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Book 4 Module 13
STRUCTURES
Licence By Post
icence By Post © copyright B2 13.2 ISSUE 112CONTENTS
Page
Principles of Design 1
Materials 3
Structure Loading 5
Structure Classification 7
‘The Fuselage 9
Airframe Location Systems 14
Mainplanes 18
Construction Techniques . 22 :
Lightning Strike Protection 25) [
Electrical Bonding | 33) |
Test Values of Primary Bonding 42) |
Testing 46 |
HIRF i 87 Le
Demagnetisation ‘olHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK
Written for the B2 engineer to give a general background to aircraft structures
with the emphasis on the relationship between the structure and the avionic
systems.
‘Much of it is fairly straight forward. There is no need to remember the detailed
bonding values given though you should have a good idea of the sort of values to
be expécted when carrying out these tests.
Ideally, try to get access to some af the test meters mentioned. Inspect) them and
read through the manufacturer’s operating instructions supplied. |AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Structures are concerned with the airframe of the aircraft, ie the fuselage, wings,
fin, tailplane, engine mountings, attachment brackets etc.
The airframe is built to very specific requirements since it comprises about 40% of
the total aircraft mass and provides all the aircraft strength. The requirements
are:
* Adequate strength.
* Adequate stiffness.
* Minimum mass.
* Adequate mechanical properties such as toughness,
fatigue resistance etc.
* Smooth aerodynamic shape.
Principles of Design a | \ \
All aircraft must be built to the requirements Jaid down by the|authority pf the
country in which they are built. In the UKthis means the Civil Aviation Authority
(CAA). The requirements are published in British Civil Airworthiness“ /
Requirements (BCARs) and Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JARs).
The structure must meet stringent sbquirembals and the aviation authority will be
involved both during the design and|the construction of the aitframe.
JAR 25
JAR 25 specifies the structural requirements that the airframe of large turbine
powered aircraft must meet before it is allowed to be considered for a Certificate of
‘Airworthiness (C of A). The requirements are extensive so listed below are just a
few examples of the areas dealt with.
Factor of Safety. The normal specified minimum is 1.5 but can be changed,
provided authority is obtained. This means that an airframe part/substructure
must be made 1% times stronger than the maximum load it is likely to meet in
service.
Deformation of the structure must not be significant under normal maximum
loadings.
Fatigue. (Cyclic stressing that weakens the structure even though the stresses are
well within the normal maximum stress levels the material will bear).The structure must pass both static and dynamic fatigue testing. More of this
later.
Gust Loads. (Aerodynamic loadings which the aircraft experiences whilst in flight).
Various loadings and the conditions under which they are applied are specified.
Fuel & Oil Loads that are applied to the airframe by fuel and oil tanks. In many
cases the fuel tank loads are considerable.
Engine, APU and Landing Gear Loads. The landing gear produces large
compressive loads on landing and has significant weight considerations when the
aircraft is airborne. Engines, of course, put a considerable stress onto the
airframe locally, caused by their weight and the thrust they produce.
Pressurisation Loads. The stress can be as high as 8psi (in some cases even
higher). This means that on a square meter of pressurised fuselage (fractionally
more than a Square yard) the loads can_be in the region of 10,000Ibs (4545kg).
[psi = pounds force per square in¢h] \ } \
\\
i | 1h |
‘Towing and Ground Movement Loads. These jnaximum loads Ler.
irframé structure.
L ap
Emergency Landing Loads. These|maximum. loads apply to the
Lightening Protecti ‘Static Chi , Build-up.\ This is usually ichieved, for the
structuré, by having the airframe electrically Honded, so that jwhen lightening
strikes the whole ‘airframe will be at the sarhe/potential (voltage). For bonding
purposes ordirfary/metal to metal joining is considered satisfactory, but more of
this later. ee
COMPONENT BONDING
PIPE TO PIPE BONDING
Fig. 1 BONDING - COMPONENTS & PIPES
oP }0Where metal to metal joining is not used, or where it might be considered
unsatisfactory, bonding strips are used (braided copper or something similar).
‘This requirement applies to both metal and composite structures.
Electrical/electronic equipment is also regulated for lightening protection.
Static discharge wicks are provided for discharge of static electrical potential
build-up.
Flying Controls, Landing Gear & many other systems/subsystems.
Strength Requirements. These are related to both static and fatigue strengths and
in all cases a factor of safety is provided. The factor of safety may not be great, as
in civil engineering, as high factors of safety carry a weight penalty.
Static Strength ; . ,
Such as compressive, tensile, and shear. These must have a factor of safety
sufficiently high to ensure a long structure Jif¢ under all expected maximum
conditions, plus the ability to withstand ceftain abnormally high loads on a once
or twice-off basis. “ 7 |
Fatigue Strength
This is the ability to withstand cyclic loading at normal level (try‘breaking a steel
paper clip in one go - then try breaking it by a gentle to and fro-bending.
Fatigue will cause the paper clip to fracture at loads well below its normal
breaking limits). Again a factor of safety is involved with aircraft structures to
ensure that the fatigue limit is never reached.
MATERIALS
Metals
Aluminium alloys. Copper based - damage tolerant material used in fatigue
critical areas of the airframe - pressurised fuselage and wing skins - 2000 series.
Zinc based (7000 series). Boeing 747 400, Airbus A320, 340 etc. Offers increased
strength and weight saving. Used on the A320 for large machined structures.
Aluminium /lithium alloys being developed which are stronger and have greater
stiffness.Steels. Used in high stress areas such as wing to fuselage joints, engine
attachments, gear box attachments, bolts, hinge pins etc.
Titanium Alloys, Good in tension and with a density lower than that of steel, is
used to replace steel in certain applications. Titanium is nearly half the weight of
steel - size for size, has a higher melting point, and can have the same strength.
Resist corrosion well.
Magnesium Alloys. Less dense by half again than titanium alloys - and lighter
than aluminium alloys - size for size. Prone to corrosion, poor tensile strength,
but casts well and good in compression. Will burn under some circumstances
Main) rames.
(machined : 7010/7050)
ing gear
attachment fitings
(torgpa: 7010)
Keel member.
ot 2084 aT
extrusion :
Weg}
Fig. 2 A320 STRUCTURE ~ MATERIALS
Non-Metals
Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GRP). Used for honeycomb panels, ducts,
radomes, aerials, and internal decor panels and finishings. Is strong and tough
and used as primary structure on some aircraft.
CFCs - Carbon Reinforced Composites. Have a very good strength/weight ratio
and resistance to damage. Is of similar construction to GRP but the material is
made of carbon filament. Used in structural parts of the airframe.
©Kevlar. Used for structures, fairings, internal furnishings and carpets. It is
tough, has good tensile strength, is self-extinguishing and generates little smoke
when burning. Varieties are used for electrical cable insulation.
Nomex. Kevlar honeycomb sandwiched between glass fibre or carbon fibre sheets.
Fibrelam. Produced by Ciba Geigy and used extensively on aircraft floors,
bulkheads, and internal fittings.
Carbondec. Similar to Fibrelam using a Nomex honeycomb core sandwiched
between carbon fibre sheeting.
Composite Structures
The trend is towards more components being made from composite materials.
Some dircraft are already all composite - the Beech Starship, and the Af Tak 400
to name but two. In the military field the AV-88 Harrier has an all composite wing
and front fuselage. Some sailplanes are all pomposite. Helicopter rotor blades,
and some helicopter rear structures|are all composite.
To cope with electrical bonding, composite panels may have al alloy interleaves
within their structure, may be paihted with.a special conductive paint‘or may
have thin metal strips at regular intervals bonded to the outside.
STRUCTURES - GENERAL
Structure Loading
Since the structure mass must be kept as low as possible, the safety factors are
also low and reserves of strength are minimal. Every structural item must be
capable of withstanding the various stresses set up due to the loadings.
These stresses will vary in flight and will be more concentrated in some areas
than others.
The type of stress within the structure will also vary, some members must resist
bending, others stretching, shear, or compression. Some have to resist twisting
and some have to resist a combination of all these loads.
Hence the choice of a material is as important as the design.
QUESTION: Can you define stress? It is part of the Physics module 2.
(5 mins)ANSWER: Stress is defined as force per unit area.
Stress = LOAD
AREA
In imperial units, Ibs force per square inch = psi
In SI units, Newtons per square metre = N/m?
= Pa (Pa = Pascal)
In scientific notation
o = Pa
where Pa = Pascal
5 c = The Greekcletter sigma
i \ \ \ \
It is worth pointing out that the Pal a very| small unit. There are nearly 7000 Pa
to just 1 psi (Note - the units of stress and/j pressure are the same).
{ /
It is worth noting that the easiest /stress-to, ee with, and the|one
design engineers, is tension. Most materials behave better in tension than with
any other load. 1] |
‘TENSION
‘COMPRESSION
"TORSION oon
‘TENSION
BENDING
Fig. 3 TYPES OF STRESS
eer‘Try pulling a piece of string (tension) - it copes well. When pushing (compression)
it will not withstand the load at all.
Compressive stresses are difficult to deal with because they require the use of
struts which have to have a large cross-sectional. A member will try to bend if it
is put under compressive stress and to prevent it bending it must be given a large
cross sectional area - this means that it is heavy (for the load that it has to take)
and aircraft engineers are not happy about this.
Structure Classification
Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair instructions for members or parts of
similar size but designed to take different loads, the airframe structure can be
divided into three general classifications:
a) Primary Structure ' . a
‘These parts of the aircraft are highly stressed and , if damaged, imay cause
failure and loss of life, eg wing spars, engine mountings, I |
b) Secondary Structure
Patts of an airframe that are highly stressed but if damaged have provision
for alternative load paths. Ancillary frames designed to support
components, some skin pariels, etc are examples. It is difficult to give good
examples for this one as a frame-on one aircraft might-be primary while on
another it could be secondary. ‘ 7
©) Tertiary Structure
Lightly stressed parts such as fairings, wheels shields and minor
component brackets. Failure of which would not be serious.
Structural Members
1. Ties
‘These are designed mainly to withstand tensile stresses. Usually a solid rod of
small cross sectional area.
2. Struts
A strut is designed to withstand, mainly, compressive loads.3. Beams
‘These are designed to withstand bending loads. The main spar of a wing is a good
example. It has to withstand considerable bending (upwards due to lift when
flying and downwards due to its weight when stationary on the ground).
‘A beam has the highest stresses on its outside with the least stresses on the
inside. Beams, therefore, are designed with most of the material on the outside -
tubes, I section girders etc. (Some small aircraft have a single continuous tube for
a main spare, most large aircraft have I section main spares or box spares).
Bending, of course, is a function of the applied load and the distance the load is
applied along the beam from the point of attachment such as with a cantilever
wing. (Cantilever = attached at one end only).
I section beams may also be used in the construction of main spars in tailplanes,
fin, ete. - ~
Fig. 4 BEAM - WING MAIN SPARE
‘The I section beam shown above designed to withstand bending in one plane only,
ie up and down, so its structure is concentrated in those areas that take the most
load - at the top and at the bottom (the flanges). When airborne the top flange is
in compression and the bottom is in tension with the web taking very little load
{which is a shear load).
If it has to be able to withstand bending in more than one plane (example - a
yacht mast being bent in all directions - fore and aft and sideways - by the wind),
then it may be designed as a square hollow section or a tube. In very general
terms this is similar to an aircraft fuselage.THE FUSELAGE
‘The fuselage of an aircraft may be considered as a beam designed to withstand
loads in more then one plane.
Early aircraft fuselages were made up of four main longerons crossed braced with
steel tie wires.
This cross bracing took up internal space and was relatively heavy. To complete
the structure, streamlining had to be added (called secondary structure) which
added nothing to the strength but increased the weight.
This secondary structure was attached to the Primary Structure and the whole lot
was fabric covered to provide a smooth aerodynamic shape.
A significant improvement came with the advent of Stressed Skin construction.
Stressed Skin Construction \ |
i | |
| | i
Most modern aircraft fuselages are built on the cantilever tube principle jwith the
fuselage skin taking all or some of the stresses. The fuselage may-be-of monocoque
or semi monocoque construction. -
Monocoque Construction \|
In this type of Goiistruction the skin takes all of the stress and there is no internal
support. It is very much like a tube - although tapered for most aircraft towards
the rear.
LIGHTENING HOLES
IN FRAME
LONGERON
Fig. 5 SEMI MONOCOQUE STRUCTURESemi Monocoque Construction
In this form of construction the skin takes some of the load and is supported
internally by structure such as stringers, longerons etc.
This support usually takes the form of:
Longerons
Frames
Stringers
Bulkheads
Backing or doubler plates
Semi monocoque (pronounced ‘monocock’ construction is the most common form
of stressed skin construction.
The skin of a semi monocoque fuselage is strengthened by: | __
\ : ;
|
(a) Longerons - to improve the bending strength of the fuselage and resistant to
compressive loads. Figure 5 shows 4 Jongerons. Some spun lurers have
all|the longitudinal member's the sarhe/and call all of them longérgns. Check
the AMM/SRM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual/Structur Reps it Manual)
pa
{b) Stringers - to-stiffen and support the §icin against buckling. Similar to
longerons bnit lighter in construction. |
() Bulkheads -/mainframes across the fuselage to resist shear, loads and to
give shape: Solid with cut-outs for doors and hatches. For pressurised
aircraft they form the front and rear pressurised bulkheads and are often
curved to help resist the pressure.
prone a rvae
Barf fee
Haack iano
STFFENNG x
HOLES (maketh ame
Wprer and ser,(4) Frames - lighter cross members usually in the form of rings to resist
shear loads and to stiffen and give shape to the fuselage. Fitted at close
intervals in high stress areas.
Heavy frames are fitted to certain areas of the fuselage where there are additional
stresses - main landing gear attachments - front and rear spar attachments -
engines. These may be machined out of solid block.
Longerons
‘The fuselage may be fitted with four or more of these, and some manufacturers
call all their fore and aft fuselage members longerons
Stringers
Where possible, stringers run the complete'length of the fuselage passing through
small cut-outs in the frames, bulkheads etc, \
‘The stringers do not usually pass through préssure bulkheads However, since any
apertures in these members create a sealing problem. }
Bulkheads
Structural bulkhedds are used where more strength is needed than can be
provided by @ frame and where passage through the fuselage is not required.
They are often fitted in the rear fuselage and carry the tail unit loads and for
strengthening the fuselage at the ends of a large aperture.
This type of bulkhead may incorporate a bolt-on door panel to permit through
access for maintenance purposes.
Fig. 7 PRESSURE BULKHEAD
-1l-Fig. 8 FIREPROOF BULKHEAD
Pressure Bulkhead
Pressure bulkheads form the strong, air-tight ends of the pressurised flightdeck or
passenger compartment or pressure hull. They are usually domed so that they
can withstand the pressure loading without deformation - acting more in tension.
Fireproof Bulkheads |
] \ | i] \
Fireproof bulkheads are used to igolate a fife hazard zone, such as anjengine
compartment, from the rest of the fuselagé, ‘These are mandatory.
Floors
\ } |
On small aircraft these may be nothing mote than an aluminium alloy panel
riveted[to horizontal cross members and strengthened locally to Support seats,
controls and cockpit equipment.
On larger aircraft the floor is usually the structure separating the cabin area from
the baggage area or cargo hold. This means that it may not be supported over
much of its width from (aircraft) wall to wall, and much use is made of beams to
withstand the bending moments.
-
For passenger aircraft the floor will house seat rails (into which the seats fit) and
have provision for the fitting of carpets. On pressurised aircraft the floor
area/sidewall area will contain pressure equalisation holes/vents to allow
pressurisation to equalise between the passenger area and cargo bay area.
Drains
‘The fuselage - as with the wings and other structures - will have drain or vent
holes (usually underneath) to allow trapped water to drain to atmosphere. This
helps to prevent corrosion.
-12-| | wamnseai Swine rrr
| Fig. 9 THE BASIC AIRFRAME STRUCTURE
Pressure Hulls, |
‘The fuselagés of pressurised aircraft are sealed as much as possible (rivets, metal
joins, doors, windows, escape hatches, where systems pass through the pressure
hull — pipes, cables, controls etc) to keep the air in.
Keel Beam
On some aircraft the fuselage is built around a strong box that runs along the
Keel (bottom) close to that part of the fuselage where the wings are attached. This
section is called a Keel Beam.
Wing Attachment
On some aircraft the wings are attached by bolts at the front and rear spares,
with fairings to cover-in the wing join. On others the attachment is by butt straps
running along the top and bottom of the wing skin. This attachment is to a locally
strengthened part of the fuselage using heavier frames, thicker skin material and
a centre box section.
-13-AIRFRAME LOCATION SYSTEMS
Structure location/component location may be achieved by using a zonal location
system and/or a stringer/frame station location system.
The zonal location system (specified in ATA100) relies on giving each zone on the
aircraft an identification number. The stringer/frame station system relies on
numbering all the frames and alll the stringers.
Fig. 10 777 MAJOR ZONE DIAGRAM
Some manufacturers will give zonal location diagrams and frame/rib/stringer
station numbered diagrams. In this way an area of the airframe can be located
precisely. Zonal locations tend to be less precise than station locations. An
example of a zonal system is shown in figure 10.
Example - Boeing 777 Zonal Location.
The eight Major Zones have Subzones and the Subzones have Zones. A three-digit
number shows the major zone, subzone, and zone as follows:
-14-- Major zone - the first digit is a number from 1 to 8 followed buy two zeros.
- Subzone - the first digit is the Major Zone number, the second digit is a number
form 1 to 9 and the third digit is a zero.
= Zone - the first two digits are the Subzone number and the third digit shows a
component or group of components in the Subzone.
The following is the number sequence for the zones and subzones:
- Wings - inboard to outboard and front to back.
= Horizontal stabiliser (tailplane) and elevator - inboard to outboard and front to
back.
- Vertical stabiliser (fin) and rudder ~ root to tip.
- Fuselage - front to back and away from the floor line.
Access Panel Identification
‘Access doors panels have five digit alpha-numeric codes: ~~
- First three digits: aircraft zone. i
- Fourth digit: a letter that identifies each access door or panel in a zone. If there
are more than one access panels in.a zone, they have letters (A, B, C etc). The
letters increase inboard to outboard, bottom to top, and forward-to aft:
- Fifth digit: a letter that gives additional location information if the aécess
- door or panel is on the top (T), Bottom (B), left (L), right (R) or internal (2).
Fig. 11 FRAME LOCATION - A310
pieStringer/Frame Location System
Figure 11 shows the frame location diagram for the A310. Note the numbering of
the frames from front to rear (usually starting at 1) and their identification as
station numbers. Notice also door cut-outs and the front and rear pressure
bulkheads.
‘The stringers are numbered — some clockwise starting at 12 o'clock, others
clockwise and anti-clockwise starting at 12 o'clock (figure 12).
Ribs in the wing, tailplane and fin are also numbered as are also the stringers.
Ribs will be dealt with later, they are used to give shape to the aerofoil and are not
too unlike frames in function.
Fig. 12 STRINGER LOCATION - AIRBUS
To locate any part of the fuselage structure for example, the stringer number
above and below the area in question is stated as well as the station
number/frame number in front of and behind. In this way an area of about a
square foot (0.1m?) can be specified — on even the largest aircraft.
Windscreens /Windows
Windscreens are fitted in the flight deck area of the airframe and are designed to
withstand pressurisation loads as well as bird strikes (by regulation). For large
aircraft they are usually of laminated glass/vinyl construction and have provision
for demisting and anti-icing.
-16-Windows, for passenger use, are usually made of a polymer (Perspex etc). Both
windscreens and windows may be of dry air sandwich construction - to help
reduce internal misting.
In both cases they are fitted into the fuselage in locally strengthened areas,
particularly the windscreens.
Hatches
Usually provided for emergency escape with a construction similar to that of the
fuselage.
They usually open inwards and are often without hinges. They are sealed to
prevent air leakage from the pressure cabin and may be fitted with windows,
stringers, strengthening members and support brackets.
‘The latch mechanism is such that if can bé operated from inside as wWell.as
outside the cabin - with the outside handle fitting flush with the fuselage skin (in
the locked position). | }
Proximity detectors /micro switches may be'fitted to give the crew warning that
the hatch is not properly secured. Operating instructions are displayed inside
and outside the aircraft.
Doors - ;
On small unpressurised aircraft the doors are simple structures that open
outwards on external pin or piano type hinges. There is a single catch that is
operated by a handle inside and outside the aircraft.
On pressurised aircraft the doors are quite complex structures and are usually
designed so that they are of the ‘plug type’. This means that the effect of
pressurisation tends to push the door more firmly into the closed position
as pressurisation will cause it to sit more firmly shut.
Those with an escape chute fitted have an arm/disarm mechanism. When in the
disarm position the escape chute is not armed and the door will open normally.
When in the armed position the sliders on the end of the girt bar are engaged with
the locking fittings on the floor.
It is important to remember that if the door is opened in this condition it may be
pushed out with considerable force due to the actuation of a gas operated
cylinder. At the same time the chute will deploy. This would be dangerous to
personnel working nearby on the outside of the aircraft.
-17-All doors on large aircraft will have a door warning system connected from
proximity switches/microswitches on the door to a flight deck indication /warning
system in the flight deck (figure 13).
\
Air reakage i is possible wherever the pressure ull i is discontinudus, thus every
structure joint; every connection 6f [or passage of stringer through) pressure
bulkheads} every inspection door pr entrance door; every control link, pipe, and
cable through the hull is a potential source of leakage. Jy
To reduce air leakage of the hull, sealing materials are applied to structural joints
prior to joining and a sealing compound may be sprayed or brushed in or over the
joints from inside. All systems (pipes, control runs, electrical cables, aerial cables
etc) passing through the pressure hull must be sealed.
MAINPLANES:
‘These are the main lifting surfaces of the aircraft and comprise:
(a) Spars- Spanwise, cantilever beams often of I section designed to resist
mainly up and down bearing loads.
(b) Stringers - Spanwise, to stiffen and support the skin against buckling.
()__ Ribs - Chordwise, to resist shear loads and give aerofoil shape.
athA normal wing, in plan view, comprises a front and rear spar with ribs as
supporting members. For many large aircraft the front and rear spars are joined
together in such a way as to form a box spar. This makes for a strong wing
section and provides a large internal volume which can be used for fuel storage.
Fig. 14 TYPICAL MAINPLANE CONSTRUCTION.
Spars Dy |
Root to bay Pylon |
ib. ribs: support
Wain sacral
skin panels on top surtace
5 Skin panels on bottom surtace
Siats
(6 sections)
Centre
section
Main landing
gear ple
support
Paps
esecton) yh
tok es,
Take Pf
, ae
Aileron
Fig. 15 A320 WING CONSTRUCTION
-19-Figure 15 shows the wing structure of the A320. Note the box spare construction
using front and rear spars and ribs. Note the sealed ribs that make up the ends of
the integral fuel tanks. Note also the reinforced sections for attachments of
landing gear, pylon (for the engine) and flap tracks.
DETACHABLE FIN TP
pet wih gh,
Setennae el)
REAR SPAROR
Frost
eso
ea RUDDER HINGES.
ae
Fig. 16 TYPICAL FIN'STRUCTURE
Fig. 17 A320 TAILPLANE
-20-stabilizer Talicone forwardfat
Outer wing
‘Aft fuselage
‘At contre fuselage
Forward contre
fuselage
Tailplané and Fin ; ok
‘The tailplane (sometimes called a stabilator) and fin are similar to the wings in
construction. They have the same type of basic framework consisting of one or
more spars (sometimes a box spare), ribs and stringers (sometimes called
stiffeners).
Figure 18 shows the major structural components of the A320 which could be
taken as typical of any large passenger aircraft.
Major Component Attachment Points
‘These include engines, pylons, mainplanes, tailplanes etc and each component is
suitably strengthened locally to take the additional stresses imposed.
-21-The aircraft may be dismantled into its various major components for
maintenance purposes and to make it road/air transportable. The actual
attachment methods will vary from aircraft to aircraft but in all cases the area
and joining process is of critical importance.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
The Stressed Skin
This may be made of metal or composite structure.
Metal is usually preformed to the necessary curvature before being joined to the
frames, stringers, etc. The skin of metal aircraft is usually made from aluminium
alloy but on some aircraft it may be magnesium alloy.
Some parts df the structure may-be made irom titanium or stainless Steel. These
are heavier but withstand heat and corrosign\better, so may be fitted\néar jet
engine exhausts etc. | \ | in \ |
In the majority of metal aircraft the skin is/sttached to the frames, stringers etc,
by the use of rivets. These are usually couritersunk or dimpled flush‘with the skin
on the outside of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag. aa
1 ~ j "\
On some parts of the airframe the structure may be attached by the use of
bonding) This is an adhesive process using synthetic resin adhesives and often
called by its trade name ‘Redux Bonding’. Itrequires a bonding agent, heat, and
pressure. aa ~ 7 ° ~
For composite aircraft attachment will be by special fasteners, bonding, or the
frames etc are integral with the skin.
Machined Skin/Integral Structure
We have so far seen how the metal aircraft is made up of several parts
riveted/bonded together. For large aircraft the separate parts run into their
thousands, with each joint a potential corrosion, fatigue and stress hazard. If the
whole of the aircraft skin, including stringers, frames, longerons, brackets,
window cut-outs, etc, were to be made from one piece of metal then this would
eliminate many corrosion problems and produce a high strength/weight ratio
structure.
-22-This type of construction is known as Machined Skin or Integral Construction.
Of course, integral construction is expensive. Large slabs (example 1.5m x 0.3m x
20m) of aluminium alloy are milled into shape by a computer controlled milling
head - working in a similar way to a sculpture. Milling most of the metal away to
produce skin say no more than 4 or 6mm thick with all the “attachments”
(stringers, brackets etc) part of the original skin material.
It is expensive, using large computer controlled milling heads, with 90% of the
original metal being milled away to be returned to the supplier for recycling.
Chemical Etching
The “machining” may be done by chemical etching. For small amounts of metal
removal the metal may be removed by chemicals. The parts that do not require
metal removal are protected by an, applied. protective process.
Honeycomnlh Construction {|
| |
This type of construction may be used_in 1 {is manufacture of aireraft< actures
including flooring and flying control ‘surfaces. \
Fig. 19 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE OF A WING
LEADING EDGE
When a panel bends the high stresses are felt on the outside surfaces, with little
or none felt in the middle - so why not have all the metal on the outside where it
matters. Modern sandwich construction methods usually have the outside skins
of aluminium alloy or carbon fibre with the ‘filling’ of low density aluminium or
composite honeycomb. These are all bonded together using the Redux or other
bonding process.
-23-Fail Safe Construction
Fail-safe may also be used in system design. For example: if the computer
controlling the cabin lights on the 747-400 fails then it automatically fails with
the lights ON.
In structure design “fail safe” is normally associated with prevention of crack
propagation. The best way to stop a crack from developing is to design a
discontinuity across its path. So instead of making, say, a frame of a single part,
make it out of two parts (bolted or riveted together). If a crack starts in one part it
will not propagate into the other.
In composite materials the ‘discontinuity’ is provided by the fibres - which means
that a crack will not normally develop across the fibres but will develop along
them.
Fail Hard
This term relates mainly to primary structures where failure or fracture would be
catastrophic. I _ i
Safe Life 4
This is a basic design certification philosophy - mainly associated with primary
structure to limit the life of a component (normally in flying hours).
Total safe life is published by the airframe manufacturer and when reached the
component is replaced irrespective of condition.
Redundant Structure
‘This term is usually associated with structure that has many members ie, there
are several load paths. Should one member in the structure fail then the load
that it took will be shared by the other members.
-24-LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION
The metal airframe of the aircraft acts as a protective shield around the
passengers, crew, fuel system, and avionics systems.
Lightning protection devices are used to maintain this protective shield and to
ensure that penetration of the shield by the high voltages and currents of a
lightning strike is stopped.
Low conductivity composite structures, such as graphite fibre-epoxy and
honeycomb components, and electrically insulated metal sections require
grounding (bonding) to the metal airframe to provide a low resistance path along
the aircraft structure for the lightning current.
Lightning Protection System |.
The functions of the lightning protection system are to: 1] \ |
ior skin into fuel vapour and) lother
(1)| | Prevent penetration of the ext
critical safety of flight areas.
(2) Prevent puncturing of lgw conductivity composite structures such as
fairings and control surfaces
‘cing and sparking or limit the movement of electrical
charges to the exterior surfaces ofthe aircraft. |
The following protective devices are used to ‘provide a low resistance current path
between structural components and the metal airframe.
(1) Bonding jumpers/leads
(2) Diverter strips and rods
(3) Conductive coatings
(4) Metal sheets or grids adhesively bonded to dielectric type structures.
Safety of Flight Components
Fuel tanks are considered to be safety of flight items requiring protection either by
the installation of lightning protection devices or engineering design that limits
the flow of electrical charges to the exterior surfaces of the aircraft. Fuel tanks
include:
(1) Access doors.
(2) Measuring sticks/dip sticks ete.
(3) Over wing refuelling caps etc.
-25-(4) Wing integral fuel tanks.
(5) Wing skin joints.
(6) Vents.
(7) Electrical wiring within fuel tanks.
High Maintenance and Replacement Cost Items ~ Usually Not Critical to Safety of
Flight
Items under this category normally do not effect the aircrafts operation and safety
when struck by lightning.
The following items are considered to be high maintenance/replacement cost
components and require careful attention during removal or installation to
preserve the integrity of their shield against lightning strikes.
(1). Control surfaces, hinges, bearings and actuators/PFCUs.
(2), Nose radomes. ; a.
(3)! | Tail cones. \
(4) Wing tips. \ |
(5)|_ | Trailing edges. | } |
(6)| | Antennas. tL 7
(7) TAT probes. -
(8) | Fuel probes. | \
(9), Navigational lights. \
(10) | Weather radar. | j
(11) | Pitotheads. | /
(12) Strobe lights. / ao
Most of the external parts of the aircraft are made of Al alloy with sufficient
thickness to be resistant to lightning strikes and to provide protection to internal
areas and components. The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of
electromagnetic energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft.
However, the metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic energy from getting
into the wiring. However, it does keep the energy to a reasonably save level.
Ifa lightning strike is reported, the structure must be carefully inspected to find
the areas of the lightning strike entrance and exit points, and all systems must be
checked for correct operation.
The AMM will have details of where the lighting is likely to hit and these areas
(lightning strike zones) must be inspected first - but the other areas must also be
checked.
-26-
(3counts) omen
© ©
Fig. 20 LIGHTNING STRIKE PROBABILITY AREAS
EXAMPLE B757
On the B757 for example, lightning strike entrance and exit points are usually
found in zone 1, but also can occur in zones 2 and 3 (figure 20).
Strikes can occur to any part of the aircraft, to include the fuselage, wing trailing
edge panels, wing-body fairing, air data probes, antennas and tailplane.
-27-In metal structures, lightning damage usually shows as pits, burn marks,
discoloured skin or small circular holes. These holes can be grouped in one
location or spread around a larger area.
In composite structures, solid, laminate or honeycomb, damage shows as
discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or delaminated skin plies. Damage can
also occur within the panel that is not visible. This damage can extend around the
area and signs of arcing and burning can also occur around the attachments to
the supporting structure.
Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become magnetised
when subjected to lightning currents which flow through them. These have to be
replaced and/or demagnetised. If the aircraft has become magnetised then it must
also be demagnetised (de- Gaussed) (Gauss - Karl Friedrich German
mathematician 1777 — 1855).
A compass swing should also bé-carried out
A lightning strike usually hits the aircraft in @ zone (say zone |1)|and leaves at a
different place in the same zone (zone 1). Frequently a lightning strike can enter
the nose radome and go out of the aircraft/at one of the horizontal stabiliser
trailing edges. The external components miost likely to be hit are“
sa f :
(1) Nose radome i
(2) Nacelles
(3) Wing tips, tips of tailplane and fin
(4) , Elevators, ailerons and rudder
(5) - Ends Of the leading edge flaps
(6) Trailing edge flap track fairings
(7) Landing gear (when in the down position during the strike)
(8) Drain masts, Pitot probes ete
Any damage to the structure must be repaired in accordance with the SRM or
replaced. Any components found damaged beyond limits must be changed and
tested in accordance with the AMM.
Lightning strikes can cause problems to the electrical systems. These are
designed to be resistant to lightning strikes, but a strike of unusually high
intensity can damage wiring and components — generators, relays, TRUs etc.
A lightning strike may be referred to as a static discharge. This is incorrect as
static discharge is the discharge of static electricity built up as the aircraft flies
through the air ~ caused by the air/dust particles /water particles rubbing along
the aircraft skin. Static wicks/static dischargers are for bleeding off static charge
only; they have no lightning protection function.
-28-As the aircraft flies through the air, it will pick up a static charge. If large enough
it will bleed off the aircraft via the dischargers on its own ~ without radio noise
interference. If the charge does not bleed off on its own, it will usually result in
noise on the VHF or HF radios.
‘The static dischargers are frequently hit by lightning. The dischargers have the
capacity to carry only a few micro-Amps of current from the collected static
energy. The approximate 200,000 Amps from a lightning strike will cause damage
to the discharger. After a lightning strike they are often found burnt-off and must
be replaced.
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
This can be split into three sections:
(%,_ -Bxamination of extemnal_surfaces for lightning alse d
(2)) | Examination of internal compénents.
(3), Inspection and operational check bf the radio, navigation 4nli other
| systems. 1] | |
The Structure ||
* | | Examine the external |surfaces carbfully to find the Weer and exit
points of the strike. Check areaé where one surface stops and another
/ “surface starts. Examine the metallic structure for holes or pits,
purried or discoloured skirrand rivets.
* Examine the internal and external surfaces of the nose radome for
burns, punctures, and pin holes in the composite structure.
Examine the external surfaces of the composite components for
discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or delaminated skin plies.
NOTE. Delamination and debonding can be detected by NDT methods or by a tap
test. For a tap test, use a coin or similar object and tap the area adjacent to the
damaged area lightly. If there is delamination, the sound that is heard is different
from the sound of a solid bonded area.
If the entrance and exit points are not found during the examination of the most
vulnerable zones (eg, zones 1 and 2), then inspect the next vulnerable zone/s (eg
zone 3).
Examine the primary flight control surfaces for signs of lightning strike damage. If
any surface shows signs of a lightning strike, examine the hinges, bearings, and
bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
oorIf the speed brakes/spoilers/lift dumpers show signs of a lightning strike,
examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage.
If the trailing and leading edge flaps show signs of a lightning strike, examine the
surface hinges, bearings, bonding jumpers and flap tracks for signs of damage.
Carry out a full functional test of the control system of any surface found
damaged. If any item has to be changed or adjusted a duplicate inspection has to
be carried out.
If there are signs of lightning strike damage to the landing gear, change any
damaged component and carry out a functional test
Examine the static dischargers.
(a) Visually examine all discHargers to make sure they are.in placé, not broken
and installed correctly on their mounting retainers. ae.
(b) Examine the dischargers for damage as|shown by a burned or rougher
coating and pits in the metal dischargef retainers. |
() Examine the dischargers for broken, bént, or blunt tungsten digcharge pins
= change the discharger if damaged or bent. I
(4) Check for deterioration of the/discharger coating or damage-to the tip cup.
Deterioration-to the leading edge of the discharger must not extend back
more than 1/3 of the width of the discharger. Change thel unit if it does.
(e) Carry out a resistance test if damage/within replacement allowances or if
unit is changed. / ok
Examine the air data sensors (Pitot static probes, AoA vanes, TAT probes etc. for
signs of lightning strike damage.
If damaged within allowable damage carry out a functional test. If outside
tolerances change and test.
Examine the following antennas for damage:
(a) HF
(ob) VHF
{ce} ILS
(@) Marker Beacon
() RA
(9) VOR
(@ atc
(h) DME
() ADF
oO@) ACARS
() GPS
() SATCOM
(m) TCAS
(n) Airborne Telephone
If found damaged remedial action is the same as for the air data probes.
Examine the nose radome and the WXR antenna as follows:
(a) Examine the radome for pinholes, punctures, and paint that has.
chipped.
(b) Make sure the radome bonding straps are attached correctly to the
airframe.
() Examine the lightning diverter strips, and repair or replace them if
there is damage. _ _
(a), If there is damage to-the radome, examine the WXR anterina and
waveguide for damage. | | ’
INTERNAL COMPONENTS 4 |
Ifa lightning strike has caused a aytem malfunction, carry ot afulléxamination
of the defective system using the AMM. | 1
/ 1} j i]
Carry out a check of the standby compass system if the flight ¢rew reports a large
compass deviation, A compass swing will be required if the deviation is excessive,
of if the unit has to be changed.
Ensure that the fuel quantity system is accurate by carrying out a BITE check.
Change any defective components and retest.
Operational Checks of Radio and Navigation Systems
‘The level of the checks after a lightning strike to the aircraft is determined by
flight crew information and the aircraft condition after the incident. For example,
if all the NAV/COM systems are exercised by the flight crew in flight after the
lightning strike and no anomalies are found, then ground crew checks would not
normally be required.
For systems not used by the flight crew in flight or systems where anomalies are
found, additional checks to that system will be required. In addition, even if a
system were exercised in flight after the lightning strike and no anomalies were
found, but subsequent inspections showed lightning damage near that system
antenna, additional checks of that system would be required.
-31-Systems/equipment include:
(1) Coaxial cable
(2) HF communications
(3) VHF communications
(4) ILS navigation
(5) Marker beacon
(6) Radio altimeter
(7) Weather radar
(8) VOR
(9) ATC
(10) DME
(11) ADF
(12) ACARS
(13) GPS
(14) SATCOM _
(15) TCAS. Qo -
(16) ‘Airborne telephone
(17) Emergency locator transmitter (ELI
-32-ELECTRICAL BONDING OF COMPONENTS
WARNING: Use solvents, cleaners and any special fluids only in well
ventilated areas. Many are toxic and skin irritants. Follow the
manufacturer's instructions. Seek medical advice if skin or eyes
become contaminated irrigating copiously with water as soon as
possible after contamination occurs.
Materials and Equipment Required
Compounds are listed in the AMM and the list of compounds and equipment
could include:
Pure mineral Vaseline or petrolatum
Epoxy-varnish with catalyst, to
Polygulfide sealant - brush ¢ohsistericy) }
In the UK - AFS-1344 and §26-1001.) | |
Cofrosion inhibiting synthe! id chromate.
DTD-900/4549 sealant. | i
MIL-T-81533 specification tHichloroethane (methyl chloroform). Cleaning
agent. || ‘ i a
Lint free cloth. | i i i
Common gr¢ase. | i Al
Type 1/320 dbrasive paper.) | } fal
Wire brush. ¢s
Standard tool kit.
Various test sets.
Small standard parts - rivets, nuts, bolts etc.
Standard aircraft paint finishes.
}
GENERAL
The following start and finishing procedures are general to all electrical bonded
joints; metal to metal, metal to composite, pipe to pipe etc. Slight variations occur
in these start and finish processes but these should be obvious. The process of
actually forming the bonded joint will, of course, be dedicated to that particular
joint.
Start and Finish Procedure
Remove the surface protection from the contact area where connection is
to be made (including any countersinks) with emery cloth or type 1
abrasive paper.
Baap‘The diameter of the area of bare metal must be larger than
the rivet/bolt/screw head diameter by 2mm (0.0787”) to 4mm (0.1574”). Be
careful not to scratch or damage the metal.
NOTE: For contacts between corrosion-resistant steel (stainless steel) and
cadmium plated steel, titanium and cadmium-plated steel, it is not necessary to
remove the surface protection.
Remove any contamination from the areas with a lint-free cloth moist with
cleaning agent.
|
cee ee oe
1 & b a oo Sa
Fig. 21 BONDING USING RIVETS
If the assembly cannot be riveted/treated and bolted within 15 minutes, apply a
thin coat of common grease. Remove this product with a lint-free cloth moist with
cleaning agent before making the joint and before any anti-corrosive process is
carried out.
Assemble the joint applying anti-corrosive treatments, sealants etc as per the
‘AMM/SRM.
Carry out a bonding test. Check ohmic values. If not within the stated tolerances
the reason must be investigated with the joint being re-assembled if necessary.
-34-RIVETED JOINTS
Apply start and finish procedures as stated above.
Install and form the rivet as per the SRM through the support and the structure.
In figure 21 the captive nut is attached to the structure with the rivets.
Rivets may need special attention - depending where they are fitted:
If installed in the fuselage, or in the centre tank, apply a lacquer.
If installed in the wings or integral tanks, apply sealants.
Make sure the product fully covers the bare metal areas and the fasteners.
Carry out a bonding test.
SCREWS BOLTS AND BONDING-LEADS |“
‘The preparation of the joint area Hefore assémbly, and after assembly is pimlar to
the start/and finish procedures described apoye. }
In the AMM the actual method may change'depending on where the joint is, and
how often it is likely to be disturbed] (dismantled/assembled). | | ——
i \
Often classed as in the wing, in the fuselage, or in the fuel tanks, and joints (a)
not likely to be disturbed, (b) not likely to be disturbed frequestly and (c) likely to
be disturbed frequently.
‘The process is similar to the riveted joint with the main differences as follows:
* Assemble the fasteners (nuts, bolts, conductive bolts or screws, bonding
leads, washers etc) and the components in accordance with the AMM. Make
sure that bonding leads are as short and straight as possible but cause no
strain.
* For static parts - make sure that bonding leads are as short
and straight as possible.
* For moving parts ~ make sure that bonding leads are the
appropriate length and cause no strain when the parts move to their fullest
extent ~ in both directions.
* Leads must be installed without twist, carried out by loosely fitting the two
ends before the clamps are tightened.
-35-Check that when the moving part is moved to its fullest extent in both
directions that there is adequate clearance between it (and its bonding lead)
and any surrounding structure /equipment.
Check that the bonding lead does not interfere with the full and free range
of travel of the equipment.
| Fig. 22 BONDING OF ITEMS NOT REMOVABLE-OR~
NOT FREQUENTLY REMOVED
i } | if |
\ |
BONDING OF PIPES
‘The general preparation and finishing of the task is similar to that already
described.
‘The process described below is typical of bonding light-alloy and corrosion-
resistance steel fuel pipes in the fuselage and centre tanks.
Connect one end of the bonding lead (1 figure 23) to the clamp (2).
Attach the other end of the bonding lead (1) to a bonding lug (3) welded on the
other pipe or to a clamp (4) connected to the structure.
Apply lacquers to the bare metal areas and the fasteners, but not if the clamp and
pipe are made of corrosion-resistance steel. Make sure that the product covers
the bare metal areas and the fasteners fully.
Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct.
- 36-t f
3 a
© op a)
i | | \
Fig. 24 PIPE to PIPE BONDING LEADS - 2
Fig. 25 PIPE CLAMPS
ao7Fitting the Clamps
NOTE: The material of the clamps is the same as that of the pipes.
Install the clamps (3) on the pipes (2) to attach to the structure
(Ggure 25).
Ifa floating clamp is used (bottom figure), connect the clamp nut and bolt (6) with
a bonding lead (7).
Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct.
BONDING OF ANTENNAS
NOTE: Antennas are usually delivered with specific seals, which cover the whole
flange that will replace the sealant. The seals are used as 4 ‘shim to ‘match the
fuselage profile |
|
1. Chedk the continuity between the captive nuts and the |
adjagent structure.
Check the AMM for specific procedures. >. ° -
Fig. 26 BONDING OF ADF ANTENNA
- 38 -Put the antenna in position.
Install the screws but one (1 figure 26) and tighten them equally until the antenna
is against the fuselage.
Measure the bonding resistance between the countersunk hole of the antenna and
the adjacent structure with a milliohmeter.
Install the last screw (1).
Torque all screws diagonally to the same value to prevent any cracking on the
antenna base plate. Apply sealants to fill the cavity between the screw heads and
the top of the flange. Carry out radio test.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
The general preparation and finishing processes are again si a those'already
described, but the bared contact area is slightly larger - 3mm (011181 in} to Smm_
(0.1968 in) greater than the connector. 1
Fig. 27 BONDING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
COMPOSITES
These include carbon fibre, Kevlar and glass fibre panels and components, and
the purpose of the bonding is to make a path for electrostatic charges to cross the
composite panel to all adjacent metal surfaces.
‘The area should be thoroughly cleaned using a lint free cloth moist with cleaning
agent.
-39-Non-conductive components protected with anti-static paint (figure 28).
Obtain the electrical continuity of the external surface:
* Directly between the anti-static paint and the fastener when the fastener is
installed at the edge of the panel, or
a With a bonding lead connected to the structure when the fastener is not
installed at the edge of the panel.
In all cases a conductive insert or washer should be fitted between the anti-static
paint and the fastener head.
Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct.
= ae
Fig. 29 COMPOSITE PANEL WITH LIGHT ALLOY
CONDUCTIVE LAYER
SURFACE OF METAL TO METAL COMPONENTS
It is generally considered that the attachment screws/fasteners make a
sufficiently good enough electrical contact to make the provision of additional
bonding methods unnecessary.
erieWhere this is not the case, however, bonding leads will be fitted and be tested in
the normal way.
Major metal to metal structure components are bond tested in the normal way.
~Fig-30 BONDING ‘OF REMOVABLE NON-CONDUCTIVE
COMPOSITE-COMPONENTS
-41-TEST VALUES OF PRIMARY BONDING
The following pages are based on bonding tests taken from the AMM of the
A330. Actual examples of minimum resistance values are given that should be
obtained when carrying out bonding testing. There is no need to try to commit
all this to memory but you should have a good idea of the values that apply
generally to the major parts of the airframe.
Various testers are also described, and while reading these you should not
forget the standard bonding tester as described in Module 7 General Avionic
Test Equipment.
Of course, on your aircraft, you will refer to the AMM for details of the testers
to be used and the maximum resistance values allowed.
MAXIMUM TEST VALUES
Control surfaces and external metal. components between the part of the
primary structure as near as possible to the aircraft nose (FRI) reference point
and the: \ | \
- lightning arrester strips of the radome (2 milliohms). |
- structure of the engine (2 milliohms).~
= structure of the APU (2 milliohms).
- Pitot probes, the angle of attack, the temperature sensors, and the antennas
(5 milliohms),
- radar antenna)(5 milliohms).
- flaps (from the attachment points) (50 milliohms).
= landing gear doors, the doors (10 milliohms).
- slats on the tracks (from the attachment points) (50 milliohms).
- actuators (jacks) and uplock assemblies of the landing gear (500
milliohms).
‘The fuel system between the adjacent structure and the:
- internal equipment of the fuel tanks (10 milliohms).
- external equipment of the fuel tanks (50 milliohms).
- light alloy pipes (10 milliohms).
- stainless steel pipes (100 milliohms).
- refuel/defuel couplings and the bonding points (10 milliohms).
-42-Hydraulic system between the adjacent structure and the:
~ electrical equipment (50 milliohms).
~ equipment that is not electrical, length > 200mm (7.8 in) (500 milliohms).
- light alloy, stainless steel and titanium pipes, length > 1m (39.3 in) (500
milliohms).
Pneumatic system between the adjacent structure and the:
- electrical equipment (50 milliohms).
= equipment that is not electrical, length > 200mm (7.8 in) (500 milliohms).
- metal pipes, length > 2m (78.7 in) (500 milliohms).
Oxygen system between the adjacent structure and the light alloy parts (10
milliohms}, stainless steel parts (100 milliohms).
Other fluid systems between the adjacent structure and the:
- circuits that contain electrical equipment) (50 milliohms)._
- metal pipes, length > 1m (39.3 in} (500 milliohms).
= equipment that is not electrical, length >,200mm (7.8 in) (500-milliamps.
500 milliohms fot mechanical controls between the adjacent structure and the
mechanical assembly support chassis but not the mechanical drive units.
Electrical equipment between the adjacent structure and the:
- equipment that is not installed in the rack and bonded by its attachment
(10 milliohms).
= equipment installed in the rack or bonded by pin and cable (50 milliohms).
- TRUs and the HF rack coupler (plugs disconnected) (5 milliohms).
Racks and shelves for electrical equipment between the adjacent structure and
the:
- main structure of the racks or shelves (1 milliohm).
- secondary parts of the racks or shelves (10 milliohms).
-43-Miscellaneous components, panels & control panels between the adjacent
structure and the:
- panels used for support of electrical control (10 milliohms).
structure of fixed boxes individual mounts containing equipment with
electrical connection (10 milliohms).
- metallic boxes containing electrical equipment located in the flight
compartment or above the cabin floor which include parts subjected to
voltage > 42V and likely to be normally touched by aircraft occupants (500
milliohms).
- control components (500 milliohms).
- panels and covers for electrical equipment protection (10 milliohms).
- flight compartment and cabin seat rails (10 milliohms).
LOW CURRENT TEST METHOD (10A)
Static dischargers, 50 milliohms between the:
= grounding point on the main landing geay and alll the static dischargers
(metallic part) fitted on the wing. \
- dischargers metallic part and one of the THS bonding leads, for all static
dischargers fitted on THS, elevator, fin and rudder. |
Aircraft, grounding between the metal plate, between the ground and the nose
gear tyres, and the landing gear leg (10 megohms).
USING A CORAS RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER
Composite material panels between the:
- adjacent structure and the antenna fairings and radome (200 megohms).
- adjacent structure and miscellaneous fairings (carbon or with anti-static
paint) (100 kohms).
- surface resistance of anti-static coating on antenna fairing and radome
(between 5 megohms and 100 megohms.
- surface resistance of anti-static coating on miscellaneous fairings (50
kohms).
LOW CURRENT TEST METHOD
Landing gear between the unit and the primary grounded structure (10
milliohms).
-44-HIGH CURRENT TEST METHOD (150ft) OR HIGH RESISTANCE BOND
TESTER
Isolated conducting parts with external surfaces between 9 in sq (58.06 cm sq)
and 28 in sq (185.80cm sq) between the part and the adjacent primary
grounded structure or grounding point (0.5 megohms). Larger areas 14.4
megohms.
PRIMARY BONDING TEST
Between the engine and the adjacent major structure or earth station (50
milliohms).
COMPONENT BONDING
Electrical shielding conduits between the shielding conduit terminals and the
adjacent pain structure (10 malligams}
| |)
LOW CURRENT TEST
1 milliohm between the ground point of gach battery (successively) and the
ground point of:
- each other battery.
- each TRU.
- each generator.
- the emergency generator.
- the APU starter.
- the external power supply receptacle.
1 milliohm between the ground point of each TRU (successively) and the
ground point of:
= each other TRU.
- each generator.
- the APU starter.
= the external power supply receptacle.
-45-1 milliohm between the ground point of each generator (successively) and the
ground point of the:
- other generator.
- external power supply receptacle.
TESTING
TEST EQUIPMENT
(1) DC power source (nominal 24 volts), output 10 amperes for a minimum
of 60 minutes.
(2) Ammeter - moving coil, permanent magnet, single-range, FSD = 10
amperes, scale length = 3% to 5 inches (82mm to 127mm).
(3) Millivoltmeter - moving coil, permanent magnet, multi-range, scale
length = 3% to 5 inches.
RANGE 7 1 20 7 ~3\ 4
FSD | 2mV. 20mV, 200mV_ 2v
(4) Variable resistor, rating for! /
= 10 ampere continuous duirent. |
+ 10 ampere current from] aj24-volt Source with a test |cireui L
resistance between 1.0 and 0 ohms. a
(5) Cable, ratifig not less thah 12 ampere continuous fot connections.
Procedure —
Make sure that all the connectors, prods, bolts, areas to be tested etc are clean
and free from grease. :
(1) Connect the equipment.
(2) Connect the power circuit to the applicable bonding section to be
tested. Use the bolts where possible.
NOTE: Do not connect directly to the joint to be tested. The complete
assembly (structure, bolt and cable) must be tested and the maximum
resistance measured from one end of the joint to the other:
(3) Set RV1 (RV = Resistance Value) to the maximum resistance giving
minimum current. Switch on power supply and adjust RV1 to get 10
amperes on the ammeter.
NOTE: Start the test with the millivoltmeter in the 20V range. Go down in
sequence through the ranges to get the highest movement (highest
sensitivity) of the needle on the scale.
-46-(4) Put one prod of the millivoltmeter on the body of the aircraft and the
other prod on the component (put them adjacent to the bonding
points and make sure that there is a good contact). Measure and
record the values.
Remove the prods, de-energise the power supply and disconnect the
test circuit.
Calculate the resistance of the joint in milliohms - divide the obtained
value by 10.
NOTE: The ratings of the wires that connect the tester to the components that
are tested must be:
- at least 25% higher than the maximum current used in the test.
- for the low-current test, the wire rating = 13 amperes.
Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values. C
Closing Procedure i } ||
/ |
Remove test equipment. Make sure that the work area is cledn|and élear of
tools and other items. Investigate and réctify any joint with high resistance
values and re-test. Any anti-corrosive treatments (paint and arjodic films)
penetrated to get/a good prod to etal contact must have their anti corrosive
treatments reinstated iaw the SR A. Record ghd sign for all work done.
HIGH CURRENT TEST
Equipment
(1) Variable Power Supply Unit (PSU), continuous output 150 amperes.
(2) Ammeter - single range, FSD 150 amperes.
(3) Millivoltmeter - single-range, FSD 200 millivolts.
(4) Variable resistor, rating for:
= 10 ampere continuous current.
- 10 ampere current from a 24 volt source with a test circuit
resistance between 1.0 and 0 ohms.
(5) Cable ~ rating not less than 12 amperes continuous for connections.
Make sure that the connections, prods and bolts are clean and are free of
grease.
otoProcedure
(1) Connect the equipment.
NOTE: Make all the connections as near as possible to the bonding
or grounding point.
(2) Adjust the PSU to get the necessary current on the ammeter. Apply
the test current for a minimum of one minute before measuring the
mv value. Make sure that the joint does not become too hot, ie a
temperature increase of more than 40°C (104°F).
(3) Put the prods of the voltmeter on the structure adjacent to the
bonding points (make sure that there is a good contact). Measure and
record the values.
Remove the prods, de-energise and disconnect the test circuit. Carry out
closing procedure. —
l , \
Calculate’ the resistance of the joint in milliohms by divide the voltage in
millivolts by the current in milliamps (Ohms law. | |
(1) The ratings of the wires that cones the PSU to the components that
are tested must be: | |
- Atleast 25% higher than the spins: current used in the test.
~ For the high-amperage test ( amperte), the wire rating = 190 amperes.
HIGH RESISTANCE BOND TESTER
Equipment
(1) Variable PSU, continuous output 150 amperes.
(2) Ammeter - single-range, FSD 150 amperes.
(3) Millivoltmeter - single-range, FSD 200 millivolts.
(4) _ Insulation tester, 500 volt (nominal), with the related test leads. The
precision must be better than plus or minus 20% of the measured
value for the range 0.05 ~ 5 milliohms.
(a) Connect the test equipment and measure the insulation value (refer to.
the equipment handbook).
(c) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values. Carry out normal closing procedure.
-48-TEST OF THE PRIMARY BONDING
Equipment
Ohmmeter - safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective
range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately
1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%, examples:
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998
Connection of test equipment
CAUTION: Make sure damage is not caused to the equipment or the structure
when using sharp pointed prods.
Make sure that the test equipment is correctly installed be before
“\ measuring the bonding.values:\
Make sure that any lodnetratiqa damage to paint| and ohh films
' are repaired iaw the SRM. J |
é |
yf
1) Gotiect the test equipment # tthe applicable cations
2) Opérate the test set iaw the manufacturer's instructions and measure
the, applicable values. | } |
i |
Make: sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values. Carry out normal close-up procedure.
TEST OF BONDING BETWEEN DIFFERENT COMPONENTS
(but not the fluid system or the Electrical/Electronic Systems)
Equipment
Ohmmeter - safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective
range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately
1 ampere.
‘The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%. Example instruments
include:
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998
-49-TEST OF FLUID SYSTEMS
Equipment
CAUTION: Use only a safety ohmmeter (Culton type 278 or an equivalent.
Refer to BS 5501 PT7 and 50-020) when testing in wet areas.
Do not use a milliohmmeter of the Guerpillon type when testing
hydraulic pipes (the current of this equipment is too high and
causes damage to the nylon clamps that are plated with silver and
graphite). Use a Tekelec Airtronic milliohmmeter or equivalent,
which uses approximately 0.1 amperes.
Ohmmeter - safety, low-voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective
range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately
1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%, eg:
-.ohmmeter CULTON type. 278. —
\., milliohmmeter TEKELEC AIRTRONIC a \
|
Connection of Test Equipment
CAUTION: Make sure that you do-not cause damage to the equipment or the
structure when using sharp-point prods. co
\ j
\ |
| Make sure that the test equipment is correctly installed before
recording bonding values. |
Connect the tést equipment (refer to the supplier's instructions) at the
applicable locations. Measure the applicable values and carry out normal close-
up procedure.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (not related to fluid systems)
Equipment
Ohmmeter ~ safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective
range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately
1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10% eg:
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M
- milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998
Connect the test equipment (refer to the supplier's instructions) at the
applicable locations. Measure the applicable values. Make sure that these are
not higher than the maximum permitted values. Carry out normal close-up
procedures.
-50-=< |
| bs |
Fig. 31 TESTING EXTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
COMPOSITE AREAS |
| j |
o } : ik
‘TEST'OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE EXTERNAL COMPOSITE
COMPONENTS WITH A MEGOHMMETER
Equipment
1) Megohmmeter 100 Mohms-500 Volts-1 mA (max).
2) Probes (SR2)
Note: 2 rounded point prods can be used, diameter 4mm (0.1574 in) in place of
SR2.
Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance
CAUTION: Measure values before application of the top coat of paint on the
components.
Connect the probe to the megohmmeter.
-51-Apply the prod on the surface covered with the anti-static paint. The distance
between the edge of the surface and the probe should be at least of 50mm.
(1.9685) - typically 100mm (3.9370")
Read directly the square resistance “Rs”.
NOTE: For probes whose electrodes are 100mm (3.9370") apart from each
other, the measured value must be multiplied by 0.5 to get the
Square Resistance “Rs”.
The process is repeated about 10 times at different locations on the surface.
The number of test locations should be a function of the surface size.
Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values.
NOTE: If one or several small areas [surfaces < 10cm sq (1.55 in sq)] away
from each other are out of the above tolerances, they can be considered
acceptable. yoo | =
Disconnect the megohmmeter and carry out normal closing procedure
TEST OF THE BONDING OF THE EXTERNAL COMPONENTS WITH A
MEGOHMMETER ‘
Use a Megohmmeter 100 Mohm$-$00 Volts-1 mA (max), with 2 rounded-point
prods, diameter 4imm (0.1574”).| |
Procedure - Anti-static Paint Protection
CAUTION: Measure the values before application of the top coat of paint on
the components.
1) Apply one prod on the panel a minimum of 50mm (1.9”) but typical
100mm (3.9") from the edge of the panel and from bonding the point.
2) Apply the other prod to the structure near the panel.
NOTE: The composite structures are coated with anti-static paint or have a
metallic surface, eg Alumesh.
Measure the resistance. Make sure that the measured values are not higher
than the maximum permitted values and carry out normal closing procedures.
-52-
iTEST OF THE BONDING OF THE EXTERNAL COMPONENTS WITH A CORAS
RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER
The RESISTIVITY TEST SET (QB31B) measures directly continuity of the anti-
static paint in relation to the aircraft metallic structure.
NOTE: It will measure these values when the anti-static paint is coated with a
non-conductive paint finish.
NOTE: - if the paint finish is applied; use the mode C1 on the meter.
- if the paint finish is not applied; use the mode C2.
Procedure - Test of the electrical continuity when the paint finish is applied:
1) Set the CORAS to the mode C1.
2) Connect one lead of the resistivity-continuity meter to the metallic
structure. — Ve
3) Connect the probe (C1) to the applicable component. >
4) Make sure that the orange indicator light,is on.
5) Carry put normal close-up procedure. | | \|
| |
Test when the paint finish is not applied:
1) Set the CORAS to the mode 02) ’ i
2) Connett one lead of the resistivity-continuity meter to the metallic
structure. / iI mi |
3) Connect the’probe (R2/C2) tgt he applicable component. | |
4) Make sure that the continuity resistance is not more than 200 Mohms.
5) Carry out closing-up procedure. a
Readings
1) If the green indicator light cones on there is continuity with the structure,
the value is Rm < 100 Kohms.
2) If the orange indictor light comes on there is continuity with the structure,
the value is: 100 Kohms < Rm < 200 megohms.
3) If the red “unbonded” indicator light comes on there is no (or insufficient)
continuity with the structure, the value is Rm > 200 megohms.
TEST OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE EXTERNAL COMPOSITE
COMPONENTS WITH A CORAS RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER
‘The RESISTIVITY TEST SET (QB31B) measures directly the surface resistance
of the anti-static paint.
aooeNOTE: It can also measure these values when the anti-static paint is
coated with a non-conductive paint finish.
NOTE: The mode of the CORAS:
- if the paint finish is applied; use the mode R1.
- if the paint finish is not applied; use the mode R2.
Procedure
Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance where the paint finish is
applied.
1) Set the CORAS to the mode R1.
2) Apply the probe (R1) to the applicable component.
3) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values.
NOTE: If the red “Dielectric” indicator light comes on there is.
” > 200
Mohmis (Square Resistance). a Q \
4) Repeat the above steps again several tijnes at different arpas of the given
surface, according to size. ] er r
5) Carry out normal closing-up procedures. }
recounmeren _@ @
+ eb seamen vet
Fig. 32 TESTING SURFACE RESISTANCE OF EXTERNAL COMPOSITE
PANEL USING CONDUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TAPE
-54-Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance when the paint finish is not
applied:
1) Set the CORAS to the mode R2.
2) Apply the probe (R2/C2) to the applicable component.
3) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum
permitted values.
4) Do the above steps again several times at different areas of the given
surface, according to its size.
Disconnect the resistivity-continuity meter and carry out normal closing-up
procedures.
TEST OF THE AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL GROUNDING
Put a clean non corroded metal plate between the tyres of the nose landing
gear and the ground.
NOTE: This procedure is easier Ite arpa contact oi is mois
Remove the metal plate. Carry ou close -Lip procedure. =
{ | \ }
TEST OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE/EXTERNAL COMPOSITE
COMPONENETS WITH CONDUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TAPE
o | ; 24
Equipment —
1) Megohmmeter 100Mohms-500 Volts-1 mA (max) with 2 rounded-point
prods, diameter 4mm (0.1574”).
2) 3M Conductive Electrical Tape (X-1181/Copper or X-1170/Aluminium).
Measurement
1) On the painted surface, apply two parallel strips 100mm (3.9370”) length of
3M conductive electrical tape, 100mm (3.9370”) away from each other, so as
to make a square.
2) Apply the plugs of the megohmmeter on each strip, and read directly the
Square Resistance “Rs”.
Make sure that the measured values “Rs” are not higher than the maximum
permitted values.
-55-NOTE; Repeat the steps again several times at different areas of the given
surface, according to its size.
Disconnect the megohmmeter. Remove the strips and carry out normal closing-
up procedure.
-56-HIRF
Requirements
With the introduction of computers and Fly-by-wire on such aircraft as the
Airbus A320 and the Boeing 777, regulations were introduced to increase the
protection levels of certain systems from the effects of High Intensity Radiated
Fields (HIRF) and lightning strikes. These regulations require that critical and
essential systems be protected to higher standards than was the case
previously. The regulations also require that a maintenance programme be put
into effect to ensure the continued airworthiness of such systems.
‘The prime requirement for an aircraft's computer and data transmission
system is reliability. The units are put through severe temperature, pressure,
and humidity tests and checked for electromagnetic compatibility, ie that the
units radiate little or no electromagnetic interference to cause problems to
other systems and are also unaffected by external electromagnetic interference
from other systems.
‘The systems that require extra dren ate specified and ihdude RiyBy-Wire
system$, databases, LRU’s (Line! Replacemertt Units) etc. | | |
The level of protection from HIRF eae other electrical sources Gightning strikes
etc) is increased by the use of mh ete which use light as the data
transmission medium in place of digital (Or analogue) clectri¢al/ electronic
signals, | n
| /|
Whilst external electrical inputs td a datatrgnsmission line will have an effect
on electrical /electronic based data transmission systems their effect on light
based data systems is considerably reduced. Of course, there can always be
mechanical damage — from lightning strikes for example - and the data
transmission/reception units can be affected by HIRF, as they are electronic.
To provide the regulatory requirements with regards to HIRF /lightning
protection the LRU’s in modern digital systems have built in filters and filter
pins and over voltage protection systems. The wire design includes the
following:
(a) Single layer of braid internal to fuselage.
(b) Two layers of braid external to fuselage
(c) Extensive use of twisted pairs and triples.
(4) No power or signal grounds external to fuselage.
{e) Single point grounding for actuator control electronics and power
control units and signals.
(Nickel coating for fly-by-wire shields,
(@) Back shell and shield termination for connectors.
(h) Equipment interface protection.
‘The requirements for lightning protection are laid down in JAR 25.581.
-S7-SHADING INDICATES
| AREAS REQURING
SPECIALINSPECTION
/ Fig. 33 STRUCTURE INSPECTION - B77
Airframe Protected Areas
‘These areas include whole parts of the airframe such as the flight deck and
equipment racks. Aluminium coated honeycomb internal walls, floors and
ceiling panels may be used around the flight deck and appropriate equipment
bays (as on the B777 for example). This ensures that the whole area is encased
in a “metal box”.
On the flight deck, the existing windscreen metallic coatings (electric heater
films) are used as part of the protection system.
Special attention is paid to grounding and earthing points, and shielding of
electrical cables and plugs and sockets.
Maintenance Practices
Special checks are carried out on the earthing/grounding points of all the
systems and the airframe. These check may be scheduled at intervals of 4 and
8 years.
-58-For example:
* Every 4 years. Detailed inspection of all critical wiring and
bonding external to the fuselage.
* Every 8 years. General inspection of all critical and essential
wiring and bonding inside the fuselage.
* Every 8 years. Detailed inspection of some essential wiring and
bonding external to the fuselage.
General Visual Inspection
This is a general visual inspection using a light source if necessary, to check
for damage, deterioration, contamination, signs of burning, security, open
circuits, correct assembly, correct torque of plugs/sockets, locking, chafing,
corrosion, broken strands, broken screening etc. All wires, shields, ground
leads, screen jumpers and bonding leads are to be intact. Panels and access
doors may-have to be removed/refitted.All this will be specified in the AMM
and the maintenance schedule>Thereis normally no routine, requirement for
dismantling. \ | vet
1 | |
Detailed Visual Inspection
This inyolves an inspection similar to above but it will also include the use of
specialist test equipment. 1 | ||
All metilised airframe (and othet) screening to be secure, undamaged and
compléte. } / co
If any item is found to be defective, the defect should be repaired or the part
replaced, and the system tested.
Systems Testing
When testing a particular system (radio, radar, TCAS etc) it is possible that
signals from these systems can be picked up as noise on other systems/other
aircraft. It is important that the AMM is consulted reference the precautions to
take prior to testing any system so that other systems and/or aircraft are not
affected.
It has been known, for example, for TCAS to affect aircraft flying near the area
when the system is being tested. It is recommended, therefore, that it is tested
in the hangar with the hangar doors closed to minimise interference.
The actual test will depend on the system to be tested but it will be in
accordance with AMM and will normally involve a functional test.
SorIt may require that other electric/electronic systems are working at the same
time to check for any cross-interference. It may require the use of a special
test programme to include simulated interference signals (noise).
Remember that testing of some equipment on the ground requires safety
precautions to be carried out to prevent injury to personnel. This includes
safety distances for radar antennae and radio aerials for example.
On the point of test equipment, it must be electromagnetic compatible to the
aircraft systems to ensure no problems are caused to the system under test or
other systems
-60-DEMAGNETISATION
Carried out if the crew report problems with the magnetic compass or flux
valves, or any other equipment where magnetic interference is suspect.
Fixed Component Demagnetisation
For structure demagnetisation, a portable magnet may be used having a U-
shaped iron core of a cross section area of approximately 0.6 square inches.
‘The magnet should be placed in contact with, and moved slowly along, the part
to be demagnetised. This operation should be repeated three or four times on
each part to be demagnetised. The magnet should be moved well away from
the component being demagnetised before switching off the current to avoid re-
magnetisation of the component.
Removable ‘Components : :
\ \ \ |
These shguld be removed from the aircraft for convenience, 4s jvett as
fact that the degree of demagnetisation netessary is usually much higher than
that required for a part of the fixed structure. | /
1 | —_* i
| | r
1} li
AC Coil Method > i | | i
i J | |
— \\
| / ii | |
‘The corhponent’tg be demagnetised should be passed through a coil supplied
with alternating ¢urrent. The coil is mounted with its axis suchthat the
component is not subjected to the earth’s magnetic field, eg on an East-West
line.
The field intensity within the coil necessary for satisfactory demagnetisation
depends on the nature of the metal being demagnetised, a metal having a high
coercive force requiring a larger field intensity than a metal having a low
coercive force.
Also a component having a large cross section is more difficult to demagnetise
because of eddy currents in the metal reducing the effective intensity of the
demagnetising field.
For normal demagnetisation requirements, a field intensity of 170 lines/sq cm
is sufficient, but in extreme cases an intensity of 300-400 lines/sq cm may be
necessary.
-61-DC Coil Method
‘This method was developed to enable components which have a large cross
section to be readily demagnetised. The component to be demagnetised should
be placed within a coil large enough to enclose it completely. The current
through the coil should be reversed at approximately two second intervals.
Starting at a large value the current and gradually reducing it to zero.
Demagnetisation Procedure
The in-situ method of demagnetisation should only be used where it is too
difficult to dismantle the parts.
Before commencing the demagnetisation of an aircraft the compass should be
swung with the corrector box neutralised and a note made of the readings
obtained, (if corrector box fitted).
‘The compass, corrector box and, any other equipment that ig likely tobe
affected by a strong alternating magnetic field, should be removed before
commencing demagnetising opeta fions (check the AMM). | 1 |
i LI } Li od}
Parts highly magnetised can be detected ty ‘searching’ with a hand compass. It
is advisable to wipe (demagnetise) all magnetisable parts within-six feet (3m) of
the magnetic compass and flux valves. Parts being wiped shouldbe at right
angles to the earth’s field and the inclination of the earth’s field taken into
consideration when treating upright /diagonal components. The ac coil is held
near the part by the insulated handles and the current is switched on. After a
period: of timie (depends on theysize of the part and how maghetised it is) the
coil is removed and switched off. - -
‘The part/area is checked for magnetism by using a hand compass or a special
magnetic detector.
After all suspected parts have been demagnetised, the magnetic compass
(without corrector box) should be replaced and a compass swing taken. If the
compass still shows errors that are not within the correctable limits, further
demagnetisation should be carried out until it is within the correctable limits.
After demagnetisation is complete and compass and corrector box have been
replaced and adjusted to within limits (and all other items removed, replaced)
the aircraft should have the magnetic compass swung at frequent internals.
For example once every two weeks for a period of two to three months, or until
it is evident that stability has been reached. Evidence of such stability may be
obtained from flight crew reports on the behaviour of the magnetic compass
over a number of subsequent flights. A suitable entry should be made in the
Aircraft Tech Log requesting such reports and the reason for the request given.
-62-