: : : COLUMBIA STUDIES IN THE CLASSICAL TRADITION WILLIAM Y. HARRIS (ai EUGENE F. RICE, JAMES A COULTER + RICHARD BRILLIANT VOLUME XX THE CULT OF SILVANUS A Study in Roman Folk Religion PRTER F. DORCEY il 1TH today AG AN6, OT fa ei Nevsduises a a 350 toft gk Las y ta 3% ala. teal Ihe Brahe tebeats 0 Bj. BRI LEIDEN + NEW YORK + KOLN vee fey ansThe publication of this work was aided by the Staowood Cockey Lodge Foundation, ‘ary of Congr Patton Date “Bot ova aly in Roma ak son by Pee oietiwast TeSteara (oman de)—Cal Romeo le and © Cog 192 by Te Te f ati Cry He pf a Yk Ayre Mat of it sk a Me ped nn fry pl me og ar ma ate alpen oe er For John Rundin se leet ar mt ot acer Sle et a em coeCONTENTS Prete ‘Abbreviations Taoauetion 1. Origins ofthe Cul 1. Religlous Characteristics and Fonesons 1, Founes, Pa and the Sivinne 1. Iuerrstto Romana V. Cubic Sucre and Organization VL. The Worshippers VU Conclusion YL. Epilogue Essential Bibliography List of Appendices : Appeadix I Literary Referones to Sivan, “Appendix TH: Corpus Tescrptonam dei Siant ‘Appendix I: Epis. Appenix IV: Dated Inscriptions Appendix Sitvans Gems Appendix VI: A Christin Afterlife ‘Addendum Index List of Maps ist of Paes x Beserule is 7 151 13 154 219 181 vitPREFACE ‘This Sout is rovsion of my doctoral daseration submited 0 the Deparment of Histery at Columbia University in 1987. The present ‘version inelndesadonlepiraphicandzchuotepcl éstaon Silvana, 4nd considers tim mor carefully inthe broader coment of Roman ‘vate religion, The iiial stages of research were funded by the Inte of imensional Edocaton loresearchin aly ding 1983-1986) andthe Whiting Foundation (or wring and etn daring 1986-1987 owe special thanks Silvio Panctraof he Universi i Roma or allowing me to view hs nots andiascrpios tht hen the process Of publsting, Profesor Panciem’s advice and suggestions have been Invaluable. Fam also indebted to William V. Har, Roger 8. Bagnall, Pater Knox, Richard Billows, and Richard Brilliant for tee belt dle and ees sil hie say was being prepared in grade School. Jean-Jacques Aubert, Christoph Clairmont and Ellen Schraudolph-Gauier have helped wit specific tpi vested in this study. Christine Renaud and Pasquale Pesce were instometal n ¢- ranging permission to photograph the Silvanus Todo on the Asch of Constantine. 2h Randin Kindly lent me hs computer on numerous ‘occasions ane provided ocolet eit snd ibliogrphic astistence Profesor Harris end the anonymous reader fo thi monograph series ‘hve both command onthe fina ersion ofthe manescrp, sbving me ffom a umber of embarassing ets. Of couse lai soe espa Sibi for any misiakas which may remain, ‘Filly, woaldalb ik oreconize he encouragement nd suppoxt that Ihave received from my fnends Pale Anweao, Paolo Bescii, Bam Lapidus, Daane Aten, Michae! Ruso,Lavzeace Gibbons, Waren ‘Tavis a Barbara Trou, and my parents, Nancy and John Dorey. Following tis preface, have includes 3 ist of aBoroviations for Journals not found tn L'Axnde Phisioique an for frequent eit ‘books ane atte. PRD. ty 25, 1991 14520 15th Sst San Francisco, Califia 94114" ABBREVIATIONS sctes dmc ret ‘cleat Fee eens cm a EE es te cine ae engi actat tte on) sous w see tte ian commle Rone one) Reeeeatbociber eases ontebearpnoceecus oe Supe et ate, Seas nent ne SS tat cme Suen Stace pe) ‘ivi ieee no ‘Lop negate as, USE NPED Seen Ese iti eam aree “eae Seem Ban rnin (ome Die Pasa ate [Bhs gps ome 12-03) BiaU cao en) ale rcp Elan cml lo teeons Sie) ‘lana nag Mar Suton Caro) ‘ig Pr ofertas Aer 1 Ras a oui ac one tai Sapein WL taal te Dat Rene Dac pr 2 ity erate Ds Arai 3 ryt teste ac Rome (Dai “tg Ut air 8 tie Ora a Roa Penns Pe 11927) ‘ernest on 1) ee Ae Sonia ate “iaie yor Paton 990) ne a em Ab a ae pa Sane Guan 1978- saa Here eee mimo a ata etn png “Ton ence 198 Mattie a Dt nae apne “:sinuntn foot lope ‘Wathen gjrtebtexnct patton sedi “ete pee fa 5 ‘eax eocancste Cantar sesh ; ema i ts lr Bon i colo gare yamas ome) ‘Tica anni Caractere eat rd ide a ese en Ld, in Comorian arn pene net ‘set ee nn hin en rat arf SF ‘Pm octane Cntr Tuco tt oa oe 5 Paci, “Sita ain FP, San Lote et (OL te Pacer sien oe ‘tee! pene Ppp cain urn, een Caw nen 6 EN ont, Cole of act Sep se Car “Gi Copa 15) Feat boat NRC, la Si Snes Sten 0536) ABBREVIATIONS: = Seed Rrra dea nae peg ema ait “org ie tat My Se iene. eine epee errant Orch eh ‘ea ein Seem” Caia2 0) Ass dT Sey. hen inden vo i glen ce age a el Caceatn noni ng 6. gn tl arden aa 96) Sein etude ecto tene cope ie eC et 8) Nena ope Coleco ane Tee eet aet Cosrr Oca Eo i M.eo,Teimnl Linge Eee Perce 98) See ep ps ents wh Moo tt omer Mohn Beni erg “tteINTRODUCTION ‘Aeores of over eleven hundred inscriptions frnshes be bulk of he ‘evidence for thecal of Silvanus, the Roma god of agcular, fees, hunting tl boundaries. These deications, which te mally fom aly tnd the wester provines, te st east aly a 3 B.C. and as Late as ‘AD. 339, though the vast majority ste Som the socond and third centuries (se Append). Representations ofthe deity, rom appro tmatly the same sme pri apt locations inci several hundred fates and relief, nd few gems, ings, escoes, surcophagl, bronzes tn mosis, Latin iterate, onthe ether hand, proves vemarably Tite information and sometimes contradict the more extensive epi raphic sn archaeological sources. the sheer member ind geographic persion of inscriptions and coer archaeological remains are indicators of eative importance, Slvanis emerges a8 one ofthe most venrat dies inthe Roma Empire. Hir dedications outmueber tho ofthe most writen aboot Criemal deities, nsding Mitra, ptr Dolicheno, se and Serp _Bteaarongtitondivinies onl oper Opimas Maximo, Heres, Foun and Mesciry eclipse Silvano in epigraphic wes, Svan known adherents re re nameros thn tase of Dian, pollo, iter Paty, Aesculapius, Venus or Mars incerta Joeatons Sanus was of prime importance sch asin te ely of Rome and into provinces of| Dacia and Pannoni,whete on inscriptions he second only o Jue. ‘Silvanus occupies special pace nthe general poles system in otcolary di Pat ar pene aco np Sears ER Mal, Paani Ae Roan Ei ew cL 18) for Iocnansa eons be ne The fig 19 96) 237 meoumen ad ee ee en eunanace area Serta2 INTRODUCTION Jn athe stood completely ouside peli eu. He had no sate tmp, festival orholy ay. Despite his ancestral standing he was never elosely bouad up wih pote apd ive ie, bat remained the concer ofthe Individaa! and the family. His unofficial stasis ot a Sgn of his Incoasequence though official recognition ad imperial pazonage are rly the ony indicators ofa avinty's popula ‘Rosman private religion is, forthe mest par, poorly undeestocd and rarely he subjet of scholarly inquiry. The classic inepretation of oman paganism, that of T. Mormsen, G. Wissowa, K. Late and ters, empasizes how very ite existed ated the resin of public Galt. rocont account of ato Repblian history echoes this Bele: Ofeia eligion ofthe ity of Rome te only eea of Romanrelgion whose haraciaiaics we can dlisate tn some deta I all ther cases—in fr example, he pivte cls of the household or the pubic ‘iano th mall town of Kaly—the surviving terry andathaco logical evidence allows us to say litle more tha “hey hppa’. Hundreds of ddiestione to Sitvanus thoughout the Roman empire, however, say much about private worship. They give us unique ‘opportunity to onderstnd Roman religion in ers of personal exper ‘Romanrsigionshorldnotbevewedasapublic city ony, imply because vate an domeslc les ae inadequately known and doc ‘mented i ite reason fo dismiss tht importance completely orto Eonsdertbem as reve mimicry of official mods, ss was recy trgoed$ After al, many poli eu, suchas those of Janus, Vesa nd the Lares, orisnaed in the private sphere, and nearly al extant deca tory inscriptions were setup private inviduals fox petsona eons, Public and private religion each had it respsctive place in the general Teme aan mt in te ts Sig Sa era tact tet ee be? SGOT SMO SI ai aaa ena Sepia E ct RAS eet nontancmaeeas Sratacice vs bu Sats new Nake thes the ar pte oat arson Seihasrreinremecreatlon fearsome “M.Bened sa M, Cred, Roma the Lowe Rep (Londan 4985) 25. Ses si ae TRODUCTION 3 ious system a5 a whole. To study ony the pull apse of Romin ‘eligion to misunderstand the entirety of tho pagan experience, Silvanus i he best decumenteé example in Raman paganism of & popolur gd. He quails ut popular boese his al was rested 19 the private domain, aise utconterted with politcal and evi Ite, tnd contnaed to be of ile coscer to cite soviet. Senators and ‘equesrane were not very intersted im him and fled include him in the state calerar. The leteod aristocracy rly mantoned te godin thotr writings Gee Appendix D, Mstof Sivanas devotes were hemble fot, nciding saves, eedmen ne. Thi shoad mak us question ‘wheter Roman religion was indeed so nitfere! ososalcaesareome ‘would suppase.*And Sivan dose not sand completely alone inthis reguid, A punter of divinities appealed t the poor (Anna Petenna, Diana, Fors Fortuna, Fortuna Vir), resdmen (Feros) or slaves (Cares Compiates, Sano Capron; as fetal ie the Satin and the Matronalia). Ava deity ofthecommon man, Slants therfore shay ‘not be to earsordinary. The fave ofthe Repblian Senate and thn ofthe emperors to Imgrate Silvanus into public ule might soom sursing, expecially since the g's wxship lacked acollocive dimension which might have bean viewed a theatening tothe staas quo. Tho higher orders, Bow ver, were iniferent, not hose 1 te go, lace Rome's flexible pulley of conuawousty incororting new dviniues ito the offal [pantheon edt certain neglect or oversight of some cults, ad interest inothers. isdifieuttondersand, however why somsnyebscue and {orig diesen wih ites diate to the elites-mere brought Jno the mainstream of civic polythst, eile the staunchly Halim, faliaeSivarus remained excludes, We would not expect the lower lasses to press for apuble empleo fetvl fr Silvas; vide be failed thei noeds a private lve. ‘Very litle ateation has Tocased on popular religious atituds in snclent Rome 0 itn fae tha “ol eigon” ta seldom used term for this pied. Fe the Roman world there i no equivalent for M-, Sims Aes Rose endo a no nee FACHRIBUOTHEK.Nitson's Greek Popular Religion (New York 1940), RB. Brooke's Popular Religion n the Mlddte Ages (London 1986)" A eureat ‘oncepaliztion of Romanpaganiem testhe atecultertoe"deining tlement of the eligius system aba whole” Accordingly, private ats independent of publ cult models are cnsidstedqute 0 tod Roman religion is viewed as created and directed by the lies. Wile these tates hold eve often enough inthe overall poiyteistc scheme, "hey acount neler fr Silvanus, or fora wide rnge of ells whose sexivios have let litle or no schacaogial or Heray estinony, [Nilson could argue that "te fatoofzeligion Is dermined by the sasses® Tis noton cannot be emily untae fer Roman pagans ‘Despite hisportanee ax fo deity an hie apparent poplar fn ig, Sivas has been accorded a very minor role in Roman tellgion,Gonarstions of scholars have elegtad him wo the sde-com ‘ments and fotnotes of thet publications, they mention a all. However, a study ofthe go, who is known almestexcasively fom evidence dating efter the reign of August, provides am important ‘pportanity to wndesand paganiom wnder the Empire. Republican relgious practices have ben throughly investigated, wile these of the Empire nave been relaivly neglected, despite the extesiveness and "edness of the soureas forthe ate pao Sivanas belongs to group of watonal divinities, including Joiter Optimus Maxims, Hercules, Diana ana Moreury, who aid no ose any of tet following Sing the trasiton fom Repl oErpte, The emphasis in choirs on he exotic eligions which originated in te Est, however, Would ead us to believe iat adidonal euls were beginning wo oso tel italy and lan plac © pe ona aren 3 GND Gh Noni, Ga ec re iia crane eeane TE Es sepa neue teint 38.3 Alle. Rome Rebglonagenctiei ein 93-1930: md |e tuldircntasetein este eatin ast Nona Dada td ee Bence In pn urs npr bal ‘Spline Puriennore, Slings neqised we boa saves of Roan oe Seren INTRODUCTION 5 reaning(uless daring the Principat.” We ave slowiy begining t2 realize tht Oncnal alte were not the mos signlcan religious arse inthe Roman Empie. 118 Ge tha lta dts like Silvanus corded heir ight prominent place in the Reman pantteon. Sone five ciicize the usefulness of studying individual cal ‘emphasing oe approaches sich asenamining rua or prethoode But, while pagan dies must be undesiod within the context of & pantheon, the ancients dd isolate and separate thm, choosing to sage ‘tone overanoie, Toy alone separ lesan pathos (Ge, the fitcen flamines) fr inividon dies. Since much ofthe evidence athand cents en particule divinities rater han te poytie, ic experonce ofthe inva, would unis noo expt is Information Mina tat the anciene Roman bad many religous ne. st, wll aempc to explain why so many were devoted to Silvanus. No one hs yet collected together and sued the conideabis eplarapicandarchacoogical remains ofthe cult. A. von Domasaes ‘ew some highly disputable conclusions fom an examination ofthe lnscripions (1902), In his monumental work on eigion in the Roma nit, Toutin made somo ie, yet isi, observations 1901), FR. Peer gatbered much ef the iconograpicsl and Terry evidence valle fo him in his day (1909). bet prodacad litle mote than an Incompletcaslogee. Mote ere Jensenas considered ego's Dossibl connections with one or mare Chistian sits (1962), ter wise, ony shot notes about paicuar Svan insertions, tates tnd ‘ils, orstdiesnarowly dating withacertsincegionhave appeaed ‘VonDemaszowsi's1902 stu. thomostinfaesil wrk on Silvan, [proposed he god's equation wit an Ilseisn deity in the guise of Par “The Pan deified with Sivan n Dalmatia and soma in ern luce, however, is Greek, notin, Although syncetzed attic its ‘on-Roman dels (yet never wi yean ones), Silvan is tarely 8 font fr any one putter native evnty except perhaps in Cala Narbonensis where his nue often conceals the mysterious Cele Mallet Gos.” Tone POT nt wns Ene pn ins ent Pan is th. 5 Pima ond edd hee Pri ined Pr nurs eet meen es a 1 Teli, les SG900-919) S471 8 on, “Svs and de Cal ARID 50 TA6 INTRODUCTION Sivanus and bis place tn Roman religion have deca profoundly risundersiood, ab well at underestimated. Tis stody collects and niles the seated evidence i ote to document the origi, spre Abvclopmentand final suppression of the ek, Chapa doals Wi the ‘hscure begining of he god's worship, hs sopposed Etruscan roo nd ine tre of his cal during the Robie. The vestof te monograph focuses ess on the problems of tho il daeumonte Beginnings ofthe oll then on he period for which we have abunéart material nel the Second and thie entries A.D. hsp IL defines the varied celigious ‘hamster of Svan aa Latin deity Ts bt be considered only «god of agricul, foes, boundries and huning? What were the ele Fits performed nhs weship? Why his achereotsvenerate hin? wil argue that Sivan, even i concepuaized as rurl avin, fulfilled a whole range of esde wich have more do with ity than County life, Chapter TI considers Sivas’ elaoaship with Fas, Pan an the Sllvante, divinities sometimes sitolaed andor confused ‘wth Kim. Chaper IV survey regtona fences in the go's cain Tly and he provinces with special atemtion o Silvana relationship withnativedettes. Chae V offers aroconstaction ofthe organization ‘ofthe cult from what we know of eollegz. emples, priesthood and ‘ered groves, and tents Silvana’ rare pull side, hati seul felnionship with the emperor and fis role in imperial Seonopaphy. Chapter VI profiles the po'sadhereneand takes uptheisue of wheter Telgious peefrences varied according to ool or econ class In| this section Iwill ls consider the role of women inthe elt ad the [phenomenon of gender resticton in Reman religion, The conelasion ‘etines Silvanus" pace and imporance i the general sytem of gan is One reason forthe popularity ofthis cult, ich s known predomi ‘ancy ites, Los na pervasive ntl forthe ecuntryside among ‘omron folk who adspted an ancestral sic od to ithe new usbas needs. Unfortunately Sivanes provides elavly ide insightinto rural ‘ts which are so rarely mentioned i the ancien sources. = (ORIGINS OF THE CULT ‘By Anguston ies Sivan wasconsfereda diy ofone-standng ted tothe vo foundations ofthe Roman sate, Ie Roms ay, acoeting tw Properus (44.110), the treachery of Tarpeia ook pace nea prove holy Silvanus onthe Capitoline Hl! Vergil (Ae. 8.6008) records a Jogond, even Further back Rome's mythological ps, hatte ancient Posgine honored the god wih # sacred aove ana fest dy. Is this grove, near Caso, hat Vrgi st Anas” scaptance of ho shiek ‘made for hie by Volean, Livy and Vaeros Masts taped Pst Silvana helped user inthe Romi Republic by amoung te Roman ctr) in bate over King Taruiius Supertus in 89 B.C. Pliny the Elle (WH 15.77-76) believed hata sae of Silvanus stood i rat of the Temple of Satu ate Roman Forum in 404 B.C foe that yoar ‘twas sured by aig tee, perhaps the famous fs Raina Te ‘satue would have boon eecod many years before (o commemorate Sivan’ help in 509 B.C) when he Gg was not yet ron o plated ‘These autor, allhugh surely acuratereletions of what educated people thong abou Sivan inthe Early Eire, ae not necessity poo indicates of where the pos murky origins le In genera he [trary tradition for event efe the sick of Rome inthe xy fourth centry B.C, not very elle, even though Inte wes ight sSoutineponsoonen ny SSO ssh ese or Ret ane Sau em bin CCLX bear» Vesa teSe ee oe i preserve earlier flk memories handed down in preter time. Fortermore, we can never be eatin how much the in lvece of Greek ‘erature cstored stois tld about Sivas" eign “Teearlist contemporary sears for ivagus appear no esti than tn beginning of te scond entry BC. Laie Auer 6744, 760), dated between 195 spd 184 B.C, Pau hs the charter Fuel hide his pot of pol ina wild, sotended Silvanus grove beyond the Servian Walls, ouside the pomeriun, the religious boundary of he city of Rome, les ible autor, as wo have sea, place the go's Ancona sis prominently ihn the pomertam, onthe Capitaine Til (Peper nd ind Roman Foru (Pliny the Fler. They may ave been thinking anchromistialy ofthe many ahges to Silvanos Uohicheovered Rone in thei owm da. Te Aululrie does atexs show that Silvanus was vonerited, i aot win tect its, then immed ttl beyond the, Hisname vas certainly fami o Paws’ uence ‘eho ware mainly city folk Iti period of accelerated migration tothe ‘ity of Rams, mary doubly brought Silvas fom the countryside, “They may have hooght timpropertocondoctthe god's nies in anwcban| ‘environment and sought eutnearty rr spots, sich astheone develbed by Pinuts. Phassevidey foows allen mde! (els play of Menu”) sd jusing Sifvangsin lace of Pe. the Reman divinity’ searest Greek ‘vival ths date Hellen was undoubtedly ifivncing con. ‘apy and rigious practices. The purely Latin Silvanus of an cari Perl ost ous he may indeed have been quite ferent fromthe one [now i istoial ies. Tn approximately the same pevlodas Pauus, Cato the Elder (De Ar, (cult $3) records an annul aces to Mars-Silvanus for the health of fate which excluded women, bat mo shves* ‘ates vow fol hates wl bea. Dag yea row fresh eat caee Ms od ivan ite wots tier goods SPM furan ound fan oorandcea a pono ean ivan xen mane ioe enema on) er se sao tm sigue rn iene Se Seah ‘cer se tevin csi come ‘Strela sacra qn otal resem n sana 1, ERESOCETS Rie'Coe eCard 8) Bs sv pes he BBE net aie pit of wine Vou lie lands) inon veel adhe (Mivlnoncrnet'Astycora fee maneaboweto pean acd ‘hen scene eoreme taney mon ee Trscuny may aomaste pean rorteenetiscvne vic Tikvowean etal eey year iy ee 1tis unclear wheter Sllvanus ca epithe for Mars ora separate deity Shs om right H, Kel, awong thers, nists that Silvanus cannot Tietion here atte for Mare, sine othe names of obviously disinet divinities occu Juxtapored i the De Agri Cura. sunikely tha Silvana i subordinated asa mare opie, since Cato seems to have Silvanus in mind a mich as MarsThe too against women andthe regulation thatthe sasifice be eared Ov he woods in si) point {o Silvanus" character least a8 thy are known ding the \tnpral period nottothor of Mars Tho agricul nature ofthe ite suits toh Silvanus and Mare, who was connected with farming in ‘ston to warare from an early date? Cato evidently imagined two tistnc dees sbacng ovecopping fnctions "The vial povided an exeuse fora festive annual ourng inthe country for men. That participation of slaves is explicit allowed ‘Soest that his prc stor te cult of Silvanus i gener a {apecal appeal thom.” Evidey the servile ileus performed his ‘ow in ie mast’ avec. 11s impossible to jadge se antiquity oF Tongevity of tistics virally the only glimpse at Sivanus ra Cal. the god began to nflate ts, such ius no doubt os hee Sigrtcance and evetally were na longer performed ere, a eas Pot for tei vigil purpose Platus and Cato show that by the ctly second century B.C. vans was venerated in both uta and ara Rome. All eet refer fences tothe go date after the Ine fs ceatary B.C, except fra short eng Ca Cpt a ek ems Coe: Deareatr ee 9), Scie ocah ht tan agin Che 0) Hae aa Some shes W'Wone Rutt he atlonrtapence fh a Pee Tm ett 99) on SE eee me mar imtoo Festina et eee tee At meu am) anion Ta tigen10 “onacans OF THN COLT nd uninfonmative fragment of Actus (170-86 B.C.) preserved in (Cicero. Faced with is vacuum of information, we can hardly recon sarvet a cult History during the Late Republic, let aloe adress the probe of Silvancsobseureoigns. ‘Sivanus me itseems, bea Roman god ste aciens thought and te etymology of Be name spggewts, 15 empting 1 accept the ‘erivation of his name from slg eh Lain noun “woods,” especially Since Silvanus bis 2 bosky side AS early as Cao's day the god was ‘worshipped in silva, and for centre hereafter he was closely ase oa with frets ‘W. heid argos that Silvanesis derived rectly from the noun silva and isnot ajeetval in form, Hence, he go's rane doesnot seve 8 Sept for Mare or any ter deity. Suva related stan the Sas way for example, dominasieto dom, st ibunus isto tribus, thats, the goes name isan emphatic form ofthe noun sa, Sans sean “lord ofthe woods (sivas) Inthe same way a8 dom ean be transltod "mate of the hous (dom) abd ribunas, leader of the tbe (ribus "Mest hasconsracte imiaresymoloyos for therLatin ‘eis: for example, Pocumus, god of the port (por); Pomons, goddess of mo apple (pont); and Popuona, x personification of the People ocpuls). OF course, mayoral of hese etymologies, ecu {hat of Silvanus, could have been sveate bythe Romans in historical tines. "A popular theory wscesSllvanes back «0 the Brsean divinity Selvars” Otter Buutcan deities have been assigned Greso- Reman ‘enuivalens some wth noelegtimary anothers." Tere are compel- Ting reasons, however, for resting an etyologeal association nthe "Di Farr. 259 (ec 298 “Sat elo amin 3 as cn ote meme (8897 SEP Sm Sees ttm rang tae ih eSneat it punmatile Geter Sratacer cen 19 9). Ses ieee ut a fom sn vn Dc ‘fsb ct ipraon ne an Toga ny eat ae Pp Apri fewer inocu) Soa) a ay, oa Oi 2 Ee Roy wot farce nes eget ang” ‘isch e Rr ts de nmr a ix eae a Palen ome 1B) 1 SEB reper oer swe oA ORIGINS OF THE CULT u ‘ase of Selvans and Sivams. The oxgin and meaning of Selvans is ‘kon. Iti not even compietly clear whether his namo is derived fiom Biucan, Latin, Umbrian oe another ie language Too iis Keown about Etosean to conclude, solely of Lingus rounds, hat Selvane mime impos an gecultural or forest ety ike Sivan. We ‘eet um oto historical and archaeological context of he Sevan ult determine whether the Etusin dy shared any eharsershis| With Stands, nd ence whather a ennectonBetwesn toro gods is probabh ‘Selvns is known only fom seven inscribed bronze stmetes(pet- bps images ofthe dedestr rater than of the god incase n whic te etieatrs male), two ens onthe Piacenza Liver, cppus, a broe ft (or pedun’ and bronze shovel Although the ionographical td epigraphic evidence is meageseven I reltvely abundant com predothat ot oterEuscan dviniles—iis appre thaSelvans was fivisloned at & youth, nike Silvanus who 8 oswaly shown as an Unkempe old man '*The only shied conogeapbical elements ar the boots which he pols sometimes wear ae pad (shepherd's sta) which nite of them cary ten Selva” eliglous characteris aot easily definable. His nove ies veil cle about bis fenction.Samnunet(or Sancta) (meaning sare pis”) may berolted othe god Sancus, who nen has beet linked with sane, x comuen epithet fr Sivan. Or. as bas been Plausbly suggested it may te toponymis, referring tothe protection of land onned by a gent Sensana® Tularia has becn understood as referring Yo Doudties Io, s significant ink to Silvanus who (hitded tam also.” Abd enzpeta and smacingunaitada dey ier sey Mar Tac one ier af Pann ep of Pope Be ican ‘hpasoesn Pty tage 1 DEES Coen Ss Sah Se Cb 16 i ee, erage ne et concn re ima eA2 "ORIOINS OF THE CULT ‘Selva appearstwioe onthe Piacenza Liver, an Etruscan vintory model tng taboo! 100 B.C. LB, Vande Meer argues hate go's prion ia ogions eight a hiy-one ofthe Liver suguests nagricu- feat deity. who might den be lnked to silvanes2 Martians Capel (4.32), an ently fff centry A.D. weer who imate an Frasca ivinatorysoures lke the Live, place Vers Fracas (hid (or fvi?) [tSping)nvepion sig, mntahing on te postion of Sevan) on the Liver” That Marans choso an allegorical description of an lgrcutual divinity, rater than the well-known nue of Sivan, ‘rom ne does not atonal, sugges ome thats aecounteannat be interpreted as connecting Silvanus and Selvansin anyway. “About he only thing tat can be ai with cectoiny abou Selva is ‘nat he was popular mong women: atleast thee of hs rvorded Followers are female. Sivarus, onthe fer hand, as weave seen from {Cresteat and il iw inenore dts Cspot VI, exloded women from some, bu ot alls of his is. ‘Upon examination itis evident tat Selvens tas litle apparent connection 1 Silvanus at east inthe aie form in which we know the ‘Roman god, Thee i ingle evidence to show tat Selvans was 3 proectr of boundaces and the rt ik itvanos. Tew ha ile i Common ober than the sil sound oftheir eames, Any inguistc Sroomont comecting the two gol which falls 19 note ther many Uilferoncescanot be entirely convincing. Conceivably, Silvas more ‘losely resembled Selvans in sae tes and ner changed tothe form fa whish we row badurng te Priseipue. thas evenboen argued that Selvans was inrodacedmtoByuscan from Lain ata elatnely late dle, Slthough sculls objec, a iil as they are to date, seem to 2035 far bck a the midi coatary B.C, a petiod when Rome ad ite ‘pperteity 0 exert exltual dominance over Eiri" AL any rte, te [goes valgus characteristics tll against shy wanscatral borowngs| tnheneverthey might date fsitvanushasan Euscan org itprobably Ts notto be found in Seivans. The iconography ofa fale-holgng deity, bike Silvanos, was not alien fo che Biwscas:® however, the alc ceary| 4s ot an atte of Selva 2 See Yatiobus ner er Mtns CaptnReigoneiclichlehe Veruche tao smoot onda Sate oh ec rrr aa Eon tne 0 ORIGINS OF THE CULT B 1 oe few reson to question Silvanus perhaps aloo ebvions aa tools, The dificult of pining down the go's character mts pais ‘might stem fom ls oa tng ought of aa nurinows spit no yet oncepuslzed in human fon. References (0 Sivan! ineatureandon Inscription eaggesan airs phase» The couse of development of the cat in the arly Republic Yomsins obscure, since comemporary erar eferonces begin oni in the Mile Repub insrpdons only ‘torn 39 B.C; nd iconographic! images, only in the imperial pexod ‘Tht dearth information, togter with varus noverbeing Honor ‘wth any pub monument, ape festival or laminate ndieaes at the dvindty di no apeal wo wealhy, aristocratic orders ring this ‘eviod. Bu Silvamis continued to figure prominently inthe private ‘eligious life of umblofoll over whieh the ste sw No ned usu ‘onroland about whichthesoues fore period ave vitally noehing tosay. Since Sivas was at amet invention of he imperil er is Inter popality can be vaced back nt Republican tes. What is 59 snking about te godisharheromainednfavorsolong,whilesormary other roti avis, wth able temples, festival aminaes, were Tong since frgoten” rippin ote ts 8 Cree lopeceeanih aetna hae IES epee ey a mem eo mee aerate a mens pees HoaRELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS. Howover murky te origins of Slvanus were inte Early and Mile Republi, by the second century AD. te god's cut was one ofthe most ‘popular nd widespread inthe Westem Empire. Itissenlly fom the ‘raepanning tne fir tree centuries ofthe Roman Empire tht nary a Of or knowlege of Silvanus comes. Since his later cult may have ford considerably fom that of previous times, in terms of the religions character ofthe deity, the organization of his worship and the ‘background ef his adherent, t would be presumptuons to reonsroct ‘he Republican Silvanus from vigene dating rom the mip perio, (OF cours, his worship didnot romain state and uniflora during the ‘ree -hundrd-yearer from which most archaeological and ergraphic emuins dat, and throughoat the hoge geographic region fom which altobjeets ome, Chapter 1 wil concentrate on regional iterences inthe cul with special attention to Sivarns syncretism wit native ‘deses and i lationship with ether Greek, Roman and Olt gos Fern lotus se are decusion af thas tibuse which ave only loca significance and define the religious character of the deity in ‘overall terms, Silvantssnot be onderstood nhs general form before we ‘an see how hie cult wae adapted and changed, Ancen deities were comple religous entives with mary seemingly unfelated or condita sides, ovedapping more fen than aoe with ‘thos of otheriviiies.Ithisrespet Sivas excepson. Despite “Amunve bay of evidence, qltes lot remains unknown sbout the pod. Conspicvously few sources give a mythological sccouat or expiin why Silvanus devtzes worshipped him. Eveamecical yes, koown fom ‘ive locations, impart ite solid information "Sivan, alike o&her ‘Lati dies, was not alized as an early King of Lau. No ancient CLIN Ss Caen ape, 15 ng, Nets: Cr NT oi Sn eT Mad ne mae RES fl at ‘Commence co SL Khe ase Nes “Due Gee a Sivan Se Seat eee Sines Raa incon Fe er EPR ete Yee tsar oman 19 IS RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS: a ‘soure even has that he may somehow be related to King Svs and isline down oes Silvia eventhough arguments have been made for Silvacus" appearance on reliefs wither son, the evn founders of Rome, Romblorand Rermat Silvan desing with othr dviniis are notrecorded.Oneinsrptioncalls Hercules ilvanos' grandson po), butte god does nt figure ito Hercules’ sich mythological eye? ‘There are ao soris about Sivanus' parentage an family connections. en his veltionship wih tho Nymph fr Slvense) remains unclear. ‘Servius (commenting on Geor. 1.20) furnishes te longest ytho~ logical accountof Silvanus Heexplain Veri'sassociationof Silvas land the eypress tre witha sory ofthe god's passion for a ezcain ‘Caprese After Sivanus had accidentally ils! the Boy's pot sta, Cupressus died of gue and was wrned into 8 Hee of the sume name which Silvanus suppose cid for corfor, a convenient explana Bon of why the deity nods aes branch in art. This story may be ristakenly aeribed to Silvanus fre by Servis who has taken it ‘wholesale, wth ite spain, fom Ovid staleofCyparise, he 00 of Telepus, and his lover Apollo (er. 10.106t) In Ovid's story iis Cyparisss. not Apotio, who unwitingly ils tho stag and ister tuned ‘nto are, But Servius soul nox be to rasly accused of corrupting SU eect ot saga ome omar nt ‘end ie at meric ean ioe timecarere Amen ner earamate Shea rg a meeeaianne SS See pannel ecient Tela cee rinaecartm bee 191) Spt asin ee wo ch ewes econ o> See eesccekemgacemeemns Rim cease et eee Seen See, Homenerany aud the Grek Ser a 1983) HE, nage hean“originl” try, a8 told by Ovid or another author, The grammatian| perhaps preserves popular coatemprr fok tltold aout Sivan. ‘Despite the absence of a reliable mythological tation, certsin aspett of Silvanus” eharcir emerge with sme consstency—most febviouly his old ge and rugged, unkempt appearance. Horace and ‘Mortal Boh maine Silvanus shay (hori); Vergi alls ir old (cones) an epithet possibly found in actual alt practice and Herace fetes to him a father (pater) again sessing his maturity.” In Silvanus amos invariably appears asa bearded old man. Nonetheless, there ar somenotworthy examples of hms youl, ora esstle shaven’ A bisa inscription 1 luveni (young) Sivan also neds explanation Itpshaps alles othe ame Silvan (or Sens?) which Ovid (et 14.639) envisioned 3s “younger than his o¥m years (sit semper iuseiir ani,” The posts evidently ion hae nega 0 the god's age. The fw instances of youthful ivanus might retro ow os ser of his eld or oleseence. ‘To understand Silvanus as elpous personality we must ur to lconographical evidence which comes fm al comers ofthe Wester Empire. There as been no widely accepted standard for therecognition ofsilvanusinart Todate,thehondreds of statues, relis ges, mosis tne otter ojactsrepresnting the pot have never een he subject of serious sty. Over soveny years go Peter made a large yet noveteless incomplete caalogue of Slvans cult objects, considered from th pat of view of conogrphy in only the most genta tts, Soledad a fow more cations in 1966, and my desertion of 1987 refers to othe: depictions." ‘ned toute sn: Taompn Mendes of FobLtcane v1 senna: Frinorem/ temic vie! nama macy teats a Sone Sr in os ns Env #2 maine ue a dy Foe Wo So, 2H Ge 0): Fer spd 2 Stans per rater cnn oe: CI V1 Sa ae 212) 4, ay hb maiz vase crm be bine son eae, {Bit Smee yo in Glan is Conf $55'8 aSoe a Sewn ove Tc 1 CS) 5 rr can dpc a el aw ed ero Tou td aa ‘Spa Sth LGR, aig 9-191 21-7 Sls Svan, eee eee eee eee uv Despite some degree of vasiaton, especially when synretitn with rive dies in the provinces occur, we can define sn eonograpical lyperecognizabieto the ancient ddieatr, viewer an atitn a pie Ing Sllvangs In be following chapter wi stow how thie conography povided a sharp dstnction betwen hit ab he net reltcns, Panos and Pa, whore represented quite ditferey even there a.cerain convergence falls gods in terry sources, lvanis usualy stinds ‘ina unc oma excep for mand Filled wit pinecones o uit ‘Throughout the empire aude an cloth representations occur with equal fequensy,excepe in Pannonia and Dacia whoreclethed depictions te consistently preted, The god's most common aide in asthe fle, anening see sed widely throughout the ancien Mediterranean, Amt nsrp ‘om trom lai Ser (Afi Proconsalats) specifically derries| Sivantsas hong his object faeitenens). Oat dees, cha Pan Papasan Satur, canals cary ne nstrument india o thelr own concer for agile. “The pine whether in tbe form ofa ues, branch orcone—is equally Important on represematons although iterarysoarees do net make clear which ee or plane was bely wo Sivas." In atthe god mezly always hols a pine beaneh or weace crown made fom its Twigs, ‘gniving hie wooslind abode ‘Another consistent element on reliefs and states is dog which shacehhme li ei a ee seen onan Sian a Fue ee wm eagle a “eta team Si Gay tersnean cameron ame ES hahnateas ntact rt nsloyally gnzesupttom ie mastrs fee.” Ieymbolize the diviety'stle ts hunter ox shepherd and fetione as an apotopac sybel betting Suvanus, protector of boundaries. "The moa frequent ates of Sivanus—the fle, pine and oe— refloct his humble, rural origin a cll suention t is putonage of fsarcalture, forest, and hunting or pastoral fe, respectively." The ‘worthip of Sivunus encompassed harmonious combination ofthese functions. I aston, eter relighous tits anilary to or wholly independent ofthese ae cease ‘Slvanus role a overser ofthe woods (va) ebvlosl simpli lnhisname, Many ators specifically name Silvanusagedtthe woods (eur svar) 9¢ lane his in forests of sacred groves.” Weis ‘relay Sivan ebeece from the forest tha adds oth uespbere Df terror and fea in a purge of Lacan's Pharsalia (34024). Bear trappers arson, wad cues (setores and eters (nator) who worked inh orstworsipped the gd.” Alo, Sivas was invoked i "bosky” (uvestr)throughot te Danubian provinces, lion arly outside thi repion does be have dus epithet. "As forest od, Sivanus embed tees, tee ranches and shrubs." InGalia Nurbononss ne plus andovidetl wealthy individual vowed ma thoustd wes Another ereted an star for hin batween wo trees Although the pine eppears wit Slvnes in a erry sources donot apres on which ue Pant was aly tothe go. Vergil assole Sivanss the eypres toa, feanel andes, not with he pine. On the or waagoy nay nt, mln eet, De, es, ts and Pt i ne 2 WOE) Svs Ae Lal, Le een “ares dada seep 20 "gn Sheena oma” Gan 20a San ee sng 3293 ons Ol arene nebo Stare cape” ete Sei conmen be "eapesin om 8 eB) on ser apa 3 Sere ere eee eee eee et a coer ont netsiiyin aos Spy aca eet pn SLEEP. Sie van ag epr oeetoes Shona nemseip-pna my cone ‘Sele aca nice ig ae yess se ‘neo pee ely eB G2 a iy nt Sn sian pees pesca Retrany® Nena ye? ett orn dass SPs Pas acer po oa np Sir mss es in Maye cen uso y ne Ss a igo ad page empresa eeu en eames, Sha, ter at eee ck hese dati gis coon nc te Te ‘eto hast hg tert 18) ied Sivumtcanyahoyse nl ser open, naan ete ceams eiey v sune er apy po ay toga es ‘plete coucnctoe anemone at = ot Sma thing, We aeady sete oor nn ons le seca Sore gospel henas oo ay of ona fw an Depeche {sft stm emer yeah sin Fagan cua ape rea [siete nln ee tne "Tce eae nce Sey see teenie nen mariana pices ora acgaemrmenney cpus cane aoe ee Sipe ea entero ments {980 $6 ti 1b do mpi ay diatngentn t Jch aee SRSA areca Ses ied te Game es eae Wise a orn eet SSE cn ec naan cu 008 ne SS Rie arena se ee a Ee ateects aes aeeeee eee eee Ee xt to nn ol ee ea seatoanhwrapdin cease Subir Sper siae cponyely rina aa atimastutsid Coan he beerey Seer eee cee ara tae at reste renin a Sass ey "Seer Silvanus sonetines sted a8 4 forest dvnty. Yer Ms contin fea aw sly en mnt Sep Cab Sten ere topes ae era vate tintegeaicee na joe octets plea Sy Ss recente sp nana tus gases aod Siders te nee e Seater fe cnc roc ee soi eanatenwontnsevtetcmdncc ft "och hn concn teoa tidy feces ince gd Scar Uae amas ene eR ee eee er acer sane iaceen ania RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS a onrig shoepo dink. The Grom! Vetere roardSvans Agrestis 1 deaeaea'to shopherds.™ One individual addresses the delty as sanctssimus pastor (ost boy shepher), and others invoke bim in order to safeguard cate (pro armento} or pack animale (pro ‘pediment, Offering rom shepherds (peur and forse (Galuari ae fw in nomber, more hesuse of thes rcty on Latin Insripons than bocause f Sivan" ack of pea to such workers, ‘By the imperial period Suvacus may have fst mich o his characr rotscor of ete which was eo pronounced i Calo second contr [B.C ite to Mars and Silvanus. Latin bucolle poety does not employ Silvanasas otenas we woul expect fre od of pstuesand te lds Fw ofthe ga's opts ave pastoral,” ane is eonngrphy hs eo 0 with Hacks ae livestock! only rae Is he depicts withthe sep herds stat (edn) or sheep ‘Silvano original jurisdiction eves forests, farmland and pastes is rot inherently contradictory. Since the sve (wood) surounded the ncheypical fone (artm)~and bering tok plein both—natualy Silvanus would be concerned with both environments. G. Duméeil suggests tha at Fit Siva veld in Forest end dd nt move away ‘when they were mansformed int culvable feds.” Whether Silvanus ignated solely as a forest gin an carly esiod, a bis ane might S0gge and Later astmed agricultural and other functors, 12 mae for speculation. eis posible tht Silvana ad a oly now dimen slon to his character by the Late Repub: other Latin des, once sbjocted to Hellenzinginflences,anderwent simi dase met Imorphases" Ar any rate, by Cal's day Sivas” domain already compass both frm and forest.” Eg ome ts ee ee Sete teorag omni nree tet pee eens nay med wah unt eon Foren Ape22 RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS “The ke toundecsanding Silvanus dichotomous personality peshaps biog in orae’s potion of in as ar finan, the overseer of he touadarie separating te far fom the woods. As iar ium and ‘iste (garaa) Seats defended from the untamed wilds the real ‘Seiman-tht of apicltre and domsstc ie. The Gromasel Vteres, ‘a puricla, represents Silvanus as god of boundaries under he oe inde unbear@tepithe oriental Tho entre txt, as vexed a5 i Unfoctanately i, merits examination at this pone ‘wy oe a ropery wea Sian? Bees he was he it a SRSay neon he ound. Fo al pore as tee Se One cD sen lometend ated oppor. Ante eid nse Gist rept Acree rma oe) eine teween eno ores boxed hese re are re boundary maker (apenas) pesonitos Silvanus, a protetor of ‘rope. Tn this capac the go possesses thes tls domesticus an [greats ne by noes surprising since other sarees tel Now vans funded the dams (Bom) sn the ager (eld); Silvanus orienta, {betted besidea sacred grove, sess understandable. Thatasaereé ore Constitute a boundary Is anasual; that this aspect ofthe delty was fmgined wader the ttle orientate ig even stranger. Orientals snd its tSsoblton wit boundaries has n Eascan Mavs, though of couse the Romans too were infested in serminL™ E. Roos specoltes that ‘reat somes ftom oir (0 se) which can be odersood i 38 ‘Srcononial sonse’*Sivanus Oriel thusrepresntstheplsce where the boundaries (or prhaps the sun arse. Hea ee ryt Gael 38 6 Puan, Trane ame 7 He, St Sir aan ne do 8 1-8. 150 neem etd Unt Oxtat 7) i eterno. BESET oneal eee neve Another expanition forthe epithet doped on connection between the sbowepastage ofthe Grom Veer and asta, recorded by ‘Varo grevervedby Augustine Ci. Dei6.9,whichalso dep Sitvanus* nature a wiparite, Avgotine explain how thre weary diviniis— Dever, Pilomnts and Ineeidena— protect the new-born infant fom Silvana’ cre. Pach oppotesedifeentespectot Silvanus whichean be matched with his thee spheres ond in the Grom Vetees Deve g0dds8 ofthe broom, indspanibl in gathering rai (as ‘Augustine nie) canbe thou of a warding of Silvanus Apress Parnas, god the pestle, cin oer words chen work, 5 Opposing Silvanus Domesticus and intreidona a spit of wood-spiting sy~ ballad by te on as esting Sivames Oriental the sare grove.” {alight the srectrasnilaris betwen the bith itu dared by ‘Augustine andthe pussage ofthe Gromate Vetere, nai possibie Afnition forthe perpleting orientale, Orr indeed commonly means si give bin.” OF cours Why & “aaa” Sivan resides in a sacred rove snot clsr ‘Despite their similarity in statue, the above two texts clearly represeat divergent views about de diy. Inthe Gromatii Veteres Sivan sth qardlanvo the home: Augustine eis its wanes. ‘Yer e weigh Augustine's overt hoslity paganism ond consider the possibilty that he does not aceerasly ransmit the opinion of acest Iwill suggest he following chapir—portaps there i. & Single eadton, one which the Oromatot Veteres imperfect records fd Augotine prpocly gsr ‘Silvanus altars may omsees have been used as bounday make fen, since they sometnes seem to have performed apuropas func tions *Sitvanns hound my bernre a watch han a si or hunting and herding. Sil no ala Specially designates ise a8 a fermi ‘ips 6 uh ttigrgh). OF the enn ess, oly Fmt i "ipa ar ie Wi ety rasSpee reece eee eer ere eee And Sivanus hed no url festival such a the Terminals of Febuary 25rd when the boundary stone and ala were sec up according 1 ULE and private ites * Tummy, Horsceand he gable passage ofthe Gromit Veteres pony Silvanus af aged of boundaries, I Bt of property st As Jroecor of the limis of the fara, Silvanus sso defended the home {dom Over 1iaseitions,theoverhelnig mary from Punonis| sod Daca, areas the Slvanus Damas kiown from the rama ‘Vetoes Silvanus’ function as deus domesticus isnot wnusta,snge ‘other des not nomally thought of as household gods also bear this pte espcialy nthe Danubian proviness As uardanof teenie indus, Sivanas was naturally concerned with the dom. Yet Seonograpiealy tere io hint of the god's domestic role, and walters ‘tterthan te Gromatc Vetees donot deplethim doors a assecated ‘with he home, Silvanus Domesticus may be pecliaro the provinces of asennad Dacia, bth takes it place in family worship hrowphoat ‘to ompir along with Vasa, Jans, the Lares an the Pats. Sllvanus Rad pardcularly close is with tho Lares anal Ponatos wo share # number of dedications with is, especilly io Rome, where he ‘was evencaled a Lar Aprests°One a Gund the god for testoring ‘hePenatsofhis amily clan." Themajory ofthe Laresassocited wit Svan are those ofthe imperial not the private use, and has pint ‘oimperal rather thandomesticeut Perhaps this is why Silvano aly eas tho tle dementicus when pared with those housoeld spits = “The Lares had much in coe with Silvano wh, der the ie ™ SEN, Ssmman Due sede Serenhatarerdnng in Wane dessa ea heme i poy doom Se ‘eigi, Poee ths, “Dae O65 GUE) Ha St gr Srna evn CX SD, ne a tein ras Car ERTS imeem gee hate I 0 VSI oa gent 620510 0. A8 95 XG 11 (etme: goed es aoe pare Petes ns ie ri Si oa a Sree eee eee eee ee oS domesticus invaded stony their domain, but sot of he Pena ‘Te realm of he Lares, oc noes Timid tthe dus, and hat oF anos, extending beyond th sae and the ager, atally ovr lapped Silvas’ modestsvinesfoundingivate homes inCaztuntum | and in larara in oe locations, cee resemble aroria:" Thats tine sti evidence, nowever to suppose a clase coordination between the cal of Silvana and that ofthe Lares and Pets cuts Tal. vans embraced every aspect of eual fe: forest, nd therefore tres and bunting: farming, and ths Reding and other agricultural rocesees inching storage in wazehonses) boundaries, end he hore Sel, Tese tits were univers, but sme were seed more ot est. fn certain regions In general, we wil see that Silvanus wus nly concepmatze in thseruserolesinastalculzctiee inc hismany tes rarely have anything odo wit cra ite. Chapter IV will conser how Silvan was regionally adapt to ft the religous ness of Hs suerents in Hayate various provines neal sontexts Silvas Sometimes tok on ne! oles for oxample, perhaps oa funerary po ft Aquileia, wasior deity at Siu, nd patron of guaries nal ‘Aquitans, Nocicum, Dantia and Commagene, Other eharcterisios scribed Slvanus should be quosione, nt entirely dissed 1 Wil argu inthe following chap tat his supposed ability to ive -ropheciss and his hostility tovazds women, a8 Tlated by Livy and ‘Augustine respectively, ae ater tals othe god Faunus, whe was ‘occasionally confused with hi, ‘We can beter define Sivanus a religious entity by examining his reasonshipwais devotes, Votive inscriptions set upby the plus te ke toundersending cut observances and worsippertviniy interac tion. Alargenumber of deication pecially fll a vow (ex veto) many mote simply record a sacrifice, ee sacrum, the mest common sachin ecm ta Spiceciaiee ee iter aeons erase Fe anh aL anata Pe 1 anne sts em eran a ean an kn sei se esto hana feat se Mb Said bt amen chute ncaa ‘Sapre: 84, BAY AE 90419, A 1980 Tek. 2 nN ay SS ertering For dies. Quite few name Silvanus inthe hope of segue {ng the belt of fly member, ends, te emperor the desiator insti "Oneman thanked Sivan Soren rom ness inirmiane Tiperats) two fesdmen paisod th goo for berating thm fom Slavery {ob libertoiem) anther vowed Silvanus a sate becanse be restorathis household gods we others calle upon him fo ease their Temes in tabelcedefonis® Generally, te reason gven forthe ftlerng has nothing too with Sivans’bosky or agrarian ature, Odie Akdisatons were set op sitter bocauee Sivanos or another god 60 ‘Commanded in some wy (x sou o ex imperio Sivan, or tesaus of teem or vision (eri sonnio mont, and ae) exaudius) TO “ehatentent these commands and wstonszeprsent the acta perception Di the adherent ator han sandaczn epgraple forme devoid of religious meaning is unclear x visu offerings ffor large groups tpouse sespicion tat ineracion with Sivanos was not quite 30 per Sonal The vist majority of Silvanus dedications, lke thse of eter Aivintes ate quite similar a content. Yet repetition may indete ‘maintenance of ancestral cult fms rater thn religous stagnation vcd ee eat en 1 Kel Ges uay ase cau nl anes 2 sen at a 1 A tus an ta bad tr ok: fn OL eee ces St ir deh ian ak rae Wie ena, Berets Gatibc' sl ta Roca leit Ce ak Be aie tstarea oh eaten te So ee ee rae SRA US ve rye mana a a aoe tae ian on ee ee ee aie sel a ye danar sa rattan toad rats Worshe aiden 1961) 158. Knowing wht was vowed tm divinity # sometimes hep ip understanding He cul. Offerings to Silvanus are of the walkin temples, tates, bronze and stone plaques, roves of trees, and oc sional ings end pendant The species of animal ecified voi dd fothave much signifinee, No ove Kind of animal was saughered on the gods altars. ° Joven (6247) implies ha Sivan" usual surficial ‘elim wasthepig whichis sometime seeaincuic depictions “Hone (pas 2.1143) onthe band claims that the pig was holy Tells, ‘ores il was offered upto Silvas.” Marsal (10.92.67) remarks that ita the Blood ofthe lamb or youn goat which stained the go's ars. Ina Sivanus appears wi all sorts of amas" Evident, any Sin of ereture was prorat for a ace to he god. For easons ‘of sconomy offering of wins, pai and propared moa, as desenbed in {Cao's iteto Mare Sivanus, wero probably more common ths anal ssedtce.” Tntrying to reeonsrut cults and general practice, we ind Title toditferenae te worhipof Silvas frm that of eter pagan dis. ‘Ther is no information about public rites an esas for he god— ‘xcept those of collegio-and we can hacdly forma clea pictre of Private worship, ivan veneration was probably the responsibility of the eldest mle inthe household, the paterfamilas, or sroups of| patresfaniiaram. But, 8 Chae V wil demonstrate more fll, the Inechanlsms for poup worship-temples, sated grows, colegia and Priesthoods--suggenthae Silvanus cut sometimes assume acole: live side. For the most pa, however, his vengration centred sreund ACSA) cat tn geclespese a nan we ta ete whe pe "Glogs CHE ih 8) Pee 1, 910, 657 Rome: F SEES oa eee epee CEE eee iti eae Cone) ah ete SESS Aza ae Site vases Ponts a28 ——_RBLIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS sul shies th hoe anon the farms of odividaals who sacrifices “Mthoutmuchexpens, elaboration and fanfare. Most adherents were not tomer of formal collet, dd 1 depend on priests for he execution of vtigions tes, and. may not usually ave sooght out designate tenpies and groves for worship. Our knowledge af he dviity comes ‘Serle rom petateinivdons. These na douts reflect only an Ghrepesctative acon ofthe enti adherent popoaton The ages troup of doves. te furl poor, has naturally Left ite tac of ts ‘Maohmeat 1 silvanss ‘Gnftunatly the reasons for Sitvanus’ veneration are not erty sellout hey ere moe easily seaged than brought out from the ‘Ricenc at hand The Jdioter i imerested in recording an st, na ‘Stnowiona feling. which erups was never fl.* But considering the teen ofeallesve community worship andthe hundreds of private ‘terg from ndividols, we cannot easly isms Sivenas personal Sppeat T do not mena to say Ra prsonl religion was in ony way eperios to civil. Hoth ypes of worship complernented on another. ‘Sivanas suited te devotees need of personal ea for is 0022708 nd rogues ne sae way ae pli cos bonded the individual the Comunity. In heapparent cheer and contusion polytesm parc far wtclary divinity wa often singled eu Aristocrats had thei connec- tons with tis othr god or pode, so dldmore humble folk who cos Uh oof rste dey from the privat sphere as their protector Private dedications ienographallnages and coleslaw present only an outward face which we most onsite before entering the mis erik Sivan worshippe Weave ssn how SUlvanns appears, om the tac at leas, o have fonctions primary as protector ofthe woods, ‘Sgucutre boundaries and the Hom, we probe deeper, however We arly fd the go venerated fr these reasons ‘Srpiingly few of Silvanus” over eighty epithets ae agricul usar or bosky. "Onl five tes bave aay aoographical or namerial Fmnorance: domesticus, ivester. des, sancti, and augustus, These tie found on approximately 85% of fvecatons containing epithets {in therefore provide out bests for understanding he masiaton of theSilvansdhrent Alleles oscar only sporadically, Domesicus, tre have seen, sconfnedprdominal to Panna and Dacia, frontier +L ne dpa atten hm “Bethrepomte ws. provinces where the home (dents) as vulnerable to atack, or at ast ar thought beso. cs Svan wdional roleasthe defender ofthe one andthe amily wich appeaid to the nubian ofthese region. (uty seca ffom the dangers ofthe densely woodes Danabian frovnces, Sivenusalgo takes on hs mostobviousfuntionas forest god Under ue ie stvester in coughy the sare aes. Elsewnere—even for ‘ramp in heavily ovestod Gaul and Germanis—ededicator was ess oncorned with or innidted bythe sve, and Sivanos" faction as forest gos vas sltowed fo lap, ofa least was not sng out fr Take Strano iskeown mestoftenas sancti holy inthe Gali, Coernan and British provines. as deus (Bod); and in Daim, 2 Seguous (renerablor revered). The widespread use of hese her ies {dicnes that Silvanos war ought of a8 sn important, omnipotent tEvinty, aot a minor lea! spr, Although these epithets convey & (ever feting of eliions ae, ty do not suggest any pacar nee Fv fr grea rr cer purposes. R Palmer suggests ffatsancs efletse practic of conseeratngasate ofthe dey he Stntoe ect was sant, and ths te ile was applied also © the Guin." Samet was frequently employes in describing husbands, ‘ves ad oh uily members 08 tmbstnes and hus may signlty “Chute” rather than “oly” "Dens, found om esritions aftr A.D. 124, js jniative of the relatively Inte date of Silvan’ dedications with this epitbet™ I is Tequcnly sed also to deseribe Morcury and Hercales.” Plier te Teves that neue of deus eee fom 2 nend odstingoshbatween the {dvs and eral Silvanus, de te adoption ofthe goats mame as A petsonal coqnomen A pra ofthe indces of CIE, however, shows thar the provinces here Silvanus was most poplar as 2 mame— ‘Numidia and Affi ate not he repons where Deus Silvanus com: pias omer este, A 0 185.90 cn al Metta ton ane Recker erin cen Os lpm Kort Se) Sa i unk) 2 "A pes ene ee ee ee eR aig nr sno isomerate30 —_RALIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS Agustus fs not an wnasl designation for otber Roman dies.” tt doesnot nocessariy inpy itera paronege,sinceitisotpaiculsly prevalent on dications ofthe pro salute Imperatris ype or on those Iadeby radon who spc emselvesas Auguste" eve august ‘ost likey indicate saved or venerable na goneal Seve "Tiles such as sator ower (Moos, and mess. havestor (Dae +), arte only ones which inate that Sven ensured he panting tnd harvesting of eros. Except for svete, epithets which refer to County ie in any way ae also raze agrestis, rostc or agrculral (Goma) capes. rral (Dacia) bari, gasy (Paonia) anes, Jotcholding (Ate; incurs tal) preeses venation, watch ‘man ofthe hunt Pennoni) and saxanus (7), ropestian, perhaps an ‘luton to quutee (ori), Vous, referring to the servile alist Soho meaged the fm, dos item tobe one of SWnus" ies, bt te cases not corelesve (Rome ally?" ‘Silvanus remaining appliaons aro difficult wo cagorize Into ceoceptual groupe and suggest # wide range of foctons. Tponymic rotifers comprise the largest unl, found mostly In Rome and the ‘rvions of Beneventam They highlight Sitvangs’ local tes with privately eved land ap isle as defender of the owaer's home and family. Ae custox, guardian (Rome aod aly, snd conservator, pre Server aly, Geriania, Ait, Commagens, Panosin and Mocs) Sitvanus (s 8 protector in « more general sese. AS viatar, wavelet (anmoni}, he watches over teavellers who fear the dangers of the oumtyse; as solutari,hestful (Rome), and potaps restior, ‘estore (Rome), he sfepuuds health AS casoicus sy) he defends "he ome (case). Anoterestgory of tte, totally unexpected fora ruse deity, 1s suggestive of wider oven cles seoe: és, aly or pore (AS), betermss, ettnal (clay, coneacranas, mae boty (Daci); divas, he “ine aly; domains lor ly, Narvonenss HispanisandTipeltania), wine ints Ath Pane 2d Blk ta De eu cosa Per eeee Felina Cemeblay Pavra, Masa, Woe ay castes heavenly (Rom): ese (Rome, Italy, Natbonensis ‘anes, aea aly and Pannonin viens unconguerable—ike Sol lind Mitras (Rome (), Hay (7) and Beane}, panes, onivertl (ome, Bite, Basics and Pannoniy, pollens (Rome) and pores {sly powerful ser, oly (Romo); and Yonan,tandering (Marat 192. Silvanus was toapht of poworal god who could not be Signore. Dendraphora, niga o Ror and its nome environs not 8 surprising eptit fora deity portrayed holding apne brat The te teat of prime importnce in he worship of Silvan ad the Silvana Veo usally hol tee Branehes. Some scholas connect Silvamas and Magna Mates follower, the dndraphor., one of whom vowed an btferingoSilvantsas dndrophoras An Ostan tombstone recor he Uecoare'srnembershipincollgiaof both Silvanus and the dendrophor: fof Magna Mater” What dew the derdrphori wo Sivan s either is tte of holding the pie cr tents avy of his devotees who ‘rotmbly cari ees ding egouscoremonies, in he sme way as the worehippers of As and Magna Mates. ‘Bellator, warrior Pennors), castrenis, of the camp (aly and Nomis), and cohortals (2, refering tothe army coor (Dalmati), point to Silvas" seldom seen wari side. Praesent, or preseat Rome), indicates a sense of clovenss with the deity; pater, tater {Atriea) and porns, oral (Numidia and Afric), Silvanus” poe {ance as am anceswal god, Contact, be is called both young (dri and ol Gene) nly. Gems, sn (Ua. isnt immed esis es nne ee Homaran vg its Fey, iteapnu Crop PT) 2, reat Ct aac eh pn fh ane, lat St pA 90 teins orto Scat ‘Soe Geno ety feat. EH Cul Cane Sv uu 4014, nama ei snopes eaten gua wh op Pe ‘Seiten ti ) omns ee a om Et Vist nests ore Sage ate wo wiped sivas Ose ere see. ee mca ls eon oe AE SUBTEST Wn Cae roan corr pete Tis te Ronan Si Gea s500 51, aed apr Se ai ice haus Ales ain ati wea Sopdet tet depo vane bn eo ha Sn ae ee attempt © hurgen. “Dear DES TOS emer rer sce A dpa agrr SR _RBLIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS ely explainable, but perhaps alludes to the double faced god Janos ‘who, a8 geardian of doorways, complemeatsSilvanos' domestic side Commas, common (Dalai), might rele to Silvanus’ patronage of tm oniee community Less underundabi are ante}eessor, scout (@angenia) and manus) other, shih may eerie Sivan (Gannon). Barbara, foreign (Mea), anda least ne othe tides indicate synereism ith varous naive vas inthe roviness.”| ‘Sivan invoked for wholo range of reasons which ave lite oe rothngtodowithhsoutwardrstic character Tho godnown ows was daptesto urban not rural neds. No longa plans oferps and hunters of enimals, many simple ok the eis clung to thelr ances got handed down fom thelr forefathers sho lived in the countyshe, Silvana flexibility ith key to understanding how he survived tho transition from te county tothe city aad hw hy cle ourshed in a new envionment The Washippr sa in hima general presctor of te homo, family and pessnal property. and areminverofhiscoutry oot, Svanis represen notlgic longing fr terra weld an the hope ‘of escape from urban misery. Mit chose Nima ter lary 200 look ovt for their own pertoal sift: they beloved that their own feetue,prospeity and saccess depended on his favor. While he gods ofthe sate watched over the commamity at Inge Silvanus diclly resed inva cores, Calmiion 0) naomi, Calta Beach, Celia Brana, Molar ‘pen Pei rs), (peh ft Geni Been eas eee nana conven rime FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAE Ancient literate docs not aways clery distinguish among the gots Sitvanas, Faunas end Pe, Pinus, one ofthe caries authors to enon Silvanus posbiy hd the Gresk Pan nmind when he employedasared szove of Silvanus in his Aululari, Silanes” association with Pan ‘probably cannot be raced back mach bofoe th dite ofthis pay, the arly seco century B.C, when direct Hellenistic influence was fst strongly fin Rome, Any confesion betwen the to cet doesnt tntodatethe fourth century BC. when Pan wa it nrodaced 0 Til. COntho other hand, the Roman Fun” eatonship with ivan arly extends ito a eer perio Founus InLatnttratureFounusis il wellkaown es arustic, woodland ety ‘realy king of Roms" Beyond thi, very Il can best boat bit clusive religions character. Although mentioned by classical writers far ‘more aften than Sivan, herein am obscure sndenigmate divinity ‘whom the soins themselves may have misuaderstood. For example, Vera der. 7.4)rogarded Faun the fuhorof tina sonof Pcs, andgrandsonofSetum, According Dionysus of Halicarnssus(1 31), fo wits the ton of Mars. However, sine the woodpecker (picus) was ‘ered to Mars and may symbolize tat od he aoeoonts of Ver nd Dionysus may notte so iverget. Ther iatso confusion over Faun involvement in the Lupecalia” By Augusta times Faunas evidently “ooh ee ty 298 Sr, te hein eae en) ‘se atonal na aa neta Popa odrndSree ‘a na Bp on ez edt te fant me apes sll ee Oi Fa 2g epee hm ie treme Se ‘Stems nciduman Panay fayocysbetucl et eat ote Spree (Oe as stnospt Famine Dect Fra nde= ‘FAUNUS. PAN ARiD THE SILVANAS Pepe Thetford Treasre, reeely discovered in England, cotxns cee i tea ate pe ntney net esas tt cmp eens as ae ep One Gas tras 0, teeta hacsaomrone cartoon capri tion acts ieee da mg ese a Sant ioe awe ct Mans 9 ‘outnance ins foma a Senate isieme tee oie ates eras 13 ne pr Zoubeut ces reign Soh Seca, Sak Lane Rome pnts Gestinat oc ena eon Fun cl coe ee 1a reer aria te ere etre SERB Rea cerns tania Eee re Scien wrenches secon cece erence ‘idea repinalen im BU, opp. ats 188) 10-07 “Sie: fs ne van yo em ot ea aa, Macnaliss (Le, Pas), the Naldss, Magna Mater anda “ojoleng” (gaudens) Sivangs in one vere; Ovid (fe. 1.192-198) has Nymphs, Fons, Stys tnd Mfonicolae Sivan inthe sme use landscape; en the Elder Pliny (NH 12.3) sd some mannserps of Augustine (Cv. Det 15.23) josapose Svan’ and Fauns* A metrical nsrpion from Aes Proconslaris also couples the two gods who complement one nother pariculty in verse (CL VII27162). Poets, however, clearly prefered FaunustoSilvanus who wasevienly bit ioomundanefor ety bell poetry. yond thes fondness for sero groves, the woods and someties floks, Sivan and Faunus avo lite in common. Sivanus dos act, ‘hare moch of Fansus ably to deliver prophecies and ences, ether in dreams or in forest seuings? Livy 7.2) and Valerios Maximus (83) do atribao the ronoarcament of the defeat of Targunioe ‘prt in bat wo Sivana" however, Dionysius of Hateamarses (6.1623), in namating the stme episod, has Prunus announce the Romano vietoy. Ink Ovi’ s iw, Livy Vilerius Maximus proserve the tue account, while Dionysus substates Feunus becaise Of the god's familanty wo a Greek audience." But would Faurus ‘obscure event the Romine, be mare recopninabie a Gresk? tie more Ike that, Dion us preteredFauaus, edd so becuse of ls cose tesembtance wo Pan, whose intervention on bball ofthe Gress atthe Bante of Marathon (Herodoms 6105) is what the writer sparen was recalling. At any rte, # may be he Latin auhoes whe ae mistaken in {his insane, since thre are many ouses forthe orca alent of unas, and 00 eer for those of Sivanus. Caro (De Di. 1.101) seports that Fas ton o give announcements in bute o nines of Canfoslon exactly the sition Livy and Valarus Maximus describe. ® “En eh he si a alms ining ran etuce ecm appv. nee Fano Nemetia2 73 (Fab ster mr ted er bane 5 Oar ean Ce etree 225 ce Reena Cee 1 Deer act tesaney aeaantantan wevenenanne ornate EVEL Sec en en Sr) {Comex nL ess 1 Ox 96525036 AGN FAN AND HS SILYANAE se tkeod of prophecy going Sivanas shoul ot essed rae ctnertetdite expe wit sc RSS reepicim SS ae ale of Fam” ale! wih pared oon hfs pipes Poe pre lens fala 2 ao i weve exer son he aon ch apr Fas th ges onan Dalai se set insamens of an Kin.” ARE erases enn het ees st iin eA {excae entFonas caine estes an fen XSIS aan ree nispareaay ex exrnng won aoe ee fund, Semis consistent maine Sen Oe ond ban forme en Sree wath fan Dla Tp asin (iv. Del 6) este Sivas iy (sei. in senenegesagterceors tox te ga reyeon womesatnh Mitey we fips neni ‘venue tn eg i ao as weet sp SERRTRA LR etsivasnenety en andeosbin he Fo Ser uu, ci een Eo atl Ce a ee ‘eri a rechnuenaCosept wer rs Sesion doe amo Uk ea Saeco agra (iit one ana ua Sounnties eae taeda tars ‘pee ens a rut oh ee Rom, bik ey ofthe gous open 2 qurtion Ge bp. 9) Teena pe a pn ce eh [FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAE a ne ne ntti srspt charts matting Soe oeeaereeeacar tare cae a bm: fom tse ents fue esa ice a tapi sea fiona See iisse iy enceractanesiegnens Augustine's lai tat he ax, pestle and broom, 5 symbols of are ee Cultura signe), prevent Svan ey into he home othe fonsttnousheoncerned withthe aneatvated woods, also watebes oe [elas and he houseold The night setlog of he pssage is strange D0, ‘Tho nation of Sivas aba deity of he sight surfaces only in the ‘splous passage ot Livy 2.72) discussed above, On the conta Ga (De Apr Cul 83) spies that a sucifice to Mas and Silvanus {ast be made only during dy ihe Hours (nerds), That Augustine oon wey tle about Sivan eas quite posible tate purposely fhatoaed nat he tea in Vato also cannot be excladed. Si he ‘Chistian weiter appors to have bused his story on some kere of tah ‘ohich is obw no longer recoverable or he has some rude concept of ‘Bran thee fold atrederbed by ander source: the three spins fnontonsa by Augustine can be tovght of as opposing the Silvanos Domestas, Apress and Orientals ofthe Groth Vetere.” "Raguatine describes silry wicked Silvanus inasecond section of ciitas Det (15.23), In which Sian and Panes (Pau in some franuscrip) called oc, tack and sexwally barat women inter sleep" van and Ps st same coon clic, fe sed ‘cool AE Sac scenes n vig es AB Augustine alone aeates Silvas of being hose to women, casing ‘hud deans dorng the night and acacking the Home No ober write ‘Conbortes these remarkofthechurch ater. Rather, ths Faunus who onsisenly posseses these maevolet abuts, pr cinion tec ae Grams Yer ata Plnee ya Buns integrin eave Gy be G8 ep Fe ee ees Pa soe saeOse 2s [PAUNUS, PAN AND THE SLVANA “Tne ancients often yameg of Fauna’ hostliy and sexual aggressive sess toward women. ® They depict i active at dark especially when ‘Chung nightnares® Although sometimes imagined 362 shepherd ard ts favoring cops, hes nota concerned wish herding an urcaltae as Sitvanus2 Favnue abodes te forest and sacred groves, ncuable elds Verpl Aen 6 364) imagined te Faussaslivinginthe same age ‘Sranancient ace, speun ro the tees, which kes ating of arming ‘rivesock need. Pauntscouldevenheatonagicaltre: Ovid (Fas! {$865 observes how Nutna ave famine by appessing Fun wih {sacrifice fest he damage the crops. Perhaps Augustinnconfoses Sivanus with Faumbs in Civitas De, nls he careful, et not ffi, Varco is responsible fora mix. seams improbable that Avgustine simply misread his source; maybe Feconseoasy sobs for Fay the ore fiir Sivan whose opularcolt was bate ange foran-pagan cls than an obscure ‘rvnty with it oro following, We, of course, cane offhandedly isms the possibilty that Augustine wansnis an acorete text of ‘Varo whointorn preserves mpetat information about Sivan in an arly, obscure period, A mse divinity might conceivably be hose to fartorion which was the special coer of goddesseslikeanoLcina End Diana, The ccasion of bith wits Uought of a6 a paiculrty ‘ngerous sme hen oth moter and clsld were vulnerable to evi daimone, Given the High rate of infant moval in ang, snot (Gan MS aha tne Se svc on roe Segre et aia tn Si eae npr tt pga ch 872) es (a ahc pak of dea of te ihn ‘estes ieee atu es caesar fi ase et See ete poe) Ov es Foon lg Raven eat ots Yee 103g ‘GET SPR NPES pi te sae c ne ghee ln Souter Her sancna by egos (Ci Der 1303) Sees Aen 713, dose Ori Epa ea (3 an oes (aes ss Sa ves ape aca ra she a [PAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAE we surprising that tere was a need ta invoke divine powers to protect she tay, We ean ony gues bother Sivanos was involved elsowhere in ehuldinh or ona tes of passage important fail fe Soholarsbave never sriuslqusstnodtheidesficaton of Silvanes with Faunus, G, Wissowa sth two gods culs as complementary” Sivanss ran uodfical dey. lacking state emp and festival inte relgious calendar, with 8 popular, widespread private cut represen by hones of dodicatiog; Fauns, on te other ang, is a effcal vin, wih public temple and festival suppose the Lupecais), ‘vo is ot worshipped inthe private sector According to Wissowa, Silvanus therfore isthe private counterpart to the public Fasnus, Considering tat Vergil Aen, 10551 calls Fauns sibicla efter posted hat Silvana i the ajetiva form ofthe sabstaiveFaunas ‘Wissonselaborat ad mglnatv theory does nox bear wp toelose scrutiny. irstf ll theres no noe ro oxplaina lack insertions for ‘Fuuaus. Many tte dios For, Pals, psendSpestonamea few — tre epigaphicaly unknown a insigiicant, These surely did noc have “private” divine ax counterparts, Secondly, Wisowa does ntrecos- rive the disput characters of the wo god des ot make much Of their appearance rogether a= cst! entes. Lay. Meid argues {east Wissows's notion that Sivas futons the adjectival for orFaunus-” No wrkerussSivanat name tomodlfy Faunus. Besides, ‘Sorc Seams oom eres ats Siamese Esanor ung te Ws See Sec acest mia eat re ‘pe Learner devs romn Ors 905 11,3726 Camel, “ations —--—™lrUr—~—C~C~C—C——C— eee on ot0 [FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAB forthe noun Silvanus here exists perfectly easonable adjectival fom, Silvester SvicolaFaunus, which Wissowa cts as evidence fr linking Sivanasand Faunasjeanbe translated: “Faunsf the woods.” Sthicola, snadjeetiesimilrinmeaningosivotcurandavesris also doscrbes Piles (Ovid Fast 4.746) ands fn no way indieave of any connetion totweenFsunvs and Silvanus, Wissows smd ohersunustiibly entity the two divinities, Their few common waits—andity and the pine ttnibute—tre to inden of oe dies, such as Hercules and Pan, to be paca significant Pen Unlike Faun, Pus oqute wit varus in actual cul practic, Tae Dalmatian ParSilvanes f a religious interpretation peculiar 1 the Irian coast and wil be eated a more el inthe following chapter. “Tas Pan-Silvanas on on of te relif onthe Asch of Constantine in Romeiselso special ese which wil breservedfor Chape V. For the ‘momeatlet us facts onthe reladonsip ofthe two gods a general ene in pres and pos "have eleady potted ou tht Silvas” sacred grove measioned by Paulas (Ai. 673, 7662) may eonespand to acave a sacred grove ‘of Pan in some unknown Helleistie souce used by the playstight Specific eqution of the two gode eccurs In only tuch later 35, however. Te eanertoftese(econdeenary -D.).foma Greek point Of view, repanded Aura a8 he equvalnt for Silvana. The snony~ ‘movstitncentaryauthoraf the Oige Gente Romanae (4.6) reson that unos as populist ealed either Sivamus or Pan® And Tsidorss (Orig 8.11.81) u seventh century Spanish bishop not the most liable [soure for pagan cls, imagined acomplete seri." Other authors Inceton Sivan and Pan together, but ply no equation, ta these instances tee i always ar awareness ofthe Wo gods as separate Ieings, For example, Vel contrast Senex Sivan and Paz; Ovid pits Panes and Silvas (Silos?) nL. vean and some manuscripts ‘F Augustin axtapose the poral frm ofboth divine.” we cop atigd Sy Mars (520 ate estore evonteanucets One 16059" Fer Senge usu, “Too ch has sen made of Silvan oe elatonship vith Pann diteatre Te isnot surging ha the Roman god is sometimes com- pred with his closest Cree eguvalent, especialy poeuy. The very onion of Pan and Svan together implies two Separate dets. Tho ‘Sivanus of Latin lieraare and acta ent pace retanod is Latin Sppedtance and sacoesfllyresined Hellenaing tendencies, eveninthe Nighy Greeklnlueneod gene of vers. Accorcingly, witers more fften reat fhe 660 separately and Keep distinct tee paricular, yet Sometnes overlapping, abuts. ‘ivanes shares few common rats wit Pan: oshipo the forests nudity, companioaship of te Nymphs and shepheres, andthe pie. Beyond this, however, fw comparisons can be crave, The very things Wwhichaistinguieh Foon rom StvamasalsosetPanaparttrom Slants sexual aggressiveness, loge kinship with Satyrs ad Sites, goat form, isioerest in agricutore, musial abit anda tendency to eause pani, "These ferences are evden ot only in terse, bt als in atl culepractice. a the diverse fonograpicl types of the two gods show: Sivanusraely has Pan'rcopie feature; be malta shan for, tu normally doesnt appear wath na oat, pen Shepherds sta) Spine (te, the most ctariceisie abuts of Pan Nov does Stvants dance or perform comic as the pastime activites of Pan, ‘Whale Pan i requenly encountered especially on secophogl in ‘Bacchi revels along With Sart, Sens and Maenads, Silvanus is ‘conspicuously absent a5 particpantin such frenzied rgasie aff ‘Even when Silvanus joie Pan apd Silen a ele, architectural lemens detach him fom the two who Mak his sides * Never Is See Fea ieee mint ra Ue mf arr 20 ey oe ra ve uc hte tp St het scot eae fenin ntea Chats NR Garhi Pl th vi (naw in rae in Te Museo Atchslogic i Plaence) (ee pls 2)2 [FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAR Sitvanus stately, igifed countenance compromised Unik beth Pan find Faunus, be doesnot copaate with women sl gous, and ever SSsumnes an evi oe tex role, Repeeunatons of the god ate ot ithypali Silvana frequen nakedness, ike tharof Hercules, stolly devoid of erica, and evokes a earthy and rst implicty appro ‘rate for «ral dey. Sivan and Pan reel shar optbet of equivalent meaning,” Tht respeciveclls Wee of eiferen character, even though both oncemed themselves withhontng herding ad the woodsin general sndno doubt Failed sia eigious moe fr toi adherents. We can only con- te tet the colts of Frunas and Pan were separate from that of Sivanis 1. should not be surpesing tat Reman society, which was ‘predominandyrral reguiedsevera forest gods At woodland divin fy Silvas was bound to be afiliatd, especialy in lieratre, with forest Gites ike Feunts, Pa, the Sens, Says and Nyraphs. These Sivnies, however, munsined thelr sepante religious personales fad eats, Wht indeed neosting aboot Svan i How much he Totined bis individuality vis-d-vs che rustic des. The same cum aly be sai of Faunus wh a times is completly synerezed witt Pan The Stvanae Sitvanus' relationship with is female cornpanions, the Nymphs ent Silvano, deserves special atention because, of alive, he appears Inost often on insertions snd lle wth there godseses, ra Ovid (det. 1.198) would have us belive semi-tvine beings semi). Dae to ter ater colorless and eusve character, they have atacted very lide notice in pas schorsip, dospt the ich evidence they provide forthe invalvementof womes athe clt ard aposileconnection with [e-Roman religious paces on the Danube” Literature associates Silvan withthe Nymphs, ot with the Svane, vwhichise completely epgraphle erm, Vegi (Geor 2.4931, juxtapeses SR cent 2h Le ig Se, rn Up en ln 4) e 7 |FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAE a te sister Nymphs with Sivanus Senex® Since the Sivanae and the [Nymphs alaysappesr as youthol maidens, a father dnupter lan ship botwsen them an he older Sivanos might be expected. More [ikely, no family connoction wat imagined tall nd these godestes acted metely as Silvas’ companions alr atendans (Ovid and Lucan pir Sant and Nymphs. Pezaps they distinguish ‘he Nyemps fom the Sitvanae, i Sivan ae undestod n Svsras™ pra form-" Svan’ concivaly includes the Silvana, since Silvanus has a0 male companions But, fs, why are the Svante and the ‘Nymphs mentioned togeiner? Is tice a certain vedandancy in these passages of Lucan and Ovid crarethetwopoetsconrasing the Svan Ed the Njmpos inthe sameway, Say, the Dryades and Nodes are jostaposed fr pool effet? Te not clear thatthe ploral form of Silvanus incloes te Sivans inal stances, Pechape Sivan refers 0 ‘marl animistic stage of the deity when Stvanus was not imagined tna concrete, stbropomorphic way. Or perhaps the term generically refers to eres divinities vege sense. Atany rth ivanae were tidenty so ataced 0 the preonlty of Stands tht they merit no Special comment in Latin erature, ‘Almost worthids of te epigesphic evidence forthe Svaae som Pannonla the rests Wily spread cut over de Wesers Empice.* In dition to dedications tothe Sivan, there ane a eer number Silvana and he Nymphs, en spill popular combination in Dal Uin* Such inscriptions ae notably absent rom Panton, whose ina sar a 2489 aio atte ge a et stat Some ae 0 Sa ee oe (Gna Caadope pes Mito, “Sse mpapne Tole “SRneum e A antnat) CH 8 ction 34 SESS" cin Cs iby enn BEC 0 epee (Geputh 07inhne) asia A ey age aah Ct Tesh onan A tas CL TH 398(Cnpn Rome CI alte ‘ages yy racy Sond CX 08 (gh 190197036 Oc, ay GEA 358 omy Soe, 8 DHT (ep oo) ran Me ‘ai Et Md, 2296 Ble AE 19197 Ue Daas CI sp EE oy ies hoa CA aD se Aenants prefered the Roms the Grek terminology. Apparently tho uso tthe Sivanab or Nymphsismerelyasign fpigraphic habit, nocclic Reliefs ofthese goddess, who ate not always closly labelled us Sitvante or Nyinp, ae concetatin Pannonta and os lesserexen, DDaliata (bere they appear with Svanus-Pan) and Rome, Thole ‘onograpy is messy identical fo that ofthe Nymphs, exept har they fr nt depicted nade In bathing or Satyr scenes. With arms or hands ‘eked iogethar, the Sivan stand inarow facing the viewer. Sivanss| sHandstotheoxtemeriht let neverintbemidle Attimeshe even ‘ited stopetie from the sent © The goddesses are usually grouped together asete of tes, athoophosher variations range fromone tonne Figures" Tn some cates te godess hold wee branches, indcaing thle funesoneiters fori dlias or sacred eecarits(dendrophorae)* Conceivably the elo adherent ofthe cl, who mast have especially {dena themselves with he Silvie sti as dendrophora ding religious tes Silvanns” ile dendrophorae might aso apply to te Suvanae» In other its the Sulvane ety flower pots, conch shel oat SQV go a nec 55 ‘Gr inns (re eh Ue ke rea Dara 2 gee inom en eres etree eae kta ne rhea Searncaisics sae recta rap tty ca. OFC Pe 5 fe km 1, 10 [Cow ere a ie mes 1D i, no 2-0. Als top and. Wan, Ferd se eng aera a er er 9) uh Bah 57 ee lage of sve Rae Pees Manoa oe VT Tite gots orate rt Shey koa baa ee pce (itiae'Stpia tan tem es ino ans Seah adie pinetatuott Sivan ouodtene Sevan casa rot Beige "iol banc C19, 947; HL 13101 (ln Sion Beet ey ies ye CHT TON ep “gun one" Bader $990 7, gene CEES am Ch MUR pn ad ‘FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAB “6 ‘Tae Silvanae appear sith otter vines only Inthe presence of ‘Stvanus They enjoy a poacafl and harmonious elaionshi with the {od who never chases or texbaly molest them, inthe way Pan ard th Satyr hares the Nyrphs In his respect, Silvanus comport himself very eifferendy than Fanaus, whom Horace (Odes 3.17) brands 3 a over of fleeing Nymph” Even on Dalmatian on whieh Svan spears as Pa, thee is compete absence of heslity and sexual tension tare these fora ees “Tie concentsion of evidence the Danabien provinces especially in Panona, leads some to suggest hat he Sivunae ste rote in at Indigenous, pre Roman cult of Cs o yan opin. ® The Sivanee bear anancerisbe mili tothe Cell Mother Godaeses, especialy {ntnirporaylinsets of tee, altough they never si ogee in such ‘roups like tei supposed Cote coonterpans, One Silvana even ap bears ta have been adresse st mammala, an endeting ton for other" Trpety, epenlly among female deities, i commen in (Cali religion. The Matonse, or Mares as they are sometimes called, se paps the most popular ofthese female wines inthe Reman Dod and ocasinally were worshipped with Silvana. The notion fara of godesa of outs, nocalica othe Greco oman word, The hve Hours, Files and Njmpas ihe "Thre Graces") ‘ueobrious enoughexamples. Te Sivanae tad might evenprrllethe tripartite natu of Silvanus the GromaticiVeteres and Avpestin. tcp set iene enough to prove a los erin fr be Silvanus vcr Ciante dat suena ivan cite Altaupn cul Seemge Scie {1179 Link, "Monmule” RE XC {928 $06 read “Siva "prc ee ares Bc WS e301 1078 Se See tea eaeeme area rouamemn cet {Uttam “Ser ero sore wd ie Bere” Stina ame46 FAUNUS, PAN AND THE SILVANAE ‘As fora male Latin dlty baving a coresponding emiine fom, thre a other examplos 1 0c0* “Te aor of known Sivanasdaficatry are ie, oat east were eying to pass themeelves off as Rosman elszons.° The most coramon ‘ccupation that of legionary Invdaas of higher ank and impor- {nce inclae aneguestian litany prefect anda member of amuniip Senate Wonten comprise the most conspicuous group. Approximately ‘one-quarter of al dofcatre are fra, an expectedly high propercn| fora elt of goddesses who n0 doubt had special significance for ‘Unlike the Marrone, the Silvanus bear uo opie whic inicate syncretism thecal dies, Oscsionaly thy ae dsieatoda uate ‘tsivese, Lai es commonalso for Silvanus. On ons insripon They may even be called mannulae, motherly, but te reading 1s uncer Campesies is st unparalleled designation, one no be Stowe on Silvana Irters eit othe compari ts ural eld) ritary (wang groan) sense, or othe Mazes Campetes who are Ceti mater gotseses. The Matres Carpesres bear tonographica] similis othe Sivane in hat hey appear in wads fully clothed, ten holding Mowers or eter symbols of rural Le ‘Oni Bish vive caelestes een epithe forthe Quacraviae, Celie goddesses of the erossronts, and perhaps also for Silvanus andor the Sivanse The eis given t Svan at Rome by an individual Who tppliod it falseximinatly to tier divinities. Wis possible dat the Svante were equated with Coclests, the Punic Astare, who was ‘Mentieg witha number o female des, nlading ano, Ven, ian ‘nd Bona Des "ber ad hs consort Libera (CHL i 10834 125723 Foumus ls Gaughus (or wite?) mene A ieee mittineal Dim mamas 4 Gita era) (Dalai cae i ave. 3.304 oe a ieee SM ac Che unt ‘The Sivanaewersometnes veered with mysterious Quai, ‘specnly in Pannonia Soperior Twese Cele goddesses, ke ie Silvana, ae not always salen amber there are cass of Bivie end Triviae Whether the Svar, ike the Quafroiee,proteed he eas roads remains oe sen, Sivan omens fied withthe Lares andieevencaledaLarAgress; however, like the Lares Compitates, he never presides over novetiferectons unless sac acy can be infeed from his Pennonian tite vitor (vale. References to Svan appear on two dedestionsin Nesbnensis, of sich stows a males, th symbol af the Cole "Malle Oa” wo is ntisied ith Sivan tou phoutheroviese*¥ herve tbe Silvana, ‘placed by the more popula cl of the Metronae, ae absent fom a “Two Moesan inscriptions adresse inthe dative to Silvanus and Silvester (he Bosky One") may aso refer i Silvano, since oe 5 Inseibed onarelie depicting Silvanus anda goddess. Polly dressed, se terres a tee branch, asthe Sivan do on Dscubian rts. Orner foesees may also have been shows i the broken-off portion ofthe Fone, bt the single for svete seems o indicate oerwis. The ter inscription appedss onl of the mysterious Rider God, who {ins Silvanos in vo ote instances.” Peraps Silvester refers hin "ince there eno ieonoraphial hat ofa Silvana bere "nsomejnstncet the conex ofthe lmcriponorthe sculpture makes innecessary to ners the mauling pla form, Sivan as ary or wholly feminine. "Reliefs ofthe goddesses by themselves suggest that ‘Ainia Romane” Oa) 0936 (98m) 90947 tnd. Da em Sr irae See iy semen See os ba tm CH 1108 (Ap AF 1.197036 (oat. mir Ube ae Ne TOR ts, MO EE 48 A 10 ee eoiee ihe iimemancaasSvan sometimes even excludes the male divinity" There are ter Ideas of a independent werhip of hase goslesses. A posible ‘reading foraninsrption fom Carnunnamistoasingle vans Maron.” "The Nymphs to, while asosated with pletors of dete, slo coulé oqsaa cult Separate fom the male divinity. Perhaps se Sivanse twee at ao characterise and devoid of personality they were Wor shippd without Sivan, Sil itisdiffilto inane ben withothe [goof whom they Seem fo bo are sppendages. A cal ofthe Sivanae fay hve flourished in certsin areas, but St carta was closely Coondinatd wit ht of Sivas. "he Slvane are probably aparticlar ype ot yap of which here \were many inthe Greco-Roman werd" Epiraphc andiconographical evidence dace ately whether hy mor closely resembled the wood NNempis or thove of the moutais, flelds or vers. Perhaps these ignddeares functioned st Hamnadeyates,Nymps who ded with the res they inhabited, snes they often Hold wee tranches. Whatever their ‘elationshipwih Sivas thoy lack any real independent ienity ae ‘mot be considered a feminine personification or extension ofthe male Aeity. Nonebwieas, they added a special dimension to the cul, by ‘raving adberens, expecially women, sho might nt ave Found an ‘raiely scl vi reveptive to their pra reeds Ren hii ep ain) nee pr INTERPRETATIO ROMANA NowthatSilvans” genera character as bondsieatd tus conser how it varied in local eeumstances. Regionalism in ties ad tonog raph Is incative ether of Silvanus’ eibilityas «Roman divinity or this role in intrpeiuio Romana, the process by which Roman Sivintis mero ldentedwithnniv equivalents. Pterpretaio Romana iso particular signticane sine the Cele, Pte, Tracan and other on-Greco Roman divinities syetetizod with Silvana ares obs ‘en the deity in question ts known only frm an epithet atached 19 Silvanus" name, Silvanus’ non-Roman aspects—anifsted in mative epitetsandunrinoxionogrpicl eopesentatons—iellmachabout re-Romanzaigionin the povinces even therelevancrtiiers dating [Mer tho fr contry A.D ate fa femoved in ine from the origins of tho indigenous gos coneted, “Theextentto whieh Silvanus retained Roman characte orsoecombed to syncretiem is porinent for understanding both pagsism and the general processofRomanzation. isnot alvays perfec clear whether Aeisequitedcompletelywithalocl deity ormerlyivokedasyndecally as separ beg, an the case of Mary-Silvamus in Cato De Agri Cultura 83, The jolntinvocaionofSivanas snd non-Roman deity does not necessrily mean tat the to gods were thoaght of as equal all ‘espocts A oaghequationisomesimeslthat was intended. Likewise, fn wnesuallconographical type does ot alvays indicat syncretism leeway mast be made for loa atte wadlons und idisyneasies. Unfortunatly, the blk of urknow ledge about the clleomes rom ver) tersoly word insespdons which usvaly lo provide an denying tpithetor explanatory nseage whereby Sivunis ean belablledRomas| fora 9 mask for anche divinity. Rome “Tne cultundoebedy originated in or around Rome where fr cenures ‘eremained rental opal a sintiatedb thehighconcentation of achueclogleal and epigraphic remains, ncladag over two hundred fy lnverpons and dover of stues nd ells Weare dealing wits0 INTERPRETATIO ROMANA 2 Lat vin in Roms 8 conogiy an pes soy aaah dren tere Sivas does not completely eseape fetrpetaio Ronan “Amostone-trd fall dedications eferto Samus acts by Er to Rome. A wide sho most frequent appellation, one especially pecelat ¢ ‘arey of esis indian tho gas exibility in Roe, but none Df these are very nomerous.*Toponyms comprise significant group of ives tes Anda few epithets lnk Silvanus to imperial elt limp exes, a1 t0 Be expocted in te seat of the emperor's I emma hte a aaa ec armcmmos ats ees ea ea cee Ses al race a Se Sa i ee ot Ehiesrrees eet toate a, Se ea ee aaa ae eta ee ee eed gwen caloo Roto A 4b 50 eeepc mang Se tunes matte aro SRA EROS Ror asia ince escrito eR SLA het ora ca Oc ate tg era {ees Rowe. Gene plo rer soe” Sars re qos et anu ptiten antennas {fae lr onrren one snl rine Cane seer ol Eien jeiiarit es ws cometion, Silvanay appears on relies and insrptions with various Roman Alvin and gent,” He Is closely connect with the Lares ane once is called Lar Agresi Surpisingly, ha Lars worshipped with Silvas ae usually those of imperil, not domesuc cult. He enjoyed a more inmate eatonsip wit Herceles? Ono inscription alludes to fully tie net known fom anyother Source in naming Herel Sivanas? randson repos) (CIL VI329) Others claim tohave raised statues ad) (or lempes to Hercules on order frm Sanus," To gods” axeoiation ‘explained in party smilies inher eonograpties: oth are nude, eared, hold te pine and are followed by dogs. Yet. despite bis numerous offerings, Herals isnot claely assented with Svan ouside Rome." ‘The numerous epgrapieremainsof te eultin Rome, numesouseven sn celation othe enormous number of iecipens found thee, saggest that he imperial capital wae Sivanoy”srongest col center, eorpassng even he Pannonian towns of Aquincum and Carmuntum which wil be Gseussed below. Silvanus ranks among the most poplar dees in Se ee oe aa a [firey fel tbo, ina Lh a) ow (BS Si ora ug ern eeu: ie nL EST Nia” 8a i ea a see ao aw ee Reema miner Faeyr temm et ouenenarns asa SG Vat 59 ae ta mp Sanaa 7, Siiiestisrag ots: az stan inmosret cf staes afc Pee ipl ali hae aay ke DN) (Sta ane Lares 12 Gai CAN ha a ey 2 Goma ra By i as eb ee ‘GPSe Capon Sse tote wap sees C4 29 Ge2 ONTERPRETATIO ROMANA, ow, eon onto oper Optima Maxims How dos one explain ‘cdumenc urewotenagcuiral ad voedanddetynametno Wrapup over millon sus? DM! Svan ely fl ral ‘Rr inlomecr war be adap suc ebglos ees? ‘fen ne cocting sinter tt peranive nostiga fr the seid an nung or pe ie aves bela ipsa Susy Ceay.tse ssomng sical rncongoas ie ‘Svar verinig spel in seh comopolan ie. Italy (nthe sinost wo hundred insripons from Hay (excluding Rome) [oval dies ate no peived wih Silvan, noteven nares where ther Roman and Greck dvines succomted to syacreist,s0ch a8 at “Aiea (eg. Apollo Belens)andinthe Alp, Jopiter-Poenins) ‘Hse Silvan peers the company of Greco-Roman divinies almost cxclsively. "When ion re occason van amet, abways Greek or taro, Augusta, is only frequat ce, is confined virally 1 the portemn Tenth Augustan Repion, rwghly present-day Veneto, from Uihich i evideny spread wi Aquila and Tei to Dalat wher t Become extcmcly popular Toponyns, ko those from Rome ae ound patcualy sound Beneventim. Other tiles occur only i front astances ™ ‘aye atom Ev, seb rv Sie Teri ce aac et tae neg es irri a Stent Cr ea Weleeeetete chot an Seve pS np Toy oe oe naa Sms ert arma ony ein ie a Sa ‘shri uggs go ecneel wi ede (HK 2 ‘UE er Cane Got tt uape tii) ce Pafeetaaaraae Soa ceeace, aie auction ee ees ae ‘Statues, relies an oter objects depleting Sivan ae common in Talan maseums though erga provenance i or always cera.” ‘With litle varinion, most of ese exhibit the standad Ienography coined in Chapter The dsuibution of Sivanus antics, conned inthe urban cantrs of Conral and Northem fay, eetecs the rate of epigraphic reservation, and hereore is no necessarily a rstworhyindestor of ere Silvanus was tly popular (ee Map 1). Mindfl of his caveat, \te cannot atumele was animporantin Sicly and Sotherney whee fewer insciipens and olf ate preserved. At centers a echeeaog cally andepiraphical rch Pompeliand Herculaneum very Tite has been uncovered, fect mre of ehronslogical han peoprapbial igi «ance Sivanus becomes really noticeable on insnpions only dacedet ler the destacion ofthese cites." The Italian Silvanus is an ancesal Roman delty whose clt shows sarplsing uniformity. Perna he peformed a special funerary wie at ‘Agua since most othiseforing there ae honoris (in honaren) ot ‘memotal (i memoriam), no votive (ex vot)” Aad in Campania be ‘may have had stronger than usual eal oot 8 his oponymic epithe Ee fi pu Poe, 9: § aes, 0 Ya al hc a a ‘Sih Binns Patria a Ex ve ¢ (lat nu S67 Geese chat aumento Gros ena gma Stan vtareTr a ‘Wooo, Si «coup Fees” DUA) YOO Ts Gre ‘sino vane ASU9S2C, cong wre 190. 19 ema IOS egret amc a eG a sen es ae ota 1950 #p Os psa Me Bi area (lie ise ekcnct,walsin cana he Reno ake cone Tis ong ame sof eat yk Mi Ba a ‘Got Sem cn Ser esearch Jaki Gal oh a ay te a i ‘Toop ove lof Sane elaine ying fe He ‘the ate of the got Te figure hich wens ahs tpy and vel Of ts Beeps ovr Soar Por en Sh eetsuggest. Otterwise, evidence for variation in religions ates is dial tnd, even n Cilpine Oa and he remote Mactime Als, wer, ofall paces, we might expect to find cases of interpreta ‘Romana. Bat thn ga, he very entensvererain of thecal Italy yet remarkaby it formation abut Sivanusin gece. Ascolorless {his lla cult is compared to what we Ga inthe provinces, Sivanas| here represents the cotestanogue tothe go ofthe Republic, god ose character unfortaataly i almost completly unknown 1 Britannia Suvacus arrived onthe Bei ls soon after the nvasion of Claes, if not afer the abortive expedion of Jali Caesar inthe previous ‘entry, Bathe god's inseripons dat oly from the second century ‘A.D. Most of his tes ae Oreco-Roman**andbe soften invoked with ‘Roman gods Novectlss,Sivamus is aso synceized with four Giferen Celle dies, mostly inthe North net Hadean's Wall where ost ofthe evidence forte cuts concentrated (08 Mp2) "The Cele god Coca is egoted with Sivanas in cwo locations Atolls from Risingham, vowed to the (wo dls, shows & Rane faked by do, Slivanue sted companion, and stg, which is paps atebotle to Coins pretence, Te igre sands zesedin {hort tun and sper sow and arow. The represntation has iden ‘common with tat of Silvano, Nelter a fle nora pine branch is Indicted, lthoughpasorl elements are pesent:atecis depicted the sdeang the lankng pana showsadeeend er young prancing by tee, eer ogre mmo Cn Sinan wearer eae coe eRe eb isntane terse apa rn pe nt, 197th a ashe South no empnig evn fo La, ‘Scrpon a Stanton “Epc Coenen JAS 75 100) 3-08 See aes “ease tit Pai 38, dre Lendn 0) onan sel ony dS: CULV 48 Cah am ein INTERFRETATIO ROMANA 35 Lis unclear whether we have Sivamis, Colds or ahybrid ofthe ono “The go wellknown involvement nthe chaz evidently opine thes \dsoticaion inthis instance Oer represents of Cocks = Inter from te area pear Hada’s Wall ar sina othe sinha oti, bot pebablyrefiect purely eave cle” ‘Coviia nam, ke so many Celio words, defies atisfactry itr pretation, Ina be derived from te Cite word each, weaning re, 8 ator indicating war ® Inthe western region of he Wal te "Red One” is syneretized with bllcose Mars Partor eat, where he is eqted ‘vith Sivants, the Cato god takes ona more pei oe, now eile of animals father han eveies. "he obscure Celtic deity Vinotonds i known exclusively trom fur stars found near the Roman for at Bowes. Two ofthese, dated tothe time ofthe Sever, quate nim with Silvanus." The dodieatrs, who are highrunkig officer fa Thracian cohor, caw something in Vinotons reminiscent ofthe Roman Sivan. One soir, on Ihe shaky 249 tion tat Vinotomas hat 4 Latin suher than Cole orymology which indicates the vine, supposes that bot divinities favored viel ‘Auotber postulates that Vinotons personifies local ream," Neither ‘nceroretnion thoroughly convincing, although he Hirst ess obo sionals given Vinton approxirtion oa Roman goaf apical not normally concerned with springs 49 waters. Peeps merely the Wilds ofthe seting was enough to bring about this instance of Iuerpetatio Romana “The obscure Cot ast Calis, a betarundecod than Viton, isientid wih Silvanus op a meal plagoe bya loa! coppeeith at Coleesten" He evidently forged his own decision, oe of the few See. Tah i gary ml enc a gett na Fs ‘tio Bahan uehuel8 (5) sand eben) Meters A Rew Aa [btvuantchotniaynans” eka es meme ct ‘tn Hon ane Sh Ges” Bars 19g), b08 8 ots nen Mrs Cheaat a trae Se56 eee eee froma Brtisheivilanarntive, revered cast interpreta Romana I hich a Ext ooks to de Roman patioon Zr a ely silat is fn tater than a Ronn setrching oat nativediviy. Calls 0% found elsewhere a8 aname, But may be related 10 col the Cee word for hese A "Hazel God” woul be tn appropriate divinity to be tssimilsted to Silvanus, concerod a he was wit woods and els “Arama of ites oar the Wall ales pit maked or senna, pale homed eis, he eo-iled"Homed Gos" of the Teal British {ete Brigates. "He sometimes called Mars, sometimes Mercury. [kt Moresby he is equted with Sivans.” This isthe ony instance in Cah ivan thy ar theriomorph,f we exclude Dalmatian Sitvonus-an elit Petpet connection with he “Horned Gos” is tiuough sivas" ole a protector of cate. Too lil is known about the religion ofthe Brigants to venue farther hypotheses regarding thelr go's one-time syncretism with Sivan ‘Silvanus is venerated almost exclusively by Roman soldiers, aca ing highly paced eqoestian commanders. The military overtones of tie alt are hard to deny, although we must Keep in ind thst soins ‘SEcoun for most Latin nserplons inthis rovice Ther of aves ‘Salo not ncesailysgiflean since they ae underepresened inthe survivingepigraphiccopus Atany rat theethnicmake-p of Sivan followers ast bering on te question of hs concealment of nave (eises The majority of know cies of syncretism involve Romans, 9 tative opi wich wb frterexploedin Chapter VL. Most the fa we ean only goes wheter tete British oops had the Uliano loca! deity inming. Signifieandy sandaedRoman depictions oSivans se found in Banna only on # Te intagios We might expec hat, fall Roman dives, Sitvnus would appeal sost to local Druid practice which centered sroon sired groves und emote ores p08 trie were so integsl to he Roman god's eal. Future archaeological Uiscoveres may cally whether Sivanus her is Taian or Cele, Gata Narbonensis “The remains of Silvas lt in Gaul te concentsaod in the southern oe Ce et Ed Sees om i es Pa BA INTERPRETATIO ROMANA OS region of Gala Nutone where bis cats ae outbred ‘ly by tow of were, rss apie ee Map)” Supe, 18 In ths mos gy Roma rein of Ol hat Stacy auacd wis hs Cte dry. the ssl “Matt Cot ot “Gh aw mae” Ths nonce, whos rest eee ac, has set fer he edd lta nina i An foowedby doy He hols aman on hndand a les ‘dete hee vn nets *Thecom gay ples atl the Roman Sans wih he eon fhe ale Sn fe Joteant te trac Sivan ae bu nevi serehisimsee—appesn threes tthe male sadrolzcn apposition quer this ftom Gala Naber Hare he matt wigu and ts cz, Kane ft 9 On Sin fh ‘Aigos-Mones, nea tle mow of he Rhone the malt spe eng theft oncecong Sans assim fo te Mali Ge * Tie geowaphi range of ese Sansa share roghly cae spondstothtofmalst aes anal ich oot rae Sivas. The icp sass ar st laa snd Nera ‘idle how many Sivems nero wit alts once annigeou ey, Mot ot nthe go ae oe nd itil hoe vinta meses Chart Town ied te Cal Sivan es Roman in meet regs because all hi les ae Latin Somes epg Mate Teele eh a mmnnen tes pan Re essences 8) 2 Ha. “Un nce Sinan ne naromeivanamaaa PMU ROD cae a ete 8c Rep 06 psscasn it oceanemserateni tse ater he oh ae 1 Gu sora Sy A 1 Oa. ‘gabe tin cog amt asta hee anh edo Se) ‘nasa Mo ate it be fod a so ube Gane8 [WTERPRETATIO ROMANA formula o eresemation cleany pots to Roman practice. A hymn ferup yan equsianprocaraor deniying Slvanas with goréesand the Alpe costal fers othe ian ps.” In oe instance, However, tm mist oviderfly bad the Mallet God in mind: a mossic fom St Remulnen Gal shows Sikvamos and his dg Manked by evo wees Thorupectely a beards figne holds an arto instead ofthe fle OF tine branch so sans beside volute ere (an of. The ident of this Celdc deity Is a boty debated topic which aseeves clove eenin in 4 Separate study. The arguments for end “guint conecting hits wih tbe mysterious Dispatr(@ Calc Pato?) ‘Monsioned by Caesar (Be, Ga 618) or withthe Cli Suetas ae by to ns conclusive, Most scholars forthe view that he is Sueeas Tho isa fe fong-avea an bearded, and holds the mllt and ol Tonepraphicl simaries berween te Mallet God an Soot are indeed skig ‘nly 2 hanut of Socolue!saies ad reifs and even fewer snscrponssereve:" Hise as ben ansistdas"Mighty Stke."* “Heri had something tn common with Silvanus since the tw ae uated in Gerinania and possibly Belgica (bat never In Gallia Farboncais} Sucellos is sometimes tought of as concerned with ema 4100 os weno Retort Ae: Cl 360 SOS ernment e Brae tem Ohta en eifeaet bank rae eet aie taster Ce re aun hsm cou nel pe ere ag pi ngs aoeet cara mn eae oe fap Ni St aa seen decade ee re ce sa kr Ea a te ey lems ming SRN Se ante Gans oem soe ast Te on Cea xe Nee te 95) 9.0 SET ROSSA Saute Fenty, death or the sy. Nothing spetialy connects him with teviculte, the woodlands or ther comers of Silvana. Perhaps Silvas is qiated wih evo separate deities the uname Malle: God i Cali Narbonensls spd Suess in the Rhineland. Tae ony of the Mallet Go, whose Celis name is oly maske by tharot Silvanus, obfasates the far, Iti possible, but not completely femain tht Suelos and the Mallet Go are oe and the same, Since Sitvanusis sycresized widhbot, they mst atleast have been det of Sule fonction. Atany rae, [sospechat Silvana" popularity in Callin [Narbonenss hinged on his resrblance ois Cel divinity, whatever is esd Aaguiania _Arcucoogical andepigmphicevdencforSivanassspasein Aguitaa, (nthe few surviving lscrpions betas no Local tes ani simply Called den, Ard at a nei he connected with a mallet Ieonog apy which ie aknown f thik eovice. He isnot equated witha {bea deity bute weneatos with Diana and various mountain spirits ‘who protected freste nd the wilds too * Ta emote corer of Aguliana eat St est, so quarers thanked sitvanas afer sucessfuly ving excavated and caved off twenty Stone court (fr temple to he god?) Are same site an are Up by ncolletion bus Sivan flaked on the ater es by 160 representations of qanying ad stone-caing.* Is possible that hese eyo Ea iene ge Si Sa Sly pair 2ephieuerametayaesec ntact ws crromsiaieie oe tema eens Tecate ti tenets tien sem ites Gurion sus se dee ang Coie, es trn e ‘Sure et Roun am dens tn Dae eaoine a3) seni PADI~~ oO INTERPRETATIO ROMANA itagmentary hy om Plants Sens (Ate Proconsulss) enlogizasa purely Roman Sivanae wh caries he el ezowned with Pine, and inhabit seed grove." Here the go i ancestral (pain), SSinanother offering from Timgad,andcohabis ho forest with Fas, ryades, and Nldes, In sh instance at oat, Silvanus has resisted ‘Aieanzaton Te desicant,whosename snot preserved, vas highly ‘Romanizad person fale with he Sivanos of Lava Uterere. ‘nie oer hand, inByacena,aseutierrelonotAficaProcnsuls, and aroun Lambarsi Silvana equated with an indigenous Moreary, ‘otthe Roman god of commerce who is omsties found i Ais bt {oes Pie divinity often depicted withthe scorpion and tortose inset ofthe falar caduceus.” The waive Mercury ad the Tain WEIL ViNT2579e in Tompe of Acaculapius). Peshyps moths deiatna fom Lomboesis BR rr eee gmt Si tn 2 860.4 SEER GS Sa a era tet ri Rare et AC gaa nin) etme sac pa tl ace ea Siecle iueeiGtioustotcn mecaneeay Seite anes Syaieercrennmeceay Sashes coral etree selon piney mreusechiveecwmeciay Percival. Sena bi ‘sc oni Naat kop anne BC (980 32, ‘Sep And sb sey A 191 24 mtu, iv 2 niga tempt es INTERFRETATIO ROMANA 65 Svanusevienty shared some common ground. M.LeGlay sees the ‘Atean Meret as patzan of ov groves an ol production azole nat Incompatble with Sivan’ protection of elds, groves an agriculture In goneral" Occasionally Svan spears wit the Roman Mercury, Cecily in aly and the Rhnelan end Danian provinces.” Rarely, however sth asoclaton wih Mercury Hermes animate as withthe Mercury ofthe Punic pantheon “Addiction from Carthage comps a Silvanus Barbavas with Tpiter Hamsmon? The ater is known ouside Aca, once even equated with Silvanus, buts indigenous North Aftca.” Hes surely related tothe ‘Ammon of the Libyan Des ator than to 3 asic dviy. Whats ‘emaly meant by Barbar Sivan uncles. Ley interprets the thle ae aroference tothe Berbrs” . Gln he oer hand args that since the Greeks cll the Caihginans Bagiapo ceatues ‘eto, barbaras refers to he Poni ace" Ante plausible alten tHveistt sine Sivan sell hrrdus and incu, arbarustay Signifying mre than snkempt or ns. More ltl, thee hee Insts a Toreign Sivas." “The sacerdter of ptr Haruno and Barbaras Silvana clade fourteen or fifteen mls withthe ‘ria womina of Roman ciizens (thous tation of tbe or parentage) end 9 femlls. No name betrays any int of Afric ogi. Inde i would not be surging (0 find suche eroupof members for antlan colegio, not forthe ie of meer secre wich oth women ber. Worn probably hd no Ran aii Rh oes ear eas SIS Uae be ata haere gene rela a Bats te cae nb iy Lee te cee Ae aes pees rie.6 INTERPRETATIO ROMANA pbc or oficial role in he cult of Sitvanst outside Aten an6 wr Zipped only in a snos private menos. Inclusion of women In the Fetigioushlrarehy at Cartage Is unusual, but does not necessary emulate native practice, "A curions tela defiionie fro tomb exe Cit may fumish another instanceof vanes equation with anative damon or god." ‘rudely sketch goat footed ent elds objects which the C1 com Diler calls an uncus (ROOK) And 680 laquei (noose axed to strangle ‘nimale, Sivanns cetsinly protected hast, but does not hold laqueus or ancus in cter representations. He Is ot ponayes with goat legs except when syncretized with Pan in Dalmada, The eaprine fu teres othe figure probably have an can caer shan a Dalmatian tetecodent Unfortunatly, in te few readable nes ofthe insertion ccompanying the reli, unrthodon, nary uniteigibe grammar, Syntax and voeabolary ake itimpossile oll whether Silvanus the od invoked a the admnisuatr ofthe case.” “The clumsy design on tis cats tablets obviously 2 local ier tation of deity with both Afiean and Roman abuts. The aly other “Aian depiction of Silvio, foand at Sigus (Nomis usual: the god bs crowned with lever and were a shitlike garment which Strexces fro jst Deneth his arms to his knees; in his right had be holds an wncetain object ascepter? inhi lef, eeariesa palmor pine franc" Although te diy shown in human form in hs instance, hail estes he Sivanus known fom hundreds of ober eet, ‘mosses, esooes and statues. hiss how the deican, certain ais Nigiias Restcs, imagined Slvanus, perhaps he hada local Nuon godin mind “The only absolutely cern examples of averpretaio Romana in ‘Noth fea snvoletheindigenons Meany, alough,asnotedearir, there are some oer occasions o doubt Silvana Taian roo." Who a say how maay appaenty Roman deccetions stwallyconeal an ‘ntieen god? interesngly,mosto the known individuals who equate ge GS a ee et ira Mpetncptiectes ee Ta te cite a Sep nh pi post ts ei CHL VEEP. ssa 508 "sts esa eens ert ued “orcs nese Cannon 9TH, 2396) [BNTERPRETATIO ROMANA- @ ‘ivanus with ative Atdean dees are Roman cizens (oat not st thir}™ During the Inpelal period evideny the reigns of pre TRomn fficawerequiterearngflandalveesentothomos Romsnized level of S00 ‘ripottania and the Kastern Provinces i ss aa a ge cn tora ners a. i é&#@===- ee ee tac Liryecel wh Nene ae ald on etc et toetpame hr Se i een cl nas een neo ne ee oe tn wats ua: We a Sa i ot raree oes Lops Maa ane sehen Svea al ts tre oat Seaueouy py e ge™ Sa gee mati Roast a cara aapaerels Deva) at a sae cere iether bate) aa eee ean ha i bi oso rss oo dUmDFs~—SsSCS So a a ace wont im ta en! se ere a farnandhotey eye ae abr nacerora yatboedainacar tl ee ce ete Ning dro eaves CC rrt—~—~iss—sisC—;sizs a rrrtC—s=— See toa aes snp eed wee eats te nt ants 16 To pp ine of Sa htc eee ornate Soe i nr pa a TERR ERS mem atntn geen ie Mie ie Tee ciccerit8 INTERPRETATIO BOMANA AtAnits (modem nas) onthe tanks ofthe Euphrates in Commagen soli of Leia Il xtc carved ediatons to Silvanus on Took fer, some paring him with Jupiter Optimas Maxims unde Sol."P Merit roakes an unconvincing ease forthe indigenous Dolichenus” Identication with Sivan on th basi of heir mutual aractvenes (0 Soldiers end» shared epithet (consrvazor). Silvanus didnot enjoy 2 loserelationshi ithDoichens,eventhoughtielrculswereprctiond Inmany ofthe stm regions ide by side. The two never eppeatogetbor tn insetpions, except perhaps on one doa oscasen * AbRough thoy ere both vines of fealty and abandanc, in Commagene and throughout th empire thelr worship was never closely integrated. Dalmatia Sivanas was ofataiirfnDalmatththisnarewasoften abbreviated fn inscription, parent a sf al Von Domaszews ong 9 postulated hy the Daltian Silvanus was Hyun, am es which st folds a tenacious grip on some Hungarian, Jugosiavian and German Scholars aiuretorezogize Silvanus’ Roman character isthe single, tmostforidable obstacle understanding iseultintisprovince. we dupe von Domascowsh's notion of a yin Silvanus of national Scope we can ten apple him 83 sgn of Romanization. The very ides thatthe Mean peoples were homogeneous caltaraly with 2 taionl ity with whom Silvanus could beeqoated, does nord much TEER ay com mien muon. nage cE ee a yon ae er tae ac ia Rca ee tS ii TS Seale ti Men ie Say Soars OE eee Te a Bettigncramcnate” Medals CRORE RAS Sree ce Bey te ‘rein ele tv Meh ay GMS 95) 2-26 A. Rai, om ASGRSE ee Teh tenons ts aoe ann valiy. We would expect an octsional syncretism of Svan with | ‘ba gd of lea! imporanee, but ther is absolutely no evidence even forthisinDalmata. Allo te ovnityseptes on ht many Dalmatian fascipios ar Latin: none batays hat of lyse eign. Further ‘or, Silvamisfenotnvoked oriented with yan pods, bt prefers {he company of Roman divinities, ‘1p Dalmatia and along the Danubian rote the ection of itvanos findecorsatesmoreciosely wih istics of Romnrater hs isn, Celie or Thracian sement (ee Map 6. The seazlty of iscripdons snd elit to Silvanus fom seas of Dalmatia and Souther Pansonia ‘ue yan cult persisted drig the High Empire seems 0 weigh Sgsins the god's syncretism with a indigenous counterpart, albough ‘heepigraphe uadion was tas Soong’ ese regions and we should expec fewer inseipons ther. ‘Slvanas i equated only wit the Greek Pan, who ofcourse isnot Iya, although he nay Sometimes mask indigenous gods." Whes- ‘ve pic, Silvanus appears as Pan The iconogsplical ype of the Roman daly is completly discarded in Dalmatia: the shepherd's afl (pedion) ana pipe (rin) the wo symbols mos characters of Pa, replace the aan pine Bane, "inthe pute otis revk counterpart, Silvanus surtendes his human form, now possessing goa! les ears and ‘Som scholars ae quick fo ssign to Silvana ul the many Pan Of ene omnia tty Api i din ‘SUEREN pein isc eae ‘Eitan (alto AF Uy ou) may ke Satna poe fh ee ‘Slice tet any Sencar Soe Nii 4 um om 317 wen ioe: ASD See eee ee eee ae Sitio at ave mance Sec eaeratl cnc cy og arg her mage ce entry ee AS ect a el nea 8-8) 27 Gen zug iby eae unr al rae Sata See ba Sam an 100 UVTERPRETATIO ROMAN reliefs frm Roman Dalmatia which 6 not specitya deity's name. ‘Given the consinency of Sitvanus' porvayal as Pan andthe fact tht Pan ‘imcel does not cctv asigle Lain dedication in Dalmatia itseems Ase most ofthe dedicat ofthese monarentsindoed ad Silvanus i than Noveshses, itis not alvays posible to tell wheter anopirapic Pan reliafs and soe refer to Silvanas; they therefore wll not be considered in tis so. much the same way a8 some offerings to Silvanus in Taly and certain provinces, tlie of Pa wets carved into query walls and on Sthrare fexpove rock et severe Dalmatian sites, Near Sonate ootment of «rock cut emo facade dodicated to Silvan comsins a etm yrine and oak ero, al friar ties of Pa. I some osos at Tess, it ws tls open aspet of the two gods which romped ther equatin. “Svanuy ogeatlon with Pan lcs no sures since, a dscussed in “chapter the two deities were sometimes confused ot ooely 250. ‘Sein ati lieratre, We might export, however, tht the evo would five bern sjacretcn or even puted mre oftcaondediations ouside [utmata’™ Pan recive few inserpions either in Greek or Lt, a the Lattapeatng provinces. in he West he sorvived mainly as & ante ofr decoration expecially on Dionysac ype sarcophagi— Ena topos in eatin Berto. OF the multe of ait, statues, ‘hosel and wal patings of an houghout te West, few arco too nna the Weston Empire apparenly was evoi of mach religious signifiance. “The linkbetworn Silvanorand Fan outside Dalmaliistenaou atbes and not refieted in actus ul practice, iivanus' worship anaot be naa tee ie ie a str: er a ant Cont art Ya SUSAN SNE cape i esse Sem een Pond An SLUMS Ato nbn le) ise: ae Bae,“ tbat tls Sem econo I ne ee eee sal Roam, ete 1 ome 97 25, 34 cone Men en ape 15 ae 9 ow m cant ieee aha te er metciane ect Unio ‘eum Fae td aaa est arom aes Caliaatenn(ILXIL ane cians Gn 9 ed arsine Svan OL eon (Ripe partes 9 triced hack to an erie elt of Pan in regions of the West formerly olonizd bythe Gress, Silvanus was not ppolaria Magna Gras tt this may merely be a eflction ofthe Lv epigraphic survival rats there. Ousice Dalmatia here i urpsingly litle eonfaion between Silvanes and Pan whost first glance Seomingly ought have had mach “Tosun ip, Stvanae wasnt an lyean god inthis province, though anunber of is fllowers woe of indgenous exacton.” He appealed ‘ail to a highly Romanians stun ofthe civilian poplin, Pansonia in Pannonia Silvanus ranks asthe most poplar deity after Jupiter ‘Optimys Matis. In towns tik Aquincum and Carman he even surpasses the chief god of the Romans. For this reason many scholars, ‘ost plnineat among tate being von Domaszewsi, have labelled Silvanus an ingigenous deity, tthe chet god of the Pannoaians. 1 wil argue, however, thatthe Pannonian Silvanus is Reman since be hibits fo, ay, lel tis Silvanus atacs have been neared manly in egfons of Roman setilment inte arte part ofthe provine (see Map 6." Over {tall nsriptons come frm te ches of Cezmuntum and Aguircum. ‘thor major col centers at Brigeto, Searboua, Savaraané Vindobons preter Sha hs Sra: eer ro Br Haeicteritee nue eee ace Sige entvmrcanen tl at vegeta eau tamales Se te 58it WPve s povcc rnin da anna Boe epee aes acter ctmeeae EERE Son Gmarcetiera trite SSeS Se cece: sihdeenbainer garam sowcctemntowio Paonia (Lexington. Ry. 1980) 103. . eee ee ae7 se confined to this northern mary zone oo. Few ether towns wee | ‘ny importance, except Topusko and Ssin forte othe South. “The Pannonian Silvan i invokod with Roman an, less oqwenty, with ative dviiies, such asthe Quadeuiae, te Nawiees and the imystesious Di Auguales.* The enly god he is actlly equates with Pan who appears onan altar naming Silvants in Aquincum, an sosted Instaneo fr which Dalmatian énigr may be responsible. ordinate attentiontas focused onthe dscowey ete dedications othe hitherto tnknown Hyannis Vigoss and Tana s Toparko(Parnonia ‘Superioe where twee alts alsohenor vans” Some havea tured that Vidases and Thana se focal eulvlents for Sivanus and Diang, cespectvely, despite the lack of supporting archaeological and epigraphic evidence. Linguistic arguments for making Viasat a forest god, like his supposed Roman counsrpa, are unconvincing too." At any rae, Vidas may well have been only of minor impor tance, even in verote Topas He cera not he mtn go of tho Iya with whom von Domaszewsk! imagined Silvanus was eat fied. (f the many Pannonianiscripions to Silvanus, only one caries an epithe which may be Cet, namely Maple, oF paps alaenus. his san ndigenoisdvaty, noting known about hm. Silvanus! remaining ues ae all Latin cp ciirube ies ta nascent ema Bx ee a ee ae Seasinn oh en aeastinence 2 roi are So Soe ae EE ese ae Smt a meager ne aren ce one Seay ora ro metas arn Poe Siar, Sb myn en re is amet Sra EREAee gianna satemanies “afte ti a peso Svan doc « wide vy of wer Ee oe sacs (Eee cnc smack epi edearansaSet ‘mal my yt Sea Newt sage Sve he Sao ‘ea ae ee pr (CL U9) nls a ion om ‘oom mts fle crene stn 8 G97) Woe once iatr(eaveller found scoud Crmont, isthe only uns ile our with any umerial equency. Nonetheless, itis Latin and does rot nlcaeierpretatio Romana, Sivan 28 known elsewhere as Wuotr, a ate epithet shied by Mercury athe Lares." OF the four now instances ofthe ie, two over on ng, one on sea and one fire sandstone alr. Perhaps tbo unusual medim of expression Silvanus naied oF depicted on rings nly af tines aliogerer"™— romped the use of votre pious individual wore the ing enaavet Ahh Sivamus’ mame to ensere divine protein whl faraway fom “lursundimagesco th god athome, Votormight explain why Silvanus “tppeats wth he Quaviao—who as godess of the crossroads ware ‘Concerned with avel~abd why be was invoked ocasional orl tnd tafe retura (oro salute et red" Otherwise te god didnot pclarly watch over aller, Noe dd bo hays especially close tis With Mercury, the god of travel par excellence exept in is ican form, Representation Silvanus havebeen foundatmany ses especilly song the Dana rae." They donot beway any foal influences Which ean be ierpete as evidence of syncretism. The Panonian| (Wish eat he Seu Sipe). sera na oe ca REVILA Ges eae, sun Vn Fd ihn ute arse arora ‘SESPRAIG aac Seat nes en Wee eins tn) Aird Sto ee ere, Stina tam ate ta. see Srna ier. 80a) ml "ct inn 8 GOH) 30 ard Pen ae 30 [SSATP tongs tar cope apr and oan ete 3 oon “ie ee (98) 35 (oma CX 210 eee ep neta serra ton Va i eee iter sat oe sey estes Teta deter Fel rs oe ua veer iin kt ep ph ctsue heen Ani ean lea ae SR a A cain vant CS Ot 127) 3 (cao gen: CR, On. 13 (190) 15; Ce ete 7G ee, Sea Tm, lanes Vo Ain eis 8 (98095, ‘Hon iltemassgonbsate were Pan ara 090 9Silvanus is clotted sn holds the at and poe branch, 8 fm Ray. He Sometimes sports Phrygian eap, ab ia Dacia. Otherwise, only he occasional presence ofthe Silvan diferentes the Panteaan om ‘he lian eonography The Buk ofthe evidence dle to te sme of Septimus Severs, nom some see as te promoter of Suvanus stool symbol of| Pannonia, the first province to recognize him as emperor. Nanethe- les, iti dangerous to assume the gas wider popularity under the Soverans." The nurber of Latin seiption (om Pennonia—and, for that mati, fromthe empie in generat—ineresses markadly Kom the frstoth second sentry, eases a height in the prod ofthe Sees sndtapersoffrascallytereafer™ Theepigraphiccorpstor Sivan follows tis general patern 10 4, In Pannonin the darth of votives dating before Sep Severus ean be explaead by the destruction ‘nus by the Marcomannic Wars in the rlgn of Maus Auris fn ‘whlch tne es of Aqoincun Brigto and Carman, the maincentes cof Silvanus’ cult were complael destroyed. Thus te flnuitof thecal ‘may not eoesanily be under Sepimiue Severus, If thomythof Svan relavey Ine incoducton int Pannis Is Yemaved, we can beter appreciate the god's resistance to synreism and the continu of bs ‘worship on the Danube from Aaguran times. "Méety tes ora adisinction between neler and ater cut He elsims that pre Severan aifacts ee concentra in owns along wt isknownasthe amber route, extending trom Agata o Carmuntun, ad hve connections with he alia cut of Stvans Augustus as practiced In Aqua The ew ery detentions howeves ae at lined oth route Nis augusta less commonepitht nth ter period. Becaate tos al information skewed in favor ofthe ater period, we anno! ‘resume tha Sivanar was a more Kala deity ithe at 8 opposed ‘He thied century AD. ‘Recent reexamination of eigous practices in Pannonia has shown ‘arotherRoman divine ested interpreta Romano! Clsey, gl rs ‘Romie behnor old id we commecon wits he oa gods Ue Ce mca ee ae Svarus Hts nw this working model of purely Roman din ia Pantin. The population ofthe province—at ast which commis Sioned monument ehose a Roman, not ative deity asthe objet of| ts most arent eliglousatention an concer The scarcity of Silvanus’ insrptons from the Moesian provinces ‘ethapssugeest hat the god wat relatively snimporta in ify oigapticaly ri aea ofthe Danube"? Méesy has noted thatthe ‘evinet inscriptions and otter material rine a Moesla Supetoc are Concentra ithe northwest part of he province, possibly indicating ‘Silvanus nredoction va Pannonia (ee hlap 6). Latineithets point to Roman practive" Others indicate a Silvanus of isinotvely Moesian characte. At Thrnovo (Moers Inferie hs called Poinnus, evienty the name of local (Celts or Thracian?) ‘ety Poininus reall the Cele Poenius ofthe Pennine Alps win ‘vas equated with Jupiter eentriss before.” Perhaps the Moesian Poininurand the Alpine Poeninacer ential. Co, Slvanasiseqaated sot with anaive Moesan daly, but with ee taasportediom Cisipine Gaul The dedicates Roman citizen, may have vedo wavellod inthe Alps before coming to the Lower Danube Silvanus le Saldaecapuenas (operas Soiecapatens) i in senibed onto reli depicting the Thracian Rider God" The epithe ‘seems tobe tpoayeic, ike the many examples rom Kom ah ound Benoventum, ater than soference to a Tse go: Sale (pe) was small own a Pannoala Superior onthe Saves River, no fr fom ‘hefind spat af these dediestions. The Thracian Rider God appears with 2 tumber of Rom, Creek and native divines along the Lower ‘ncmA 137 24 in Dn 22 Ors tran, ot we fun oa ican dar Tp 2087 (90) US6 IsTEAPRETATIO ROMANA Danube, an snot necessarily the divinity invoked inthis insane. ‘The two dedicat both Roms loplonaties not of ative origin, cles fd something other than the Taian Sivanos in mind when they onamissoned those works “Slvanes” name spears again on plagoe withthe Traian Rider ‘God at another stein Moca Inferior" in his ease the detain, trecsdby leplonary appa focal background, adresses Silvana fe Svester The invocation may tea mise for Sanus Sibeser, 1 Somimon epigraphic frm, uals Svester is. separ relipou8| nay fn own righ, Another offering, fom Berkovien (Mess nfo) also adreeas Silvan and Sliveser seperately. a this ese Jivester append refers to one oe more Sivanae since the compa yng rte porays Silvanus with atleast one of his female aon tnt Thiele tory knoofedge the only icentiable representation tf Sivas ftom Moet, shows the god olding the canonical jets ed tee trench" lswhete Silvanus associated with Dian, the nos prominent aste goddess from the Roanpunieon, nd Dates Opis Staximos'™ Evident. for some worsippars Silvanus retained his Roma form, while fo others he was pon equa footing and estes ‘wth indigenous dais, perhaps including te Rider God Dacia Tn Dacia, where Silvanus i ssond in importance only to Joie, all rides poste a Ronan go Svanassrversvenaninigeteas anata ee aie ite fea ie. easy “tuvaktechen Reiter gous le Bulgarien (Bosapest 1938), : _ Sia teu oncommomn tae omen et eta etomtneeneraa eu sioner tame seer ee aucmote reese Sate neva I lene fads Dante ‘eed 2Sn sates S03 the dey togethers Sar Bee oe es ce ce cena ees acerca gta aan cet Oma ema AE STERPRETATIO ROMANA n Dacian descriptive ut then again he naive Dacian langage bas It early any ace, Rather, his epee reall Lala" Also couple tnetusvely vith Roman, not narve divin. Hs Dacian Leonogrphy ts qual Roman in spi with some alowance for ol artis preerenes The god wears anc, olds ‘Yatra sometimes followed by adog, Mer than a Phrygian cap and the subsittin of Tong ole pli (o pear) fc to usual pine ranch, tore tet dffeontte Silvanus’ Dacian leonograpical ‘spe from that of Kaly and the her provinces." ine orain of Silvnus” cult in Dac his buen a mater of some speciation, Von Domaszewsi! ateiboed the spread ofthe sepposesly Iipslan go's worship noth of he Danube o Dalmatian colonization. "YorSivana’ Daian arene are, forthe ost part, Romans or ighly “Romanized individuals, only two of which are isan. The few oer ‘Sedicanswithaon-Creeo Reman cogtoninaretansplanes orsign, aay 2 3:3 rhe org aan Set 40 Gonuan i cna trot Beye egret ia aircnn se onsoroertoalinrpion er age ate Oem ronan 6h stuenpeneey Ney, DL a Son Noa ie Nasa Da ce OUP med pty, on tro Supe tn gate 13 i) orb aC. op aa. alle, are Sr ln rae tera Sr 85 (One 99) SETS Gif os arate ee anc Fema Sea aa a Tego Ue, de ed com A. oe {Bi hy "Se nt BSG En das Pigeon. 93.95 ity pip, needa ag une o h e) tye sens“ hsp’) an Bonn oe a Sone for i eny ot Be eet Egiecamersiecgecinemn era (teate sy ‘edot Daclan.*Tn genera, the Dacian cult doesnot resemble its Dalma- tien counterpart, ilvancs does potssume th gis of Pan in Dacia, ‘pe dows at allies when poruayed in Damat;™ and che epithet ‘muguses so common along the Adriatic cas, occurs only twice i ‘On he other hand the Dacian Sivanus appears to have had stonger connsction withthe highly Romanized version ofthe cut in Pannonia Ts most feqoent ies i Dacia ae domesticus and silver, whieh rove poplar also in Pannonia, Furthermore, Sivanay aac te Concentrated north ofthe Mazos RIver in Daca Superior an in Dacia Poroisensis cegions geographically closa and economically ted to Panna Inferior" The major colt tes f these areas, in order of Jmporan, are Aputum, Mii, Alborus Mor oussuand Ampela (GeeMapé). Sine Silvanus was welosablshedinaeighbring Pinna tte ane of Trajan’ annexation of Dacia, es reasonable to conlade tha the closest model forthe Dacian colt was Paponian. That Meosia ‘was probably nora major free behind any reipious fusion intoDacia isisrated sot only by the sary of Stans finds here, at alo by the total absence of ty evidence from aacet Dacia lei. Tatesive Roman colonastion surely account fo he apd sproad of Silvanss' worship and ts continued strength throughout the pied of tecupaion Twang the cult from todaction soon fe the annexa- fiom of the province n 107 ut the opto vas abandoned by Aurelian In 271 is viully an impossible tek, ince mont of the epigraphic ridence cannot be dated very precisely win hs peiod. Atany Fe, itis clear thar the monsmtencerctng Tnkabitents of Dacia chose a Sap ae meee maemo eine eile asia ee SRS re esc eee ta traditional Roman divinity a he object oftheir most ardent religious ‘Sevoson." Tey may even have tansplaned de clt south of the ‘Danube when ey were rested thee the 270 Concasion [As should be expecad for 1 Roman god, evidence for Silvano Ss ncetated in aly where nearly half ahs over 1100 known dedica: fons have becn discovered. Pannonia was also a major cone of Mra, ascooning for more tseritons tantly, apart rom Rome, “The neighboring provinces of Dacia and Dalmatia rank next impor tances incomparson Silvan wa nich ss popular in Moen. Tn Gant ‘wus wide) venerated only in Natbonensis: Agltania,Lagdunensis, Belgica and the near regionsof Novica and Raia dowetshow much ectpiveness for i, evn allwlog fr te smal mamber of inseip= long knowa fom ese provinces. In Brita the god had « tong allowing en Inthe mnitary zone peas Hactitn’s Wall, Soldiers ‘omninated te cltalgo in Gemania and Nami, Afi Proconsalari ‘Mauretania Cesarnsis,Tipoiani, Sadia athe Maritime Alps provide relatively ite nfration, Compared with Hay. the high Romanized (ut epigephically unimportant) Spanish provinces were “wntutatc about Sivanus, Notsorpelsingly thediviniy was of ile ‘rin contequonce in te east peovinces, which were never frie found for Roman cls anyway ‘Atlute ers of Silvanus dedications ofcourse ae only afcugh indicator a be weighed aginst the overall surviving compos of Latin {nscrpfons. SaeMutlen is fringed ws of some of the pias im raking historical jdgents hae on the uncritical we of ser a tes and geographic dstibaon of isepsions. The cspesion of Sivanus” votes cloely follows the general epigraphic record often tnaugh However the god's enomoiqsanti offerings romPansora ‘mas and Davi far pester than would be expected, even jing ftom the large survivii ePlgraple corpus from hose rovinces. Als, thevetyof Rome, even with ever 36000 entries in CTL, has an noe uty large rami Sivands inscriptions some two hundred Fy. On (Be other and, the rest of Kil sigh underepreseated with about fy fewer inscription tan Rome: in theres insxptons from Rome0 INTERFRETATIO ROMANA aro wualy outnumbered by tose from the sestftaly. The dstbaton ‘otinseriptions within Tay is po to uausal offerings ae thickest in ‘ena, Latium, Etre ad, 10 a lesser extent, Campania: aly ‘nyting found in Southern aly, Sardinia nd the Alp. I any claar Paiteaersrge, ti thattowns iro moreinpetat thant county, tUthoogh theis hardy significant sinc far more insrpons come fom turban rater than ul nets. ecaneSilvanie’ popula coldest on his resemblance either to Roman orto indigenous models, Tae i value ln ying wo comeate thecal dstibtion wih th dpe of Remantzaton of 2 epen. We ‘would expect hatte more Remanized provinces which sccoun forthe Trost insertions sao would furish the great umber of Silvanus ‘toring. Ts uel the cas, with some exceptions: ive one ‘xample, there fer prose evidence fm esently annexed Dai han from nore highly Romanzes Bate, though overall sll number of Latin iseripions tom southern Spo preserved Since thre no teason to question Silvanus’ alan exgins, the aivinty was surly exported tothe rovinces trom Ialy, wher the ‘aes lnerpions dats, Roconstcting Row th cult spread ouside aly i delicate issue complicated bythe Inte date of he epigrapic ‘vider, Appentis IV shows hat imeriptions with consular or exer Stslute dats fe mainly rom he second an hré centres AD. Other Understandably, carpenters were sometines fond of honoring ths go who ensired thelr Dlg supplies. * Stable boys equliones) aw Sivas guaran of ior ants. Quares, temple attendants (ori) and oor groups eolectively venerated the od for les obvious reasons ™ Dedications from colegia end other occupations groups suggest a ‘certain pre of rganzain nthe cult at he private level, We have Seen tat these asscttionsensctod ries and stg religous fests thoge were performed in an arbiary fashion ince Silvanus dd not ave ‘ny sot ly day, festival or publi empleo provide a focal point or Untying iitence, ati the sate cuts. We have only the slighest Inkling of morganizodpriestioodoonduetsaciies and maiisinths ods snes, akbough in theory the pontiices bad the authority € Supervise tis and all eas, In Rome ow piss of Silvanus have lett {resort of her earers® At Carthage sitoen members of colin Gevoted to Jupiter Harn and Berbera Sivanas eal amsoives priest (4acerdores: he to women in this group further specify them See autre 7 “Grate (hq 383} 98-19) ‘Sarat apm gt ican mie ce res haan (ILS “SEH tana, teres OL 3 rl CM cree aren PS no mye ea Sha 26Es [CULT STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION selves as mires sacroram, liealy mothers of the sarifces."* The Felnive silence ofthe epigraphic record suggests tatw religions stve- ture vt not pert an ha cllgia and individuals carted oat the ‘wares of worship without professionel advice and assistance fc Ahesume way athe paterfamiiasaéministred domestic eats. Ts, the ‘eltnship of the aderent vie-dvi the deity was not one foemalized ‘bythe oa of tertiary. No dou, the real majo ofthe goa sherents conte sures In pvate, as most didnot belong (| collegia. ‘The relatively frequent mention of temples and shrines of Silvanus presipposes priest condust ites nd to administer the poo" property fd income, as well asada tke cae of emies ad hl rounds, Tn cast anecdote the writer of the Hivora Augusta, sometimes a <écbiows sours for Rome's topography. mentions a empleof Silvanus in Roma, an athrwise unknown edifice.” Inscriptions tell of other Suctures, none of which were financed by the Sala A temple of Sanctus Silvanis Satori ood othe Aventae Hill ia Rome (Region Al)" lt primity othe Bats of Carscaliapezhaps explains he go's ‘pith, Weknow of thetample'splesters. iron vali apd gardens, but oehseclogiea taco of texte sito casforalloterepigatically ‘teuedSivanossancteres,Ancienteoues, icing the Repl ora, ‘ato note this Aventine temple, consctd into st decade ofthe second eetiry ADD, evidently because i was overshadowed by the ‘ote fous shvines of Diana, Cres, Liber and Bona Dea neat, Many ‘tier buldings serving Sivanat ul Sood elsewhere ia Rome all of ‘which are of imperial dato No Republican general ever allocated ‘manubige to const & temple to Silvanus. The 08's tpograpical reseace in Republican Rem | confined his satus in Foe of tho pele eh ease Baaveare RES? Sanacnsemtn. sere peor eenea ieee Se eee eae Temple of Setum in the Roman Fora ai his sacred grove onthe CCapoline Hil, both of which are not mentioned in sources wnt imperial ies "Epazapic references to Slvarus’ sanctus ouside Rome aeless frequen. Temples which collaped of od age were restored at privat expenses fer Macarense aly ar Asta Vindlium Racin fn t cot tan ent legion a Larabucss (Numidia) * A chapel ine "Temple of Aesculapis was served for Sivanas also st Lambecas.* [At Phikipi coll maintained a shine with Sitvams” bronze fmage-® At Clep (Panis) oteran ealaged an earir temple of te fod. Siyanus rings ako stot in Ks (Dalat), and Seasbania (@annonia. A diferent typ of sanowary, near Salora (Dama). Consists of anazcitrave nd peisneatcarsed directly onto he rock ace swith he symbols of Pan Slvans alo fad labore shins in pevate velings "arare tron medallion of Hari shows Silvanus walking toward a schematied fone temple before which fr bums oma smal alt.” "The pie idenfcntion of tls eis Is ener: pape Kite ‘Aventine Slvancum bolt daring te rle of Hadrian's predecesser, ‘Trajan Anobertomple, depict oa a paca ofthe Arch of Septimis ‘Severus at Lops Magn, i thought 1 Belong to Svan becnse his Panes erp corsa ich gonna hr cin serioal Se me Some eae eee ‘lime Micatrundompctedistsnrsiquruciauila seinen) cele cuente vt GBS coon 0 etani CIL 420: apn sow "pec isn So Cone, Deveron Meng de mamas fags soe nape asp a) 1h ot ys ens miami" (AD 29) Se Soe, sme2 ‘CULTIC STRUCTURE AND CRGANTZATION. stu suppocedly appears onthe relief! The strocture move likely belongs to Liber, Heres or Roma who ar also doped since they vere far more popula in Tepolitns than was Silvanus. ‘A fis nomber of eaifices were consecatd to Sivan. How larg’ these blldngs wees, Rowever, is open fo dispute. Templo in is tviginal ens indiates wv aes of consecrated space, ta blag. A Hungarian scolar svt in Pannons, bythe second cestay A... tamu describe ts ltge complex, Dut a modest sanctuary since that tn often applies to builting inscription found in salt seule tents” Sigifiettly, none of Silvanus hrnes were lg or durable ‘enough 1 endure te testo me. Archaologeal excavation hs et10| Fecover any bullding which can be aseribed with cette ol. ‘SvewoutipofSivaus. Teso-alled temples" of SvanisatCamuntum (Pannonia) and Sarmizegetosa (Dacia) hae ben so eaied soley on the asl ofthe discovery of Silvan arias and inscriptions thee: these sutures als fled domestic or eter religious funetions. (Concentrations of large numbers of deaiations, such as a Topusko (anon) and Aquileia (ay), may indicate the presence ofa temple 0, at Monteleone Sabino (aly), merely sacred meeting pace with ‘nly the splest architect provisions x notsorty thst sliost AMT of the extant depieiont of Silvanus ao loss than lfesize. We probably ven cultiagsintondod fora large sanctary Rather, most al statues, liars and plagues were meant eter as personal afrings for private west. (One af the fond onthe Arch of Consanin in Rome shows 1ypical ‘esting for Sivan” veneration: diminative stata of the ged sts on { pecestlDeneth ate, with nomor labore acttetural rovision ‘tan s small tar Considering thar Silvanus was often venerated in ‘ered groves and in ther rfl spots where ther was no actual emp, ‘le ein 55a eset yn Sagi juno rin spine nan” of Sa ere rhage oy ace Sta rua ts ea Eevee Corman nS ho Eesha emigre occ we would expect to find many representations of hm in saz: landscaper, a fariiar geno in pangs and mosles; however, the tondo provides our oly such example, "The god's places of worship esomble lrara, she wany hundreds ‘of small ars and volts of Slivanus seem designed to orn tiny ‘Shrine, References o smaller dedicuge ana otber ite sanetesies ae retuncomman "Sach minor sutures dldnotaed theca offline ‘ress and grounds keopers Tale muinenance wa easily provided by the ndvidaal hereto mach he she ety dy th lef eae forroad-ege snciarcs ofthe Chistian sain kx Grosc, kalyandoher| Mediterranean comnties. Porticoss were alto erected In Silvanus” name, mainly 1o sheer ‘objet of ritual portance: statu and a pining (ult et pctra), ‘proba pated cult image to ho ane at Ost; apedestal (credo) nd an image of the deity carved from single pecs of tone (Svamum ‘morolithun sane, and a ding char (accuitus), obsoaty fr Fallgous feasts ‘ier strates dedicated to Sivan also scm o have ben wed rituasially: 2 roo! and a table (ecm cf mento), evidently for feasting: ™ a colomn and bronze lap, pehaps 0 lumina neta ‘ess tabula probably acatimoger® anda sella satntat, aspcial ‘Seareserved forthe player ofa syfonum, a typeof caste, for musical ‘sccompaniment daring scred ites” ‘Whit role these objects played inthe worship of Silvanus Is not sways clear, butat lest ean be ssid that fore of them sow the considerable weal of afew ofthe gots adherent Such the ease ot to reconstructed Baths of Svan st Saepinat—that if Silvanus cig Samet Se es “imi o Vin Thora Ac Pit, Via Tore” Annalee © Bean mata aes on er er ft ce rt eh ee arava amiemnece tama ‘cha (le Ve 10281 Pair 22, agg tha ho porto appney elnged > a ee. sean a(CULTC STRUCTURE AKD ORGANEZATION here is the name ofthe deity, not that ofa pve indvdual: Silvanus tras 2 common encigh personal cognomen:" Bath buldings are not hormally aed after divints although those structures could aceom- Inodate various cas, The Mithracum nthe Baths of Carcilain Rome {han obvious example. Conesvabl, bathe were not oly named ater Sivanus, but ls played «paint eat A swimming poo in Rome, ‘limits fo worten by command of Sivanus, may have been used fr Situs prfcation wit water” Arumlange Marcellin (25.4.19} nen ‘done another bath (Jovan) named aller the god or» homonymous Indivioel. This establlchimen,foquened by members of the aistoc ‘ey in the four cenry, perhapscombined medicinal water eames ‘vith worship ofthe dl Vet, only one dedication makes mention of ‘cure rosed or oqusted fom Sivan" Tnserption carved onreck face sometimes metion Silvarus, bn rec evidence connects him with caves one than a vague allsion i Fropertue (44.116) Kathe, his veneration often centered around Sete groves and gardens ven if ot withthe frequency expected fr the god of the woodinds and ols par excellene.® Poets snd waiters ‘imagine Silents mor often in hes locations tan in frets. Chapter Taleadydicused Sivangs' proves of Republican imes mendoned by Plants (Aull 674,766), Vergl (Aes 8.5008) andProperis (44.110). [ater athors coasnued to envision Silvanus ina grove, although iti ‘neler wheter thy had contemporary or more antique setings in ‘ind: Oratius (Cyneg, 1.20), eotor of didactic poem on huang: Lucan (De Be, iv. 3402) and Nomesian (El 256), whoball Svanos a ruler ofthe groves” (nemorum pens; an Dolabell, a eho the Gromatici Veteres (Lachmann, Feldmeser, 302, 13-19) who places Svante Orienaisinasacred grove. Status’ (Theb 6.110) description of Svan as “ode ofthe sta” (arbiter umbrae) may aso allde TSB Armas Rosas om che Bay of Mapes (Cami, Mats. 270) 4 rues at SSS Ghee hele nua Sk Sede te). ems TRuelsee GUN ’6 30h i omeuayras oo B0Gyi asin tae 38 Svea egal per. Gag hacen Ghats ere 2 re Ss elena aspng an. pe ee eater fed pe Ook we to the go's ubitaion na shaded grove rather than to any conection ‘wth te underwoi ‘etiat insrpionseoreferto Silvanus’ sacred groves. One fom Gala Narbonenas, pits the diy as un “overseer of the garien” (Gusts hor) an corends bis pleasant grove (suaveolens cst), {Grwhich one thousand wees of unspecfed species re doce, Ifthe ‘ow of large and pesbupe Irate grove was full a onsider~ “Shteamount of revenue may pave scoruedto the cul coffers, We have 0 dea how any such wealth was stored, spent or managed. Another poem, from Aftea Proconsulsis, cancers a saced grove set in & erat, pstorloceion, which ubexplanaiy “rises fromtherock,"® Perna it allades tothe chthonic side of @“rupessn” Silvanos Crcountezed in Span, Alani and ober places. A thitd poem, fom Maly histhe god ast"ortoly shepherd who watches over thedaean {rove analosion tthe famoesloaliry on Crete sated to Zeus “Sint inseipcons demonstrate that Svan” sacred groves were ‘mor than terry topos, Bu sh intel part of every eat practice too, Oneiferng fom Rome ecordsagroveenelosed by a gaedon wal, toute tprotectits sacred tres" Anoter rom Mylene Lesbos) Inentons grove (ows) and an altar Bayo And a third from ‘Stntniaidenis Sivas asresiinginaloalbose (NemusSorabera) “Tees wove certainly of gret importance 0 Siivangs. whose ost common auribate was the pte. A oken representation ofthe arboreal ‘tement appears atthe major alt se, such ab atLagdanum, where an Sar state and srine wer soc up between 0 res.” Inthe case of fniieaons erected in woodland or agscultral setings, the natal, ‘yd oeatin eal accommodated eligios purposes." sony inthe ‘rtan lin —ironeally whee the majority of dications have been “iscovered sat an rfc grove o arden hud o be laid ou. When ths was impractical bcaute of eopogrphical or financial reasons, the “imp rendering of ate onan arsed. Unfortunately there fs [ine way of geuging how aero, larg ad impos sacre groves ‘CGE rs essay Sune ane i Nena vam eres” seit ates meconium aso, $e nr eer AOD Sep ety tein eon ae HX 4 ny CLV, 081 radi Olah pn are Ce VIG.96 ‘CULTIC STRUCTURE AND CROANIZATIN ‘ein te wep of Sn, si noon eee ae Tite nck ‘ot ec! enllhee! make eval Cevecoyehcecaelogealy roves wre pine ingens the Moriya lr van chs Des Da (ole Rom, {sand ool Lacs Fern). nal Uklbod chop wee Soule Stns suna™ Ts ett by th snd cenary AD, Siva coal be tuo epnze step ee sig scons wa Sat oun ihe, tmp sed cred gover sow. Teo rage Fiotoo, vere Svan’ wonklp tokens mare pl Sienna aaiatnss cosmo (mara lon, {Daina sage ater sng prove "Nosan ‘reson caling Svan Sadecopaens pap nar {omgs of eather halt or eda apt amen) "is ‘orci tagie Svan ang fiance by os Connie Uatuny,etig tt es nis Enon al lyri omplosen any flaps yh sae sorenmna is dos nya a pal enesphy bee ey ented coty Even Angra, whe was aot poms "oa c awed aes nS song nce orn ang Veg opr, Ov, Livy and ti alo pate atl Svan in igh pt io ‘ping orugh nerve rpeeon tm ae ormmeroe ‘etre tn nerd enn A. he dyer apens on bl nnanentn a pel oft sarc a ten Benes pay da oh ely eno ‘ita te)" Fy pesos nia psy, beaded 2 ale. 0009 098, Eris slam taayaaet ns cian oan Seater ira seams Sea sea ae fon orbicgionsh eisai eee See Seam te retest EER re sea Sal ep iy 9s rte i, ig a Esp nrcieasarin tr Oa Ia ee et es She kar asian mer are ici au hensta stern mente} ‘COLTIC STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION 7 Sivanas holds pine teanch—but nota fls—and wars shore tke and hunting boots. Accompanied by Liber, Ceres and Diana, who ‘obscures most af th owe pron of his bady, he god seems «mid ‘owoomer tothe official partheon. The low relief of Silvano” body ‘rphatizesstlaiveurimporance vs Avis te ober divine. Also ‘Sgniicantin this espect ste placement of Silvanus furthest om te cmperr, wo was ean representedin the missing lef pron ofthe ‘Scone. Simon regards ibe, Ceres and Danas plebelan vad, 12 ‘which he very tumble Slvanusisalogial adition Sboarguesthathis ‘roupwasinnded tobalancehaof the Cepitlie rad on anode ac {ele of the ach, indiating Trajan courship of bth the upper and losor stat of society. Despite Suvanus™ undeniable appeal 10 the ‘edna nn, iotcear that he imesialgoverament was eensciousy ‘wig to adress a specific social cls, as, for example, i was atimpting todo wiht rogram of alimenta Sitvanas’ inclusion in the group may have topographical if not politcal sigaiiance, Head the oer ces om the panel are thought forepresentthe newly anaeod provine of acl were, 1 judge fo {serpin al fon were to bacon irensely popular. Il fic, however, see & god of Silvanus’ privat character as an official seploual symbol “Acconiing 0 general opinion, Sivanas appears ona second pana of the Beneverom Arch asthe beaded, ogate igure who joins Dana a snotor godess (ortana?) a presesing solders to ube emperer. Ney steless, aspect eribute ofthe god, apart rom adog sini. ‘Staon nes that che igure in question efers significant from the ‘mare cerain depiction of Sitvanvs on te aie pal has very hor Inirandatrim beard, des aoa the pie, sé does na stand aacest to Diana.” Her conclusion thatthe zepresenation is gens ofthe ‘eerie is convincing (Gejaan in Sinan onan mpsiogent Beton ae 98) 1 icons of Sims ooo At of Ge Rae foc 8 (a ir, hetnrmengn of er i,“ ‘vr val es vee Comrs, "i ptt fees et ‘feearern eer 100 1099 11 Sg Rome cpr eee 12a 2 Teer el ge "Siem" rfichoges"7% cuxmie stRUCrURE AND caaNZATIN Sivan makes his ie apearineon he coinage ofthe tof Rome under Trajan on he eerie ofan ay died AD. T2116, the cer fil reeserisin ote A Beads fleet ttesiureassivanes,otescompanying werptiondos 767 the ue othe dint ana tpl ited of th expect ne man otningsPsoo experimen with ivan asa omienai ts AtRomeetued ere toe otal exrig ebared goon theyre od he pontumous poral ot Hanae he overs pine 5) Chote nyo un, Stvars lft a was betwen tee and an fon empl” Te deiy srr apn th rove of {hater medion of Anson Ps, sess the cignne emperor's oxn ore. Sens ow bls pine oak Src and fs handsndstorweensGogundamodear pred By nvosblfanld vase Beh con gperevich we sold odo {ever ccelstin Since Svar never pps sain on pei ot fron cing eviery therewith [Scie imexpstng im in hi plypopegendiste num ‘arian rtetond inserted over sontwester pagent of the Achof Comtamine a Ree prey yong edo Siva ® Recycle ba toms ease nt see of {ie tnd dope ante ofa Bored ey sanding oo al Si Mle ft amon pice Bris Mara L830 2 ane ties pcg Sonus ely el aia py Fae "Yntuncs tac ato aa 3 ‘raya nen uct Aner CID) esa ay ‘eto eile Stee Maer ot usa {ae 9 ‘Sere reapnn te ae vn ata ta we an ‘stnettend seco pnourh Caen tating 2s {Seah en an Ea Gree ap Siu racer an SHRM SR an ro open gee eo ncamiins Sateen ine Sunapee eas fap aa iio oe ena Rnay te a ey ‘SS ttn nse Uhoewenge vl 2 ncaa waco ‘Genwi aenemin sn elan er pueden setae ‘aan i ane eterna ry ong Seat a ey one peal pe ANE 1 ee ‘bie pany se by "ana Tos 172; nd CULTTC STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION » pedestal Severe western is berated most des Oi fail Fears He wear ar ype of ivan, ull man noe from goats, ath nstance the ie sports oe of te gos frst i et and (ple 9 som tend now eas man as out lus eat crown te god. Tote igh, the emer, ‘how: pores naling’ preserved andtwomemrs os norags Te ferns tte anlar dcoste wih gana oppe wih ne covet or aes, aa ‘bear's head—so badly damaged that it is hardly recognizable as. sach—anda rns ng fatened oe sbove, Neer is cone Sonal atu of Sivan "Tho bear reso th ey cape in & hating see of ante oda aber ha any ele spect of he {lease sigisne fr Sanu, and appears whi aly {ne oer lea ten SpyBot desta was an wrias Crearbrc)." Te grin accmpuis Sven i Daa ti whore he wat enone athe te plying Pat “Te ty one tan iter in sighfian ays rom Svan sundrd onogephy, deserted in Chap I From he postin ot theapt am ie lr at his ig hand as ot ase supper ‘fats os tis on urs pete eresentaons. A reliable Rens Sance drawing ofthe ond by lovae Antonio Doo show eat tana witout as oject™ Cerny the compotion neve Ieuged & {ped tepne was oid, als iappetea ho oman ts we may surmise from he beter preserved Dia Ton, 08 tbe Severely dunaged ope pat of he star “Aine 17th century ing fit by P, Blo esores the ‘eno figur a Heeslasbodinga cl eng ions kin ise and ‘Admitely te eoogeples of Svens ti Heres teremaraty Saran inthe sbeence of specie ening tbls, vialy ER es tan ty a ne gn pd sian (CX 50, 69). pas RGB, Gane a Bap SD SR SOE eee ac cen ‘Recetas nkyincs ia Hau, 3012050190910) REE ee ech eres Eiiirniabasceweemcermadate sai tee ct eh 51 98.100 [CULTIC STRUCTURS AND ORGANIZATION Indlstnguistabe from one another, But Bello’ iterpetation as the twiwardconsegoenee of making Horcules appar twice inte tonto {erie onditiscontraictod by anculcr sketch of Doso (1533-16097) ‘Shieh shows the godolding rl-flled mantle, nota club Severely ‘routered though the toro today, itéetitelynevereonsined cub ‘or lon's head, We shold os, st aay rate, expect to find Hervles sociated with asi, "Pew oe divinities canbe dentfed wih ond figure, Verma who a eleeatea sate nary i the Views Tusa, ems 0 av ‘esa yout, unlike the deity in quewin, Satur, bearded male, does fot wear an animals sin Says id Sens could assume uaa shape Sd arty the gous skin and syria bat neither would be the repent ‘ta sacafilalefering of hs Kind, Frans ean Deru 010, since eit Know onl fom erty source which deseibe him as nial a form: Pan might be excised rom considration othe sre reason if Fed not cary th yrs, whi eats so prominently onthe tendo, th fonetion as a patron of hinting, preciely the pe of activity spite. Paw's conection wth Sivande in teratre and in everysy lt practice Ia Dalmatia was dscuseed in Ciapier IE. Altbough che ‘igure's human form pilates epsinetanmspediateDaimatian madel— ‘wbich was pebably deste inappropriate anyway for the Sophisticate ‘nonarteat which the to once doened—he godin question appears tober sycretie Sllvanus-Pa, fis key thatthe tondo, even if ore tllegocal thin documentary, allades to an actu Historical event, posribly one of Hadrian's ocd bear ht nthe Eas where the fuer conceivably identified Slvanes with a local Greck equivales, ‘amely Pat, Herein may be he explaniton for Pan's syrine a the ‘appretsion of Sivenus' ac albutes, bt nt his Raman form the figueisinterpcted ae Sitvanas-Pan, tbe is asoeation wih the thes ‘ther Greek divine onthe tod makes good sens. "The most important comparison for he tno ia relic of Aninous asSivanos, found ina vilaat Toe delPaigone eee anevm (late 1) Thefinely seul Pentelcmarbeplece, signed Anoninsnos HET verse avy hla WO in, aes ttre ete Gio i lie aus lame 963-0 noe: See a ne hia artatondee cowoort ae cere res ne ib st, espe ceva Pesca See nos tg ea te (CULTIC STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION 101 of Aptcocsiag (tlt peaps merely a copy ofthe maser’ wack), Show etic clad Antnots Molding fle An alta, copped with apie fone, ads dog flank his it and Lt respectively. These abuts ‘ake hs ideatticaton wit Silvanus ceri; the vie above Anno, fowever has no paral in Silvanus” eanogrpay. While may seem Stange thatthe beurdlss youth as imagine he horrid Sas, ‘Aatnouscostomaily ascimed the gise ofa varay of Greco-Reman {Eni Lgypian dle, On medallions raced at Bihynionn Asia Minor the youth even appears ih se pecion an obvis allusion to Pan 8 ouse ard uvuly diya Silvana.” Akin inspec he Lanaviar, Relies statue of Annous sa farmer which snow on display in he Lowe” "The Latuvium Retires do Slvanus Tondo expocaly tn ts stately claeiirng poreayal ofthe igure ad is eral quality Bosh works werecemmissionodvithin seven years of ano anther (A.D. 131-138), most certainly for private patvons” Perhaps one served as te modeler inspiration or the oes. The suiking similarity of he 0 sles mia oven inate ha they were products ofthe same master {Aantocaianes?) or school (Aphrodsise’),perbape shedding lght on ‘whet etna come fom ad iho carved hem. Atinous des not appear on the “Sivanus” Tondo, unless hs the ‘igor in low relist oie ompetor's ight Scholars have been anxoos| tpidenty ihe yout en many other tnd, buts appetances definite in only one stance: as te de page inthe scene of the departure for the ont. Since he was often a honing companion ofthe emer, ad tippers as schon teat oe of th ond, nx surprising that he was posthumously dotted witha god ofthe char onthe Lanaviam eli Dutitis farted o think tha tho hur deaiied as Sivan onthe tondo dc alles to or somehow embodies the deified Antinoas.” "Bectne of hispasion orhuntng, Hadtanhad a cetain fondness for Sivan, a5 indicated by the gods presence oa the fondo, Lanuviom Seen Samet Lets pasa ton CURIA nn ‘ie i anne ag ary wading MUUyeeveaaoaewa ‘CoUTIe STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION eit enema thn sw ion ys shy reattach ony ete Santee eterno Tonner mopman ou Sy se tiosouain tor suatnerapity we ricerca wm sachs St Fro ‘Rolain senthonr erent Seal sonnei amy con te Ach Baba np spy tcc aepewrtooengeette tan aos ve ae me sn yn re soem net npc sear nme SSCA iy nod hres me ox otcipeoan saw cn nae an’ ‘olin nando tan Sates Spun Rocco he ton Si tape nt ater he ay Yan sot Ps open oie te Ah soe orn en sear Secs nn, it Cae es em, ‘nesses arate seetes gn fateter yatta te ‘ut ines orton athe me inspec ots sarin acre toronaace et ‘Geers rir’ Scar} 9 Ann ome ea seen rr Sis noosa Rene oman in WAAR 22 (835 185 She ‘CULTIC STRUCTURE AND OROANTZATION 103 . Strong thought Septimus was parcalay rested inSivanis because his Woops favored the deity The rler was no doubt very familiar with Silvano, since e rose co the purple jn Pannona, a roving wbere the rd was Yey popula. Idoes nose ikely though Thace divinity of Silvanus’ puivate character was used neo es «sro of tat provine, just as be probaly des not personify Dacia on the Benoventum Arch” TF Sivan is epesened onthe arch at Lapis Magn, he appears in avery elevated ol ws companion of th emperor and his aly, and thereby a divine quindln and reprosentaive ofthe state as he Arch (of Trajan and, presumably, tat of Constantine. The divinity does not ‘revive fries imperial rsogntion on monumens, coinage oF other ‘ned, ha if we can exclu the “Silvanus” Tendo's now damaged portato Haden, which wat eco with he features of Constantine or fis father, Constantius Chor, in A.D. 312-315, “The ow official epictons of Sivanas—with he exception of those ‘on coins ae event in thee iconographica dats. The att was fppurcnty ueamllr or unary with auch plebeian subject, more Shitable fora peasants home tn a peril moaament. The wide ‘aviation in iconograpical deal suggests shat no standard model triste Sivanus eeraiay lacked an offical cle same which nor tally would have served as an artistic model, Stat-commissoned {ist inevitably relied on private images ofthe go, bu conscovsly tevited rom thom, I weeanspeak ofapobli, 8 ste rom a private lecnography tis on in whic be god's humble, rs atibates ae fnutegappareily nanatternpetomake him appear mere dignified. Te {Jats soubiqltous on priv representations, never shown on offic ‘els thepine andthe dg, bth presenta hs Beneventum Arch Were Tes offensive opablicaste. ‘Eten i noglectd a a ffeil ico, Silvanus ws affiited atthe vate level with imperial cl, We have already note that his eolgia ‘ten honored the emperor, ad that he was integrated into the worship ‘ofthe pecal Lare adhe domus August? Many Silvanus devotees implore ie good heathof te emperor or empress. One offering pus Sng, Ras Sat. 135. saps (aoa aD cafe dl aguante nee ASSIS ARDAL aed ore npr cic 19 cance108 Cc. STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION Sivamns and Nero another, vowed to Silvanus “ofthe Flan bya ‘needman ofthe emperor Tis, perhaps incorporates the god in the worship ofan enti dymasty.™" An assoclaon Between Silvanus and Iperat eats explained, pareaaly in Roms bythe high wopeton of ddicatorsbelongngsothe familia Caesar. Other adherents, ith fewer es othe emperor and futher removed frm the imperil cpa, vere less inclined 1 eunect the god wih the epee" ‘Slvarus enjoyed anly a vary limited measre of imperil parenage ndetficial recognition. Over, howas more nolected than many other Aste, whethe of allan or frelgn origin, Unlike cals such as those of sis, Magna Mater and Bacchus, the lie Sivanus posed a threat | Foreigacomtrination,seerot mown oe frenzied ital. Sl the state chose not 10 promote him, while st malnained sancraies om the Capt Hl Wet for such obscure dees a Fides, Spt, Ops and “Terminus, Evidently divinity could enjoy iment populaity and remain outside sate worship. Roman pageisn was ao eniey domi nated by civ calt and embodied more than jst plies and pu sis Fae Restercemtene caus ounce rm eater ‘AEIDIS > Grant abo Ct Ves Leb AE HD) 1 ance Pa Get ora ocreatan cena aaa nce (Gestalt Sonoran Ci VAS rea Seo ccna een aaa ‘engi accel! eh aa GOR en ‘THE WORSHIPPERS tis unlear whose eigen varied ascending to soa or economic status o clas in the Roman Empite J. Beaje’s stndy of a small ‘umber of second century A.D. Insrpions concluded that sensors ‘worshipped plethora of divinities and not single out any one cul, ven if they might teleet goss lke Sivanas and Apolla* Tae Soviet eto M. Sterno he other hand, has agua that senators were ‘devoted tthe impr albu thse could be sid abowtslaves sel feccdmen Horay not be possible to generalize about the preferences of cer aoups suchas equesuians, decurinso reedmen tom Leong it thei votives These nowd tobe analyzed more cael, ‘A for slaves the assumption shat more often than nt they hose, cr were compelled to choos, the sams deities a ther masters. In Wis comprehensive stay ofthe eliion of saves i antiquity, F. Bomer ool nt delineate any clear asincton between he practices of tee ‘nd slave? While he believes there are no cole pariclarly connected withthe servile sate, Bomer regards Sitvanas as widely venerated mongslaves, expecially intl. He views Silvanus’ conoprpay ase ‘reaton sn eletonofmpovershed staves. That ste simple, sie atvibuis ofthe god his iclegant des, alr and honting dog— fuppedly reflect the socal charcter of most agrarian saves who ‘ented more easily with the simple representations of Silvana than with those ofthe more grntoe deities ofthe sate panton, fe woul bediticat find hurd roo back up such a theory, especially since ‘he onograpy ofthe cle was shaped tn pepetated ney the poor, but by men of Some wealth, whotbor fee o save, who cold afer 0 Stott Ps tonn Bee os Art 8) olen trenar 9 Gas Sea. Ang era Teleco SSN Sl erm ial nats mmr ae nth att Roan Fredonia (Od 8 8 eile Be gn et ed do106 ie Wousiears| commision states and eit, many of which wer of os mare In tenerl the petra theme, as we know i art ori tertare sa Spperliss constuction, though Sivan could provide un example 0 ‘he contrary, ‘Other fcholas hav son Silvanus asthe daring of saves, reedmen corthe fre bom poor® Stermanbalieves that we ean deat save ‘lgion” which focused on Sivan and Hercules as capions ofthe oor and soctaliy oppreted. In sch roo, these gods would symbolize the cles consciousness of the lower orders, although Slvanus as protector of boundaries, might also appel othe propeted classes.” This wort mode of common people and elites with separate religions practices, which Sasa nd other Manis sera propose, has ot {ound mh aeceptance in Wester scholahip* Tes acd to deny Roman se religion’s sensitivity wo social ant economlestuas, if not clase” From te ealy days ofthe Republic the Senatorial ruling boy monopolized the elles responsible for con ‘Sled irc oy ‘lle cian al ces Mw "Borpeu, afm “Colo Deca SSL ites Minatitlan ret este tls, Si eine susan ane ace Ag ‘nen pscencatdar Seas noisier Poa, wnt te Seman ny oe nso Masi te Weazn Parse oman ree St a oa“ ate ce atccany cer Wel rater sastans te (nib foro othacmars ont a oce eee ena nrabes fe ic te fey cones ie ui od a) vty yi enn ptr Sera ce "rn toes cls ex of nda ot Tne teed pe among enue Arent ‘Serpe Ster ef pps cnsuae of caper veing official vies Gomes, septemvirt plone, qundecinvint Seri acids, flanine ad augure). Tho lex Oguri of 300 B.C. ‘pened some pristnos to wealthy pebeans,buty the Late Repeblic, “hie rmestpoltial tices atone sincobect dominated by pebeans, ose to elf ofthe members of ponies clleges sill ened in Dati hands The Rex Sacror, the tee major famines athe [uli continued tobe recruited exclusively from he pariiesst. AL Iny tae the few advances tat were ade by the plebeans benefited Gly minority of the einen population Te was this distinction Between the pire and the ples ater tan betwoun foe and slave wich came to be expessd in clt inthe Baty Repub. Being sointerined with politi reion was boond to play ‘Tending patin the Stage of the Orders, Anuber full connecte ‘uth te ples were concentrated onthe Aventine Hl thick pop teed gheto daring the Repo." Te plebean resistance focused on the sanctuary of Ceres Libersad Lien fowndedin493B,C, Wwasthe ‘aqua of the pbeian aces, psrested the righ of asylum ant Fantom asthe center of food distr buton tthe poo. The Tempe ‘Dana, according olegendestabished by thebumble Servos Talus, tke had popular assoeatons, Cle outside the Avent region ap- psd to commoners too. According 10 Ovid (Fast! 3.664), ty Fatclaly venerated the obecre Anta Petenma becaseof her sit Ence doing te Fiat Secession on the Sacred Mount. The Pebeian Games (Ludi Plein, probaly established by the radial leader C ‘Ranninius 220 B.C, alo ad popular overtones. So dd the games thc the plebeianasles Meld from the socond century onwards in honor of Flora the ancient dln goddes of wees and vegeation. “These drew eromds of commoners and prostiues, uidoing even the Satur ia Hentonsness." ‘lebians oven set p rival cls to thse which were open only to patrcians In 296 B.C. ptscan maved to a pebsan consul report racing Cas ey 9 Se Ln a ene umeclion iment ipbatots wnat Er hee oni do asian a Mat ets tate Cedkons Derogues nse epee (ticle re eal me into Ph BGs. tenn Ce 52)we ‘ie wonsnmrss dy established a shine to Pibelan Modesty Posen Plebela onthe ‘Guia Hi air the was excluded from goddess’ pain cult the Forum Boaram,* The plebelan goddess, Livy laments, was soon do- aod by women of al clases (omnis orn femina)* “Caer the Privepate the oligos strates continue be based on octal and czonomie tts, Emperors usurped the authority of Ponies Mamas a appointed civic pristods fom the senatorial an oats Thanet” Freden remaiod exc from most priesthood and thor caughers were barred rom becoming Vestal Virgins." Freeten (night alowed minor functions 4s atendats tscrfices(vitimarit), Terie keepers (eed) or gatdlans ofthe sacred ebickens used in ‘Gvpaion (outer). " Thee gretest Bonor and the pinnacle oftheir Creer was te oie of seni Aagustls through whe hay supervised ‘Retinal elt. Tas post wat not normally ed by the fee-bor, Capel cutie aly. slaves, of course, were excluded frm civic fMostoods, though the nites of Hercules at de Ara Marine were rusted other care fer 3128.C.* Otherwise only ouside Rome dis Saves serve as oveacers (nals) of some cals ‘ner both the Republe and Empire the various ordines had hee prefere colts an festival. The kmghts singled out ortna Eguestris Iino Red temples in Rome (estroyed sore tne befor A.D. 23) and ‘Annem Tae most important even for ceironfor as a parade (Granovecto)iwhonor of exstor an Pollux. The ceremony was inte {M508 lapsed by he ae Republic and was revived by Augusta. ‘eotnch fo ad their special fess. According 10 Servius, cma otetatormna rarer os Se Cebit pesky Hepa ens Ten engl ame tn 00 0030 reniancn 35h Nas Wrvetaeshan BOS =H Scar bt Pst M209 aur cere! 89S) 1004 are era geometric “THE WORSHIPPERS 109 esa a el ay ho errant Sect SN in mn anit ss Sorin don ym ne a acters doaroloe ten sane eran? Be my meen

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