POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION and SWITCHGEAR RUD ec ET RRC 0 aTata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Power System Protection and Switchgear, 2/e Copyright © 2011 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. 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However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accu- racy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other pro- fessional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Bharati Composers, D-6/159, Sector-VI, Rohini, Delhi 110 085, and printed at A. P Offset, M-135, Panchsheel Garden Naveen Shahdara, Dethi 110 032 Cover: A.P, Offset RYXCRRQWRQCCX Reel le ee rtProface Contents xiti 1. Introduction 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ma 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 al 12 13 14 5 16 ‘7 Need for Protective Systems / Nature and Causes of Faults 2 Types of Faults 3 Effects of Faults 4 Fault Statistics 5 Evolution of Protective Relays 6 Zones of Protection 9 Primary and Back-up Protection 10 Essential Qualities of Protection 1/7 Performance of Protective Relays /2 Classification of Protective Relays 14 Components of a Protection System 18 Classification of Protective Schemes 19 Automatic Reclosing 20 Current Transformers (CTs) for Protection 20 Voltage Transformers (VTs) 22 Basic Relay Terminology 23 Exercises 31 Relay Construction and Operating Principles 32 21 2.2 23 24 25 Introduction 32 Electromechanical Relays 33 Static Relays 50 Numerical Relays 6/ Comparison between Electromechanical Relays and Numerical Relays 63 Exercises 64vi 35 6. Contents Current and Voltage Transformers 65 3.1 Introduction 65 2 Current transformers (CTs) 65 3 Voltage Transformers (VTs) 89 Summation transformer 93 ww ww ak Phase-sequence Current-segregating Network 94 Exercises 95 Fault Analysis 96 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 Per-Unit System 98 43 One-Line Diagram 102 44 Impedance and Reactance Diagrams 103 4.5 Symmetrical Fault Analysis 107 4.6 Symmetrical Components 1/46 4.7 Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis 168 48 Grounding (Earthing) 98 Exercises 215 Overcurrent Protection 221 5.1 Introduction 221 5.2 Time-current Characteristics 22] 5.3 Current Setting 225 54 Time Setting 226 5.5 Overcurrent Protective Schemes 228 5.6 Reverse Power or Directional Relay 234 5.7 Protection of Parallel Feeders 237 5.8 Protection of Ring Mains 237 5.9 Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protection 238 5.10 Combined Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protective Scheme 240 Phase Fault Protective Scheme 240 Directional Earth Fault Relay 240 Static Overcurrent Relays 247 Numerical Overcurrent Relays 245 Exercises 246 Distance Protection 249 6.1 Introduction 249 6.2 Impedance Relay 250 6.3 Reactance Relay 258 64 MHO (Admittance or Angle Admitiance) Relay 261Contents vii 65 Angle Impedance (OHM) Relay 267 6.6 Input Quantities for Various Types of Distance Relays 269 67 Sampling Comparator 270 6.8 Effect of are Resistance on the Performance of Distance Relays 27/ 6.9 Reach of Distance Relays 274 6.10 Effect of Power Surges (Power Swings) on the Performance of Distance Relays 277 Effect of Line Length and Source Impedance on Distance Relays 28/ 6.12 Selection of Distance Relays 283 6.13 MHO Relay with Blinders 283 6.14 Quadrilateral Relay 284 6.15 Elliptical Relay 286 6.16 Restricted MHO Relay 287 6.17 Restricted Impedance Relay 289 6.18 Restricted Directional Relay 289 6.19 Restricted Reactance Relay 290 6.20 Some Other Distance Relay Characteristics 290 6.21 Swivelling Characteristics 293 6.22 Choice of Characteristics for Different Zones of Protection 294 6.1 6.23 Compensation for Correct Distance Measurement 295 6.24 Reduction of Measuring Units 298 6.25 Switched Schemes 299 6.26 Auto-reclosing 301 Appendix 304 Exercises 305 7. Pilot Relaying Schemes 310 7.1 Introduction 310 7.2 Wire Pilot Protection 3/0 7.3 Carrier Current Protection 3/5 Exercises 326 8. Differential Protection 327 8.1 Introduction 327 8.2 Differential Relays 328 8.3 Simple (Basic) Differential Protection 329 8.4 Percentage or Biased Differential Relay 339viii Contents 85 86 Differential Protection of 3-Phase Circuits 346 Balanced (Opposed) Voltage Differential Protection 346 Exercises 347 g. Rotating Machines Protection 349 91 9.2 Introduction 349 Protection of Generators 349 Exercises 361 10. Transformer and Buszone Protection 364 10.1 Introduction 364 10.2 Transformer Protection 364 10.3 Buszone Protection 375 10.4 Frame Leakage Protection 376 Exercises. 377 11. Numerical Protection 379 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nt 1 11. a ll. ll. 1.1 12 13 14 15 16 Iii; 18 19 10 all 12 mh 14 15 Introduction 379 Numerical Relay 38/ Data Acquisition System (DAS) 386 Numerical Relaying Algorithms 390 Mann-Morrison Technique 390 Differential Equation Technique 397 Discrete Fourier Transform Technique 393 Walsh—Hadamard Transform Technique 402 Rationalised Haar Transform Technique 4/6 Block Pulse Functions Technique 427 Wavelet Transform Technique 433 Removal of the de Offset 447 Numerical Overcurrent Protection 442 Numerical Distance Protection 444 Numerical Differential Protection 445 Exercises 450 12. Microprocessor-Based Numerical Protective Relays 452 1 1 1 1 1 21 2.2 24 25 26 Introduction 452 IC Elements and Circuits for Interfaces 453 AID Converter, Analog Multiplexer, S/H Circuit 457 Overcurrent Relays 471 Impedance Relay 475 Directional Relay 48/712.7 128 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 Contents ix Reactance Relay 484 Generalised Mathematical Expression for Distance Relays 487 Measurement of Rand X 489 Mho and Offset Mho Relays 492 Quadrilateral Relay 498 Generalised Interface for Distance Relays 501 Microprocessor Implementation of Digital Distance Relaying Algorithms 502 Exercises 504 13. Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection 506 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.12 13.13 Introduction 506 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 507 Fuzzy Logic 5/8 Application of Artificial Intelligence to Power System Protection 520 Application of ANN to Overcurrent Protection 522 Application of ANN to Transmission Line Protection 522 Neural Network Based Directional Relay 523 ANN Modular Approach for Fault Detection, Classification and Location 523 Wavelet Fuzzy Combined Approach for Fault Classification 525 Application of ANN to Power Transformer Protection 526 Power Transformer Protection Based on Neural Network and Fuzzy Logic 528 Power Transformer Protection Based Upon Combined Wavelet Transform and Neural Network 529 Application of ANN to Generator Protection 530 Exercises 537 14. Circuit Breakers 533 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Introduction 533 Fault Clearing Time of a Circuit Breaker 534 Are Voltage 535 Are Interruption 535 Restriking Voltage and Recovery Voltage 537 Resistance Switching 541 Current Chopping 544x Contents 148 149 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18 14.19 Interruption of Capacitive Current 545 Classification of Circuit Breakers 546 Air-Break Circuit Breakers 547 Oil Circuit Breakers 548 Air Blast Circuit Breakers 553 SF, Circuit Breakers 555 Vacuum Circuit Breakers 562 Operating Mechanism 564 Selection of Circuit Breakers 565 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Circuit Breakers 566 Rating of Circuit Breakers 567 Testing of Circuit Breakers 570 Exercises 575 15. Fuses 578 15.1 15.2 15.3 154 15.5 15.6 15.7 Introduction 578 Definitions 578 Fuse Characteristics 582 Types of Fuses 582 Applications of HRC Fuses 588 Selection of Fuses 588 Discrimination 589 Exercises 590 16. Protection Against Overvoltages 592 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 Causes of Overvoltages 592 Lightning Phenomena 593 Wave Shape of Voltage Due to Lightning 595 Overvoltages Due to Lightning 596 Klydonograph and Magnetic Link 598 Protection of Transmission Lines against Direct Lightning Strokes 599 Protection of Stations and Sub-stations from Direct Strokes 603 Protection Against Travelling Waves 605 Peterson Coil 6/5 Insulation Coordination 6/7 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIIL) 6/8 Exercises 619Contents xi 17. Modern Trends in Power System Protection 621 17.1 17.2 173 174 17.5 17.6 177 178 Introduction 62! Gas Insulated Substation/Switchgear (GIS) 623 Frequency Relays and Load-shedding 628 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) Based Relays 63/ Adaptive Protection 637 Integrated Protection and Control 639 Relay Reliability 640 Advantages of Fast Fault Clearing 641 Exercises 641 Appendix A: 8085 Assembly Language Programming 643 Appendix rthogonal and Orthonormal Functions 650 Appendix €: Gray-code to Binary Conversion 651 Appendix D: Kronecker (or Direct) Product of Matrices 652 Index 653pina annPreface to the Second Edition The authors are thankful to the readers including teachers, students and engineers who have given overwhelming response to the first edition of the book. The response to the first edition of the book has been so encouraging that there have been about 40 reprints of this edition The proper operation of a power system requires an efficient, reliable and fast- acting protection scheme, which consists of protective relays and switching devices. There has been continuous improvement in the design of relaying schemes. In order to provide a foolproof protection system to the power system, innovative technology is complementing the conventional protection system. With revolutionary changes in the power system and tremendous developments in computer hardware technology, numerical relays based on microprocessors or microcontrollers are fast replacing the conventional protective relays. Revision Rationale Keeping in view the rapid technological advancement in power system protection, we haye revised the present second edition of the book thoroughly and have added many new chapters. This edition of the book will be very useful to undergraduate and postgraduate students of electrical engineering, research scholars, students preparing for professional examinations and practicing engincers engaged in system-protection work. In revising this edition, we gratefully acknowledge the constructive sugges- tions, critical comments and inspiration received from readers and well-wishers for the improvement of the book. New Additions The present second edition of the book contains seven additional chapters, viz., Chapter 3 on Current and Voltage Transformers, Chapter 4 on Fault Analysis, Chapter 8 on Differential Protection, Chapter 9 on Rotating Machines Protection, Chapter 11 on Numerical Protection, Chapter 13 on Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection, and Chapter 17 on Moder Trends in Power System Protection. With the addition of these new chapters, the present edition of the book has become consider- ably up-to-date. Chapter Organisation Chapter 1 on Introduction now stands completely rewritten with addition of new sec- tions on Performance of Protective Relays and Components of a Protection System and many new relay terminologies.xiv Preface Chapter 2 on Relay Construction and Operating Principles has also undergone a thorough revision. Chapter 3, a new chapter on Current and Voltage Transformers, describes the construction and operating principles of various types of current and voltage trans- formers (transducers) required in protection systems. Chapter 4, a new chapter on Fault Analysis, discusses the per unit system, sym- metrical fault analysis, symmetrical components, unsymmetrical fault analysis and grounding. In order to ensure adequate protection, the student must clearly under- stand the conditions existing ona power system during faults. These abnormal condi- tions provide the discriminating means for relay operation. Hence, fault analysis is very essential for the design of a suitable protection system. Chapter 5 on Overcurrent Protection is the revised and renumbered Chapter 3 of the first edition. This chapter deals with overcurrent protection detailing electro- magnetic and static overcurrent relays, directional relays, and overcurrent protective schemes. Similarly, Chapter 6 on Distance Protection is the revised and renumbered Chapter 4 of the first edition. It discusses different types of electromagnetic and static distance relays, arc resistance and power swings on performance of distance relays, realization of different types of operating characteristics of distance relays and auto- reclosing. Chapter 7 on Pilot Relaying Schemes is the same as Chapter 5 of first edition. It deals with pilot protection, wire pilot relaying and carrier pilot relaying. Chapter 8, a new chapter on Differential Protection, discusses construction, operating principles and performance of various differential relays for differential protection, Chapter 9, a new chapter on Rotating Machines Protection, deals with protection of generators and motors. We developed it by splitting Chapter 6 of the first edi- tion and adding motor protection. We then used the remaining parts of Chapter 6 to develop Chapter 10, a new chapter on Transformer and Bus Zone Protection. Chapter 11, a new chapter on Numerical Protection, discusses the numerical relay, data acquisition system, numerical relaying algorithms, numerical overcurrent protection, numerical distance protection and numerical differential protection of generator and power transformer. Numerical relay, which is the main component of the numerical protection scheme, is the latest development in the area of protection. The basis of this topic is numerical (digital) devices, e.g., microprocessors, micro- controllers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc., developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware technology. Chapter 12, a new chapter on Microprocessor Based Numerical Protective Relays, comprises some portions of Chapters 7 and 8 of the first edition and some new additions. It describes microprocessor-based overcurrent and distance relays and digital filtering algorithms for removal of de offset from relaying signals and compu- tation of R and X of a transmission line. Chapter 13, a new chapter on Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection, deals with application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic to numerical protection of power system.Preface xv Chapter 14 on Circuit Breakers is the thoroughly revised and renumbered Chapter 9 of the first edition. It covers circuit breakers explaining the principle of circuit interruption and different types of circuit breakers. Chapter 15 on Fuses is the same as Chapter 10 of the first edition. It describes the construction and operating principle of different types of fuses and gives the defini- tions of different terminologies related to a fuse. Again, Chapter 16 is the same as Chapter 11 of the first edition, and is on Protection Against Overvoltages. Chapter 17, a new chapter on Modern Trends in Power System Protection, discusses the mod- ern topics of power system protection such as Gas Insulated Substation (GIS), fre- quency relays and loadshedding, Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) based relays, adaptive protection, integrated protection and control, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA), travelling wave relay, etc. Acknowledgements We owe a special note of thanks to Mr. Harshit Nath who helped us a lot in the prepa- ration of the manuscript of this edition. We also express our gratitude to Ms. Amrita Sinha and Ms. Kiran Srivastava for their constructive suggestions and cooperation during the manuscript-preparation stage of this edition. At this stage, we would also like to thank the many reviewers who took out time from their busy schedules and sent us their suggestions, all of which wenta long way in helping us revise the book. We mention their names below. Zakir Hussain National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Rakesh Kumar Global Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh Sardindu Ghosh National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Orissa RC Jha Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand V B Babaria Lalbhai Dalpatbhai College of Engineering, Ahmadabad, Gujarat R Senthil Kumar = Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Erode, Tamil Nadu K Lakshmi K S Rangasamy College of Engineering, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu S P Rajkumar Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu CV K Bhanu Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering, Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh M Narendra Kumar Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh S Ram Mohan Rao — College of Engineering, Andhra University, Vishakhapatmam, Andhra Pradesh We wish to convey our feelings of indebtedness to our colleagues and students for the encouragement and useful suggestions they gave us while we were revising thexvi Preface book. Finally, we state our heartfelt gratitude to our respective families for the love, patience and inspiration, which they are never short of showering on us. We welcome constructive criticism and suggestions from all concerned for further improvement of the future editions of the book. Please feel free to email your views at the publisher’s website mentioned below. Badri Ram DN Vishwakarma Feedback We invite comments and suggestions from all the readers. You may e-mail your feed- back to tmh.elefeedback @ gmail.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Also, please report any piracy of the book spotted by you.' 1.1 NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS ' An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, etc. Short cireuits and other abnormal conditions often occur ona power system, The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause dam- age to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for the protection of each section of the power system. Short circuits are usually called faults by power engineers. Strictly speaking, the term ‘fault’ simply means a ‘defect’. Some defects, other than short circuits, are also termed as faults. For example, the failure of conducting path due to a break in a conductor is a type of fault. If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy sec- tion of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may cause damage to some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire. It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total failure of the system. A protective system includes circuit breakers, transducers (CTs and VTs), and protective relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system from the healthy sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system when it is called upon to do so by the protective relay. Transducers (CTs and VTs) are used to reduce currents and voltages to lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high voltages of the power system. The function of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element. It is a device which senses abnormal conditions on a power system by con- stantly monitoring electrical quantities of the systems, which differ under normal and abnormal conditions. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change dur- ing abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle (direction) and frequency. Protective relays utilise one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system. Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any other abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators and motors, overvoltage, under-2 Power System Protection and Switchgear frequency, loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator etc. Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker. A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault, rather it takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is the Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of power transformers. Sometimes, a slow breakdown of insulation due to a minor arc may take place in a transformer, resulting in the generation of heat and decomposition of the transformer’s oil and solid insulation. Such a condition produces a gas which is collected in a gas chamber of the Buchholz relay. When a specified amount of gas is accumulated, the Buchholz relay operates an alarm. This gives an early warning of incipient faults. The transformer is taken out of service for repair before the incipient fault grows into a serious one. Thus, the occurrence of a major fault is prevented. If the gas evolves rapidly, the Buchholz relay trips the circuit breaker instantly. The cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about 5% of the total cost of the system. 1.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults on transmission and distribution lines are caused by overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges, or by external conducting objects falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to light- ing or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits, Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break. Sometimes, certain foreign particles, such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial areas or salt in coastal areas or any dirt in general accumulates on the surface of string and pin insulators. This reduces their insulation strength and causes flashovers. Short circuits are also caused by tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines. Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch one of the phases and the earth wire (or the metallic supporting structure which is at earth potential). If the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and ircuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground, it results in a short circuit. Joint failures on cables or overhead lines are also a cause of failure of the conducting path. The opening of one or two of the three phases makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines set up harmonics, thereby heating the machines in short periods of time. Therefore, unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the normal operation of a power system. Other causes of faults on overhead lines are: direct lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes, ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms, earthquakes, creepers, etc. In the case of cables, transformers, generators and other equipment, the causes of faults are: the conductor becomes oper failure of the solid insulation due to aging, heat, moisture or overvoltage, mechanical damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens, flashover due to overvolt- ages, etc.Introduction 3 Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation, test- ing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc. Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because of a faulty system design. Hence, the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by improving the system design, by using components and materials of good quality and by better operation and maintenance. 1.3. TYPES OF FAULTS t Two broad classifications of faults are (i) Symmetrical faults (ii) Unsymmetrical faults 13.1 Symmetrical Faults A three-phase (3-9) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a 3-6 fault, all the three phases are short circuited. There may be two situations—all the three phases may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving the ground. A 3-@ short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine the system fault level. 1.3.2. Unsymmetrical Faults Single-phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase-to-phase short circuits; single- phase open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults. Single-phase to Ground (L-G) Fault A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a sin- gle phase to ground fault. It may be due to the failure of the insulation between a phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor breaking and falling to the ground. Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault A short circuit between any two phases and the earth is called a double line to ground or a two-phase to ground fault. Phase-to-Phase (L-L) Fault A short circuit between any two phases is called a line to line or phase-to-phase fault. Open-circuited Phases This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when One or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead lines fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail to close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes must be provided to deal with such abnormal situations.4 Power System Protection and Switchgear Winding Faults All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and trans- former windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault, namely the short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings. 1.3.3. Simultaneous Faults Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and breaking of the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault on another phase at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at two different points. If these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they are treated as a double line to ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, it is known as a cross-country earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on sys- tems grounded through high impedance or Peterson coil but they are rare on solidly grounded systems. i 1.4 EFFECTS OF FAULTS i The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effects on a power system, if it remains uncleared. ()) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up due to heavy current. (ii) Ares associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires, result- ing from arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also a possibility of the fire spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is not isolated quickly. (iii) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting in the loss of industrial loads. (iv) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents, thereby heating rotating machines. (v) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsys- tems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load shedding would have to be resorted in the sub-system which was receiving power from the other subsystem before the occurrence of the fault. (vi) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby causing a loss of revenue. High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements of a power system to minimise the effects of faults and other abnormalities.Introduction 5 i 1.5 FAULT STATISTICS i For the design and application of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of power system. Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centres, resulting in hundreds of kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc., are greater for overhead lines than for other parts of the power system. Table 1.1 gives an approximate idea of the fault statistics. Table 1.1 Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of a Power system Element % of Total Faults Overhead Lines 50 Underground Cables 9 Transformers 10 Generators Switchgears 12 CTs, VTs, Relays Control Equipment, etc. 12 From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines. Hence it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing protective schemes for a power system. Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly the different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident that the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault, and hence the protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of protective schemes for overhead lines. Table 1.2. Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on Overhead Lines Types of Faults Fault Symbol % of Total Faults Line to Ground LG 85 Line to Line LL 8 Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5 Three Phase 3-6 2 In the case of cables, 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junctions. Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are not recommended for cables.6 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.6 EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS In the very early days of the power industry, small generators were used to supply local loads and fuses were the automatic devices to isolate the faulty equipment. They were effective and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems. However, they suffered from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the supply could be restored. For important lines, frequent interruption in power supply is undesirable. This inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of circuit breakers and protective relays. Attracted armatured-type electromagnetic relays were first introduced. They were fast, simple and economical. As auxiliary relays their use will continue even in future, due to their simplicity and low cost. This type of relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or thought a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger-type electromagnetic relays formed instanta- neous units for detecting overcurrent or over-voltage conditions. Attracted armature- type electromagnetic relays work on both ac and de. Later on, induction-type elec- tromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use the electromagnetic induction principle for their operation and hence work on ac only. Since both attracted armature and induction-type electromagnetic relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays. Induction disc-type inverse time-current relays were developed in the early 1920s to meet the selectivity requirement. They were used for overcurrent protection. For directional and distance relays, induction- cup-type units were widely used throughout the world. An induction-cup-type unit was fast and accurate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For greater sensitivity and accuracy, polarised de relays are being used since 1939. Attracted armature-type balanced-beam relays provided differential protection, distance protection as well as low burden overcurrent units. These relays operated when the magnitude of an operating signal was larger than the magnitude of the restraining signal. These relays were classified as amplitude comparators. Single-input induction-type relays provided operations with time delays. Two- input induction type relays provided directional protection. Two- and three-input induction-type relays also provided distance protection. The operation of these relays was dependant on the phase displacement between the applied electrical inputs. These relays were classified as phase comparators. In 1947, rectifier bridge-type comparators were developed in Norway and Germany. Polarised de relays, energised from rectifier bridge comparators, chal- lenged the position of induction-cup-type relays. They are widely used for the reali- sation of distance relay characteristics. Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in the literature in 1928 and continued up to 1956. They were not accepted because of their complexity, short life of vacuum tubes and incorrect operation under transient conditions. But electronic valves were used in carrier equipment. There was automatic checking of the carrier channel. An alarm was sounded if any tube became defective, and it was replaced immediately.Introduction 7 Magnetic amplifiers were also used in protective relays in the past. A magnetic amplifier consists of a transformer and a separate de winding. As the transformer action is controlled by the de winding, the device is also known as transductor. This type of relay is rugged but slow in action. At present, such relays are not used. Hall crystals were also used to construct phase comparators. Because of their low output and high-temperature errors, such relays have not been widely adopted except in Russian countries. The first transistorised relay was developed in 1949, soon after the innova- tion of the transistor. Various kinds of static relays using solid-state devices were developed in the fifties. Multi-input comparators giving quadrilateral characteristics were developed in the sixties. Static relays possess the advantages of low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact troubles, long life and less maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electrome- chanical relays, they were used for the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. But they did not replace electromechanical relays. Static relays were treated as an addition to the family of relays. In most static relays, the output or slave relay isa polarised de relay which is an electromechanical relay. This can be replaced by a thyristor circuit, but it is used because of its low cost. Electromechanical rela have continued to be used because of their simplicity and low cost. Their mainte- nance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel trained in solid-state devices. Static relays using digital techniques have also been developed. Static relays appeared to be the technology poised to replace the electromechani- cal counterparts in the late sixties when researchers ventured into the use of comput- ers for power system protection. Their attempts and the advances in the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) technology and software techniques in the seventies led to the development of microprocessor-based relays that were first offered as commer- cial devices in 1979. Early designs of these relays used the fundamental approaches that were previously used in the electromechanical and static relays. In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for implementing protection functions, the microprocessor-based relays marketed in the eighties did not incor- porate them. These relays performed basic functions, took advantage of the hybrid analog and digital techniques, and offered a good economical solution. At present, in microprocessor-based relays, different relaying algorithms are used to process the acquired information. Microprocessor/Microntroller-based relays are called numeri- cal relays specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically. The modern power networks which have grown both in size and complexity require fast accurate and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment and to maintain system stability. Increasing interest is being shown in the use of on-line digital computers for protection. The concept of numerical protection employing computers which shows much promise in providing improved perfor- mance has evolved during the past three decades. In the beginning, the numerical protection (also known as digital protection) philosophy was to use a large computer system for the total protection of the power system. This protection system proved to be very costly and required large space. If a computer is required to perform other8 Power System Protection and Switchgear control functions in addition to protection, it can prove to be economical. With the tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology, microproces- sors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable progress in recent years, The latest fascinating innovation in the field of computer technology is the development of microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) which are making in-roads in every activity of mankind. With the development of fast, economical, powerful and sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs and FPGAs, there is a grow- ing tend to develop numerical relays based on these devices. The conventional relays of electromechanical and static types had no significant drawbacks in their protection functions, but the additional features offered by micro- processor technologies encouraged the evolution of relays that introduced many changes to the power industry. Economics and additionally, functionality were prob- ably the main factors that forced the power industry to accept and cope with the changes brought by microprocessor/microcontroller-based numerical relays. Multifunction numerical relays were introduced in the market in the late eight- ies. These devices reduced the product and installation costs drastically. This trend has continued until now and has converted microprocessor/microcontroller based numerical relays to powerful tools in the modern substations. The inherent advantage of microprocessor/microcontroller-based protective schemes, over the existing static relays with one or very limited range of applica- tions, is their flexibility, The application of microprocessors and microcontrollers to protective relays also result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable relaying units. A microprocessor or a microcontroller increases the flexibility of a relay due to its programmable approach. It provides protection at low cost and com- petes with conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics can be realised using the same interface. Using a multiplexer, the microprocessor/microcontroller can obtain the required input signals for the realisation of a particular relaying char- acteristic. Different programs can be used for different characteristics. Individual types and number of relaying units are reduced to a great extent, resulting in a very compact protective scheme. Field tests have demonstrated their feasibility and some schemes are under investigation. A number of schemes have been put into service and their performances have been found to be satisfactory. Microprocessor/micro- controller-based numerical protective schemes are being widely used in the field. At present, many trends are emerging. These include common hardware plat- forms, configuring the software to perform different functions, integrating protection with substation control and substituting cables carrying voltages and currents with optical fibre cables carrying signals in the form of polarized light. On the software side, Artificial Intelligence (Al) techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems have attracted the attention of researchers and protection engineers and they are being applied to power system protection. ANN and Fuzzy Logic based intelligent numerical relays for overcurrent protection, distance protection of transmission lines and differential protection of transformers and generators are presently under active research and development stage. Adaptive protection is also being applied to protection practices. RecentIntroduction 9 work in this area includes feedback systems in which relays continuously monitor the operating state of the power system and automatically reconfigure themselves for providing optimal protection. ' 1.7__ ZONES OF PROTECTION ' A power system contains generators, transformers, bus bars, transmission and distri- bution lines, etc, There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of equipment or element of the power system, such as generator protection, transformer protection, transmission line protection, bus bar protection, etc. Thus, a power system is divided into a number of zones for protection. A protective zone covers One or at the most two elements of a power system. The protective zones are planned in such a way that the entire power system is collectively covered by them, and thus, no part of the system is left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power system are shown in Fig. 1.1. Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing which a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones (this may be due to errors in the measurement of actuating quantities, etc.), and hence no circuit breaker would trip. Thus, the overlapping between the adjacent zones is unavoidable. If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected scheme, more circuit breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the system would trip. A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in this region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers does not occur frequently. HV Switchgear protection Tete? sensor protection '— EHV Switchgear protection EHV Switchgear protection Fig. 1.1 Zones of protection10 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.8 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION It has already been explained that a power system is divided into various zones for its protection. There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty element. The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason, the primary relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault as a second line of defence. The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various elements, as mentioned in Table 1.3. The probability of failures is shown against each item. The reliability of protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design, installation and maintenance of the relays, circuit breakers, trip mechanisms, ac and de wiring, etc. a very high degree of reliability can be achieved. The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might cause primary relays to fail. A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary relay sufficient time to operate, When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system is disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different station. Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be located in such a way that it does not employ components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common with the primary relays which are to be backed up. There are three types of back-up relays: (i) Remote back-up (ii) Relay back-up (iii) Breaker back-up Table 1.3 Percentage failure rate of various equipment Name of Equipment % of Total Failures Relays 44 Circuit breaker interrupters 14 AC wiring 12 Breaker trip mechanisms 8 Current transformers DC wiring VE Breaker auxiliary switches Breaker tripcoils Hs wwwur DC supply 1.8.1 Remote Back-up When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire primary protective scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT and other elements, in case of a failure of the primary protective scheme. It is the cheapest andIntroduction 14 the simplest form of back-up protection and is a widely used back-up protection for transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that it will not fail due to the factors causing the failure of the primary protection, 1.8.2. Relay Back-up This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this opera- tion takes place without delay. Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recom- mended where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays, principles of operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable. They should be supplied from separate current and potential transformers. 1.8.3 Breaker Back-up ‘This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protec- tive relay operates in response to a fault but the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault is treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised. ' 1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows: (i) Selectivity or discrimination (ii) Reliability (iii) Sensitivity (iv) Stability (v) Fast operation 1.9.1 Selectivity or Discrimination Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able to discriminate between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also, it should be able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No healthy part of the system should be deprived of electric supply and hence should be left intact. The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient conditions like power surges or inrush of a transformer’s magnetising current. The magnetising current of a large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which may be 5 to 7 times the full load current. When generators of two interconnected power plants lose synchronism because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through the equipment and lines. This condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy cur- rents is known as a power surge. The protective relay should be able to distinguish between a fault or power surge either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of12 Power System Protection and Switchgear an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see that a protective relay must be able to discriminate between those conditions for which instantaneous tripping is required and those for which no operation or a time-delay operation is required. 1.9.2 Reliability A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection. The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more ele- ments of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of reliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance and testing of the various elements of the protective system. Robustness and simplicity of the relaying equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the contact material of the relay, and the prevention of contact contamination are also very important from the reliability point of view. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is 95%. 1.9.3 Sensitivity A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate when the current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value. 1.9.4 Stability A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The con- cerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault, But the protective system will not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker. 1.9.5 Fast Operation A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the criti- cal clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism, Other points under consideration for quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage which may result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is usually one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the operating time may be more than one cycle. t 1.10 PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS When a fault occurs in a particular zone of the power system, the primary relays of that zone are expected to operate and initiate isolation of the faulty element. However, back-up relays surrounding that area are also alerted by the fault andIntroduction 13 begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping if the primary relays operate correctly. Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they do not trip. The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary relay fails to operate. Though several primary relays are employed in many protection sys- tems, but frequently only one of the relays actually initiates tripping of the circuit breaker. There may be no direct evidence regarding the other relays being in a correct operating mode. The performance of the protective relay is documented by those relays that provide direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay performance is generally clas- sified as (i) Correct operation (ii) Incorrect operation (iv) No conclusion 1.10.1 Correct Operation Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct opera- tion gives indication about (i) correct operation of atleast one of the primary relays, (ii) operation of none of the back-up relays to trip for the fault, and (iii) proper isola- tion of the trouble area in the expected time. Almost all relay operations are corrected and wanted, i.e., the operation is as per plan and programme. There are the few cases of the correct but unwanted operation. If all relays and associated equipment perform correctly when their operation is not desired or anticipated, it is called “correct but unwanted operation.” 1.10.2 Incorrect Operation A failure, a malfunction, or an unplanned or unanticipated operation of the protec- tive system results in incorrect operation of the relay. The incorrect operation of the relay can cause either incorrect isolation of an unfaulted area, or a failure to isolate a faulted area, The reasons for incorrect operation can be any one or a combination of (i) misapplication of relays, (ii) incorrect settings, (iii) personnel errors, and (iv) equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes CTs, VTS, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, station batteries, etc. 1.10.3. No Conclusion When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the tripping of the circuit breaker, but no cause of operation can be found, it is the case of ‘no conclu- sion’. Neither any evidence of a power system fault or trouble, nor apparent failure of the equipment, causes and extremely frustrating situation. Thus the cases of no conclusion involves considerable concern and thorough investigation. It is suspected that many of the cases of ‘no conclusion’ may be the result of personnel involvement which is not reported. Modern oscillographs and data-recording equipment which are being used nowaday in many power systems often provide direct evidence or clues regarding the problem, as well as indicating possibilities that could not have occurred,14 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on the technology used for their construction, their speed of operation, their generation of development, function, etc., and will be discussed in more details in the following chapters. 1.41.1 Classification of Protective Relays Based on Technology Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three categories, depend- ing on the technology they use for their construction and operation. (i) Electromechanical relays (ii) Static relays (iii) Numerical relays Electromechanical Relays Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories, i.e., (i) electro- magnetic relays, and (ii) thermal relays. Electromagnetic relays work on the princi- ple of either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Thermal relays utilise the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for their operation. First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the principle of electromagnetic attraction were developed. These relays were called attracted armature-type electro- magnetic relays. This type of relay operates through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or through a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger type elec- tromagnetic relays are used for instantaneous units for detecting over current or over- voltage conditions. Attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as de. Initially attracted armature-type relays were called elec- tromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation, and hence work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a cer- tain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since both attracted armature and induction type electromagnetic relays oper- ate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays. The term ‘electromechanical relays’ has been used to designate all the electro- magnetic relays which use cither electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction principle for their operation and thermal relays which operate as a result of electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Sometimes both the terms, L.e., electromagnetic relays and electromechanical relays are used in parallel. Static Relays Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diodes and other electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied toIntroduction 15 either a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay which finally closes the contact. A static relay containing a slave relay is a semi-static relay. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess the advantages of having low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact trouble, long life and less maintenance. Static relays have proved to be superior to electromechanical relays and they are being used for the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. Yet they have not completely replaced electromechanical relays. Static relays are treated as an addi- tion to the family of relays. Electromechanical relays continue to be in use because of their simplicity and low cost. Their maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel tained in solid state devices. Numerical Relays Numerical relays are the latest development in this area, These relays acquire the sequential samples of the ac quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the data acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an algorithm to cal- culate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. Numerical relays have been developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware technology. They are based on numerical (digital) devices, ¢.g., microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc. At present microprocessor/ microcontroller-based numerical relays are widely used. These relays use different relaying algorithms to process the acquired information. Microprocessor/micro- controller-based relays are called numerical relays specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically. The term ‘digital relay’ was originally used to designate a previous-generation relay with analog measurement circuits and digital coincidence time measurement (angle measurement) using microprocessors. Now a days the term ‘numerical relay’ is widely used in place of ‘digital relay’. Sometimes, both terms are used in parallel. Similarly, the term ‘numerical protection’ is widely used in place of ‘digital protection’. Sometimes both these terms are also used in parallel. The present downward trend in the cost of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits has encouraged wide application of numerical relays for the protection of modern complex power networks. Economical, powerful and sophisticated numeri- cal devices (e.g., microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs, etc) are available today because of tremendous advancement in computer hardware technology. Various effi- cient and fast relaying algorithms which form a part of the software and are used 10 process the acquired information are also available today. Hence, there is a growing trend to develop and use numerical relays for the protection of various components of the modern complex power system. Numerical relaying has become a viable alter- native to the traditional relaying systems employing electromechanical and static relays. Intelligent numerical relays using artificial Intelligence techniques such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are presently under active research and development stage. The main features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking capability, multiple functions, low bur- den on instruments transformers and improved performance over conventional relays of electromechanical and static types.16 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.11.2 Classification of Protective Relays Based on Speed of Operation Protective relays can be generally classified by their speed of operation as follows: (i) Instantaneous relays (ii) Time-delay relays (iii) High-speed relays (iv) Ultra high-speed relays Instantaneous Relays In these relays, no intentional time delay is introduced to slow down their response. These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made. Time-delay Relays In these relays, an intentional time delay is introduced between the relay decision time and the initiation of the trip action. High-speed Relays These relays operate in less than a specified time. The specified time in present prac- tice is 60 milliseconds (3 cycles on a 50 Hz system). Ultra High-speed Relays Though this term is not included in the relay standard but these relays are commonly considered to operate within 5 milliseconds. 1.11.3 Classification of Protective Relays Based on their Generation of Development Relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on generation of their development. (i) First-generation relays: Electromechanical relays (i) (iii) Third-generation relays: Numerical relays. ‘econd-generation relays: Static relays 1.11.4 Classification of Protective Relays Based on their Function Protective relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on the duty they are required to perform: (i) Overcurrent relays (ii) Undervoltage relays (iii) Impedance relays (iv) Underfrequency relays (v) Directional relays These are some important relays. Many other relays specifying their duty they perform can be put under this type of classification. The duty which a relay performs is evident from its name. For example, an overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds a certain limit, an impedance relay measures the line impedance between the relay location and the point of fault and operates if the point of fault lies within the protected section. Directional relays check whether the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse direction. The above relays may be electromechanical, static or numerical.Introduction 17 1.11.5 Classification of Protective Relays as Comparators Protective relays are basically comparators which must be able to carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication or division of some scalar or some phasor quantities and make comparisons of the input quantities as desired. Based upon this principle, the protective relays can be classified as comparators into the following categories. (i) Single-input comparator (ii) Dual-input comparator (iii) Multi-input comparator Single-input Comparator These relays have only one input signal and are also known as level detectors. Such relays continuously monitor one electrical quantity and compare it with certain con- stant quantity, i.e., a reference or a base quantity which may be the pull of a spring or gravitational force. An example of this type of relay is an over current relay which measures the current of a circuit and compares it with a certain preset value of the reference or base quantities. Though these relays are simple in construction and oper- ation, they have several drawbacks such as (i) they are non-directional, (ii) they are not reliable because their action depends upon a single quantity, and (iii) they fail to attain the desired reliability. Dual-input Comparator These relays have two input signals. Such relays measure one quantity and compare it with another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are distance relays and differential relays. The distance relay measures the current entering the circuit and compares it in magnitude or in phase angle with the local bus voltage. The differential relay measures the current entering the circuit and compares it with the current leaving the circuit at the other end. Dual-input comparators are of two types, i.e., amplitude comparator and phase comparator. The amplitude comparator com- pares only the amplitude of the two input signals irrespective of phase angle between them, whereas the phase comparator compares only the phase angle between the two input signals irrespective of their magnitudes. There is duality between amplitude and phase comparators, i.e., an amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator and vice-versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified. The modified input quantities are the sum and difference of the original two input quanti- ties, These relays have several advantages and wide applications. Multi-input Comparator Multi-input comparators have more than two input signals and are used for the relaisation of special characteristics other than straight lines or circle. These compar- ators are also of two types, ie., (i) multi-input phase comparator, and (ii) multi-input amplitude comparator. Multi-input phase comparator is used for realisation of quadrilateral characteristic whereas multi-input amplitude comparator is used for realisation of conic characteristics such as elliptical or hyperbolic characteristics.18 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.12 COMPONENTS OF A PROTECTION SYSTEM A protection system consists of ct CB Line many other subsystems which con- Bus bar . tribute to the detection and removal of faults. As shown in Fig. 1.2, the pee main subsystems of the protection tI —_ system are the transducers, relays, Typecolt |, circuit breakers and trip circuit con- | Inport taining trip coil and battery. Relay |__|) The transducers, i.e., the current Battery and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs) are used to reduce currents and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high voltages of the power system. They constitute a major component of the protection system, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Protective relays detect and locate the fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker (CB) to disconnect the faulty element. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit (i.e., the line in this case), the relay connected to the CT and VT actuates and closes its contacts to complete the trip circuit. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening operation to disconnect the faulty element. Fig. 1.2. Components of aprotection system A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying fora specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit condition such as those of short circuits, i.e., faults. It is used to isolate the faulty part of the power system under abnormal conditions. A protective relay detects abnormal conditions and sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker. A circuit breaker has two contacts—a fixed contact and a moving contact. Under normal conditions, these two contacts remain in closed position. When the circuit breaker is required to isolate the faulty part, the moving contact moves to interrupt the circuit. On the separation of the contacts, the flow of current is interrupted, resulting in the formation of an are between the contacts. The medium in which circuit interruption is performed is designated by a suitable prefix, such as oil circuit breaker, air-break circuit breaker, air blast circuit breaker, sulphure hexafluoride circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker. Since the primary function of a protection system is to remoye a fault, the abil- ity to trip a circuit breaker through a relay must not be compromised during a fault, when the ac voltage available at the substation may not be of sufficient magnitude. In case of a close-in three-phase fault, the ac voltage at the substation can be zero. Therefore the tripping power, as well as the power required by the relays cannot be obtained from the ac system, and is usually provided by the station battery. The battery which is permanently connected through a charger to the station ac service floats on the charger during normal steady-state conditions. The charger is of a sufficient VA capacity to provide all steady-state loads powered by the battery. The battery should also be rated to maintain adequate de power for 8-12 hours following a station blackout. For better reliability EHV stations have duplicate batteries, cachIntroduction 19 feeding from its charger, and connected to its own complement of relays. Since the severe transients produced by the electromechanical relays on the battery loads dur- ing their operation may cause maloperation of other sensitive relays in the substation, or may even damage them, it is common practice, as far as practicable, to separate electromechanical and static equipment by connecting them to different batteries. 1.13 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES A protective scheme is used to protect an equipment or a section of the line. It includes one or more relays of the same or different types. The following are the most common protective schemes which are usually used for the protection of a modern power system, (i) Overcurrent protection (ii) Distance protection (iii) Carrier-current protection (iv) Differential protection 1.13.1 Overcurrent Protection This scheme of protection is used for the protection of distribution lines, large motors, equipment, ete. It includes one or more overcurrent relays, An overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value. 1.13.2 Distance Protection Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub-transmission lines; usually 33 kV, 66 kV and 132 kV lines. It includes a number of distance relays of the same or different types. A distance relay measures the distance between the relay location and the point of fault in terms of impedance, reactance, etc. The relay operates if the point of fault lies within the protected section of the line. There are various kinds of distance relays. The important types are impedance, reactance and mho type. An impedance relay measure the line impedance between the fault point and relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance, and a mho relay measures acomponent of admittance. 1.13.3. Carrier-Current Protection This scheme of protection is used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines, gener- ally 132 kV and above. A carrier signal in the range of 50-500 ke/s is generated for the purpose. A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line to be protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is transmitted from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on the information, relays placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not trip in case of external faults. The relays are of distance type and their tripping opera- tion is controlled by the carrier signal. 113.4 Differential Protection This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators, transformers, motors of very large size, bus zones, etc. CTs are placed on both sides of each20 Power System Protection and Switchgear winding of a machine. The outputs of their secondaries are applied to the relay coils. The relay compares the current entering a machine winding and leaving the same. Under normal conditions or during any external fault, the current entering the wind- ing is equal to the current leaving the winding. But in the case of an internal fault on the winding, these are not equal. This difference in the current actuates the relay. Thus, the relay operates for internal faults and remains inoperative under normal conditions or during external faults. In case of bus zone protection, CTs are placed on the both sides of the bus bar. I 1.14 AUTOMATIC RECLOSING 1 About 90% of faults on overhead lines are of transient nature. Transient faults are caused by lightning or external bodies falling on the lines. Such faults are always associated with arcs. If the line is disconnected from the system for a short time, the are is extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately after this, the circuit breaker can be reclosed automatically to restore the supply. Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning. Flashover across insulators takes place due to overvoltages caused by lightning and exists fora short time. Hence, only on instantaneous reclosure is used in the case of EHV lines. There is no need for more than one reclosure for such a situation. For EHV lines, one reclosure in 12 cycles is recommended. A fast reclosure is desired from the stability point of view. More details have been given in Ch. 6. On lines up 33 kV, most faults are caused by external objects such as tree branches, etc. falling on the overhead lines. This is due to the fact that the support height is less than that of the trees. The external objects may not be burnt clear at the first reclosure and may require additional reclosures. Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds’ intervals are made to clear the fault. Statistical reports show that over 80% faults are cleared after the first reclosure, 10% require the second reclosure and 2% need the third reclosure, while the remaining 8% are permanent faults. If the fault is not cleared after 3 reclosures, it indicates that the fault is of permanent nature. Automatic reclosure are not used on cables as the breakdown of insulation in cables causes a permanent fault. 1.15 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTs) t FOR PROTECTION 1 Current transformers (CTs) are used to obtain reduced current signals from the power systems for the purpose of measurement, control and protection. They reduce the heavy currents of the power system to lower values that are suitable for the opera- tion of relays and other instruments connected to their secondary windings. Besides reducing the current levels, CTs also isolate the relays and instruments circuits from the primary circuit which is a high voltage power circuit and allow the use of standardized current ratings for relays and meters, The current ratings of the second- ary windings of the CTs have been standardized so that a degree of interchange- ability among relays and meters of different manufacturers can be achieved. Since the standard current ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs are 5 or 1 ampereIntroduction 21 the protective relays also have the same current rating. The current transformers are designed to withstand fault currents (which may be as high as 50 times the full load current) for a few seconds. Protective relays require reasonably accurate reproduc- tion of the normal and abnormal conditions in the power system for correct sens- ing and operation. Hence the current transformers should be able to provide current signals to the relays which are faithful reproductions of the primary currents. The measure of a current transformer performance is its ability to accurately reproduce the primary current in secondary. The requirements of CTs used for relaying are quite different from those of meter- ing (CTs for measuring instruments). CTs used for instrumentation are required to be accurate over the normal working range of currents, whereas CTs used for relaying are required to give a correct ratio up to several times the rated primary current. The CTs used for metering may have very significant errors during fault conditions, when the currents may be several times their normal value for a very short time. Since metering functions are not required during faults, this is not significant. CTs used for relaying are designed to have small errors during fault conditions, whereas their performance during normal steady state condition, when the relay is not required to operate, may not be as accurate. The accuracy of a current transformer is expressed in terms of the departure of its ratio form its true ratio. This is called the ratio error, and is expressed as: NI,~ 1, Percent error = || « 100 where, N=Nominal CT ratio __ Rated primary current ~ Rated secondary current Number of secondary turns © Number of primary tums 1, = Secondary current, and 1, = Primary current The ratio error of a CT depends on its exciting current. Current transformers are of electromagnetic, opto-electronic and Rogowski coil types. The electromagnetic type CTs which are magnetically coupled, multi-winding transformers can be classified into two categories: toroidal or bar primary CTs and wound primary CTs. Toroidal or bar-primary-type CTs, donot contain a primary winding and instead a straight conductor, (wire) which is a part of the power system and carries the current, acts as the primary. The conductor (wire) that carries the cur- rents is encircled by a ring-type iron core on which the secondary winding is wound over the entire periphery. Wound-type CTs consist of a primary winding of fewer turns wound on the iron core and inserted in series with the conductor that carries the measured-current. An opto-electronic or optical CT uses two light beams travelling through an opti- cal fiber to measure the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor, which22 Power System Protection and Switchgear gives a measure of the current flowing in the conductor. The phase displacement between the two beams is proportional to the level of current in the conductor. The Rogowski Coil (RC) is a helical coil of wire with the lead from one end returning through the centre of the coil to the other end, so that both are at the same end of the coil. The whole assembly is then wrapped around the straight conduc- tor whose current is to be measured. Since the voltage that is induced in the coil is proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of current in the conductor, the output of the Rogowski coil is usually connected to an electrical (or electronic) integrator circuit to provide an output signal that is proportional to the current. Current transformers are described in detail in Chapter 3. 1.16 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VTs) Voltage transformers (VTs) were previously known as potential transformers (PTs). They are used to reduce the power system voltages to lower values and to provide isolation between the high-voltage power network and the relays and other instru- ments connected to their secondaries. The voltage ratings of the secondary windings of the VTs have been standardized, so that a degree of interchangeability among relays and meters of different manufacturers can be achieved, The secondary wind- ings of the voltage transformers are rated at 110 V line to line. Therefore, the voltage ratings of the voltage (pressure) coils of protective relays and measuring instruments (meters) are also 110 V line to line. The voltage transformers should be able to pro- vide voltage signals to the relays (and meters) which are faithful reproductions of the primary voltages. The accuracy of voltage transformers is expressed in terms of the departure of its ratio from its true ratio. The percentage ratio error is given by KV,-V,) Percent ratio error = x 100 v, where, K = Nominal voltage ratio Rated primary voltage Rated secondary voltage Number of primary turns ~ Number of secondary turns V, Secondary voltage, and V, = Primary voltage Ideally a VT should produce a secondary voltage which is exactly proportional and in phase opposition to the primary voltage. But, in practice, this cannot be achieved owing to the voltage drops in the primary and secondary windings due to magnitude and power factor of the secondary burden. Thus, ratio and phase angle errors are introduced.Introduction 23 There are three types of voltage transformers: (i) electromagnetic type, (ii) capacitor type, and (iii) opto-electronic type. The electro magnetic type of VT is similar to a conventional wound type transformer with addi- tional feature to minimise errors. This type of VT is conveniently used for voltages up to 132 KV. Capacitor-type voltage transformer has a capacitance voltage divider and is used at higher system voltages, i.e., 132 KV and above. This type of voltage transformer is also known as Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCV). In an opto-electronic VT, a circular polarized light beam traveling through a fibre optic up the column is used to determine the voltage difference between the conductor and the ground. This type of voltage transformer is also known as electronic voltage transformer. The voltage transformers (VTs) are described in detail in Chapter 3. 1.17. BASIC RELAY TERMINOLOGY I Relay: A relay i indirectly controlled (opened or closed) and is governed by a change in the same or another electrical circuit. an automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit is Protective relay: A protective relay is an automatic device which detects an abnor- mal condition in an electrical circuit and causes a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty clement of the system. In some cases it may give an alarm or visible indication to alert operator. Operating force or torque: A force or torque which tends to close the contacts of the relay. Restraining force or torque: A force or torque which opposes the operating force/ torque. Actuating quantity: An electrical quantity (current, voltage, etc) to which relay responds. Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.) above which the relay operates. Reset on drop-out (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.) below which the relay is de-energised and returns to its normal position or state. Consider a situation where a relay has closed its contacts and the actuating current is still flowing. Now, due to some reason, the abnormal condition is over and the current starts decreasing. At some maximum value of the current the contacts will start opening. This condition is called reset or drop-out. The maximum value of the actuating quantity below which contacts are opened is called the reset or drop-out value. Operating time: Ii is the time which elapses from the instant at which the actuating quantity exceeds the relays pick-up value to the instant at which the relay closes its contacts. Reset time: [t is the time which elapses from the moment the actuating quantity falls below its reset value to the instant when the relay comes back to its normal (initial) position.24 Power System Protection and Switchgear Setting: The value of the actuating quantity at which the relay is set to operate. Seal-in relay: This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energised by the contacts of the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with those of the main relay and is designed to relieve the contacts of the main relay from their current carrying duty. It remains in the circuit until the circuit breaker trips. The seal-in contacts are usually heavier than those of the main relay. Reinforcing relay: This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energised from the con- tacts of the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with those of the main relay and it is also designed to relieve the main relay contacts from their current carrying duty, The difference between a reinforcing relay and a seal-in relay is that the latter is designed to remain in the circuit till the circuit breaker operates. But this is not so with the reinforcing relay. The reinforcing relay is used to hold a signal from the initiating relay (main relay) for a longer period. As the contacts of the main relay are not robust, they are closed for a short time. Back-up relay: A back-up relay operates after a slight delay, if the main relay fails to operate. Back-up protection: The back-up protection is designed to clear the fault if the primary protection fails. It acts as a second line of defence. Primary protection: If a fault occurs, itis the duty of the primary protective scheme to clear the fault. It acts as a first line of defence. If it fails, the back-up protection clears the fault. Measuring relay: It is the main protective relay of the protective scheme, to which energising quantities are applied. It performs measurements to detect abnormal con- ditions in the system to be protected. Auxiliary relays: Auxiliary relays assist protective relays. They repeat the opera- tions of protective relays, control switches, etc. They relieve the protective relays of duties like tripping, time lag, sounding and alarm, etc. They may be instantaneous or may have a time delay. Electromagnetic relay: A relay which operates on the electromagnetic principle, ie., an electromagnet attracts magnetic moving parts (e.g.,) plunger type moving iron type, attracted armature type). Such a relay operates principally by action of an electromagnetic element which is energized by the input quantity. Electromachanical relay: An electrical relay in which the designed response is developed by the relative movement of mechanical elements under the action of a current in the input circuit. Such relay operates by physical movement of mechanical parts resulting from electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Electrodynamic relay: A relay which has two or more coils and- operates due to interaction of fluxes produced by the individual coils Ferrodynamic relay: A relay in which the electrodynamic action is reinforced by pieces of ferromagnetic material placed in the path of magnetic lines of force. Static relays: These are solid state relays and employ semiconductor diodes, tran- sistors, thyristors, logic gates, ICs, etc. The measuring circuit is a static circuit and there are no moving parts. In some static relays, a slave relay which is a de potarised relay is used as the tripping device.Introduction 25 Analog relay: An analog relay is that in which the measured quantities are con- verted into lower voltage but similar signals, which are then combined or compared directly to reference values in level detectors to produce the desired output. Digital relay: A digital relay is that in which the measured ac quantities are manipu- lated in analog form and subsequently converted into either square-wave voltages or digital form. Logic circuits or microprocessors compare either the phase relation- ships of the square waves or the magnitudes of the quantities in digital form to make atrip decision. Numerical relay: A numerical relay is that in which the measured ac quanti- ties are sequentially sampled and converted into numerical (digital) data form. A microprocessor or a microcontroller processes the data numerically (i.e., performs mathematical and/or logical operations on the data) using an algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. Microprocessor-based relay: A microprocessor is used to perform all functions of a relay, It measures electrical quantities, makes comparisons, performs computa- tions, and sends tripping signals. It can realise all sorts of relaying characteristics, even irregular curves which cannot be reslised by electromechanical or static relays easily. Microcontroller-based relay: A microcontroller is used for performing all the function of the relay. It measures the electrical quantities by acquiring them in digital form through a data acquisition system, makes comparisons, processes the digital data to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. It can realise all sorts of relaying characteristics. DSP-based relay: A Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is used to perform all the func- tions of a relay. FPGA-based relay: A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is used to perform all the functions of a relay. It acquires the signals, processes them to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. ANN-based relay: An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is used for processing the relaying signals (current and voltage signals) and making trip decisions. Overcurrent relay: A relay which operates when the actuating current exceeds a certain preset value (its pick-up value). Undervoltage relay: A relay which operates when the system voltage falls below a certain preset value. Directional or reverse power relay: A directional relay is able to detect whether the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse direction with respect to the relay loca- tion. It is able to sense the direction of power flow, i.e. whether the power is flowing in the normal direction or the reverse direction. Polarised relay: A relay whose operation depends on the direction of current or voltage. Flag or target: Flag i: operated or not. Time-lag relay: A time-lag relay operates after a certain preset time lag. The time lag may be due to its inherent design feature or may be due to the presence of a time- a device which gives visual indication whether a relay has26 Power System Protection and Switchgear delay component. Such relays are used in protection schemes as a means of time discrimination. They are frequently used in control and alarm schemes. Instantaneous relay: An instantaneous relay has no intentional time delay in its operation. It operates in 0.1 second. Sometimes the terms high set or high speed relays are also used for the relays which have operating times less than 0.1 second. Inverse time relay: A relay in which the operating time is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the operating current. Definite time relay: A relay in which the operating time is independent of the mag- nitude of the actuating current. San inverse Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay: A relay which gi time characteristic at lower values of the operating current and definite time char: teristic at higher values of the operating current. Induction relay: A relay which operates on the principle of induction. Examples are induction disc relays, induction cup relays etc. Moving coil relay: This type of a relay has a permanent magnet and a moving coil. It is also called a permanent magnet d.c. moving coil relay. The actuating current flows in the moving coil. Moving iron relay: This is a de polarised, moving iron type relay. There is an elec- tromagnet, permanent magnet and a moving armature in its construction. Printed disc relay: This relay operates on the principle of a dynamometer. There is a permanent magnet or an electromagnet and a printed disc. Direct current is fed to the printed circuit of the disc. Thermal relay: This relay utilises the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for its operation. Distance relay: A relay which measures impedance or a component of the imped- ance at the relay location is known as a distance relay. It is used for the protection ofa transmission line. As the impedance of a line is proportional to the length of the line, arelay which measures impedance or its component is called a distance relay. Impedance relay: A relay which measures impedance at the relay location is called an impedance relay. It is a kind of a distance relay. Modifie pedance relay: [tis an impedance relay having shifted characteris The voltage coil includes some current biasing. Reactance relay: A relay which measures reactance at the relay location is called a reactance relay. It is a kind of a distance relay. MHO relay (admittance or angle admittance): This is a kind of a distance relay. It measures a particular component of the impedance, i.e. where dis the Z cos (@— 6)" power factor angle and @ is the design angle to shift MHO characteristic on the R-X diagram. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a circle passing through the origin. It is a directional relay. It is also known as an admittance or angle admittance relay. Conduction relay: This is a MHO relay whose diameter (passing through the ori- gin) lies on the R-ayIntroduction 27 Offset MHO characteristic: In an offset MHO relay, the MHO characteristic is shifted on the R-X diagram to include the origin. Angle impedance relay (ohm relay): The characteristic of this relay on the R-X diagram is a straight line passing at an angle and cutting both the axes. It is a kind of a distance relay and is also called an Ohm relay. Flliptical relay: The characteristic of an elliptical relay on the R-X diagram is an ellipse. This is also a kind of a distance relay. Quadrilateral relay: The characteristic of a quadrilateral relay on the R-X diagram is a quadrilateral. This too is a kind of a distance relay. Frequency sensitive relay: This is a relay which operates at a predetermined value of the system frequency. It may be an under-frequency relay or an over-frequency relay. An under-frequency relay operates when the system frequency falls below a certain value. An oyer-frequency relay will operate when the system frequency exceeds a certain preset value of the frequency. Differential relay: A relay which operate in response to the difference of two actu- ating quantities. Earth fault relay: A relay used for the protection of an element of a power system against earth faults is known as an earth fault relay. Phase fault relay: A relay used for the protection of an element of a power system against phase faults is called a phase fault relay. Negative sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the negative sequence current. When the negative sequence current exceeds a certain value, the relay operates. This type of a relay is used to protect electrical machines against overheating due to unbalanced currents. Zero sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the zero sequence current. This type of a relay is used for earth fault protection. Starting relay or fault detector: This is a relay which detects abnormal conditions and initiates the operation of other elements of the protective scheme. Notching relay: A relay which switches in response to a specific number of applied impulses is called a notching relay, Regulating relay: A regulating relay is activated when an operating parameter devi- ates from predetermined limits. This relay functions through supplementary equip- ment to restore the quantity to the prescribed limits. Monitoring relay: A monitoring relay verifies conditions on the power system or in the protection system. This relay includes fault detectors, alarm units, channel-mon- itoring relays, synchronism verification, and network phasing. Power system condi- tions that do not involve opening circuit breakers during faults can be monitored by monitoring (verification) relays. Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relay: This relay assures that proper con- ditions exist for interconnecting two sections of power system. Biased relay: A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some quantity other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the actuating quantity. The setting of this relay is modified by additional windings the amount of bias being dependent upon conditions in the protected circuit.28 Power System Protection and Switchgear Primary relay: A relay which is directly connected to the protected circuit without interposing instrument transformers or shunt. Secondary relay: A relay connected to the protected circuit through current and voltage transformers. Sequential relay: A relay which instantaneously transfers its contact position from a particular combination of ‘off’ and ‘on’ position to another combination, every time it picks up or drops off, according to a predetermined programme which may or may not be adjustable and repetitive Indicating relay: A measuring or auxiliary relay which displays a signal on energisation Reclosing relay: This relay establishes a closing sequence for a circuit breaker fol- lowing wipping by protective relays. Supervisory relay: A measuring relay or a combination of measuring and auxiliary relays in a unit with a definite purpose of supervision. Change over relay: An auxiliary relay with two positions either of which cannot be designated as ‘on’ and ‘off’ but which transfers the contact circuits from one con- nection to the other. ‘Two-step relay: A relay with two sets of contacts, one of them operates at a cer- tain value of the characteristic quantity and the other after a further change of the quantity. Current unbalance relay: This relay operates when the currents in a polyphase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount. Voltage unbalanced relay: This relay operates when the voltages in a poly phase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount. Ferraris relay: This relay moves by the interaction of the magnetic field of a coil and the currents induced in a metal body (disc or cup) Protective zone: A power system is divided into a number of zones from the pro- tection point of view. Each element of the power system has a separate protective scheme for its protection. The elements which come under a protective scheme are said to be in the zone of protection of that particular scheme. Similarly, a protective relay has its own zone of protection. Reach: This term is mostly used in connection with distance relays. A distance relay operates when the impedance (or a component of the impedance) as seen by the relay is less than a preset value. This preset impedance (or a component of impedance) or corresponding distance is called the reach of the relay. In other words, it is the maxi- mum length of the line up to which the relay can protect. Overreach: Sometimes a relay may operate even when a fault point is beyond its present reach (ice. its protected length). Underreach: Sometimes a relay may fail to operate even when the fault point is within its reach, but it is at the far end of the protected line. This phenomenon is called underreach. Selectivity or discrimination: It is the ability of a relay to discriminate between faulty conditions and normal conditions (or between a fault within the protected section and outside the protected section). In other words, it is the quality of theIntroduction 29 protective system by which it distinguishes between those conditions for which it should operate and those for which it should not. Reliability: A protective relay must operate reliably when a fault occurs. The reli- ability of a protective relay should be very high, a typical value being 95%. Sensitivity: A protective relay should be sensitive enough to operate when the mag- nitude of the actuating quantity exceeds its pick-up value. Stability: This is the ability of the protective system to remain inoperative under all load conditions, and also in case of external faults. The relay should remain stable when a heavy current due to an external fault is flowing through it. Fast operation: A protective relay should be fast enough to cause the isolation of the faulty section as quickly as possible to minimise the damage and to maintain the stability. Burden: The power consumed by the relay circuitry at the rated current is known as its burden. Blocking: The prevention of tripping of the relay is called blocking. It may be due to the operation of an additional relay or due to its own characteristic. Energizing quantity: The electrical quantity, i.e., either current or voltage, which alone or in combination with other electrical quantities, must be applied to the relay for its functioning. Characteristic quantity: A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay for example, current for an overcurrent relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a directional relay, time for an independent time delay relay, imped- ance for an impedance relay, frequency for a frequency relay. Characteristic angle: The angle between the phasors representing two of the ener- gizing quantities applied to a relay and used for the declaration of the performance of the relay. System Impedance Ratio (SIR): The ratio of the power system source impedance to the impedance of the protected zone. Characteristic Impedance Ratio (CIR): The maximum value of the system imped- ance ratio up to which the relay performance remains within the prescribed limits of accuracy. Power swing: Oscillation between groups of synchronous machines caused by an abrupt change in load conditions. Through fault current: The current flowing through a protected zone to a fault beyond that zone. Unit system of protection: A unit system of protection is one which is able to detect and respond to faults occurring only within its own zone of protection. It is said to have absolute discrimination. Its zone of protection is well defined. It does not respond to the faults occurring beyond its own zone of protection. Examples of unit protection are differential protection of alternators, transformers or bus bars, frame leakage protection, pilot wire and carrier current protection. Non-unit system of protection: A non-unit system of protection does not have absolute discrimination (selectivity). It has dependent or relative discrimination. The discrimination is obtained by time grading, current grading or a combination of30 Power System Protection and Switchgear current and time grading of the relays of several zones. In this situation, all relays may respond to a given fault. Examples of non-unit system of protection are dis- tance protection and time graded, current graded or both time and current graded protection. Restricted earth fault protection: This is an English term which may be misunder- stood in other countries. It is used in the context of transformer or alternator. It refers to the differential protection of transformers or alternators against ground faults. It is called restricted because its zone of protection is restricted only to the winding of the alternator or transformer. The scheme responds to the faults occurring within its zone of protection. It does not respond to faults beyond its zone of protection. Unrestricted protection: A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of operation and which achieves selective operation only by time grading. Protective gear or equipment: It includes transducers (CTs and VTs), protective relays, circuit breakers and ancillary equipment to be used ina protective system. Protective system: It is a combination of Protective gear equipment to secure isolation of the faulty element under predetermined conditions, usually abnormal or to give an alarm signal or both, Protective scheme: A protective scheme may consist of several protective systems. It is designed to protect one or more elements of a power system. Residual current: It is the algebraic sum of all currents in a multiphase system. It is denoted by /,,,. In a 3-phase system J, = 1, + Ig + Io ‘Transducers or instrument transformers: Current and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs) are collectively known as transducers or instrument transformers. They are used to reduce currents and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective relays and measuring instruments from the high voltages of the power system. Switchgear: It is a general term covering switching and interrupting devices and their combination with associated control, metering, protective and regulating devices, also assemblies of these devices with associated inter-connections, accesso- ries, enclosures and supporting structures used primarily in connection with genera- tion, transmission, distribution, and conversion of electric power. Circuit breaker: It is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying fora specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit. The medium in which circuit interruption is performed may be designated by suitable prefix, such as, oil-circuit breaker, air- blast circuit breaker, air-break circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker, etc. Adaptive relaying: Adaptive relaying is defined as the protection system whose settings can be changed automatically so that it is attuned to the prevailing power system conditions. Pilot wire: An auxiliary conductor used in connection with remote measuring devices or for operating apparatus at a distant point. Pilot protection: A form of line protection that uses a communication channel as a means to compare electrical conditions at the terminals of a line.Introduction 31 Pilot wire protection: Pilot protection in which a metallic circuit is used for the communicating means between relays at the circuit terminals. EXERCISES 10. ll. 14. 15. 16. 17. . Explain the nature and causes of faults. Discuss the consequences of faults ‘on a power system. What are the different types of faults? Which type of fault is most dangerous? Discuss briefly the role of protective relays in a modern power system. What do you understand by a zone of protection? Discuss various zones of protection for a modern power system. . Explain what you understand by primary and back-up protection. What is the role of back-up protection? What are the various methods of providing back-up protection? Explain what you understand by pick-up and reset value of the actuating quantity. Discuss what you understand by selectivity and stability of protective relay. Discuss the essential qualities of a protective relay. How is the relay performance classified? What indication the correct opera- tion of the relay gives? What do you mean by “correct but unwanted opera- tion”? What do you understand by incorrect operation of the protective relay? What are the reasons of incorrect operation? Discuss the classification of protective relays based on their speed of opera- tion. 2. Differentiate between a digital relay and a numerical relay. 3. What is a numerical relay? Discuss its advantages over conventional relays of electromechanical and static types. How can an intelligent numerical relay be developed. What are the various components of a protection system? Briefly describe their functions with the help of an schematic diagram. Differentiate between a protective system and a protective scheme. What do you understand by adaptive relaying? How can a relay be made adaptive? Briefly describe the following types of relay. (i) Monitoring relay (ii) Regulating relay (iii) Auxiliary relay (iv) Synchroniz- ing relay, and (v) Biased relay.Relay Construction and Operating Principles ' 2.1 INTRODUCTION ' The proper operation of the power system requires an efficient, reliable and fast- acting protection scheme, which basically consists of protective relays and switching devices. A protective relay, acting as a brain behind the whole system, senses the fault, locates it, and sends a command to appropriate circuit breaker to i late only the faulty section, thus keeping the rest of the healthy system functional. It detects abnormal conditions on a power system by constantly monitoring the electrical quan- tities of the system, which are different under normal and abnormal (fault) conditions. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change during abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase angle (direction) and frequency. Protective relays utilize one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system. The basic relay circuit is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. There are two ways in which the circuit breaker trip coil is energized. In one method, the station battery is used 10 supply the current in the trip coil after the relay contacts are closed by the operation of the relay. In the second method, as soon as the relay operates, the CT secondary current flows through the trip coil and energizes it. This method does not require a station battery and it is used for the protection of feeders. Bus bar 3-6 Line [ Station battery ‘oon Laua 4 e007 VT, (OD) CB- Circuit breaker CT- Current transiormer VT- Voltage transformer CC- Current coil of the relay VC- Voltage coil of the relay Fig. 2.1 Relay connectionRelay Construction and Operating Principles 33 Protective relays are broadly classified into the following three categories depending on the technologies they use for their construction and operation. (i) Electromechanical relays (ii) Static relays (iii) Numerical relays There are various types of protective relays in each category, depending on the operating principle and application. I 2.2. ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS 1 Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. The mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part which closes the contacts of the relay for its operation. The operation of the contact arrangement is used for relaying the operated condition to the desired circuit in order to achieve the required function. Since the mechanical force is generated due to the flow of an electric current, the term ‘electromechanical relay” is used. Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or electro- magnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays are called electromag- netic relays. Depending on the principle of operation, the electromagnetic relays are of two types, i.e., (i) attracted armature relays, and (ii) induction relays. Some electromechanical relays also use electrothermic principle for their operation and are based upon the forces created by expansion of metals caused by temperature rise due to flow of current. Such relays are called thermal relays. Most of the present day electromechanical relays are of either induction disc type or induction cup type. The following are the principal types of electromechanical relays: 1. Electromagnetic relays (i) Attracted armature relays, and (ii) Induction relays 2. Thermal relays 2.2.1 Attracted Armature Relays Attracted armature relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as de. These relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid. All these relays use the same electromagnetic attraction principle for their operation. The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element, i.c., the armature or plunger, is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. In de relays this force is constant. In case of ac relays, the total electromagnetic force pulsates at double the frequency. The motion of the moving element is controlled by an opposing force generally due to gravity or a spring. The following are the different types of construction of attracted armature relays. (i) Hinged armature type (ii) Plunger type34 Power System Protection and Switchgear (iii) Balanced beam type (iv) Moving-coil type (v) Polarised moving-iron type (vi) Reed type Hinged Armature-Type Relays Figure 2.2(a) shows a hinged armature-type construction. The coil is energised by an operating quantity proportional to the system current or voltage. The operating quantity produces a magnetic flux which in turn produces an electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic force is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. The attractive force increases as the armature approaches the pole of the electromagnet. This type of a relay is used for the protection of small machines, equipment, etc. It is also used for auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags, slave relays, alarm relays, annunciators, semaphores, etc. ees To trip circuit To trip circuit Electromagnet I 7 Coll | Gi / Armature R rmature heal (a) (b) Fig. 2.2 (a) Hinged armature-type relay (b) Modified hinged armature-type relay The actuating quantity of the relay may be either ac or de. In de relay, the electro- magnetic force of attraction is constant. In the case of ac relays, sinusoidal current flows through the coil and hence the force of attraction is given by F=KP=K Una max ~ !max sin of)? = ; K (Bog. — Egg C08 201) From the above expression, it is evident that the electromagnetic force consists of two components. One component is constant and is equal to 2 K Pe The other component is time dependent and pulsates at double the frequency of the applied ac quantity. Its magnitude is % K P,,, cos 2et. The total force is a double frequency pulsating force. This may cause the armature to vibrate at double the frequency. Consequently, the relay produces a humming sound and becomes noisy. This difficulty can be overcome by making the pole of the electromagnet of shaded construction. Alternatively, the electromagnet may be provided with two coils. One coil is energised with the actuating quantity. The other coil gets its supply through a phase shifting circuit.Relay Construction and Operating Principles 35 The restraining force is provided by a spring. The reset to pick-up ratio for attracted armature type relays is 0.5 to 0.9. For this type of a relay, the ratio for ac relays is higher as compared to de relays. The VA burden is low, which is 0.08 W at pick-up for the relay with one contact, 0.2 W for the relay with four contacts. The relay is an instantaneous relay. The operating speed is very high. Fora modern relay, the operation time is about 5 ms. It is faster than the induction disc and cup type relays. Attracted armature relays are compact, robust and reliable. They are aifected by transients as they are fast and operate on both de and ac. The fault current contains a dc component in the beginning for a few cycles. Due to the presence of de transient, the relay may operate though the steady state value of the fault current may be less than its pick-up. A modified construction as shown in Fig. 2.2(b) reduces the effect of de transients. Plunger-Type Relays Figure 2.3 shows a plunger-type relay. In this type of a relay, there is a solenoid Solenoid and an iron plunger which moves in and out of the solenoid to make and break the Plunger contact. The movement of the plunger Fcontacts is controlled by a spring. This type of construction has however become obsolete + Spring as it draws more current. Fig. 2.3 Plunger-type relay Balanced Beam Relays eo) Manseriypersiay Figure 2.4 shows a balanced beam relay which is also a kind of attracted armature type relay. As its name indicates, it consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets at its ends. One gives operating torque while the other retraining torque. The beam is supported at the middle and it remains horizontal under normal conditions. When the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, an armature fitted at one end of the beam is pulled and its contacts are closed. Though now obsolete, this type of a relay was popular in the past for constructing impedance and differential relays. It has been superseded by rectifier bridge comparators and permanent magnet moving coil relays. The beam type relay is robust and fast in operation, usually requiring only I cycle, but is not accurate as it is affected by de transients. Armature Control spring / i Z rea aconacts Pivote I, 1, Iz Operating current J; Restraining current Fig. 2.4 Balanced beam relay36 Power System Protection and Switchgear Moving Coil Relays Figure 2.5 shows a permanent magnet mov- ing coil relay. It is also called a polarised de moving coil relay. It responds to only de actu- contest’ ating quantities. It can be used with ac actuat- if msg ing quantities in conjunction with rectifiers. contact f Fixed Moving coil relays are most sensitivity type electromagnetic relays. Modern relays have a sensitivity of 0.1 mW. These relays are cost- 4 lier than induction cup or moving iron type perrranent relays. The VA burden of moving coil relays magnet is very small. These are used as slave relays with rectifier bridge comparators. There are two types of moving coil relays: rotary moving coil and axially moving coil type. The rotary moving coil type is similar to a moving coil indicating instru- ment. Figure 2.5 shows a rotary moving coil type construction. The components are: a permanent magnet, a coil wound on a non-magnetic former, an iron core, a phosphor bronze spiral spring to provide resetting torque, jewelled bearing, spindle, etc. The moving coil assembly carries an arm which closes the contact. Damping is provided by an aluminum former. The operating time is about 2 cycles. A copper former can be used for heavier damping and slower operation. The operating torque is produced owing to the interaction between the field of the permanent magnet and that of the coil. The operating torque is proprtional to the current carried by the coil. The torque exerted by the spring is proportional to deflection. The relay has an inverse operating time/current characteristic. Fig. 2.5 Rotating moving coil relays Figure 2.6 shows an axially moving coil | -———___ arp csi type construction. As this type has only one 4 air gap, it is more sensitive than the rotary ee moving coil relay. It is faster than the es | Berke rotary moving coil relay because of light SEE circuit parts. An operating time of the order of 30 msec can be obtained. Sensitivities as low as 0.1 mW can be obtained. Its coils are wound ona cylindrical former which is suspended horizontally. The coil has only axial movement. The relay has an inverse operating time/current characteristic. The axially moving coil relay is a delicate relay and since the contact gap is small, it has to be handled carefully. Fig. 2.6 Axial moving coil relay Polarised Moving Iron Relays Figure 2.7 shows a typical polarised moving iron relay. There are different types of constructions of this type (see Ref. 1). The construction shown in the figure is a flux shifting attracted armature type construction. Polarisation increases the sensitivity of the relay. A permanent magnet is used for polarisation. The permanent magnet produces flux in addition to the main flux. It is a de polarised relay, meant to beRelay Construction and Operating Principles 37 used with de only. However, it can be To tip ~~ used with ac with rectifiers. Modern — *ireuit relays have sensitivities in the range of 0.03 to ImW, depending on their con- struction. Using transistor amplifiers, arelay’s sensitivity can be increased to 1 UW for pick-up. It is used as a slave N 3 Ee relay with rectifier bridge comparators As its current carrying coil is stationary, Fig. 2.7 Polarised moving iron relay it is more robust than the moving coil type de polarised relay. Its operating time is 2 msec to 15 msec depending upon the type of construction. An ordinary attracted armature type relay is not sensitive to the polarity of the actuating quantity whereas a de polarised relay will only operate when the input is of the correct polarity. Reed Relays A reed relay consists of a coil and nickel-iron strips Coil : Seal (reeds) sealed in a closed glass capsule, as shown (eed : ooccoc0¢000000000 in Fig. 2.8. The coil surrounds the reed contact. gugoneoosssccueeS: When the coil is energised, a magnetic field is produced which causes the reeds to come together and close the contact. Reed relays are very reliable and are maintenance free. As far as their construc- uid : Reed Contact tion is concerned, they are electromagnetic relays. opening But from the service point of view, they serve as static relays. They are used for control and other purposes. They can also be used as a protective relays. They are quite suitable to be used as slave relays. Their input requirement is | W to 3 W and they have speed of 1 or 2 msec. They are completely bounce free and are more suitable for normally-closed applications. Heavy duty reed relays can close contacts carrying 2 kW at 30 A maxi- mum current or at a maximum of 300 V de supply. The voltage withstand capacity for the insulation between the coil and contacts is about 2 kV. The open contacts can withstand 500 V to 1 kV. Fig. 2.8 Reed relay 2.2.2 Induction Relays Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Their principle of operation is same as that of a single-phase induction motor. Hence they can be used for ac currents only. Two types of construction of these Relays are fairly standard: one with an induction disc and the other with an induction cup. In both types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor. There is one contrast from the induction motor, i.e., the iron associ- ated with the rotor in the relay is stationary. The moving clement acts as a carrier of rotor currents, whereas the magnetic circuit is completed through stationary magnetic elements. Two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the moving element may turn are required for the operation of induction-type relays. In order to produce an operating torque, the two fluxes must have a phase difference between them.38 Power System Protection and Switchgear Induction Disc Relay There are two types of construction of induction disc relays, namely the shaded pole type, as shown in Fig. 2.9; and watt hour meter type, as shown in Fig. 2.10. Figure 2.9(a) shows a simple theoretical figure, whereas Fig. 2.9(b) shows the construction which is actually used in practice. The rotating disc is made of alu- minium. In the shaded pole type construction, a C-shaped electromagnet is used. One half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band know as the shading ring. The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in space and time with respect to the flux produced by the unshaded portion of the pole. Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and produce eddy currents in it. Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy current produced by the other flux. The resultant torque causes the disc to rotate. Shading ring joe (OP N Brake i ieee magnet 4 (a) Simple construction Plug setting | {51 $F a (PS) Brake | magnet (b) Construction in practice Fig. 2.9 Shaded pole type induction disc relay In wattmetric type of construction, two electromagnets are used: upper and lower one. Each magnet produces an alternating flux which cuts the disc. To obtain a phase displacement between two fluxes produced by upper and lower electromagnets, their coils may be energised by two different sources. If they are energised by the same ances and reactances of the two circuits are made different so that there will be sufficient phase difference between the two fluxes. source, the resi Induction disc type construction is robust and reliable. It is used for overcurrent protection, Disc type units gives an inverse time current characteristic and are slowRelay Construction and Operating Principles 39 compared to the induction cup and attracted armature type relays. The induction disc type is used for slow-speed relays. Its operating time is adjustable and is employed where a time-delay is required. Its reset/pick-up ratio is high, above 95% because its operation does not involve any change in the air gap. The VA burden depends on its application, and is generally of the order of 2.5 VA. The torque is proportional to the square of the actuating current if single actuating quantity is used. SE og ots 9 1 Relay coil MM Secondary coil | ——— N nee iy bs 5 To trip circuit Fig. 2.10 Wattmetric type induction-disc relay A spring is used to supply the resetting torque. A permanent magnet is employed to produce eddy current braking to the disc. The magnets should remain stable with age so that its accuracy will not be affected. Magnets of high coercive force are used for the purpose. The braking torque is proportional to the speed of the disc. When the operating current exceeds pick-up value, driving torque is produced and the disc accelerates to a speed where the braking torque balances the driving torque. The disc rotates at a speed proportional to the driving torque. It rotates at a constant speed for a given current. The disc inertia should be as small as possible, so that it should stop rotating as soon as the fault current disap- pears when circuit breaker operates at any other location or fault current is for a short moment (i.e. transient in nature). After the cessation of the fault current, the disc will travel to some distance due to inertia. This distance should be minimum. It is called the over-run of the disc. A brake magnet is used to minimise over-run. The over-run is usually not more than 2 cycles on the interruption of a current which is 20 times the current setting. At a current below pick-up value, the disc remains stationary by the tension of the contro! spring acting against the normal direction of disc rotation. The disc rests40 Power System Protection and Switchgear against a backstop. The position of the backstop is adjustable and therefore, the dis- tance by which the moving contact of the relay travels before it closes contacts, can be varied. The distance of travel is adjusted for the time setting of the relay. The rotor (disc) carries an arm which is attached to its spindle. The spindle is supported by jewelled bearings. The arm bridges the relay contacts. In earlier constructions, there were two contacts which were bridged when the relay operated. In modern units however, there is a single contact with a flexible lead-in. Current Setting In disc type units, there are a number of tapping provided on coil to select the desired pick-up value of the current. These tapping are shown in Fig. 2.10. This will be discussed in the next chapter. Time Setting The distance which the disc travels before it closes the relay contact can be adjusted by adjusting the position of the backstop. If the backstop is advanced in the normal direction of rotation, the distance of travel is reduced, resulting in a shorter operating time of the relay. More details on time-setting will be discussed in the next chapter. Printed Disc Relay Figure 2.11 shows the construction of a printed disc inverse time relay. Its operating principle is the same as that of a dynamometer type instrument. Torque oh S\ %—___—_] Fig. 2.11 Printed disc inverse time relay GE There is a permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field. The current from the CT is fed to the printed disc through a rectifier. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is developed, thereby a torque is exerted on it. On this very principle, torque is produced in a printed disc relay. Figure 2.12 shows the construction of a printed disc extremely inverse time relay (Pt = K relay). To obtain Pr = K characteristic, an electromagnet and a printed dise are used. The electromagnet is energised from the CT through a rectifier. Printed disc relays give a much more accurate time characteristic. They are also very efficient. A printed disc relay is 50 to100 times more efficient than the inductionRelay Construction and Operating Principles 41 disc type. The maximum efficiency that an induction disc relay can have is only about 0.05%, which is extremely poor. Characteristics other than inverse time- current characteristic can be obtained by including a non-linear network in between the printed circuit of the disc and the rectified current input. Fig. 2.12 Printed disc extremely inverse time relay Induction Cup Relay Figure 2.13 shows an induction cup relay. A stationary iron core is placed inside the rotating cup to decrease the air gap with- out increasing inertia. The spindle of the cup carries an arm which closes contacts. A spring is employed to provide a reset- ting torque. When two actuating quantities are applied, one may produce an operat- ing torque while the other may produce restraining torque. Brake magnets are not used with induction cup type relays. It operates on the same principle as that of an induction motor. It employs a 4 or 8-pole structure. Rotor Stationary core Fig. 2.13. Induction cup relay The rotor is a hollow cylinder (inverted cup). Two pairs of coils, as shown in the figure, produce a rotating field which induces current in the rotor. A torque is pro- duced due to the interaction between the rotating flux and the induced current, which causes rotation. The inertia of the cup is much less than that of a disc. The magnetic system is more efficient and hence the magnetic leakage in the magnetic circuit is minimum. This type of a magnetic system also reduces the resistance of the induced current path in the rotor. Due to the low weight of the rotor and efficient magnetic tem its torque per VA is about three times that of an induction disc type construc- tion. Thus, its VA burden is greatly reduced. It possesses high sensitivity, high speed42 Power System Protection and Switchgear and produces a steady non-vibrating torque. Its parasitic torques due to current or voltage alone are small. Its operating time is to the order of 0.01 second. Thus with its high torque/inertia ratio, it is quite suitable for higher speeds of operation. Magnetic saturation can be avoided by proper design and the relay can be made to have its characteristics linear and accurate over a wide range with very high reset to pick-up ratio. The pick-up and reset values are close together. Thus this type is best suited where normal and abnormal conditions are very close together. It is inherently self compensating for dc transients. In other words, it is less sensitive to dc transients. The other system transients as well as transients associated with CTs and relay cir- cuits can also be minimised by proper design. However, the magnitude of the torque is affected by the variation in the system frequency. Induction cup type relays were widely used for distance and directional relays. Later, however, they were replaced by bridge rectifier type static relays. Theory of Induction Relay Torque Fluxes @, and @, are produced in a disc type construction by shading technique. In watt-metric type construction, @, is produced by the upper magnet and @, by the lower magnet. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the lower magnet by trans- former action. The current flowing in this coil produces flux @5. In case of the cup type construction, @, and @, are produced by pairs of coils, as shown in Fig. 2.13. The theory given below is true for both disc type and cup type induction relays. Figure 2.14 shows how force is produced in a rotor which is cut by @; and @). These fluxes are alternating quantities and can be expressed as follows. 9; = Mm Sin oF 2 = Pry, Sin (@t + A) where @ is the phase difference between 6, and 95. The flux @, leads $, by 0. Voltages induced in the rotor are: a9, Clade & Dj, COS OF do, ey “dt Fig. 2.14 Torque produced in an %& Po, COS (WI + O) induction relay As the path of eddy currents in the rotor has negligible self-inductance, with negli- gible error it may be assumed that the induced eddy currents in the rotor are in phase with their voltages. i, © O_ COS Ot iy © Gym COS (Cot + 0) The current produced by the flux interacts with other flux and vice versa. The forces produced are: Fre ob Gy», SiN OF yy, COS (Ct + B) %€ Dim Grn, COS (WF + 6) - sin wrRelay Construction and Operating Principles 43 Fre bi ce ds, Sin (@t + B) + @,,,, COS Ot % Bim Pr Sin (@t + @) + cos cot As these forces are in opposition, the resultant force is F=(F,-F;) c by, 92, [Sin (@t + A) cos @t— cos (@t + 8) - sin of] Pim Prm Sin O ‘The suffix m is usually dropped and the expression is written in the form of F = K6, @, sin @. In this expression, @, and @, are rms values. If the same current produces @, and @, the force produced is given by F=KPsin@ where @ is the angle between @, and @). If two actuating currants M and N produce @, and ¢,, the force produced is F = KMN sin @ 2.2.3. Thermal Relays These relays utilise the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for their opera- tion. They are widely used for the protection of small motors against overloading and unbalanced currents. The thermal element is a bimetallic strip, usually wound into a spiral to obtain a greater length, resulting in a greater sensitivity. A bimetallic element consists of two metal strips of different coefficients of thermal expansion, joined together. When it heats up one strip expands more than the other. This results in the bending of the bimetallic strip. The thermal element can be heated directly by passing the actuating current through the strip, but usually a heater coil is employed. When the bimetallic element heats up, it bends and deflects, thereby closing the relay contacts. For the ambient temperature compensation, a dummy bimetallic clement shielded from the heater coil and designed to oppose the bending of the main bimetallic strip is employed. When the strip is in a spiral form, the unequal expansions of the two metals causes the unwinding of the spiral, which results in the closure of the contacts. Fig. 2.15(a) shows a simple arrangement to indicate the operating principle. Figure 2.15(b) shows a spiral form. Unimetallic strips are also used as thermal elements in ahair-pin like shape, as shown in Fig, 2.15(c). When the strip gets heated it expands and closes the contac For the protection of 3-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are used. They are energised by currents from the three phases. Their contacts are arranged in such a way that if any one of the spirals moves differently from the other, due to an unbal- ance exceeding |2%, their contacts meet and cause the circuit breakers to trip. These spirals also protect the motor against overloading. Thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors are also used in protection. In the protection of a large generator, such elements are placed in the stator slots. The element forms an arm of a balancing bridge. In normal condition, the bridge is balanced. When the temperature exceeds a certain limit, the bridge becomes unbal- anced. The out-of-balance current energises a relay which trips a circuit breaker. This will be discussed in detail in the chapter dealing with protection of machines.44 Power System Protection and Switchgear To trip 5 irouit » To trip J 5 eireuit TELE Bimetallic | — strip Pee coi (a) (b) To trip _ [eat i Heating —_Unimetallic element strip (o) Fig. 2.15 (a) Bimetallic thermal relay (b) Bimetallic spiral type thermal relay (c) Unimetallic thermal relay 2.2.4 Auxiliary Relay, Auxiliary Switch and Flag A protective relay is assisted by auxiliary relays for a number of important opera- tions. A protective relay performs the task of measurement and under the required condition, it closes its contacts. It is relieved of other duties such as tripping, time lag, breaking of trip circuit current, giving alarm, showing flags etc. These duties are performed by auxiliary relays. Auxiliary relays repeat the operations of protective relays, control switches, etc. Repeat contact and auxiliary switches are also used to assist protective relays. The reasons for employing auxiliary relays, repeat contactors and auxiliary switches are: (i) Protective relay contacts are delicate and light in weight. They are not capable of carrying large amount of current for a long period. (ii) The protective relays do not have enough contacts to perform all duties re- quired in a protective scheme. The commonly used auxiliary relays have been described below. Seal-in Relay A seal-in relay is an auxiliary relay which is employed to protect the contacts of a protective relay. Once the protective relay closes its contacts, the seal-in relay is energized. Its contacts bypass the contacts of the protective relay, close and seal the circuit while the tripping current flows. It may also give an indication by showing a flag (target), It is an instantaneous relay, operates on attracted armature principle. Time-lag Relays Time-lag relays operate after a preset time-lag. They are used in protection schemes as a means of time discrimination, for example, time graded schemes which will beRelay Construction and Operating Principles 45 discussed in Chapter 5. They are also used in control and alarm circuits to allow time for the required sequence of operations to take place. The principle of producing time delays will be discussed later (see sec. 2.2.6). Alarm Relays An alarm relay gives both an audible and a visual indication. At a substation, it is sufficient to provide a trip alarm and one non-trip alarm, which is common to the whole substation. In the control room of a generating station, the trip alarm and non- trip alarm should be separate for each primary circuit. There is an arrangement for alarm cancellation by pressing a button. The alarm circuit is interrupted on pushing this button, When the relay is de-energised, the initiating contact of the cancellation mechanism is reset so that it can receive another alarm. Repeat Contactors A repeat contactor repeats the operation of a protective relay. It is sometimes needed because a protective relay may not have a sufficient number of contacts. It may also be required to take over the operation from the initiating relay if the contacts of the latter are not designed for carrying current for long periods. Its most important requirements are that it should be fast and absolutely reliable. It should also be robust and compact. It is usually mounted in the same case as the relay for which it is required to repeat the operation. Repeat contactors operate on the attracted armature principle. It may be connected either in series or in parallel with the relay. It contains a number of contacts which are placed in parallel. However, having more than three contacts in parallel is usually not pratical. Flag or Target When a relay operates, a flag is indicated to show its operation. When on a relay panel there are several relays, it is the flag that indicates, the relay that has operated. This helps the operator to know the cause of the tripping of the circuit breaker. Iti also called the target or indicator. Its coil is connected in series with the trip coil of the circuit breaker, as shown in Fig. 2.16. The resetting of a flag indicator is usually manual. There is a button or knob outside the relay case to reset the flag indicator. A flag indicator may either be electrical or mechanical. In a mechanical flag indicator, the movement of the armature of the relay pushes a small shutter to expose the flag. In an electrically operated flag indicator there is a solenoid which is energised when relay contacts are closed. Electrical flags being more reliable are preferred. Auxiliary Switch An auxiliary switch is connected in series with the trip-coil circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.16. It is mechanically interlocked with the operating mechanism of the circuit breaker so that the auxiliary switch opens when the circuit breaker opens. The open- ing of the auxiliary switch prevents unnecessary drainage of the battery. When the trip-coil of the circuit breaker is energised, it actuates a mechanism of the circuit breaker, which causes the operating force to come into action to open the circuit breaker.46 Power System Protection and Switchgear 2.2.5 Connections for Seal-in Relay, Auxiliary Switch and Circuit Breaker Trip-Coil Figure 2.16(a) shows the connection fora seal-in relay, circuit breaker trip-coil and auxiliary switch. In order to protect the contacts of the protective relay, a seal-in relay is employed. Its contacts bypass the contacts of the protective relay and seal the circuit closed, while the tripping current flows. Some relays employ a simple hold- ing coil in series with the relay contacts, as shown in Fig. 2.16(b). The holding coil is wound on a small soft iron core which acts on a small armature on the moving- contacts assembly to hold the contacts tightly closed, once they have established the flow of current through the trip coil. The holding coils are used to protect the relay contacts against damage which may be caused due to the make and break action of the contacts + + Sealin== == Protective-relay Protective-relay relay —— contact contact contact Flag Fleg Seal-.in relay coil Holding coil Circuit breaker Circuit breaker trip coil trip coil Circuit breaker {, Circuit breaker auxiliary switch fF auxiliary switch ~00000 92009 90000 —| (a) (b) 2.16 Circuit breaker trip coil circuit (a) With seal-in relay (b) With holding coil 2.2.6 Techniques to Produce Time-delays Sometimes, a protective relay is required to operate after a preset time delay. Intentional time delays are necessary for such relays. The intentional time delay may be caused by inherent design features of the relay or by a delay producing component of the relay. Sometimes, a starting relay or instantaneous relay is used in conjunction with a timing relay to perform certain operations after a preset time. A time-lag relay (timing relay) is an auxiliary relay designed to operate after a preset time-delay. Mechanical Time-delay The time delay may be produced by mechanical, electrical or electronic components. Oil dashpots, pneumatic damping, toothed gears, cams, mercury switches, etc. are some examples of mechanical devices which are used to produce a time delay. In an oil dashpot, there is a mechanically operated plunger. Oil flowing through an orifice in the cylinder retards the relay movement. The pneumatic timer contains a metal chamber, a diaphragm and solenoid. These mechanical devices are crude devices and do not produce accurate delays. The mercury switch, however, gives an accurate delay. The mercury tube has two sections. One section contains mercury and the other section contains contacts. The tube is tilted so that mercury flows from oneRelay Construction and Operating Principles 47 section to the other and bridges the contacts. The flow of mercury is impeded by a construction between the two sections of the tube. The time setting is fixed by the design of the tube. It is not possible to have a range of time settings on a particular mercury switch. Toothed gears or cams are also used to produce time delay. Thermal Time-delay Thermal devices employing expansion of bimetal strip or spiral, unimetal (brass) strips, etc. are also used to produce time-delay. Electrical Time-delay Time delay can be produced by employing a short-circuiting ring around a solenoid pole; a circuit containing reactance, capacitance or non-linear resistance; a resonant circuit, etc. Short-circuiting Ring A short-circuiting copper band is fitted around the pole piece of an attracted arma- ture hinged-type relay. This arrangement provides eddy current path for damping. To obtain a time-delay on pick-up, the band is placed at the armature end of the core. By this technique, a delay of about 0.1 s can be produced in pick-up with a large arma- ture gap, and a stiff restraining spring. To obtain a delayed reset, the band is placed at the frame end of the solenoid. A delay up to 0.5 s in drop out can be obtained with a short lever arm and a light spring load. Time-delay can also be produced by employ- ing a copper tube inside the coil. Capacitance A capacitor which is connected in parallel with the relay coil is changed through a resistor, as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). A longer time-delay is obtained by this technique. A delay of up to 0.5 s can be obtained on pick-up with a capacitor of reasonable size. For ac applications, a rectifier should be included. Resonant Circuit A resonant circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.17(b) can be employed to produce a delay of up to 3 cycles. SS x fo trip circuit z To trip circuit (a) (b) Fig. 2.17 (a) Capacitor charge delay (b) Resonance build-up delay48 Power System Protection and Switchgear Ballistic Resistance This technique is based on the principle of Ta hip circuit delaying the build-up of operating voltage. This includes thermistors or filament lamps. Figure 2.17(c) shows a metal filament lamp connected across the relay coil. A resistance is also placed in the circuit as shown in the figure. The hot resistance of the lamp filament is 10 times its cold resistance. The relay coil is short-circuited by the lamp, thereby keeping the magnetic ¥ flux to zero for a short time until the filament becomes incandescent. é Alternatively, a thermistor or a carbon fila- Fig. 217. (c) Lamp filament ment can be placed in series with the relay coil. heating delay The thermistor resistance being high at room temperature limits the coil current. As the current drawn by the relay coil heats the thermistor, its resistance decreases until the relay current becomes sufficient for pick-up. ac. or d.c. Synchronous Motor A synchronous motor, geared to a reduced speed can be also used on ac to produce more precise, long time delays. Electronic Time Delay Longer time delays are obtained with R-C circuits. R-C circuits are also used with electromagnetic relays, as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). Longer time delays can be obtained with R-C circuits when used with electronic relays rather than with electromagnetic relays. This is due to the face that a smaller current is needed with electronic relays, which in turn takes longer time to charge the capacitor. Figure 2.18 shows a time-delay circuit employing a transistor. A constant de volt- age is applied to an R-C network to charge the capaci- tor C through resistor R. When the voltage of capacitor C reaches a suitable value, the transis- tor starts conducting. A realy is placed in the collector circuit. This relay oper- ates when the transistor starts conducting. The time delay depends on the value of the capacitor and the magnitude of the charging current. As Relay the charging current is small in a transistor cir- [—w—€ cuit, a delay of several minutes can be obtained with a capacitor of only few microfarads. Delays of several hours can be obtained with tantalum capacitors of a few hundred microfarads. Fig. 2.18 Static time delay circuit Counter For obtaining even more accurate time-delays, electronic counters are used. A crystal oscillator or some suitable electronic circuitry is employed to generate a train of high frequency pulses. Counters are used as frequency dividers. A number of countersRelay Construction and Operating Principles 49 may be connected in cascade and different time-lags may be obtained from different stages of the cascaded counters. 2.2.7. Bearings The pivot and jewel bearing is commonly used for precision relays. Spring-mounted jewels are used in modern relays. The design is such that shocks are taken on a shoul- der and not on a jewel. For high sensitivity and low friction, a single ball bearing between two cup-shaped sapphire jewels is used. Mulii-ball bearings provide friction as low as the jewel bearings and have greater resistance to shock. They arealso capable of combining side-thrust and end-thrust ina single bearing. Miniature bearings less than 1.6 mm in diameter are now available. Knife-edge bearings, pin bearings or resilient strips are used in hinged armature relays. 2.2.8 Backstops When the moving part of the relay is stationary, it rests against a backstop. The mate- rial of a backstop should be chosen carefully so that it should not be sticky. To avoid magnetic adherence, the material should be non-metallic. The molecular adherence can be overcome using a hard surface rounded to a large radius. Smooth backstops made of agate or nylon are used. 2.2.9 Contacts The reliability of protective relays depends on their contact performance. The follow- ing are the requirement of good contacts. (i) Low contact resistance (ii) High contact pressure (iii) Freedom from corrosion (iv) Bounce free (v) Self-clearing action (vi) Freedom from sparking (vii) Dust proof Silver is the most commonly used material for relay contacts. It has the lowest resistance. Copper is not used because of its higher resistance. Silver cadmium oxide is used where high currents are to be handled. It has low resistance like silver but does not weld or become sticky. An alloy consisting of 67% gold, 26% silver and 7% platinum is used for small currents and very light contact pressure. Non-corroding materials like gold, palladium or rhodium can be used for sensitive relays where the contact pressure needs to be very low. These materials are not recommended for protective relays where high contact pressure is required. The most reliable relay contact are cylindrical contacts at right angles, as they give the optimum high pressure, bounce-proof contacts, hard smooth contact surfaces and dust proof relay cases minimise the maintenance of protective relays.50 Power System Protection and Switchgear On silver contacts silver oxide does not form readily. Even when formed, its thickness does not exceed 10 A and hence can easily be moved aside by high pres- sure or wiping action. Humid sulphurous and high temperature atmosphere causes corrosion. In polluted atmospheres where coal fires are used, silver sulphide is formed readily, especially in the presence of heat and humidity. It is not breakable like oxides but it is soft and thus can be squeezed aside by high pressure. A thin petrolatum coat- ing can reduce corrosion of contacts without increasing their resistance. It is helpful in polluted atmospheres. A dust-proof casing is usually used for modern relays. A filter is provided at the back to trap any dust and to allow the relay to breathe. A relay with such a casing is quite suitable for a dusty or otherwise dirty atmosphere. In a relay with poor ventila- tion, particularly in a sealed relay, high resistance polymers may appear on contacts. This is due to organic emanations from the coil insulation material. All insulating materials, except teflon give off organic vapour to a certain degree. Phenolic resin gives off organic vapours more than others. Polyester and epoxide varnishes now available have good performance and are quite satisfactory for coil insulation. Relay casings with good ventilation and having dust filters minimise the collection of high resistance polymers on the contacts. Encapsulated contacts as in the case of reed relays provide the best solution to the problem. Alternatively, the relay coil can also be encapsulated. An electromechanical relay used with comparators is usually of a small rating. When such relays control auxiliary relays and timing units, they are to be protected with spark quenching circuits. A series resistor and capacitor connected across the contacts is a simple spark quenching circuit. 2.3. STATIC RELAYS In a static relay, the comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is performed by a static circuit which gives an output signal for the tripping of a circuit breaker. Most of the present day static relays include a de polarised relay as a slave relay, The slave relay is an output device and does not perform the function of comparison or measurement. It simply closes contacts. It is used because of its low cost. In a fully static relay, a thyristor is used in place of the electromagnetic slave relay. The elec- tromechanical relay used as a slave relay provides a number of output contacts at low cost. Electromagnetic multicontact tripping arrangements are much simpler than an equivalent group of thyristor circuits. A static relay (or solid state relay) employs semiconductor diodes, transistors, zener diodes, thyristors, logic gates, etc. as its components. Now-a-days, integrated circuits are being used in place of transistors. They are more reliable and compact. Earlier, induction cup units were widely used for distance and directional relays. Later these were replaced by rectifier bridge type static relays which employed de polarised relays as slave relays. Where overcurrent relays are needed, induction disc relays are in universal use throughout the world. But ultimately static relays will supersede all electromagnetic relays, except the attracted armature relays and de polarised relays as these relays can control many circuit at low costs.Relay Construction and Operating Principles 51 2.3.1. Merits and Demerits of Static Relays The advantages of static relays over electromechanical relays are as follows. (i) Low burden on CTs and VTs. The static relays consume less power and in most of the cases they draw power from the auxiliary de supply (ii) Fast response (iii) Long life (iv) High resistance to shock and vibration (v) Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings (vi) Frequent operations cause no deterioration (vii) Quick resetting and absence of overshoot (viii) Compact size (ix) Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily (x) Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained (xi) Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes The logic circuit may take decisions to operate under certain conditions and not to operate under other conditions. The demerits of static relays are as follows: (i) Static relays are temperature sensitive. Their characteristics may vary with the variation of temperature. Temperature compensation can be made by using thermistors and by using digital techniques for measurements, ete. (ii) Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients. The semiconductor components may get damaged due to voltage spikes. Filters and shielding can be used for their protection against voltage spikes. (iii) Static relays need an auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily sup- plied by a battery or a stabilized power supply. 2.3.2 Comparators When faults occur on a system, the magnitude of voltage and current and phase angle between voltage and current may change. These quantities during faulty con- ditions are different from those under healthy conditions. The static relay circuitry is designed to recognise the changes and to distinguish between healthy and faulty conditions. Either magnitudes of voltage/current (or corresponding derived quanti- ties) are compared or phase angle between voltage and current (or corresponding derived quantities) are measured by the static relay circuitry and a trip signal is sent to the circuit breaker when a fault occurs. The part of the circuitry which compares the two actuating quantities either in amplitude or phase is known as the comparator. There are two types of comparators—amplitude comparator and phase comparator. Amplitude Comparator An amplitude comparator compares the magnitudes of two input quantities, irrespec- tive of the angle between them. One of the input quantities is an operating quantity and the other a restraining quantity. When the amplitude of the operating quantity exceeds the amplitude of the restraining quantity, the relay sends a tripping signal. The actual circuits for comparators will be discussed in subsequent chapters.52 Power System Protection and Switchgear Phase Comparator A phase comparator compares two input quantities in phase angle, irrespective of their magnitudes and operates if the phase angle between them is < 90°. 2.3.3. Duality between Amplitude and Phase Comparators An amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator and vice versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified. The modified input quantities are the sum and difference of the original two input quantities. To understand this fact, consider the operation of an amplitude comparator which has two input signals M and N as shown in Fig. 2.19(a). It operates when |MI> INI. Now change the input quantities to (M + N) and (M — N) as shown in Fig. 2.19(b). As its circuit is designed for amplitude comparison, now with the changed input, it will operate when IM + M > IM — MI. This condition will be satisfied only when the phase angle between M and Nis less than 90°. This has been illustrated with the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 2.20. Itmeans that the comparator with the modified inputs has now become a phase comparator for the original input signals M and N. Mu (M+N) it Output o——+| Output Inputs Amplitude “a Inputs Amplitude pl comparator comparator N (M-N) Operates when IM + NI>IM- NI Operates when IM! > INI This condition is satisfied when 9 < 90° (a) (b) Fig. 2.19 (a) Amplitude comparator (b) Amplitude comparator used for phase comparison M-N M Man M-N M M+N ~~ S 6 \ -N @>90° N -N = 90° N Comparison: (M +N) <(M-N) Comparison: (M+ N) = (M- N) @) (b) -N 9< 90° N Comparison: (M+ N) > (M~ N) Fig. 2.20 Phasor diagram for amplitude comparator used for phase comparisonRelay Construction and Operating Principles 53 Similarly, consider a phase comparator shown in Fig. 2.21(a). It compares the phases of input signals M and N. If the phase angle between M and N, i.e. angle @ is less than 90°, the comparator operates. Now change the input, signals to (M + N) and (M - N), as in Fig. 2.21(b). With these changed inputs the comparator will operate when phase angle between (M + N) and (M — N), i.e. angle J is less than 90°. This condition will be satisfied only when [MI> INL. In other words, the phase comparator with changed inputs has now become an amplitude comparator for the original input signals M and N. This has been illustrated with phasor diagrams as shown in Fig. 2.22. M (M+N) Input | __ Phase Output Ingar | Phase Output input comparator nput comparator = N (M—N) Operates when 4 < 90° Operates when 9 < 90° This condition is satisfied when IMI > INI (a) (b) Fig. 2.21 (a) Phase comparator (b) Phase comparator used for amplitude comparison Figure 2.20 shows three phasor diagrams for an amplitude comparator. The phase angle between the original inputs Mand Nis ¢. Now the inputs to the amplitude com- parator are changed to (M + N) and (M — N) and its behaviour is examined with the help of three phasor diagrams. The three phasor diagrams are with phase angle (i) greater than 90°, (ii) equal to 90° and (iii) less than 90°, respectively. When 9 is less than 90°, IM + NI become greater than |M — Mand the relay operates with the modi- fied inputs. When @ is equal to 90° or greater than 90°, the relay does not operate. The phasor diagrams show that IM + NI becomes greater than IM — Nl only when @ is less than 90°. This will be true irrespective of the magnitude of M and N, In other words, this will be true whether [MI = INI or IMI > IMI or IMI < INI. The figures have been drawn with IM] = IMI. The reader can draw phasor diagrams with IMI < IMI or IMI > INI. The results will remain the same. This shows that with changed inputs, the amplitude comparator is converted to a phase comparator for the original inputs. Figure 2.22 shows three phasor diagrams for a phase comparator. The original inputs are M and N. Now the inputs of the phase comparators are changed to (M+ N) and (M — N), and its behavior is examined with the help of three phasor diagrams drawn for (i) IMI < IMI, (ii) IMI = INI and (iii) IMI > INI. The angle between (M + NV) and (M — N) is A. The angle A becomes less than 90° only when |MI > IMI. As the comparator under consideration is a phase comparator, the relay will tip. But for the original inputs M and N, the comparator behaves as an amplitude comparator. This will be true irrespective of the phase angle @ between M and N. The figure has been drawn with @ less than 90°. The reader can check it by drawing phasors with @ = 90° or @> 90°. The result will remain the same. 2.3.4 Types of Amplitude Comparators As the ratio of the instantaneous values of sinusoidal inputs varies during the cycle, instantaneous comparison of two inputs is not possible unless at least one of the54 Power System Protection and Switchgear N we N M 90° Comparision: 4 > 90° (a) (b) M-N_ M M+N a {Y] -N M>N Comparison: / < 90° (c) Fig. 2.22 Phase comparator used for amplitude comparison signals is rectified. There are various techniques to achieve instantaneous compari- son. In some techniques both inputs are rectified, while in some methods, only one of the inputs is rectified. When only one input signal is rectified, the rectified quantity is compared with the value of the other input at a particular moment of the cycle. Besides instantaneous (or direct) comparison, the integrating technique is also used. The amplitude comparison can be done in a number of different ways. The follow- ing are some important methods which will be described to illustrate the principle. (i) Circulating current type rectifier bridge comparators (ii) Phase splitting type comparators (iii) Sampling comparators. Rectifier Bridge Type Amplitude Comparator The rectifier bridge type comparators are widely used for the realisation of overcur- rent and distance relay characteristics. The operating and restraining quantities are rectified and then applied to a slave relay or thyristor circuit. Figure 2.23(a) shown a rectifier bridge type amplitude comparator. There are two full wave rectifiers, one for the operating quantity and the other for the restraining quantity. The outputs of these bridges are applied to a de polarised relay. When the operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity, the relay operates. Figure 2.23(b) shows a rectifier bridge type amplitude comparator with the thyristor circuit as an output device. To get more accurate results the bridge rectifier can be replaced by a precision rectifier employing an operational amplifier. The circuit for the precision rectifier has been discussed while describing microprocessor based relays.Relay Construction and Operating Principles 55 Sensitive polarised relay Se | Te 90°. Thus, the phase comparator circuit is designed to trip signal when y exceeds 90°.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Relay Construction and Operating Principles 59 Figure 2.27(d) and (e) show the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator, respectively. This situation is for y = 90° and is the limiting condition. The relay may be set to operate at y= 90°. rae Sine to e square wave converter a Inputs I h te aN PiaNe> | Imssiai' | "| detector [7 ~ Sine to e square wave Coincidence converter detector (a) ‘ (b) v Operate ’ () reset Output of coincidence (d) ~* Detector at the boundary Operate reset (e) Output of integrator (f) k—10 ms—> = Opandie ~ Reset @ 2a ~~ | Fig. 2.27 _ Integrating type phase comparator Figure 2.27(f) and (g) show the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator, respec- tively, for y< 90°. For this condition, the relay does not operate. +Veg mene | To thyristor Input Fig. 2.28 Integrating circuitaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Relay Construction and Operating Principles 63 2.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS AND NUMERICAL RELAYS Sr.No. Feature Electromechanical Relay Numerical Relay 1. Size Bigger Compact 2. Characteristics Fixed Selectable 3. Flexibility No flexibility Flexibility due to programmability. 4. Communication feature Not available Available 5. Blocking feature Not available Available 6. Self-supervision Not available Available 7. Adaptability Not adaptable Adaptable to changing system condition. 8. Multiple-functions Not possible Possible 9. Accuracy + 5% or more + 2% 10. Speed of operation Slow Fast 11. Burden on Transducers Very high Extremely low (CTs and VTs) 12. Consistancy of Deteriorate No effect on calibration even calibration with time after use of 20-25 years 13. Setting Through plug Software based settings. setting in fix steps. 14. Memory feature No memory of any Several memory features type is available. are available. 15. Maintenance Cumbersome and — Maintenance free relays frequent mainte- nance required. 16. Output relay programming Not available Available 17. Accessibility of relay Not possible Remote accessibility is from remote place available 18. Status of service values Not available Available 19. Safety of personnel Not adequate due Adequate safety is provided. to non-accessibility at remote location. 20. Spares requirement There is need to Universal designs minimise stock several items the spares requirement. as spare. 21. Upward connectivity Not possible Possible for a present or future system such as SCADA, EMS etc.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Current and Voltage Transformers 67 voltage tends to collapse. The fault current is abnormal and may be 20 to 50 times the full-load current. It may have de offset in addition to ac component. The fault current for a CT secondary of 5A rating could be 100 to 250 A. Therefore, the CT secondary having a continuous current rating of 5A should have short-time current rating of 100 to 250 A, so that the same is not damaged. Since the ac component in the fault current is of paramount importance for the relays, the protective CT should correctly reproduce it on the secondary side in spite of the de offset in the primary winding. Hence the de offset should also be considered while designing the protective CT. The protective CT should not saturate upto 20 to 50 times full-load current. 3.2.2. Core Material of CTs Figure 3.1 shows the magnetisation Characteristics of (a) cold-rolled grain-oriented silicon steel (3%), (b) hot-rolled silicon steel (4%) and (c) nickel-iron (77% Ni, 14% Fe). It is seen that the nickel-iron core has the qualities of highest permeability, low exciting current, low errors and saturation at a relatively low flux density. Measuring CTs are required to give a high accuracy for all load currents up to 125% of the rated current. Nickel-iron gives a good accuracy up to 5 times the rated current and hence, it is quite a suitable core material for CTs used for meters and instruments. The excessive currents being fed to instruments and meters are prevented during faults on power system due to almost absolute saturation at relatively low flux density. Cold-rolled grain-oriented silicon steel (3%), which has a high permeability, high saturation level, reasonably small exciting current and low errors is used for the core of the CTs used for protective relays. Such core material has reasonably good accu- racy up to 10-15 times the rated current, but when we consider currents that are five times under the rated current, the core material made from nickel-iron alloy fares batter. +— Cold-rolled silicon steel a / Hot-rolled silicon steel ae L — High-nickel steel 0 1 2 3 Exciting Force (Atiem) —> & Flux density B,,,, (Wb/m*) ° & Fig. 3.1 Magnetisation characteristics of CT cores Hot-rolled silicon steel has the lowest permeability. So it is not suitable for CTs. In order to achieve the desired characteristics, composite cores made of laminations of two or more materials are also used in CTs.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Current and Voltage Transformers 71 (xiv) Rated primary saturation current The maximum value of primary current at which the required accuracy is maintained (xy) Rated saturation factor The ratio of rated primary saturation current to rated primary current. 3.2.5 Theory of Current Transformers Conventional electromagnetic current transformers (CTs) are single primary and single secondary magnetically coupled transformers. Hence, their performance can be analysed from and equivalent circuit commonly used in the analysis of transform- ers. The equivalent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side is shown in Fig. 3.3. It is convenient to put the exiting shunt circuit on the secondary side and to refer all quantities to that side, so that / denotes the primary current referred to the secondary side. The exciting current J, is deducted from /, to excite the core and induce voltage E, which circulates current /,. Fig. 3.3 Equivalent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side An ideal (perfect) transformer shown in Fig. 3.3 is to provide the necessary ratio change, it has no loss or impedance. All the quantities are referred to the secondary side. In an ideal CT, the primary ampere-turns (AT) is exactly equal in magnitude to the secondary AT and is in precise phase opposition to it. But in practical (actual) CTs errors are introduced both in magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are known as ratio error and phase angle error. The exciting current Jy is the main source of these errors. Practical CTs do not reproduce the primary currents exactly in mag- nitude and phase due to these errors. The errors of practical CTs can best be considered through the study of the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.4 In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.3 and phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4, N= Nominal (rated) transformation ratio or Nominal (rated) CT ratio _ Rated primary current _ Number of secondary turns ~ Rated secondary current Number of primary turns R,, X, = Primary resistance and leakage reactance respectively. R, and X, = secondary resistance and leakage reactance R, and X;, = Primary resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the secondary sideaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Current and Voltage Transformers 75 Ratio Error (Current Error) The actual transformation ratio (N,) is not equal to the rated (nominal) transforma- tion ratio (N) since the primary current is contributed by the exciting current. The error introduced due to this difference in CT ratios is termed as ratio error or current error. The ratio error in percentage is expressed as Nominal ratio — Actual ratio Per cent ratio error = ————_——_——————— x 100 Actual ratio =x 100 N-1/l, or Per cent ratio error = ——— x 100 7M, or Per cent ratio error = —>— x 100 (3.14) B Where N = Nominal (rated) ratio Rated primary current ~ Rated secondary current Number of secondary turns Number of primary turns N,, = Actual ratio I, = Primary Current 1, = Secondary current 1, can be calculated by using Equation (3.7) and N, by using Equation (3.9) or (B.10) The ratio error is largely dependant upon the value of the iron-loss component I, of the exciting current. The ratio error is considered to be positive when the actual ratio of the CT is less than the nominal ratio, i.e., when the secondary current, for a given primary current, is high. Phase-Angle Error For a perfect (ideal) current transformer, the phase difference between the primary and reversed secondary phasors is zero. But for an actual transformer, there is always a difference in phase between the two phasors due to the fact that primary current has to supply the components of the exciting current. The phase difference between the primary current phasor and the reversed secondary current phasor is termed as the ‘phase-angle error’ of the CT. For sinusoidal current, it is said to be positive when the reversed secondary current phasor leads the primary current phasor. The phase angle error Bcan be calculated by using Equation (3.12) or (3.13). The phase-angle error is largely dependant upon the value of the magnetizing component /,, of the exciting current.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Current and Voltage Transformers 79 ZL --( Ne (3.21) For the transient component of i,, and integrating from f= 0 to r= © R, tel ‘ dt 0 i On = (x) Dies 1 a D ZL, x, _ [2s tom) [Ap 7) = | eS Z| (3.22) Therefore, the component of the core flux due to the transient component of the fault current is X,/R, times the component of the core flux due to the steady-state component of the fault current. Considering the worst case of a fault near a large power station, X,/R, could be as high as 30, corresponding to a primary-circuit time constant of L,/Rp =0.1 s, or about 5 cycles. Assuming that the two fluxes can be added numerically (the worst case), the total core flux is equal to the steady-state component multiplied by the factor (*) nfl, 14{[—)e14 =14+2, R R, e a 7 where 7, is the primary circuit time-constant in cycles. The flux waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.6 Total flux. Transient component Flux ——> Steady-state component 1 2 3 4 5 Cycles ——» Fig. 3.6 CT core fluxes during transient period The value of XJR, increa with the system voltage because of the increased spacing of the conductors. The component of the core flux due to transient de off- set Current increases X,/R, times the flux due to the symmetrical (steady-state) acaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Current and Voltage Transformers 83 Fig. 3.8 (a) Left polarized beam (b) Right polarized beam Opto-electronic CTs generate two jin- oe i early polarized light beams by sending light / | then to a polarization splitter, and finally to an optical phase modulator. The two lin- to a polarizing retaining optical fiber that (a) (b) takes them to the “sensing head”. A circular larly polarized beam and the other to a right circularly polarized beam, as shown in Fig The circular polarized beams travel around the phase conductor many times. While encircling the conductor, the magnetic field induced by the current flow- beams due to the Faraday effect. As a result of this, one beam is accelerated and the other beam is decelerated. After having gone around the conductor many times, the result, the right polarized beam becomes a left polarized beam and the left polarized beam becomes a right polarized beam. The beams travel back around the conductor ated beam and further decelerates the decelerated beam. The polarizer changes the circular polarizations to linear polarization. decelerated. In this case, the returning beams are in phase as shown in Fig, 3.9(a). When there is a current in the conductor, the acceleration of one beam and decelera- Fig. 3.9(b). The two light beams are finally routed to the optical detector where the electron- light beams is proportional to current in the conductor. An analog or digital signal representing the current is provided by the electronics to the end user. currents with significant de offsets without any type of saturation, as is understood with conventional electromag- through a waveguide to a linear polarizer, ) \ early polarized light beams are then applied ae polarizer converts one beam to a left circu- 3.8(a) and (b). ing in the conductor creates a differential optical phase shift between the two light beams are reflected by a mirror. The reflection changes the polarization, and as a towards the polarizer. The travel on the return path further accelerates the acceler- When there is no current in the conductor, the beams are neither accelerated nor tion of the other beam manifests in a phase shift between the two beams as shown in ics de-modulate them to determine the phase shift. The phase shift between the two Opto-electronic CTs provide a reliable method of measuring very high fault netic CTs. 3.2.13. Rogowski Coil A Rogowski Coil, named after Walter Rogowski, is an. ‘air- cored’ toroidal coil of wire used for measuring alternating current (ac) or high frequency current pulses. It is the mod- (a) (b) ern current sensor. It consists Fig. 3-9 (a) Beams in phase (b) Acceration of one BE A ORUGALSCBUNGE WHS With beam and deceleration of the other beam