicaulis chaubardiiy T. labresens;T. @)comptus; Tocheus, T striatus or atticus, Satara mon Oviposition, early development and hibernation as for Pdaton. Larvae strongly -myrmecophilous: attending ant species not determined: captive larvae appes reluctant fo pupate, possibly due to absence of ants, Pseudophilotes abencerragus False Baton Blue___Plate 27 oS = Pakoerigs Perret 1837: Province of Oran, Agra, & Diseiudon, Widespread ba cal Mores Ape. | fa Tuna 100-2500m 8 Porugat'S da Estey Alemiepy | @ op} Algarve. C and S Spain: Provinces of Madrid (Arganda; | ~~ CamporelLoechesaranue) Exwemndura (Altec do Sat Cuenca (de Cuenca ten de abla dee Pandora) alga (hnteqcrn Rhonda; Foe), 100, 1300 Variation, tn N Aftia, ans paler than Therian populations, sometimes Yalta Flght-period. Unilin in Isrinpeninsl, AprilMay ay Apia 10% in Algae) Bote in igh Atay, te Marchal Jue and AugetSepe ter (cctv res species hae been recned inl Habit Dry ower places sual assovited wih gts Ltehisiory: Ps NW Ae, Tym hits one Sala trail Madcap Cbnate Spa, Cons hatancs Ora lstonundersico eve OF tsa bat rae scenes within owe heals using oct incopy Larval colouring eis appre rm tf Bo Pans Pseudophilotes barbagiae Sardinian Blue Range. Sardinia. ‘Rbarbagiae de Prins and van der Poorten 1982'TL: Sardinia, Distribution. Sardinia: Monti del Gennargentu (Fonnis Lanuseis Desulo).800-1500m. Reports from Monte Limbara require confirmation. Description. Male ups darkish, somewhat greyish-brown; intensity of blue basal flush diminishing progressively to~ wards pd area; black discoidal spot small or vestigial; uns ge darker than for P baron; unh submarginal orange markings Range. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Portugal, Spain, Egypt, [— Israel, Jordan, W Arabia Plate 27, Lycaes IKE 9 poorly developed, usually vestigial: female similar; ups uniform dark brown, ‘Separable from closely allied taxa by distinctive characters in male genitalia Flight-period. Univoltine. May/June. Habitat. Dry rocky, scrub clearings and slopes. Life-history. LHP Thymus 2?)herba-barona, Pseudophilotes bavius Bavius Blue Range. Morocco, Algeria, SE Europe, Crimea, $ Urals. bovis bavius Bversmann 1832°TL:S Urals Distribution. Widely separated colonies. Romana: dstrits of Cluj and bistrta Nasaud (Transylvania). Republic cf Macedonia: Skopje (Treska Valley); Gradsko. NW Greece: Askion Mts, 700-1200m, S Greece: Mt. Chelmos and Gnvirons (Kalavrita, Zacblorou), southwards to Spar “Turkey in Europe. 600-1100m Varlation. In Romania, ungarcus Doiszeghy 1913 [TI:Vit Bstrita Nasa: nate ups silvery. blue. in Republic of Macedonia macedouicus Schultze: male Ups dull, somewhat grevish-blue; uph usual submarginal spots absent except for smal, pale orange mask in anal angle. Ia Peloponnesos, cain Hemming male ups bright blue; uph orange submarginal spots well developed. In Askion Mts resembles casi but variable ~in same colon, some individuals closely correspond to macsdoncue Hiight-period. Univoltine, Mid May/June Habitat: Dy, sheltered rocky slopes, gullies or small clevings amongst scrub on calcareous soils Life-history. LHPs Salia spp: Romania, S. nutans, NW Greece, S.fficinalis 8 Greece, 8 erkeaca In Greece, ova id on ps of developing ower stems, upperside of young basal leaves and at base of stem-leaves. Larae fe tn flowers, less often on leaves and stems, Most larvae ate green but a pinkish form appears to correspond to those feeding exclusively on fowers. Captive Tarvae really accept Salvia argentenS-aethiop, S slares, 8 nemorsa and S. cerucilata, In Romania, larvae are suscepibe to heavy parasiizauon (>95%) by Apants beaenae (Diptera). Hibernate asa pups in nature a single example fas been recorded under basal leaf of Ssaea Larvae of ungaricus attended ty ants (ep. not determined Conservation. In 8 Greece, most known habitats appear to be threatened faving ~shecp and goats ae very partial to the Nlwer-sems of S. verbena. Pbavius fatma Oberthir 1890 TL: Lambessa, Algeria Distribution. Very local. Morocco: Middle Atlas (Anosseur; Ifrane; Azrous Immouzer). Algeria: Aures Mts. (Lambessa; Col de Telmet). 1500-1800m. Description, Male uph prominent submarginal orange spots extends to 87. Female ups biue flush generally more extensive. Flight-period. Univoltine. Late Aprilieatly June. Habitat. Dry scrub; flowery meadows; clearings in light woodland. Life-history. LHP Salvia argentea Behaviour. Adults often rest on basal leaves of LHP. furkey, Caucasus,100 BUTTERFLIES OF EUROPE Scolitantides orion Chequered Blue Range. Spain, § France, N Italy, E ‘ennoscandia, Turkey, C Asia, Japan. S. orion orion Pallas 1771 TL: E Russia. Distribution. Very local in coastal areas. S Norway, $ ‘Sweden and S Finland. Absent from Baltic states. 0-300m. | ¥ Description, Male ups extensive bright silvery- or violet- 5-4 blue, somewhat disrupted by black veins; upf black marginal |" Ye spots with proximal whitish’silvery-greyish band, somewhat t broken and striated; uph black marginal spots faintly ringed ___ = =} pale blue or white: female ups ge very dark greyish-brown, blue flush vestigial, variable but rarely absent. Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid May/June. Habitat. Rocky slopes/rock ledges largely devoid of vegetation except LHP. Life-history. LHP Sedum album. Hibernates as a pupa. S. orion lariana Frihstorter 1910 TL: Lake C Distribution. Very local and sporadic. Spait Alicante to Catalonia; Huesca. S France: Gironde; Lot-et-Garonne; Massif Central; E Pyrenees to Basses Alps; Corsica. N Italy and $ Switzerland to S Poland, Hungary, Balkans and N Greece: Mt. Orvilos; Phalakron massif; Rhodopi massif; Askion Mts.3 Mt. Olympus. European Turkey. 200-1100m. Description. Male ups darker blue markings less extensive, rarely extending beyond dissoidal spot: female ups very dark greyish-brown, almost black, usually without blue basal flush, Variation, Subject to marked local and regional variation. In Republic of Mac- edonia (Treska Valley) and NW Greece (Askion Mts): resembles nominate form closely Flight-period. Generally univoltine (late May/June), bivoltine in some areas of Switzerland (April/May and July /August), Habitat. Dry, often very hot, stony slopes/soil-banks/gullies, often amongst seruby sometimes grasy, rocky clearings night deciduous woodland: usualy ‘on caleareous substrates. LHP Sedum albu S. tlephiums S. hispanicums S. maximum. (Ova laid at base of leaves, upon which larvae feed. Captive larvae accept many ‘Sedum species. Larvae attended by Camponotes vagus; C. aethiops; Tapinoma ervaricum. Hilbernates as a pupa under stones or sometimes in small hollows in loose sandy soil near base of LHP. ad Europe, S de Espuna; Montes Universales; Chilades trochylus Grass Jewel Plate 27 Range. Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan, C Africa rochylus Freyer 1844 TL: Turkey, Distribution. Very local and sporadic. Greece: Lake Vegoritis; Olympus massif; ‘Me. Hymettus; Pastra Mts; Me. Parnassos; Delphi; N Peloponnesos (Kilocastro); vias Samos: Chios; Rhodes; Crete, 25-900m, Variation. Ups discoidal spots sometimes faintly ringed white Flight-period. Polyvoltine. Lace Marchjlate October. Habitat. Hot, dry, stony places; sometimes on disturbed soils in areas of LYCAENIDAE 101 cultivation, Some habitats are extremely small ~ 200m Life-history. LHP on Mt. Parassos massif, dndrachne felephioides (Euphorbiaceae): natural use of Heliotropiton hirsutissimum (Boraginaceae) in Europe not confirmed, al- though both plant species are exploited in Israel and Sinai peninsula. Captive larvae feed readily on flowers and leaves bf Heliotropium hirsutissimum. Hilbernates as a pupa. On Mt Parnassos, larvae attended by Acantholepis near catcasict outside of Europe, Pheidole quadrispinosa; Prenolepis sp; Iridomyrmex sp. Maurus vogelii Vogel’s Blue Range. Morocco. -M, vogelii vogeli? Oberthir 1920 TL: Tizi-n-Taghzeft, Mo- Distribution. Very local. Morocco: Taghzeft Pass; district of Timhadie and Itzer, 1900-2200m. Flight-period. Univoltine. Mid Augustimid September, Habitat. Dry, stony places with very sparse vegetation. Life-history. LHP Erodium petracum crispum (=Erodivm

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