Advanced Level Physics Third edition with SI units M. NELKON, M.Sc.(Lond.), F.Inst.P., A.K.C. formerly Head of the Science Department, William Ellis School, London P. PARKER, M.Sc., F.Inst.P., A.M.1.E.E. Late Senior Lecturer in Physics, The City University, London HEINEMANN EDUCATIONAL BOOKS LTD - LONDONContents PART ONE: MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER NOORWN= Dynamics . Circular motion, S. H. M. Gravitation Rotation of rigid bodies Static bodies, Fluids Surface tension Elasticity Solid Friction. Viscosity PART TWO: HEAT Introduction Calorimetry Gases . Thermal expansion Changes of State . Transfer of heat : Thermometry and pyrometry ‘i PART THREE: OPTICS AND SOUND Optics: Introduction Reflection at plane surfaces Reflection at curved surfaces . Refraction at plane surfaces Refraction through prisms Dispersion. Spectra Refraction through lenses . Defects of vision. Defects of lenses Optical instruments Velocity of light. Photometry . Oscillations and waves. Sound waves Characteristics, properties, velocity of sound Vibrations in pipes, strings, rods Optics: Wave theory of light Interference, diffraction, polarization . Page 1 36 75 96 125 153 171PART FOUR: ELECTRICITY AND ATOMIC PHYSICS Electrostatics . Capacitors a Current electricity. Resistance. Power. 5 Ohm's law applications. Measurement. Networks. Chemical effect of current Magnetic field. Force on conductor Electromagnetic induction : Magnetic fields due to conductors Magnetic properties of material A.C. circuits. Electromagnetic waves . Electrons. Motion in fields Valves. C.R.O. Junction diode. Transistors Radioactivity. The nucleus : X-rays. Photoelectricity. Energy levels. Summary of C.G.S. and SI Units . Answers to exercises . Index . Page 731 765 785 807 844 874 895 931PART ONE Mechanics and Properties of Matterchapter one Dynamics Motion in a Straight Line. Velocity IF a car travels steadily in a constant direction and covers a distance s in a time t, then its velocity in that direction = s/t. If the car does not travel steadily, then s/t is its average velocity, and distance s = average velocity x t. We are here concerned with motion in a constant direction. The term ‘displacement’ is given to the distance moved in a constant direction, for example, from L to C in Fig. 1.1 (i). Velocity may therefore be defined as the rate of change of displacement. Velocity can be expressed in centimetres per second (cm/s or cm s~*) or metres per second (m/s or ms~') or kilometres per hour (km/h or kmh~'). By calculations, 36.kmh~! = 10 ms~’. It should be noted that complete information is provided for a velocity by stating its direction in addition to its magnitude, as explained shortly. If an object moving in a straight line travels equal distances in equal times, no matter how small these distances may be, the object is said to be moving with uniform velocity. The velocity of a falling stone increases continuously, and so is a non-uniform velocity. If, at any point of a journey, As is the small change in displacement in a small time At, the velocity » is given by v = As/At. In the limit, using calculus notation, ds =F Vectors Displacement and velocity are examples of a class of quantities called vectors which have both magnitude and direction. They may therefore be represented to scale by a line drawn in a particular direction. Thus Cc D A ' I ! Acceleration 4g Displacement { (i) get YP -_-- Ww (iii) C Fic 1.1 Vectors ° Cambridge is 80 km from London in a direction 20° E. of N. We can therefore represent the displacement between the cities in magnitude 12 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS and direction by a straight line LC 4 cm long 20° E. of N., where 1 cm represents 20 km, Fig. 1.1 (i). Similarly, we can represent the velocity u of a ball initially thrown at an angle of 30° to the horizontal by a straight line OD drawn to scale in the direction of the velocity u, the arrow on the line showing the direction, Fig. 1.1 (ii). The acceleration due to gravity, g, is always represented bya straight line AO to scale drawn vertically downwards, since this is the direction of the accelera- tion, Fig. 1.1 (iii). We shall see later that ‘force’ and ‘momentum’ are other examples of vectors. Speed and Velocity A car moving along a winding road or a circular track at 80 km h~! is said to have a speed of 80 km h~*. ‘Speed’ is a quantity which has no direction but only magnitude, like ‘mass’ or ‘density’ or ‘temperature’. These quantities are called scalars. The distinction between speed and velocity can be made clear by reference to a car moving round a circular track at 80 km h™! say. Fig. 1.2. At every point on the track the speed is the same—it is 80 km h7?. Speed constant c Velocity different Fic. 1.2. Velocity and speed At every point, however, the velocity is different. At A, B or C, for example, the velocity is in the direction of the particular tangent, AP, BQ or CR, so that even though the magnitudes are the same, the three velocities are all different because they point in different directions. Generally, vector quantities can be represented by a line drawn in the direction of the vector and whose length represents its magnitude. Distance-Time Curve When the displacement, or distance, s of a moving car from some fixed point is plotted against the time t, a distance-time (s—t) curve ofDYNAMICS 3 the motion is obtained. The velocity of the car at any instant is given by the change in distance per second at that instant. At E, for example, if the change in distance s is As and this change is made in a time At, ql As velocity at E = ie In the limit, then, when At approaches zero, the velocity at E becomes equal to the gradient of the tangent to the curve at E. Using calculus notation, As/At then becomes equal to ds/dt (p. 1). s Non-uniform Uniform / velocity velocity Fic. 1.3 Displacement (s)-time (1) curves If the distance-time curve is a straight line CD, the gradient is constant at all points; it therefore follows that the car is moving with a uniform velocity, Fig. 1.3. If the distance-time curve is a curve CAB, the gradient varies at different. points. The car then moves with non- uniform velocity. We may deduce that the velocity is zero at the instant corresponding to A, since the gradient at A to the curve CAB is zero: When a ball is thrown upwards, the height s reached at any instant t is given by s = ut—4gt?, where u is the initial velocity and g is the constant equal to the acceleration due to gravity (p. 8). The graph of s against ¢ is represented by the parabolic curve CXY in Fig. 1.3; the gradient at X is zero, illustrating that the velocity of the ball at its. maximum height is zero. Velocity-Time Curves When the velocity of a moving train is plotted against the time, a ‘velocity-time (v-t) curve’ is obtained. Useful information can be de- duced from this curve, as we shall see shortly. If the velocity is uniform, the velocity-time graph is'a straight line parallel to the time-axis, as shown by line (1) in Fig. 1.4. If the train accelerates uniformly from rest, the velocity-time graph is a straight line, line (2), inclined to the time- axis. If the acceleration is not uniform, the velocity-time graph is curved.4 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS 0 XY B Fic. 1.4 Velocity (v)-time (#) curves In Fig. 1.4, the velocity-time graph OAB represents the velocity of a train starting from rest which reaches a maximum velocity at A, and then comes to rest at the time corresponding to B; the acceleration and retardation are both not uniform in this case. Acceleration is the ‘rate of change of velocity’, ie. the change of velocity per second. The acceleration of the train at any instant is given by the gradient to the velocity-time graph at that instant, as at E. At the peak point A of the curve OAB the gradient is zero, i.c., the acceleration is then zero. At any point, such as G, between A, B the gradient to the curve is negative, i.e., the train undergoes retardation. The gradient to the curve at any point such as E is given by: velocity change _ Av time At where Av represents a small change in v in a small time At. In the limit, the ratio Av/At becomes dv/dt, using calculus notation. Area Between Velocity-Time Graph and Time-Axis Consider again the velocity-time graph OAB, and suppose the velocity increases in a very small time-interval XY from a value rep- resented by XC to a value represented by YD, Fig. 1.4. Since the small distance travelled = average velocity x time XY, the distance travelled is represented by the area between the curve CD and the time-axis, shown shaded in Fig. 1.4. By considering every small time-interval between OB in the same way, it follows that the total distance travelled by the train in the time OB. is given by the area between the velocity-time graph and the time-axis. This result applies to any velocity-time graph, whatever its shape. Fig. 1.5 illustrates the velocity-time graph AB of an object moving with uniform acceleration a from an initial velocity u. From above, the distance s travelled in a time t or OC is equivalent to the area OABC. The area OADC = u.t. The area of the triangle ABD =DYNAMICS e Fig. 1.5 Uniform acceleration 4AD. BD = 4t. BD. Now BD = the increase in velocity in a time t = at. Hence area of triangle ABD = 4t. at = 4at? .", total area OABC = ut+3at?. This result is also deduced on p. 6. Acceleration The acceleration of a moving object at an instant is the rate of change of its velocity at that instant. In the case of a train accelerating steadily from 36 kmh~! (10 ms~*) to 54 kmh~! (15 ms~') in 10 second, the uniform acceleration = (54—36) km h~! = 10 seconds = 1:8 km h~* per second, or (15—10) ms~!+10 seconds = 0:5 ms~' per second. Since the time element (second) is repeated twice in the latter case, the acceleration is usually given as 0-5 ms~. Another unit of acceleration is ‘cm s~?’. In terms of the calculus, the acceleration a of a moving object is given by _ do dt where dv/dt is the velocity change per second. a Distance Travelled with Uniform Acceleration. Equations of Motion If the velocity changes by equal amounts in equal times, no matter how small the time-intervals may be, the acceleration is said to be uniform. Suppose that the velocity of an object moving in a straight6 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS line with uniform acceleration a increases from a value u to a value v in a time t. Then, from the definition of acceleration, v-u a=—, t from which v=u+at. . : . (1) Suppose an object with a velocity u accelerates with a uniform acceleration a for a time t and attains a velocity v. The distance s travelled by the object in the time t is given by s = average velocity xt = }utv)xt But v=utat 2.8 = Yututatt “8 =ut+4fat? . . : : . (2% _ If we eliminate t by substituting t = (v—u)/a from (1) in (2), we obtain, on simplifying, v=u?+2as . 7 : . G) Equations (1), (2), (3) are the equations of motion of an object moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration. When an object undergoes a uniform retardation, for example when brakes are applied to a car, a has a negative value. EXAMPLES 1. A car moving with a velocity of 54 km h”* accelerates uniformly at the rate of 2 ms~?. Calculate the distance travelled from the place where acceleration began to that where the velocity reaches 72 km h~!, and the time taken to cover this distance. (@) 54kmh~! = 15ms~4, 72 kmh-! = 20 ms“, acceleration a = 2ms~?. Using vo? =u? +2as, <, 20? = 157+2x2xs 207-15? 18s og = Bim. (ii) Using v=utat ©. 20 = 1542 oo t= ME _ 255, 2DYNAMICS 7 2. A train travelling at 72 km h~! undergoes a uniform retardation of 2m s~? when brakes are applied. Find the time taken to come to rest and the distance travelled from the place where the brakes were applied. (i) 72kmh-! = 20ms“!, and a = —2ms~?,v=0. Using v=utat “2 0= 20-2t =10s (ii) The distance, s, = ut+4at?. = 20x 10-4 x2x 10? = 100 m. Motion Under Gravity When an object falls to the ground under the action of gravity, experiment shows that the object has a constant or uniform acceleration of about 980 cm s~?, while it is falling (see p. 49). In SI units this is 9 ms~? or 10 ms~? approximately. The numerical value of this acceleration is usually denoted by the symbol g. Suppose that an object is dropped from a height of 20 m above the ground. Then the initial velocity u=0, and the acceleration a = g = 10 m s~? (approx). Substituting in s = ut +4at?, the distance fallen s in metres is calculated from s = 4gt? = 517. When the object reaches the ground, s = 20 m. -.20 = 5?,ort=2s Thus the object takes 2 seconds to reach the ground. Ifa cricket-ball is thrown vertically upwards, it slows down owing to the attraction of the earth. The ball is thus retarded. The magnitude of the retardation is 9-8 m s~?, or g. Mathematically, a retardation can be regarded as a negative acceleration in the direction along which the object is moving; and hence a = —9-8 ms~? in this case. Suppose the ball was thrown straight up with an initial velocity, u, of 30 ms~!. The time taken to reach the top of its motion can be obtained from the equation v = u+at. The velocity, v, at the top is zero; and since u = 30 m and a = —9°8 or 10 ms? (approx), we have 0 = 30-108. Boe =to73* The highest distance reached is thus given by s = ut+4at? = 30x3-5x3? = 45m. Resultant. Components Ifa boy is running along the deck ofa ship in a direction OA, and the8 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS ship is moving in a different direction OB, the boy will move relatively to the sea along a direction OC, between OA and OB, Fig. 1.6 (i). Now in one second the boat moves from O to B, where OB represents the velocity of the boat, a vector quantity, in magnitude and direction. The boy moves from O to A in the same time, where OA represents the velocity of the boy in magnitude and direction. Thus in one second the net effect relative to the sea is that the boy moves from O to C. It can now be seen that if lines OA, OB are drawn to represent in magnitude and direction the respective velocities of the boy and the ship, the magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity of the boy is repre- sented by the diagonal OC of the completed parallelogram having OA, OB as two of its sides; OACB is known as a parallelogram of velocities. Conversely, a velocity represented completely by OC can be regarded as having an ‘effective part’, or component represented by OA, and another component represented by OB. Component / of F Fic. 1.6, Resultant and component. In practice, we often require to find the component of a vector quantity in a certain direction. Suppose OR represents the vector F, and OX is the direction, Fig. 1.6 (ii). If we complete the parallelogram OQRP by drawing a perpendicular RP from R to OX, and a per- pendicular RQ from R to OY, where OY is perpendicular to OX, we can see that OP, OQ represent the components of F along OX, OY respectively. Now the component OQ has no effect in a perpendicular direction; consequently OP represents the total effect of F along the direction OX. OP is called the ‘resolved component’ in this direction. If @ is the angle ROX, then, since triangle OPR has a right angle at P, OP = ORcos@=Fcos@ . : » 4 Components of g The acceleration due to gravity, g, acts vertically downwards. In free fall, an object has an acceleration g. An object sliding freely down an inclined plane, however, has an acceleration due to gravity equal to the component of g down the plane. If it is inclined at 60° to the vertical, the acceleration down the plane is then g cos 60° or 9:8 cos 60° ms~?, which is 4-9 ms~?. Consider an object O thrown forward from the top of a cliff OADYNAMICS 9 with a horizontal velocity u of 15 ms~'. Fig. 1.7. Since u is horizontal, it has no component in a vertical direction. Similarly, since g acts vertically, it has no component in a horizontal direction. Fig. 1.7 Motion under gravity We may thus treat vertical and horizontal motion independently. Consider the vertical motion from O. If OA is 20 m, the ball has an initial vertical velocity of zero and a vertical acceleration of g, which is 9:8 ms~? (10 ms~2 approximately). Thus, from s = ut+4at’, the time t to reach the bottom of the cliff is given, using g = 10 ms~?, by 20 = 4.10.0? = 5t?, ort =2s. So far as the horizontal motion is concerned, the ball continues to move forward with a constant velocity of 15 ms_' since g has no com- ponent horizontally. In 2 seconds, therefore, horizontal distance AB = distance from cliff = 15x 2 = 30m. Generally, in a time t the ball falls a vertical distance, y say, from O given by y = 4g¢?. In the same time the ball travels a horizontal distance, x say, from O given by x = ut, where u is the velocity of 15 ms~'. If tis eliminated by using t = x/u in y = 4gt?, we obtain y = gx/2u. This is the equation of a parabola. It is the path OB in Fig. 1.7. Addition of Vectors Suppose a ship is travelling due east at 30 km h~* and a boy runs across the deck in a north-west direction at 6 km h~', Fig. 1.8 (i). We 6 km. een S 5 30,km.h? N\ SE en, 0 0 6 (i) (ii) Fic. 1.8 Addition of vectors10 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS can find the velocity and direction of the boy relative to the sea by adding the two velocities. Since velocity is a vector quantity, we draw a line OA to represent 30 km h~! in magnitude and direction, and then, from the end of A, draw a line AC to represent 6 km h™! in magnitude and direction, Fig. 1.8 (ii). The sum, or resultant, of the velocities is now represented by the line OC in magnitude and direction, because a distance moved in one second by the ship (represented by OA) together with a distance moved in one second by the boy (represented by AC) is equivalent to a movement of the boy from O to C relative to the sea. ye Fig. 1.9 Subtraction of velocities P-O (ii) a In other words, the difference between the vectors B, 38 in Fig. 1.9 (i) is the sum of the vectors P and (—G). Now (—@) is a vector drawn exactly equal and opposite to the vector b We therefore draw ab to represent P completely, and then draw bc to represent (—@) completely, Fig. 1.9 (ii). Then P-+(—Q) = the vector represented by ac ao Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration Ifa car A travelling at 50 km h™' is moving in the same direction as another car B travelling at 60 km h~', the relative velocity of Bto A = 60—50 = 10 kmh~*. If, however, the cars are travelling in opposite directions, the relative velocity of B to A = 60—(—50) = 110kmh7~?. Suppose that a car X is travelling with a velocity v along a road 30° east of north, and a car Y is travelling with a velocity u along a road due east, Fig. 1.10 (i). Since ‘velocity’ has direction as well as magnitude, ie, ‘velocity’ is a vector quantity (p. 1), we cannot subtract u and v numerically to find the relative velocity. We must adopt a method which takes into account the direction as well as the magnitude of the velocities, i.e., a vector subtraction is required. B u A 0 a D Relative Vv Relative v velocity velocity ° E (ii) (iii) Fic. 1.10. Relative velocity.DYNAMICS W The velocity of X relative to Y =B—u =0+(—W). Suppose OA represents the velocity, v, of X in magnitude and direction, Fig. 1.10 (ii). Since Y is travelling due east, a velocity AB numerically equal to u but in the due west direction represents the vector (—7). The vector sum of OA and AB is OB from p. 0, which therefore represents in magnitude and direction the velocity of X relative to Y. By drawing an accurate diagram of the two velocities, OB can be found. The velocity of Y relative to X = d—-8 =7+(—2), and can be found by a similar method. In this case, OD represents the velocity, u, of Y in magnitude and direction, while DE represents the vector (-%), which it is drawn numerically equal to v but in the opposite direction, Fig. 1.10 (iii). The vector sum of OD and DE is OE, which therefore represents the velocity of Y relative to X in magnitude and direction. When two objects P, Q are each accelerating, the acceleration of P relative to Q = acceleration of P—acceleration of Q. Since ‘accelera- tion’ is a vector quantity, the relative acceleration must be found by vector subtraction, as for the case of relative velocity. EXAMPLE Explain the difference between a scalar and a vector quantity. What is meant by the relative velocity of one body with respect to another? Two ships are 10 km apart on a line running S. to N. The one farther north is steaming W. at 20 kmh~!. The other is steaming N. at 20 kmh™*. What is their distance of closest approach and how long do they take to reach it? (C.) Suppose the two ships are at X, Y, moving with velocities u, v respectively, each 20 kmh"'Fig. 1.11 (j). The velocity of Y relative to X = ¢—w = + (—W). We therefore draw OA to represent (20) and add to it AB, which represents (—%, Fig. 1.11 (ii). The relative velocity is then represented by OB. u=20 7] A 10 6) (20) Relative v=20 3 velocity Y (i) (ii) Fic. 1.11 Example Since OAB is a right-angled triangle, OB = /OA?+AB? = J 20? +20? = 28:28 = 28:3 km h? — AB _20_ 1 ie 9 = 45° a Also, tang= AB Da=tieo=4° 2.12 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Thus the ship Y will move along a direction QR relative to the ship X, where - QR is at 45° to PQ, the north-south direction, Fig. 1.11 (iii). If PQ = 10 km, the distance of closest approach is PN, where PN is the perpendicular from P to QR. . PN = PQsin 45° = 10 sin 45° = 7-07 km. The distance QN = 10 cos 45° = 7-07 km. Since, from (i), the relative velocity is 28-28 km h~", it follows that 707 « time to reach N = 5355 =f hour. LAWS OF MOTION. FORCE AND MOMENTUM Newton’s Laws of Motion In 1686 Sm Isaac NEWTON published a work called Principia, in which he expounded the Laws of Mechanics. He formulated in the book three ‘laws of motion’: Law I. Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless impressed forces act on it. Law II. The change of momentum per unit time is proportional to the impressed force, and takes place in the direction of the straight line along which the force acts. Law Ill. Action and reaction are always equal and opposite. These laws cannot be proved in a formal way; we believe they are correct because all the theoretical results obtained by assuming their truth agree with the experimental observations, as for example in astronomy (p. 58). Inertia. Mass Newton’s first law expresses the idea of inertia. The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and its reluctance to stop once it has begun moving. Thus an object at rest begins to move only when it is pushed or pulled, ie., when a force acts on it. An object O moving in a Velocity change s] Velocity oO change (i) (ii) Fic, 1.12 Velocity changesDYNAMICS 13 straight line with constant velocity will change its direction or move faster only if a new force acts. on it. Fig. 1.12 (i). This can be demon- strated by a puck moving on a cushion of gas on a smooth level sheet of glass. As the puck slides over the glass, photographs taken at succes- sive equal times by a stroboscopic method show that the motion is practically that of uniform velocity. Passengers in a bus or car are jerked forward when the vehicle stops suddenly. They continue in their state of motion until brought to rest by friction or collision. The use of safety belts reduces the shock. Fig. 1.12 (ii) illustrates a velocity change when an object O is whirled at constant speed by a string. This time the magnitude of the velocity v is constant but its direction changes. ‘Mass’ is a measure of the inertia of a body. If an object changes its direction or its velocity slightly when a large force acts on it, its inertial mass is high. The mass of an object is constant all over the work it is the same on the earth as on the moon. Mass is measured in kilo- gtammes (kg) or grammes (g) by means of a chemical balance, where it is compared with standard. masses based on the International Prototype Kilogramme (see also p. 14). Force. The newton When an object X is moving it is said to have an amount of momentum given, by definition, by momentum = mass of X x velocity 5 a () Thus an object of mass 20 kg moving with a velocity of 10 ms~! has a momentum of 200 kg ms‘. If another object collides with X its velocity alters, and thus the momentum of X alters. From Newton’s second law, a force acts on X which is equal to the change in momentum per second, Thus if F is the magnitude of a force acting on a constant mass m, F x mxchange of velocity per second . Fo ma, where a is the acceleration produced by the force, by definition of a. “.F=kma. 0 : - 2 where k is a constant. With SI units, the newton (N) is the unit of force. It is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1 kilogramme an acceleration of 1 metre s~?. Substituting F = 1N, m= 1 kg and a=1 ms”? in the expression for F in (i), we obtain k = 1. Hence, with units as stated, ..F = ma, which is a standard equation in dynamics. Thus if a mass of 200 g is acted upon by a force F which produces an acceleration a of 4m s~?, then, since m = 200 g = 0-2 kg, F = ma = 0-2(kg) x 4(m s~) = 08 N.14 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS C.g.s. units of force The dyne is the unit of force in the centimetre-gramme-second system; it is defined as the force acting on a mass of 1 gramme which gives it an acceleration of 1 cms~”. The equation F = ma also applies when m is in grammes, a is in cm s~?, and F is in dynes. Thus if a force of 10000 dynes acts on a mass of 200 g, the acceleration a is given by F = 10000 = 200xa, or a=50cms~?. Suppose m = 1 kg = 1000 g, a= 1m s-? = 100 cm s-*. Then, the force F is given by F = ma = 1000x 100 dynes = 105 dynes. But the force acting on a mass of 1 kg which gives it an acceleration of 1 ms~? is the newton, N. Hence 1N = 10° dynes Weight. Relation between newton, kgf and dyne, gf The weight of an object is defined as the force acting on it due to gravity; the weight of an object can hence be measured by attaching it to a spring-balance and noting the extension, as the latter is propor- tional to the force acting on it (p. 50). Suppose the weight of an object of mass m is denoted by W. If the object is released so that it falls to the ground, its acceleration is g. Now F = ma. Consequently the force acting on it, ie. its weight, is given by W =m. If the mass is 1 kg, then, since g = 9-8 ms, the weight W = 1x 9-8 = 9-8 N (newton). The force due to gravity on a mass of 1 kg where g has the value 9:80665 m s~? is called a 1 kilogramme force or 1 kgf (this is roughly equal to 1 kilogramme weight or 1 kg wt, which depends on the value of g and thus varies from place to place). Hence it follows that 1 kgf = 9:8 N = 10 N approximately. A weight of 5 kgf is thus about 50 N. Further, 1 N = ¢o kgf approx = 100 gf. The weight of an apple is about 1 newton. . The weight of a mass of 1 gramme is called gramme-force (1 gf); it was formerly called ‘1 gramme wt’. From F = ma, it follows that 1 gf = 1980 = 980 dynes. since g = 980 cm s~? (approx). The reader should note carefully the difference between the ‘kilo- gramme’ and the ‘kilogramme force’; the former is a mass and is therefore constant all over the universe, whereas the kilogramme force is a force whose magnitude depends on the value of g. The acceleration due to gravity, g, depends on the distance of the place considered from the centre of the earth; it is slightly greater at the poles than at theDYNAMICS . 15 equator, since the earth is not perfectly spherical (see p. 41). It there- fore follows that the weight of an object differs in different parts of the world. On the moon, which is smaller than the earth and has a smaller density, an object would weigh about one-sixth of its weight on the earth. The relation F = ma can be verified by using a ticker-tape and timer to measure the acceleration of a moving trolley. Details are given in a more basic text, such as Fundamentals of Physics (Chatto and Windus) by the author. The following examples illustrate the application of F = ma. It should be carefully noted that (i) F represents the resultant force on the object of mass m, (ii) F must be expressed in the appropriate units of a ‘force’ and m in the corresponding units of a ‘mass’. EXAMPLES 1. A force of 20 kgf pulls a sledge of mass 50 kg and overcomes a constant frictional force of 4 kgf. What is the acceleration of the sledge? Resultant force, F, = 20 kef—4 kef = 16 kef. To change this to units of newtons, use 1 kgf = 9-8 N = 10 N approx. ©. 16 kgf = 160.N approx. From F = ma, 2. 160 = 50xa Ja=32ms"?, 2, An object of mass 2-00 kg is attached to the hook of a spring-balance, and the latter is suspended vertically from the roof of a lift. What is the reading on the spring-balance when the lift is (i) ascending with an acceleration of 20 cms~?, (ii) descending with an acceleration of 10 cm s~2, (iii) ascending with a uniform velocity of 15 om s~}. Suppose T is the tension (force) in the spring-balance in kgf. (@ The object is acted upon two forces: (a) The tension T kgf in the spring- balance, which acts upwards, (b) its weight, 2 kgf, which acts downwards. Since the object moves upwards, T is greater than 2 kgf. Hence the net force, F, acting on the object = (T—2) kgf = (T—2)x 10 N, approx. Now F = ma, where a is the acceleration in ms~7. ©. (T-2)x10 = 2xa = 2x02 Take 2 ww. Gi) When the lift descends with an acceleration of 10 cms~? or 0-1 ms~?, the weight, 2 kgf, is now greater than 7, kgf, the tension in the spring-balance. ~". resultant force = (2—T,) kgf = (2—T,) x 10 N approx. ©. F = (2-T,) x10 = ma= 2x01 *, T, = 2—002 = 1-98 kgf. (ii) When the lift moves with constant ‘velocity, the acceleration is zero. In this case the reading on the spring-balance is exactly equal to the weight, 2 kgf.16 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Linear Momentum Newton defined the force acting on an object as the rate of change of its momentum, the momentum being the product of its mass and velocity (p.13). Momentum is thus a vector quantity. Suppose that the mass of an object is m, its initial velocity is u, and its final velocity due to a force F acting on it for a time t is v. Then change of momentum = mv—mu, _ mv—mu 20 ., Ft = mv—mu = momentum change. » The quantity Ft (force x time) is known as the impulse of the force on the object, and from (1) it follows that the units of momentum are the same as those of Pt, ie, newton second (N s). From ‘mass x velocity’, alternative units are ‘kg ms". Force and momentum change A person of mass 50 kg who is jumping from a height of 5 metres will land on the ground with a velocity = /2gh = /2x10x5 = 10 ms~}, assuming g = 980 cms”? = 10 ms”? approx. If he does not flex his knees on landing, he will be brought to rest very quickly, say in zbth second. The force F acting is then given by F= momentum change ~ time 10 = 50%10 _ 5000 NV = 500 kgf (approx). 10 This is a force of about 10 times the person’s weight and this large force has a severe effect on the body. Suppose, however, that the person flexes his knees and is brought to rest much more slowly on landing, say in 1 second. Then, from above, the force F now acting is 10 times less than before, or 50 kgf (approx). Consequently, much less damage is done to the person on landing. and hence F Initial momentum _ mu. — Final at— momentum -mu Sand + fF Horizontal momentum = 0 __Final momentum, Belt Wall S55 , : 5cm s~ (i) (ii) Fic. 1.13 Linear momentumDYNAMICS 17 Suppose sand is allowed to fall vertically at a steady rate of 100 gs~* on toa horizontal conveyor belt moving at a steady velocity of cm s~*. Fig. 1.13 (i). The initial horizontal velocity of the sand is zero. The final horizontal velocity is 5 cms~1. Now mass = 100g = 0:1 kg, velocity = 5cms~! = 5x 10°? ms"? .". Momentum change per second = 0-1 x 5x 10-? = 5x 107 newton = force on belt Observe that this is a case where the mass changes with time and the velocity gained is constant. In terms of the calculus, the force is the rate of change of momentum mv, which is vx dm/dt, and dm/dt is 100 g s~! in this numerical example. Consider a molecule of mass m in a gas, which strikes the wall of a vessel repeatedly with a velocity u and rebounds with a velocity —u. Fig. 1.13 (ii). Since momentum is a vector quantity, the momentum change = final momentum — initial momentum = mu—(—mu) = 2mu. If the containing vessel is a cube of side |, the molecule repeatedly takes a time 2//u to make an impact with the same side. .”. average force on wall due to molecule __ momentum change time = 2mu _ mu? ~ Ou The total gas pressure is the average force per unit area on the walls of the container due to all the numerous gas molecules. EXAMPLES 1. A hose ejects water at a speed of 20 cm s~? through a hole of area 100 cm?. If the water strikes a wall normally, calculate the force on the wall in newton, assuming the velocity of the water normal to the wall is zero after collision. The volume of water per second striking the wall = 100 x 20 = 2000 cm?. .", mass per second striking wall = 200g s~! = 2kgs~!. Velocity change of water on striking wall = 20—0 = 20cms~! =02ms~!. ~”. Momentum change per second = 2 (kg s~)x 0-2 (ms~) = 0-4 newton. 2. Sand drops vertically at the rate of 2 kg s~' on to a conveyor belt moving horizontally with a velocity of 0-1 m s~?, Calculate (i) the extra power needed to keep the belt moving, (ii) the rate of change of kinetic energy of the sand. Why is the power twice as great as the rate of change of kinetic energy? ( Force required to keep belt moving = rate of increase of horizontal momentum of sand = mass per second (dm/dt) x velocity change = 2x01 = 0-2 newton. .". power = work done per second = force x rate of displacement = force x velocity = 0:2 x 0-1 = 0-02 watt (p. 25).18 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS (ii) Kinetic energy of sand = 4mv?. *, rate of change of energy = 40? x an, since v is constant, =4$x01?x2 = 001 watt. Thus the power supplied is twice as great as the rate of change of kinetic energy. The extra power is due to the fact that the sand does not immediately assume the velocity of the belt, so that the belt at first moves relative to the sand. The extra power is needed to overcome the friction between the sand and belt. Conservation of Linear Momentum We now consider what happens to the linear momentum of objects which collide with each other. Experimentally, this can be investigated by several methods: 1. Trolleys in collision, with ticker-tapes attached to measure velocities. 2. Linear Air-track, using perspex models in collision and stroboscopic photography for measuring velocities. ©) ZT ey ww Oy a Before collision After collision Fig. 1.14 Linear momentum experiment As an illustration of the experimental results, the following measure- ments were taken in trolley collisions (Fig. 1.14): Before collision. Mass of trolley A = 615 g; initial velocity = 360 cm s~'. After collision. A and B coalesced and both moved with velocity of 180 cm s~*. Thus the total linear momentum of A and B before collision = 0-615 (kg)x36 (ms~')+0=2:20 kgms~* (approx). The total momentum of A and B after collision = 1-235 x 1-8 = 2:20 kgms* (approx). fl Within the limits of experimental accuracy, it follows that the total moment of A and B before collision = the total momentum after collision. Similar results are obtained if A and B are moving with different speeds after collision, or in opposite directions before collision. Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum These experimental results can be shown to follow from Newton’s second and third laws of motion (p. 12). Suppose that a moving object A, of mass m, and velocity u,, collidesDYNAMICS 19 with another object B, of mass m, and velocity u,, moving in the same- direction, Fig. 1.15. By Newton’s m mM: law of action and reaction, the force < F exerted by A on B is equal and opposite to that exerted by B on A. 2 2 Fic. 1.15 Moreover, the time ¢ during which mae the force acted on B is equal to the Conservation of linear momentum time during which the force of reaction acted on A. Thus the magnitude of the impulse, Ft, on B is equal and opposite to the magnitude of the impulse on A. From equation (1), p. 16, the impulse is equal to the change of momentum. It therefore follows that the change in the total momentum of the two objects is zero, i.e., the total momentum of the two objects is constant although a collision had occurred. Thus if A moves with a reduced velocity v, after collision, and B then moves with an increased velocity v,, mu, +m2u, = mv, +m202. The principle of the conservation of linear momentum states that, if no external forces act on a system of colliding objects, the total mo- mentum of the objects remains constant. EXAMPLES 1. An object A of mass 2 kg is moving with a velocity of 3 m s~! and collides head on with an object B of mass 1 kg moving in the opposite direction with a velocity of 4m s~!. Fig. 1.16 (j). After collision both objects coalesce, so that they move with a common velocity v. Calculate v. (i) (ii) Fic. 1.16 Examples Total momentum before collision of A and B in the direction of A =2x3-1x4= 2kgms-!. Note that momentum is a vector and the momentum of B is of opposite sign to A.20 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS After collision, momentum of A and B in the direction of A = 20+ 1v = 3v. 30 =2 yp =ims 2. What is understood by (a) the principle of the conservation of energy, (b) the principle of the conservation of momentum? A bullet of mass 20 g travelling horizontally at 100 ms~', embeds itself in the centre of a block of wood of mass 1 kg which is suspended by light vertical strings 1 m in length. Calculate the maximum inclination of the strings to the vertical. Describe in detail how the experiment might be carried out and used to determine the velocity of the bullet just before the impact of the block. (N.) Second part. Suppose A is the bullet, B is the block suspended from a point O, and 6 is the maximum inclination to the vertical, Fig. 1.16(ii). If v cm s~? is the common velocity of block and bullet when the latter is brought to rest relative to the block, then, from the principle of the conservation of momentum, since 20 g = 0:02 kg, (1+0-02)v = 0-02 x 100 = 2 10, .-1 = 102 ~ st ™S The vertical height risen by block and bullet is given by v? = 2gh, where g = 98 ms~? and h = |—Icos@ = 1—cos 0). ov? = 2gi(1—cos 6). 2 . (sr) = 2x98 x 1(1—cos 6). = 0-1962. . '100\? Linco = ih eg *, cos 0 = 08038, or @ = 37° (approx.). The velocity, v, of the bullet can be determined by applying the conservation of momentum principle. Thus mv = (m+ M)V, where m is the mass of the bullet, M is the mass of the block, and V is the common velocity. Then v =.(m-+M)V/m. The quantities m and M can be found by weighing. V is calculated from the horizontal displacement a of the block, since (i) V? = 2gh and (ii) h(2I—h) = a? from the geometry of the circle, so that, to a good approximation, 2h = a?/l. Inelastic and elastic collisions In collisions, the total momentum of the colliding objects is always conserved. Usually, however, their total kinetic energy is not conserved. Some of it is changed to heat or sound energy, which is not recoverable. Such collisions are said to be inelastic. If the total kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is said to be elastic. The collision between two smooth billiard balls is approximately elastic. Many atomic collisions are elastic. Electrons may make elastic or inelastic collisionsDYNAMICS 21 with atoms of a gas. As proved on p. 28, the kinetic energy of a mass m moving with a velocity v has kinetic energy equal to mv’. As an illustration of the mechanics associated with elastic collisions, consider a sphere A of mass m and velocity v incident on a stationary sphere B of equal mass m. (Fig. 1.17 (i). Suppose the collision is elastic, and after collision let A move with a velocity v, at an angle of 60° to its original direction and B move with a velocity v, at an angle 6 to the direction of v. OY Selmore ang 4s (ii) Fic. 1.17 Conservation of momentum Since momentum is a vector (p. 17), we may represent the mo- mentum mv of A by the line PQ drawn in the direction of v. Fig. 1.17 (ii). Likewise, PR represents the momentum mv, of A after collision. Since momentum is conserved, the vector RQ must represent the momentum mv, of B after collision, that is, re ere Hence B=3, +8, or PQ represents v in magnitude, PR represents v, and RQ represents v2. But if the collision is elastic, 4mv? = 4mv,? + pmo,” v0? = 0? +0,7, Consequently, triangle PRQ is a right-angled triangle with angle R equal to 90°. F ov . Dy = vos 605 => Also, 6 = 90° —60° = 30°, and v, = vcos 30° = ve,22 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Coefficient of restitution In practice, colliding objects do not stick together and kinetic energy is always lost. If a ball X moving with velocity u, collides head-on with a bail Y moving with a velocity u, in the same direction, then Y will move faster with a velocity v, say and X may then have a reduced velocity v, in the same direction. The co- efficient of restitution, e, between X and Y is defined as the ratio: velocity of separation Pot velocity of approach yu, The coefficient of restitution is approximately constant between two given materials. It varies from e = 0, when objects stick together and the collision is completely inelastic, to e = 1, when objects are very hard and the collision is practically elastic, Thus, from above, if u, = 4m s~1,u, =1ms~! ande = 08, then velocity of separation, v,—v, = 08 x(4—1) = 2-4ms7!. Momentum and Explosive forces There are numerous cases where momentum changes are produced by explosive forces. An example is a bullet of mass m = 50 g say, fired from a rifle of mass M = 2 kg with a velocity v of 100 m s~'. Initially, the total momentum of the bullet and rifle is zero. From the principle of the conservation of linear momentum, when the bullet is fired the total momentum of bullet and rifle is still zero, since no external force has acted on them. Thus if V is the velocity of the rifle, mo (bullet) + MV (rifle) = 0 m “MV =—m, or V= mM The momentum of the rifle is thus equal and opposite to that of the bullet. Further, V/p = —m/M. Since m/M = 50/2000 = 1/40, it follows that V = —v/40 = 25 m s~. This means that the rifle moves back or recoils with a velocity only about 2sth that of the bullet. If it is preferred, one may also say that the explosive force produces the same numerical momentum change in the bullet as in the rifle. Thus mv = MV, where V is the velocity of the rifle in the opposite direction to that of the bullet. The joule (J) is the unit of energy (p. 24). The kinetic energy, E,, of the bullet = $mv? = 30-05. 1007 = 250J The kinetic energy, E,, of the rifle = 4MV? =}.2.2:5? = 6-25J Thus the total kinetic energy produced by the explosion = 25625 J. The kinetic energy E, of the bullet is thus 250/256-25, or about 98%, of the total energy. This is explained by the fact that the kinetic energy depends on the square of the velocity. The high velocity of the bullet thus more than compensates for its small mass relative to that of the rifle. See also p. 26. Rocket Consider a rocket moving in outer space where no external forces act on it. Suppose its mass is M and its velocity is v at a particular instant. Fig. 1.18 (i).. When a mass m of fuel is ejected, the mass of the rocket becomes (M—»m) and its velocity increases to (v+ Av). Fig. 1.18 (ii).DYNAMICS 23 10} (ii) vt+Av Velocity u relative to rocket Fic. 1.18. Motion of rocket Suppose the fuel is always ejected at a constant speed u relative to the rocket. Then the velocity ofthe massm = v +4 in the direction of the rocket, since the initial velocity of the rocket is v and the final velocity is v+ Av, an average of v+ Av/2. We now apply the principle of the conservation of momentum to the rocket and fuel. Initially, before m of fuel was ejected, momentum of rocket and fuel inside rocket = Mv. After mis ejected, momentum of rocket = (M—m)(v+Av) and momentum of fuel = nora} “ (amor 80) + nfo 2a} = Mv. Neglecting the product of m. Av, then, after simplification, M.Av—mu = 0, +m Ao eae Now m = mass of fuel ejected = —AM, AM _ Av Soe Integrating between limits of M, Mo and v, vp respectively BNO 5 5 G5 (EN) or D vo—ulog(M/M)) . . . When the mass M decreases to My/2 D = v9 +u log,2.24 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Motion of centre of mass If two particles, masses m, and m,, are distances x,, x, respectively from a given axis, their centre of mass is at a distance x from the axis given by m,x,+m,x, = (m, +m,)x. See p. 104. Since velocity, v =dx/dt generally, the velocity 0 of the centre of mass in the particular direction is given by m,v,+mv, = (m,+m,)0, where v,,v, are the respective velocities of m,,m,. The quantity (mv, +m v2) represents the total momentum of the two particles. The quantity (m, +m,)0 = Mo, where M is the total mass of the particles. Thus we can imagine that the total mass of the particles is concentrated at the centre of mass while they move, and that the velocity o of the centre of mass is always given by total momentum = Mo. If internal forces act on the particles while moving, then, since action and reaction are equal and opposite, their resultant on the whole body is zero, Consequently the total momentum is unchanged and hence the velocity or motion of their centre of mass if unaffected. If an external force, however, acts on the particles, the total momentum is changed. The motion of their centre of mass now follows a path which is due to the external force. We can apply this to the case of a shell fired from a gun. The centre of mass of the shell follows at first a parabolic path. This is due to the external force of gravity, its weight. If the shell explodes in mid-air, the fragments fly off in different directions. But the numerous internal forces which occur in the explosion have zero resultant, since action and reaction are equal and opposite and the forces can all be paired. Consequently the centre of mass of all the fragments continues to follow the same parabolic path. As soon as one fragment reaches the ground, an external force now acts on the system of particles. A different parabolic path i is then followed by the centre of mass If a bullet is fired in a horizontal direction from a rifle, where is their centre of mass while the bullet and rifle are both moving? Work When an engine pulls a train with a constant force of 50 units through a distance of 20 units in its own direction, the engine is said by definition to do an amount of work equal to 50 x 20 or 1000 units, the product of the force and the distance. Thus if W is the amount of work, W = force x distance moved in direction of force. Work is a scalar quantity; it has no property of direction but only magnitude. When the force is one newton and the distance moved is one metre, then the work done is one joule. Thus a force of 50 N moving through a distance of 10 m does 50x 10 or 500 joule of work. Note this is also a measure of the energy transferred to the object. The force to raise steadily a mass of 1 kg is 1 kilogram force (1 kgf), which is about 10.N (see p. 14). Thus if the mass of 1 kg is raised vertically through 1 m, then, approximately, work done = 10(N) x I (m) = 10 joule.DYNAMICS 25 The cg.s. unit of work is the erg; it is the work done when a force of 1 dyne moves through 1 cm. Since 1 N = 10° dynes and 1m = 100cm, then 1 N moving through 1 m does an amount of work = 10° (dyne) x 100 (cm) = 107 ergs = 1 joule, by definition of the joule (p.24). P 6 P cos @ Work =Pcos0.s 0 A s Fic. 1.19 Work Before leaving the topic of ‘work’, the reader should note carefully that we have assumed the force to move an object in its own direction. Suppose, however, that a force P pulls an object a distance s along a line OA acting at an angle 6 to it, Fig. 1.19. The component of P along OA is P cos 6 (p. 8), and this is the effective part of P pulling along the direction OA. The component of P along a direction perpendicular to OA has no effect along OA. Consequently work done = P cos @xs. In general, the work done by a force is equal to the product of the force and the displacement of its point of application in the direction of the force. Power When an engine does work quickly, it is said to be operating at a high power; if it does work slowly it is said to be operating at a low power. ‘Power’ is defined as the work done per second, i.e., work done time taken’ The practical unit of power, the SI unit, is ‘joule per second’ or watt (W); the watt is defined as the rate of working at.1 joule per second. 1 horse-power (hp) = 746 W = 3 kW (approx), where 1 kW = I kilowatt of 1000 watt. Thus a small motor of § hp in a vacuum carpet cleaner has a power of about 125 W. Kinetic Energy An object is said to possess energy if it can do work. When an object possesses energy because it is moving, the energy is said to be kinetic, e.g. a flying stone can disrupt a window. Suppose that an object of mass m is moving with a velocity u, and is gradually brought to rest in a distance s by a constant force F acting against it. The kinetic energy originally possessed by the object is equal to the work done against F, and hence power = kinetic energy = F xs.26 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS But F = ma, where a is the retardation of the object. Hence F xs = mas. From v* = u? + 2as (see p. 6), we have, since v = Oand ais negative in this case, 2 5 0 = u?—2as, i.e, as = i I 2 .. kinetic energy = mas = mu’. I When m is in kg and u is in ms~', then 3mu? is in joule. Thus a car of mass 1000 kg, moving with a velocity of 36 kmh! or 10ms7', has an amount W of kinetic energy given by W = 4m? = 4x 1000x 10? = 500003 Kinetic Energies due to Explosive Forces Suppose that, due to an explosion or nuclear reaction, a particle of mass m breaks away from the total mass concerned and moves with velocity v, and a mass M is left which moves with velocity V in the opposite direction. Then kinetic energy, E,,ofmassm — 4mv? mv? Kinetic energy, E,, of mass M~ 3MV?~ Mv? (1) Now from the principle of the conservation of linear momentum, mv = MV. Thus v = MV/m. Substituting for v in (1). Ey _mM2v? _M _ Im -E, m@MV? m— 1/M Hence the energy is inversely-proportional to the masses of the particles, that is, the smaller mass, m say, has the larger energy. Thus if E is the total energy of the two masses, the energy of the smaller mass = ME/(M +m). An a-particle has a mass of 4 units and a radium nucleus a mass of 228 units. If disintegration of a thorium nucleus, mass 232, produces an a-particle and radium nucleus, and a release of energy of 4-05 MeV, where 1 MeV = 1-6 x 107 1°J, then 228 Ga 2m * 405 = 3-98 MeV. energy of a-particle = The a-particle thus travels a relatively long distance before coming to rest compared to the radium nucleus. Potential Energy A weight held stationary above the ground has energy, because, when released, it can raise another object attached to it by a rope passing over a pulley, for example. A coiled spring also has energy, which is released gradually as the spring uncoils. The energy of the weight or spring is called potential energy, because it arises from the position or arrangement of the body and not from its motion. In the case of theDYNAMICS 27 weight, the energy given to it is equal to the work done by the person or machine which raises it steadily to that position against the force-of attraction of the earth. In the case of the spring, the energy is equal to the work done in displacing the molecules from their normal equilibrium positions against the forces of attraction of the surrounding molecules. If the mass of an object is m, and the object is held stationary at a height h above the ground, the energy released when the object falls to the ground is equal to the work done = force x distance = weight of object x h. Suppose the weight is 5 kgf and h is 4 metre. Then, since 1 kgf = 9:8 N = 10 N approx, then potential energy P.E. = 50 (N) x4 (m) = 200J (more accurately, P.E. = 192 J). Generally, at a height of h, potential energy = mgh, where m is in kg, h is in metre, g = 9°8. EXAMPLE Define work, kinetic energy, potential energy. Give one example of each of the following: (a) the conversion into kinetic energy of the work done on a body and (6) the conversion into potential energy of the work done on a body. A rectangular block of mass 10 g rests on a rough plane which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle sin“ * (0-05). A force of 0-03 newton, acting in a direc- tion parallel to a line of greatest slope, is applied to the block so that it moves up the plane. When the block has travelled a distance of 110 cm from its initial position, the applied force is removed. The block moves on. and comes to rest again after travelling a further 25 cm. Calculate (i) the work done by the applied force, (ii) the gain in potential energy of the block and (iii) the value of the coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the surface of the inclined plane. How would the coefficient of sliding friction be measured if the angle of the slope could be altered? (0. and C.) R 0-03N mg Fic. 1.20 Example (i) Force = 0-03 newton; distance = 110 cm = 1-1 m. «. work = 0-03 x 1-1 = 0-033 J.238 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS (i) Gain in PE. = wt x height moved = 0-01 kgfx 1-35 sin 8 m, = 001 x 98 newton x 1:35 x 0-05 m = 0.0066 J (approx). (iii) Work done against frictional force F = work done by force —gain in P.E. = 00330-0066 = 0-0264 J. o. PX135 = 00264. _ 00264 F = 35 newton. Normal reaction, R = mg cos 0 = mg (approx,), since 0 is so small F 0.0264 “B= R= 735x001 x98 ~ 0? @pprox). Conservative Forces Ifa ball of weight W is raised steadily from the ground to a point X at a height h above the ground, the work done is W.h. The potential energy, P.E., of the ball is thus W.h. Now whatever route is taken from ground level to X, the work done is the same—if a longer path is chosen, for example, the component of the weight in the particular direction must then be overcome and so the force required to move the ball is correspondingly smaller. The P.E. of the ball at X is thus independent of the route to X. This implies that if the ball is taken in a closed path round to X again, the total work done js zero. Work has been expended on one part of the closed path, and Y regained on the remaining part. i When the work done in moving round a closed path mg in a field to the original point is zero, the forces i the field are called conservative forces. The earth’s gravita- tional field is an example of a field containing conserva- A tive forces, as we now show. Suppose the ball falls from a place Y at a height h X. to another X at a height of x above the ground. Fig. 1.21. dmg | x Then, if W is the weight of the ball and m its mass, B P.E. at X = Wx = mgx Fic. 1.21. Mechanical and K.E.at X = 4mv? = 4m. 2g(h—x) = mg(h—x), energy using v? = 2as = 2g(h — x). Hence P.E.+K.E. = mgx-+mg(h—x) = mgh. Thus at any point such as X, the total mechanical energy of the falling ball is equal to the original energy. The mechanical energy is hence constant or conserved. This is the case for a conservative field. Non-Conservative forces. Principle of Conservation of Energy The work done in taking a mass m round a closed path in the con- servative earth’s gravitational field is zero. Fig. 1.22 (i). If the work done in taking an object round a closed path to its original position isDYNAMICS 23 No work done returning to A. \ A Earth's field Ch pat! TMT Conservative field Non-conservative field (i) (ii) Fic. 1.22 Non-conservative and conservative fields not zero, the forces in the field are said to be non-conservative. This is the case, for example, when a wooden block B is pushed round a closed path on a rough table to its initial position O. Work is therefore done against friction, both as A moves away from O and as it returns. In a conservative field, however, work is done during part of the path and regained for the remaining part. When a body falls in the earth’s gravitational field, a small part of the energy is used up in overcoming the resistance of the air. This energy is dissipated or lost as heat—it is not regained in moving the body back to its original position. This resistance is another example of the action of a non-conservative force. Although energy may be transformed from one form to another, as in the last example from mechanical energy to heat, the total energy in a given system is always constant. If an electric motor is supplied with 1000 joule of energy, 850 joule of mechanical energy, 140 joule of heat energy and 10 joule of sound energy may be produced. This is called the Principle of the Conservation of Energy and is one of the key principles in science. Mass and Energy Newton said that the ‘mass’ of an object was ‘a measure of the quantity of matter’ in it. In 1905, Einstein showed from his Special Theory of Relativity that energy is released from an object when its mass decreases. His mass-energy relation states that if the mass de- creases by Am kg, the energy released in joule, AW, is given by AW = Am.c?, where c is the.numerical value of the speed of light in m s~!, which is 3 x 10°. Experiments in Radioactivity on nuclear reactions showed that Einstein’s relation was true. Thus mass is a form of energy. Einstein’s relation shows that even if a small change in mass occurs, a30 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS. relatively large amount of energy is produced. Thus if Am = 1 milli- gramme = 10~° kg, the energy AW released = Am.c? = 107° x (3x 108? = 9x 10'° J. This energy will keep 250000 100-W lamps burning for about an hour. In practice, significant mass changes occur only in nuclear reactions. The internal energy of a body of mass m may be considered as E,,, = mc?, where m is its rest mass. In nuclear reactions where two particles collide, a change occurs in their total kinetic energy and in their total mass. The increase in total kinetic energy is accompanied by an equal decrease in internal energy, Am.c?. Thus the total energy, kinetic plus internal, remains constant. Before Einstein’s mass-energy relation was known, two independent laws of science were: (1) The Principle of the Conservation of Mass (the total mass of a given system of objects is constant even though collisions or other actions took place between them); (2) The Principle of the Conservation of Energy (the total energy of a given system is constant). From Einstein’s relation, however, the two laws can be combined into one, namely, the Principle of the Conserva- tion of Energy. The summary below may assist the reader; it refers to the units of some of the quantities encountered, and their relations. Quantity [SI CGS. Relations 10° dyne = 1N Force newton (N) dyne 1 kgf = 98 N (approx, 10 N)| (vector) 1 gf = 0.0098 N (approx, 001 N) Mass (ceatar) | Kilogramme (ke) | gramme (g) | 10008 = 1 kg Momentum newtonsecond(Ns)| dyne second | 108 dyns = 1Ns (vector) eae ) _| joule erg 107 erg = 1 Power 4 TWeisst (calary _| Watt (W) orgs Lhp. = 746 W. Dimensions By the dimensions of a physical quantity we mean the way it is related to the fundamental quantities mass, length and time; these are usually denoted by M, L, and T respectively. An area, length x breadth, has dimensions L x L or L?; a volume has dimensions L3; density, which is mass/volume, has dimensions M/L* or ML~? ; relative density has no dimensions, since it is the ratio of similar quantities, in this case two masses (p. 114); an angle has no dimensions, since it is the ratio of two lengths. As an area has dimensions L?, the unit may be written in terms of the metre as ‘m2’. Similarly, the dimensions of a volume are L* and henceDYNAMICS 31 the unit is ‘m>’. Density has dimensions ML ~*. The density of mercury is thus written as ‘13600 kgm~*’. If some physical quantity has dimensions ML~1T~?, its unit may be written as ‘kg m7! s~!’. The following are the dimensions of some quantities in Mechanics: distance its dimensions are L/T or LT~?. Acceleration. The dimensions are those of velocity/time, ie., L/T? or LT~?. Force. Since force = mass x acceleration, its dimensions are MLT ~?. Work oo Energy. Since work = force x distance, its dimensions are ML?T~? Velocity. Since velocity = EXAMPLE In the gas equation (p-+7%)(V—b) = RT, what are the dimensions of the constants a and b? P tepresents pressure, V represents volume. The quantity a/V must represent a pressure since it is added to p. The dimensions of p = [force]/[area] = MLT~?/L? = ML~!T~?; the dimensions of V = L?. Hence = ML~!T~?, or [a] = MLST~2, The constant b must represent a volume since it is subtracted from V. Hence [b] =L. Application of Dimensions. Simple Pendulum Ifa small mass is suspended from a long thread so as to form a simple pendulum, we may reasonably suppose that the period, T, of the oscil- lations depends only on the mass m, the length / of the thread, and the acceleration, g, due to gravity at the place concerned. Suppose then that T=kwPg . ; : i) where x, y, z, k are unknown numbers. The dimensions of g are LT~? from above. Now the dimensions of both sides of (i) must be the same. *.T = M*LXLT-?y. Equating the indices of M, L, T on both sides, we have x=0, y+z=0, and —2z=1. .2=-Zy=Rx= Thus, from (i), the period T is given by T = kiig-4, or raft g32 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS We cannot find the magnitude of k by the method of dimensions, since it is a number. A complete mathematical investigation shows that k = 2nin this case, and hence T = 2z,/I/g. (See also p. 48). Velocity of Transverse Wave in a String As another illustration of the use of dimensions, consider a wave set up in a stretched string by plucking it. The velocity, V, of the wave depends on the tension, F, in the string, its length |, and its mass m, and we can therefore suppose that V =kPP ni, - . @& where x, y, z are numbers we hope to find by dimensions and k is a constant. The dimensions of velocity, V, are LT~*, the dimensions of tension, F, are MLT~?, the dimension of length, J, is L, and the dimension of mass, m, is M. From (i), it follows that LT7! = (MLT-?)* x L? x M*. Equating powers of M, L, and T on both sides, /.0=x+4+z, c : a c (i) l=x+y, : i _ en) and -1= -2x, fee Gti) = 1 =_1 Z=—-DYV=% wx=4, 2 V =k. Fm, FI F Tension Cos LA nm Ld mil ey) mass per unit length A complete mathematical investigation shows that k = 1. The method of dimensions can thus be used to find the relation between quantities when the mathematics is too difficult. It has been extensively used in hydrodynamics, for example. See also pp. 176, 181. EXERCISES 1 (Assume g = 10 ms~?, unless otherwise given) What are the missing words in the statements 1-10? 1, The dimensions of velocity are. . . 2. The dimensions of force are . . . 3. Using ‘vector’ or ‘scalar’, (i) mass is a . . . (ii) force is a . . . (iii) energy is a... (iv) momentum isa... 4, Linear momentum is defined as. . . 5. An ‘elastic’ collision is one in which the . . . and the . . . are conserved. 6. When two objects collide, their . . . is constant provided no . . . forces act. 7. One newton x one metre = ...DYNAMICS 33 8. 1 kilogram force = .. . newton, approx. 9. The momentum of two different bodies must be added by a... method. 10. Force is the . . . of change of momentum. Which of the following answers, A, B, C, D or E, do you consider is the correct one in the statements 11-14? 11. When water from a hosepipe is incident horizontally on a wall, the force on the wall is calculated from A speed of water, B mass x velocity, C mass per second x velocity, D energy of water, E momentum change. 12, When a ball of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m s~' collides head-on with a ball of mass 3 kg and both move together after collision, the common velocity is A 5 m s~" and energy is lost, B 4 ms? and energy is lost, C2ms~* and energy is gained, D 6 m s~! and momentum is gained, E 6 ms"! and energy is conserved. 13. An object of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 4 m s~! has a kinetic energy of A 8 joule, B 16 erg, C 4000 erg, D 16 joule, E 40000 joule. 14. The dimensions of work are A ML?T~? and it is a scalar, BML?T~? and it is a vector, C MLT™~! and it isa scalar, D ML’T and it is a scalar, E MLT and it is a vector. 15. Acar moving with a velocity of 36 km h7 * accelerates uniformly at 1 ms~? until it reaches a yelocity of 54 kmh~!. Calculate (i) the time taken, (ii) the distance travelled during the acceleration, (iii) the velocity reached 100 m from the place where the acceleration began. 16. A ball of mass 100 g is thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed of 72km h“'. Calculate (i) the time taken to return to the thrower, (ii) the maximum. height reached, (iii) the kinetic and potential energies of the ball half-way up. 17. The velocity of a ship A relative to a ship B is 10-0 km h~' in a direction N. 45° E. If the velocity of B is 20-0 kmh? in a direction N. 60° W., find the actual velocity of A in magnitude and direction. 18. Calculate the energy of (i) a kg object moving with a velocity of 10m s~!, (ii) a 10 kg object held stationary 5 m above the ground. 19. A 4kg ball moving with a velocity of 100 m s~ collides with a 16 kg ball moving with a velocity of 40 m s~ (i) in the same direction, (i) in the opposite direction. Calculate the velocity of the balls in each case if they coalesce on impact, and the loss of energy resulting from the impact. State the principle used to calculate the velocity. 20. A ship X moves due north at 30-0 kmh~';a ship Y moves N. 60° W. at 20-0 km h~'. Find the velocity of Y relative to X in magnitude and direction. If Y is 10 km due east of X at this instant, find the closest distance of approach of the two ships. 21. Two buckets of mass 6 kg are each attached to one end ofa Jong inexten- sible string passing over a fixed pulley. If a 2 kg mass of putty is dropped from a height of 5 m into one bucket, calculate (i) the initial velocity of the system, (ii) the acceleration of the system, (iii) the loss of energy of the 2 kg mass due to the impact.34 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS 22. A bullet of mass 25 g and travelling horizontally at a speed of 200 ms? imbeds itself in a wooden block of mass 5 kg suspended by cords 3 m long. How far will the block swing from its position of rest before beginning to return? Describe a suitable method of suspending the block for this experiment and explain briefly the principles used in the solution of the problem. (L.) 23. State the principle of the conservation of linear momentum and show how it follows from Newton’s laws of motion. A stationary radioactive nucleus of mass 210 units disintegrates into an alpha particle of mass 4 units and a residual nucleus of mass 206 units. If the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is E, calculate the kinetic energy of the residual nucleus. (N.) 2A. Define linear momentum and state the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Explain briefly how you would attempt to verify this principle by experiment. Sand is deposited at a uniform rate of 20 kilogramme per second and with negligible kinetic energy on to an empty conveyor belt moving horizontally ata constant speed of 10 metre per minute. Find (a) the force required to maintain constant velocity, (b) the power required to maintain constant velocity, and (c) the -tate of change of kinetic energy of the moving sand. Why are the latter two quantities unequal? (0. & C.) 25. What do you understand by the conservation of energy? Illustrate your answer by reference to the energy changes occurring (a) in a body whilst falling to and on reaching the ground, (b) in an X-ray tube. The constant force resisting the motion of a car, of mass 1500 kg, is equal to one-fifteenth of its weight. If when travelling at 48 km per hour, the car is brought to rest in a distance of 50 m by applying the brakes, find the additional retarding force due to the brakes (assumed constant) and the heat developed in the brakes. (N) 26. Define uniform acceleration. State, for each case, one set of conditions sufficient for a body to describe (a) a parabola, (b) a circle. A projectile is fired from ground level, with velocity 500 m s~! at 30° to the horizontal. Find its horizontal range, the greatest vertical height to which it rises, and the time to reach the greatest height. What is the least speed with which it could be projected in order to achieve the same horizontal range? (The resistance of the air to the motion of the projectile may be neglected.) (0.) 27. Define momentum and state the law of conservation of linear momentum. Discuss the conservation of linear momentum in the following cases (a) a freely falling body strikes the ground without rebounding, (b) during free flight an explosive charge separates an earth satellite from its propulsion unit, (c) a billiard ball bounces off the perfectly elastic cushion of a billiard table. A bullet of mass 10g travelling horizontally with a velocity of 300 m s~* strikes a block of wood of mass 290 g which rests on a rough horizontal floor. After impact the block and bullet move together and come to rest when the block has travelled a distance of 15 m. Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the floor. (0. & C.) 28. Explain the distinction between fundamental and derived units, using two examples of each. Derive the dimensions of (a) the moment of a couple and work, and comment on the results, (b) the constants a and b in van der Waals’ equation (p + a/v?)(v—) = rT for unit mass of a gas. (N.)DYNAMICS 35 29. Explain what is meant by the relative velocity of one moving object with respect to another. A ship A is moving eastward with a speed of 15 km h~! and another ship B, at a given instant 10 km east of A, is moving southwards with a speed of 20 km h~'. How long after this instant will the ships be nearest to each other, how far apart will they be then, and in what direction will B be sighted from A? (C.) 30. Define momentum and state the law of conservation of linear momentum. Outline an experiment to demonstrate momentum conservation and discuss the accuracy which could be achieved. Show that in a collision between two moving bodies in which no external act, the conservation of linear momentum may be deduced directly from Newton’s laws of motion. A small spherical body slides with velocity v and without rolling on a smooth horizontal table and collides with an identical sphere which is initially at rest on the table. After the collision the two spheres slide without rolling away from the point of impact, the velocity of the first sphere being in a direction at 30° to its previous velocity. Assuming that energy is conserved, and that there are no horizontal external forces acting, calculate the speed and direction of travel of the target sphere away from the point of impact. (0. & C.) 31. Answer the following questions making particular reference to. the physical principles concerned (a) explained why the load on the back wheels of a motor car increases when the vehicle is accelerating, (®) the diagram, Fig. 1.23, shows a painter in a crate which hangs alongside a building. When the painter who weighs 100 kef pulls on the rope the force he exerts on the floor of the crate is 45 kef. If the crate weighs 25 kgf find the acceleration. (N.) 32. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a moving body. Fic. 1.23 A vehicle of mass 2000 kg travelling at 10 ms~! on a horizontal surface is brought to rest in a distance of 12-5 m by the action of its brakes. Calculate the average retarding force. What horse-power must the engine develop in order to take the vehicle up an incline of 1 in 10 at a constant speed of 10 ms~' if the frictional resistance is equal to 20 kgf? (L.) 33. Explain what is meant by the principle of conservation of energy for a system of particles not acted upon by any external forces. What modifications are introduced when external forces are operative? A bobsleigh is travelling at 10 ms~1 when it starts ascending an incline of 1 in 100. If it comes to rest after travelling 150 m up the slope, calculate the proportion of the energy lost in friction and deduce the coefficient of friction between the runners and the snow. (0. & C.) 34. State Newton’s Laws of Motion and deduce from them the relation between the distance travelled and the time for the case of a body acted upon by a constant force. Explain the units in which the various quantities are measured. A fire engine pumps water at such a rate that the velocity of the water leaving the nozzle is 15 ms~'. If the jet be directed perpendicularly on to a wall and the rebound of the water be neglected, calculate the pressure on the wall (1 m? water weighs 1000 kg). (0. & C)chapter two Circular motion. S.H.M. Gravitation Angular Velocity IN the previous chapter we discussed the motion of an object moving in a straight line. There are numerous cases of objects moving in a curve about some fixed point. The Rv earth and the moon revolve continu- ously round the sun, for example, and sv the rim of the balance-wheel of a v watch moves to-and-fro in a circular <) 7 path about the fixed axis of the wheel. In this chapter we shall study the “5 motion of an object moving in a circle with a uniform speed round a fixed point O as centre, Fig. 2.1. : i ‘ If the object moves from A to B Fic. 21 Clreular motion so that the radius, OA moves through an angle @, its angular velocity, w, about O is defined as the change of the angle per second. Thus if t is the time taken by the object to move from A to B, one ee. Angular velocity is usually expressed in ‘radian per second’ (rad s~4). From (1), 0=at. : ‘ - (2) which is analogous to the formula ‘distance = uniform velocity x time’ for motion in a straight line. It will be noted that the time T to describe the circle once, known as the period of the motion, is given by 2a T=> : : ‘i - 8) since 2z radians = 360° by definition. Ifs is the length of the arc AB, then s/r = 0, by definition of an angle in radians. “8 = 70. Dividing by t, the time taken to move from A to B, os 9, t t But s/t = the velocity, v, of the rotating object, and 6/t is the angular velocity. “p= ro 5 : 5 . 4 36CIRCULAR MOTION “37 Acceleration in a circle When a stone is attached to a string and whirled round at constant speed in a circle, one can feel the force in the string needed to keep the stone moving. The presence of the force, called a centripetal force, implies that the stone has an acceleration. And since the force acts towards the centre of the circle, the direction of the acceleration, which is a vector quantity, is also towards the centre. To obtain an expression for the acceleration towards the centre, consider an object moving with a constant speed v round a circle of radius r. Fig. 2.2 (i). At A, its velocity v, is in the direction of the tangent AC; a short time ot later at B, its velocity vg is in the direction of the tangent BD. Since their directions are different, the velocity vg is different from the velocity v,, although their magnitudes are both equal to v. Thus a velocity change or acceleration has occurred from AtoB. Vector diagram R y a %& . Pp @ Velocity change in} Fic. 2.2 Acceleration in circle The velocity change from A to B =¥3,—0, =%,+(—2,). The arrows denote vector quantities. In Fig, 2.2 (ii), PQ is drawn to represent vg in magnitude (v) and direction (BD); QR is drawn to represent (—3,) in magnitude (v) and direction (CA). Then, as shown on p. 11, velocity change =%,+(—8,) = PR. When ot is small, the angle AOB or 68 is small. Thus angle PQR, equal to 60, is small. PR then points towards O, the centre of the circle. The velocity change or acceleration is thus directed towards the centre. The magnitude of the acceleration, a, is given by velocity change PR a= FI ==. time ot38 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS since PR = v.60. In the limit, when dt approaches zero, 50/5t = d0/dt = w, the angular velocity. But v = rw (p. 36). Hence, since a=va, a= or ro. r Thus an object moving in a circle of radius r with a constant speed v has a constant acceleration towards the centre equal to v*/r or rw”. Centripetal forces The force F required to keep an object of mass m moving in a circle of radius r = ma = mv”/r. It is called a centripetal force and acts towards the centre of the circle. When a stone A is whirled in a hori- zontal circle of centre O by means of a string, the tension T provides the centripetal force. Fig. 2.3 (i). For a racing car moving round a circular track, the friction at the wheels provides the centripetal force. Planets such as P, moving in a circular orbit round the sun S, have a centripetal force due to gravitational attraction between S and P (p. 59). Fig. 2.3 (ii). Fic. 2.3 Centripetal forces If some water is placed in a bucket B attached to the end of a string, the bucket can be whirled in a vertical plane without any water falling out. When the bucket is vertically above the point of support O, the weight mg of the water is less than the required force mv?/r towards the centre and so the water stays in. Fig. 2.3 (iii). The reaction R of the bucket base on the water provides the rest of the force. If the bucket is whirled slowly and mg > mv?/r, part of the weight provides the force mv*/r. The rest of the weight causes the water to’accelerate downward and hence to leave the bucket. Centrifuges Centrifuges are used to separate particles in suspension from the less dense liquid in which they are contained. This mixture is poured into a tube in the centrifuge, which is then whirled at high speed in a horizontal circle. The pressure gradient due to the surrounding liquid at a particular distance, r say, from the centre provides a centripetal force of mr? for a small volume of liquid of mass m, where q is the angular velocity.CIRCULAR MOTION 39 If the volume of liquid is replaced by an equal volume of particles of smaller mass m’ than the liquid, the centripetal force acting on the particles at the same place is then greater than that required by (m—m')rw?. The net force urges the particles towards the centre in spiral paths, and here they collect. Thus when the centrifuge is stopped, and the container or tube assumes a vertical position, the suspension is found at the top of the tube and clear liquid at the bottom. For the same reason, cream is separated from the denser milk by spinning the mixture in a vessel. The cream spirals towards the centre and collects here. Motion of Bicycle Rider Round Circular Track When a person on a bicycle rides round a circular racing track, the frictional force F at the ground provides the inward force towards the centre or centripetal force. Fig. 2.4. This produces a moment about his centre of gravity G which is counterbalanced, when he leans inwards, by the moment of the normal reaction R. Thus provided no skidding occurs, F.h = R.a=mg.a, since R= mg for no vertical motion. 14 = tang = mg img’ Fic. 2.4 Rider on circular track where @ is the angle of inclination to the vertical. Now F = mv?/r. 2 v.tang=2, 9 When F is greater than the limiting friction, skidding occurs. In this case F > mg, or mg tan 6 > yumg. Thus tan @ > p is the condition for skidding. Motion of Car (or Train) Round Circular Track Suppose a car (or train) is moving with a velocity v round a horizontal circular track of radius r, and let R,, R, be the respective normal re- Fic. 2.5 Car on circular track40 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS actions at the wheels A, B, and F,, F, the corresponding frictional forces, Fig. 2.5. Then, for circular motion we have 2 ee ) and vertically R,+R,=mg. . 5 5 : (ii) Also, taking moments about G, (F,+F,)h+Rya-Ra=0. . . iii) where 2a is the distance between the wheels, assuming G is mid-way between the wheels, and / is the height of G above the ground. From these three equations, we find v R,= sm(o v?h| and, vertically, R, = im 4 R, never vanishes since it always has a positive value. But if v* = arg/h, R, = 0, and the car is about to overturn outwards. R, will be positive if v? < arg/h. Motion of Car (or Train) Round Banked Track Suppose a car (or train) is moving round a banked track in a circular path of horizontal radius r, Fig. 2.6. If the only forces at the wheels Fic. 2.6 Car on banked track A, B are the normal reactions R,, R, respectively, that is, there is no side-slip or strain at the wheels, the force towards the centre of the track is (R, + R,) sin 0, where is the angle of inclination of the plane to the horizontal. 2 w. (Ry +R,) sin 0 = ue . : . For vertical equilibrium, (R, +R ) cos @ = mg : 5 ‘ (ii) 2 Dividing (i) by (ii), ctan@=2 |... ii) 19gCIRCULAR MOTION 4a Thus for a given velocity v and radius r, the angle of inclination of the track for no side-slip must be tan~ '(v?/rg). As the speed v increases, the angle 6 increases, from (iii). A racing-track is made saucer-shaped because at higher speeds the cars can move towards a part of the track which is steeper and sufficient to prevent side-slip. The outer rail of a curved railway track is raised about the inner rail so that the force towards the centre is largely provided by the component of the reaction at the wheels. It is desirable to bank a road at corners for the same reason as a racing track is banked. Thrust at Ground Suppose now that the car (or train) is moving at such a speed that the frictional forces at A, B are F,, F, respectively, each acting towards the centre of the track. Resolving horizontally, a mv? ) J Ry+R)sind+(F,+Fooso="™™— =.) Resolving vertically, (Ry +R,)cosO—-(F,+F,)sin@=mg. . . Gii) Solving, we find F,+F,= nf cos 6-gsin ‘| ~ oe Gi) 11% cos > g sin , then (F, + F)is postive; and in this case both the thrusts on the wheels at the ground are towards the centre of the track. ue cos @ < gsin@, then (F,+F,) is negative. In this case the forces F, and F,, act outwards away from the centre of the track. For stability, we have, by moments about G, (F,+F)h+R,a—R,a =0 oF +FP =R,—-Ry. 2 From (iii), 5 mate cos 0—g sin 4 =R,-R, . . . (iw The reactions R,, R, can be calculated by finding (R, +R,) from equations (, Gi), and combining the result with equation (iv). This is left as an exercise to the student. Variation of g with latitude The acceleration due to gravity, g, varies over the earth’s surface. This is due to two main causes. Firstly, the earth is elliptical, with the polar radius, b, 6:357x 10° metre and the equatorial radius, a, 6-378 x 10° metre, and hence g is greater at the poles than at the equator, where the body is further away from the centre of the earth. Secondly, the earth rotates about the polar axis, AB. Fig. 2.7. We shall consider this effect in more detail, and suppose the earth is a perfect sphere. In general, an object of mass m suspended by a spring-balance at a42 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS point on the earth would be acted on by an upward force T = mg’, where g’ is the observed or apparent acceleration due to gravity. There would also be a downward attractive force mg towards the centre of the earth, where g is the acceleration in the absence of rotation. (1) At the poles, A or B, there is no rotation. Hence mg—T = 0, or mg = T = mg’. Thus g' = g. (2) At the equator, C or D, there is a resultant force mrw towards the centre where r is the earth’s radius. Since OD is the vertical, we have A mg—T = mra. “T= mg—mro? = mg! og =g-re. The radius r of the earth is about ID 6:37 x 10° m, and @ = [(2/(24 x 3600)] radian per second. , 2 6:37 x 10% x (27)? 9-9 = = 0034, 9-9 = 0 =~ 04x 3600)? ~ 003 Latest figures give g, at the pole, Fic. 2.7 Variation of g 9:832 ms~*, and g’, at the equator, 9-780m s~?,adifference of 0-052ms~?. The earth’s rotation accounts for 0-034 m s~?. EXAMPLE Explain the action of a centrifuge when used to hasten the deposition of a sediment from a liquid. A pendulum bob of mass | kg is attached to a string 1 m long and made to revolve in a horizontal circle of radius 60 cm. Find the period of the motion and the tension of the string. (C.) First part. See text, p. 38. Second part. Suppose A is the bob, and OA is the string, Fig. 2.8. If Tis the tension in newton, and 0 is the angle of inclination of OA to the horizontal, then, for motion in the circle of radius r = 60 cm = 06 m, kg mv? _ mv? . Fic. 2.8 Example Toos0=" =e ee Since the bob A does not move in a vertical direction, then TsinO=mg . . Si) Now cos 0 = 88; = 3; hence sin 0 = $. From (ii o mg _ 1x98 “T= a7 as = 12:25 newton.SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 43 . O6T cos 0 From (i) on [rereest _ [O6X225%3 ag 1x5 7, angular velocity, o = ° = 52 = 5 rads"! SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION When the bob of a pendulum moves yt mon! to-and-fro through a small angle, the bob WH; YH By is said to be moving with simple harmonic LL motion. The prongs of a sounding tuning WIA | fork, and the layers of air near it, are moving U OT with simple harmonic motion, and light GC Yo waves can be considered due to simple 4 “Simpl harmonic variations. farkonic __ Simple harmonic motion is closely asso- motion. ciated with circular motion. An example P is shown in Fig. 2.9. This illustrates an arrangement used to convert the circular T motion of a disc D into the to-and-fro or Yt simple harmonic motion of a piston P. Fic. 2.9 The disc is driven about its axle O by a Simple harmonic motion peg Q fixed near its rim. The vertical motion drives P up and down. Any horizontal component of the motion merely causes Q to move along the slot S. Thus the simple harmonic motion of P is the projection on the vertical line YY’ of the circular motion of Q. An everyday example of an opposite conversion of motion occurs in car engines. Here the to-and-fro or ‘reciprocating’ motion of the piston engine is changed to a regular circular motion by connecting rods and shafts so that the wheels are turned. Formulae in Simple Harmonic Motion Consider an object moving round a circle of radius r and centre Z with a uniform angular velocity , Fig. 2.10. If CZF is a fixed diameter, the foot of the perpendicular from the moving object to this diameter moves from Z to C, back to Z and across to F, and then returns to Z, while the object moves once round the circle from O in an anti-clockwise direc- tion. The to-and-fro motion along CZF of the foot of the perpendicular is defined as simple harmonic motion. Suppose the object moving round the circle is at A at some instant, where angle OZA = 6, and suppose the foot of the perpendicular from A to CZ is M. The acceleration of the object at A is wr, and this44 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS” Fic. 2.10 Simple harmonic curve acceleration is directed along the radius AZ (see p. 37). Hence the acceleration of M towards Z = w’rcos AZC = w*rsin 8. But rsin 0 = MZ = y say. .”. acceleration of M towards Z = wy. Now @? is a constant. .. acceleration of M towards Z « distance of M from Z. If we wish to express mathematically that the acceleration is always directed towards Z, we must say acceleration towards Z = —w*y . » @ The minus indicates, of course, that the object begins to retard as it passes the centre, Z, of its motion. If the minus were omitted from equation (1) the latter would imply that the acceleration increases as y increases, and the object would then never return to its original position. We can now form a definition of simple harmonic motion. It is the motion of a particle whose acceleration is always (i) directed towards a Fixed point, (ii) directly proportional to its distance from that point. Period, Amplitude. Sine Curve The time taken for the foot of the perpendicular to move from C to F and back to C is known as the period (T) of the simple harmonic motion. In this time, the object moving round the circle goes exactly once round the circle from C; and since w is the angular velocity and 2 radians (360°) is the angle described, the period T is given by 7 T= ry . : a S () The distance ZC, or ZF, is the maximum distance from Z of the foot of the perpendicular, and is known as the amplitude of the motion. It is equal to r, the radius of the circle. We have now to consider the variation with time, t, of the distance,SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 45 y, from Z of the foot of the perpendicular. The distance y = ZM = r sin 6, But @ = wt, where w is the angular velocity. - @Q) The graph of y v. t is shown in Fig. 2.10, where ON represents the y-axis and OS the t-axis; since the angular velocity of the object moving round the circle is constant, 6 is proportional to the time t. Thus as the foot of the perpendicular along CZF moves from Z to C and back to Z, the graph OLP is traced out; as the foot moves from Z to F and returns to Z, the graph PHQ is traced out. The graph is a sine curve, The complete set of values of y from O to Q is known as a cycle. The number of cycles per second is called the frequency. The unit ‘1 cycle per second’ is called ‘1 hertz (Hz). The mains frequency in Great Britain is 50 Hz or 50 cycles per second. Velocity during S.H.M. Suppose the object moving round the circle is at A at some instant, Fig. 2.10. The velocity of the object is rw, where r is the radius of the circle, and it is directed along the tangent at A. Consequently the velocity parallel to the diameter FC at this instant = rwcos@, by resolving. “y=rsinet . 5 . .’. velocity, v, of M along FC = ra cos 0. But y=rsind ~.cos0 = /1—sin?@ = /1—-y7/r? = lr Lv=0f/P—y . : : a This is the expression for the velocity of an object moving with simple harmonic motion. The maximum velocity, v,, corresponds to y = 0, and hence Vp = Or. . . . : (2) Summarising our results: (1) If the acceleration a of an object = —”y, where y is the distance or displacement of the object from a fixed point, the motion is simple harmonic motion. (2) The period, T, of the motion = 2z/c, where T is the time to make a complete to-and-fro movement or cycle. The frequency, f, = 1/T and its unit is ‘Hz’. (3) The amplitude, r, of the motion is the maximum distance on either side of the centre of oscillation. (4) The velocity at any instant, v, = w,/r?—y?; the maximum velocity = wr. Fig. 2.11 (i) shows a graph of the variation of v and acceleration a with displacement y, which are respectively an ellipse and a straight line.46 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS R=0 ‘Amplitude Top of { oscillation. Ena” mete =m @ (ii) Fic. 2.11 Simple harmonic motion S.H.M. and g If a small coin is placed on a horizontal platform connected to a vibrator, and the amplitude is kept constant as the frequency is in- creased from zero, the coin will be heard ‘chattering’ at a particular frequency fy. At this stage the reaction of the table with the coin becomes zero at some part of every cycle, so that it loses contact periodically with the surface. Fig. 2.11 (ii). The maximum acceleration in S.H.M. occurs at the end of the oscilla- tion because the acceleration is directly proportional to the displace- ment. Thus maximum acceleration = wa, where a is the amplitude and @ is 2zfo. The coin will lose contact with the table when it is moving down with acceleration g (Fig. 2.11 (ii)). Suppose the amplitude is 8-0 cm. Then Qnfyra=9 ©. 4n2f2x 008 = 9-8 oSo= Vag Damping of S.H.M. In practice, simple harmonic variations of a pendulum, for example, will die away as the energy is dissipated by viscous forces due to the air. The oscillation is then said to be damped. In the absence of any damping forces the oscillations are said to be free. A simple experiment to investigate the effect of damping is illustrated in Fig. 2.12 (@. A suitable weight A is suspended from a helical spring S, a pointer P is attached to S, and a vertical scale R is set up behind P. The weight A is then set pulled down and released. The period, and the time taken for the oscillations to die away, are noted. As shown in Fig. 2.12 (ii), A is now fully immersed in a damping medium, such as a light oil, water or glycerine. A is then set oscillating, = 18 Hz.SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 47 Damped Eehuon oscillation} (i) Fic, 2.12 Experiment on damped oscillations and the time for oscillations to die away is noted. It is shorter than before and least for the case of glycerine. The decreasing amplitude in successive oscillations may also be noted from the upward limit of travel of P and the results plotted. Fig. 2.13 (i), (ii) shows how damping produces an exponential fall in the amplitude with time. > Damped oscillation Gi) Fic. 2.13 Free and damped oscillations The experiment works best for a period of about }-second and a weight which is long and thin so that the damping is produced by non-turbulent fluid flow over the vertical sides. During the whole cycle, A must be totally immersed in the fluid. EXAMPLE A steel strip, clamped at one end, vibrates with a frequency of 20 Hz and an amplitude of 5 mm_at the free end, where a small mass of 2 g is positioned.48 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Find (a) the velocity of the end when passing through the zero position, (b) the acceleration at maximum displacement, (c) the maximum kinetic and potential energy of the mass. Suppose y = r sin wt represents the vibration of the strip where r is the ampli- tude. (a) The velocity, v, = o/r?—y* (p. 45). When the end of the strip passes through the zero position y = 0; and the maximum speed, »,,, is given by Dm = Or. Now @ = 2nf = 2n x 20, and r = 0-005 m. 2 Ug = 2x 20x 0-005 = 0-628 ms~*. () The acceleration = —w*y = —cr at the maximum displacement. .*. acceleration = (2n x 20)? x 0.005 =19ms"?, (0) m= 2g =2x 10"? kg, yy = 0628 ms“! ©. maximum K.E. = 4mv,? = $x (2 107) x 0-628? = 39 x 10~* J (approx). Maximum PE, (v = 0) = Maximum K.E. = 3910-4 J. Simple Pendulum We shall now study some cases of simple har- monic motion. Consider a simple pendulum, which consists of a small mass m attached to the end of a length | of wire, Fig. 2.14. If the other end of the wire is attached to a fixed point P and the mass is displaced slightly, it oscillates to-and-fro along the arc of a circle of centre P. We shall now show that the motion of the mass about its original position O is simple harmonic motion. Suppose that the vibrating mass is at B at some instant, where OB = y and angle OPB = 6. At B, the force pulling the mass towards O is directed along the tangent at B, and is equal to mg sin @. The tension, T, in the wire has no component in this direction, since PB is perpen- dicular to the tangent at B. Thus, since force = Fic, 2.14 mass x acceleration (p. 13), Simple pendulum sing atmal where a is the acceleration along the arc OB; the minus indicates that the force is towards O, while the displacement, y, is measured along the arc from O in the opposite direction. When @ is small, sin@ = @ in radians; also 0 = y/I. Hence, Py —mg = may = ma aeSIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 49 where «w? = g/L. Since the acceleration is proportional to the distance y froma fixed point, the motion of the vibrating mass is simple harmonic motion (p. 50). Further, from p. 50, the period T = 2z/w. 2n 1 T= =24f- . 5 : 1 voit ve o Ata given place on the earth, where g is constant, the formula shows that the period T depends only on the length, |, of the pendulum. Moreover, the period remains constant even when the amplitude of the vibrations diminish owing to the resistance of the air. This result was first obtained by Galileo, who noticed a swinging lantern one day, and timed the oscillations by his pulse. He found that the period remained constant although the swings gradually diminished in amplitude. Determination of g by Simple Pendulum The acceleration due to gravity, g, can be found by measuring the period, T, of a simple pendulum corresponding to a few different lengths, J, from 80 cm to 180 cm for example. To perform the experiment accurately : (i) Fifty oscillations should be timed, (ii) a small angle of swing is essential, less than 10°, (iii) a~small sphere should be tied to the end of a thread to act as the mass, and its radius added to the length of the thread to determine I. A graph of lagainst ¥7 is now plotted from the results, and a straight line AB, which should pass through thé origin, is then drawn to lie evenly between the Fic. 2.15 Graph of / v. 7? points, Fig. 2.15. Now @ The gradient a/b of the line AB is the magnitude of //T?; and by sub- stituting in (1), g can then be calculated. If the pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a very tall room and the string and bob reaches nearly to the floor, then one may proceed to find g by (i) measuring the period T,, (ii) cutting off a measured length a of the string and determining the new period T, with the50 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS shortened string. Then, if h is the height of the ceiling above the bob initially, T, = 2x,/h/g and T, = 2n,/(h—a)/g. Thus 2 he ar and h—a = = gat? -T,’). oe 4n?a 9= FTF Thus g can be calculated from a, T, and T. Alternatively, the period T can be measured for several lengths a. Then, since T = 2z,/(h—a/g, h—a = iT”. A graph of a v. T? is thus a straight line whose gradient is g/4n. Hence g can be found. The intercept on the axis of a, when T? = is h, the height of the ceiling above the bob initially. The Spiral Spring or Elastic Thread When a weight is suspended from the end of a spring or an elastic thread, experiment shows that the extension of the spring, ie, the increase-in length, is proportional to the weight, provided that the elastic limit of the spring is not exceeded (see p. 181). Generally, then, the tension (force), T, in a spring is P proportional to the extension x produced, i.e. T = kx, where k is a constant of the spring. Consider a spring or an elastic thread PA of length | suspended from a fixed point P, Fig. 2.16. When a mass. m is placed on it, the spring stretches to O by a length e given by mg=ke, . B @ since the tension in the spring is then mg. If itt mass is pulled down a little and then released, it vibrates up- and-down above and below O. Suppose at an instant that B is at a distance x below O. The tension T of the spring at B is then equal to k(e+ x), and hence the force towards O = k(e+x)—mg. Since force = massx mo acceleration, Fic. 2.16 *, —[Ma+x)—mg] = ma, Spiral spring the minus indicates that the net force is upward at this instant, whereas the displacement x is measured from O in the opposite direction at the same instant. From this equation, —ke—kx-+mg = ma. But, from (i), mg = ke, *, —kx = ma, = -ax, a= —-=SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 51 where w? = k/m. Thus the motion is simple harmonic about O, and the period T is given by =a. o k Also, since mg = ke, it follows that m/k = e/g. ata fe nn?) From (1), it follows that T? = 427m/k. Consequently a graph of T?v.m should be a straight line passing through the origin. In practice, when the load m is varied and the corresponding period T is measured, a straight line graph is obtained when T? is plotted against m, thus verifying indirectly that the motion of the load was simple harmonic. The graph does not pass through the origin, however, owing to the mass and the movement of the various parts of the spring. This has not been taken into account in the foregoing theory and we shall now show how g may be found in this case. Determination of g by Spiral Spring The mass s of a vibrating spring is taken into account, in addition to the mass 'm suspended at the end, theory beyond the scope of this book then shows that the period of vibration, T, is given by @ where / is approximately 4 and k is the elastic constant of the spring. Squaring (i) and re-arranging, ST? = . 7 . . ii J gal? = mes (i) Thus, since 4, k, s are constants, a graph of T? v. m should be a straight line when m is varied and T observed. A straight line graph verifies indirectly that the motion of the mass at the end of the spring is simple harmonic. Further, the magnitude of k/4n can be found from the slope of the line, and hence k can be calculated. Ifa mass M is placed on the end of the spring, producing a steady extension e less than the elastic limit, then Mg = ke. Og ee Cl) By attaching different masses to the spring, and measuring the corresponding extension, the magnitude of e/M can be found by plotting e v. M and measuring the slope of the line. This is called the ‘static’ experiment on the spring. From the magnitude of k obtained in the ‘dynamic’ experiment when the period was determined for different loads, the value of g can be found by substituting the magnitudes of e/M and k in (iii).52 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Oscillations of a Liquid in a U-Tube If the liquid on one side of a U-tube T is de- pressed by blowing gently down that side, the levels of the liquid will oscillate for a short time about their respective initial positions O, C, before finally coming to rest, Fig. 2.17. The period of oscillation can be found by supposing that the level of the liquid on the left side of T is at D at some instant, at a height x above its original (undisturbed) position O. The level B of the liquid on the other side is then at a depth x below its original position C, and hence the excess pressure on the whole liquid, as shown on p. 110, Fig. 2.17 = excess height x density of liquid x S.H.M. of liquid igh ry of liq g = 2xpg. Now pressure = force per unit area. .. force on liquid = pressure x area of cross-section of the tube = 2xpgx A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the tube. This force causes the liquid to accelerate. The mass of liquid in the U-tube = volume x density = 2hAp, where 2h is the total length of the liquid in T. Now the acceleration, a, towards O or C is given by force = mass x a. . —2xpgA = 2hApa. The minus indicates that the force towards O is opposite to the dis- placement measured from O at that instant. a= I = —ax, h where w? = 4. The motion of the liquid about O (or C) is thus simple harmonic, and the period T is given by 7-22 ff @ g P.E. and K.E..exchanges in oscillating systems We can now make a general point about oscillations and oscillating systems. As an illustration, suppose that one end of a spring S of negligible mass is attached to a smooth object A, and that S and A are laid on a horizontal smooth table. If the free end of S is attached to the table and A is pulled slightly to extend the spring and then released, the system vibrates with simple harmonic motion. This is the case discussed on p. 50, without taking gravity into account. The centre of oscillation O is the position of the end of the spring correspondingSIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 53 to its natural length, that is, when the spring is neither extended or compressed. If the spring extension obeys the law force = kx, where k is a constant, and m is the mass of A, then, as on p. 51, it can easily be shown that the period T of oscillation is given by: 2n im ra Zam ft The energy of the stretched spring is potential energy, P.E.—its molecules are continually displaced or compressed relative to their normal distance apart. The P.E. for an extension x = [F.dx = flex dx = dkx?, J The energy of the mass is kinetic energy, K.E., or 3mv?, where v is the velocity. Now from x = asin wt, v = dx/dt = wacos ot. .’. total energy of spring plus mass = $kx? +4mv? = 4ka? sin?t +4mw*a? cos*ot. But w? = k/m, or k = mo. .". total energy = 4mw*a*(sin?cot + cos*cot) = 4moa? = constant. Fig. 2.18 Energy of S.H.M. Thus the total energy of the vibrating mass and spring is constant. When the K.E. of the mass is a maximum (energy = 4mw?a” and mass passing through the centre of oscillation), the P.E. of the spring is then zero (x = 0). Conversely, when the P.E. of the spring is a maxi- mum (energy = $ka? = }mo*a* and mass at end of the oscillation), the K.E. of the mass is zero (v = 0). Fig. 2.18 shows the variation of P.E. and K.E. with displacement x; the force F extending the spring, also shown, is directly proportional to the displacement from the centre of oscillation. The constant interchange of energy between potential and kinetic energies is essential for producing and maintaining oscillations, what- ever their nature. In the case of the oscillating bob of a simple pendulum,54 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS for example, the bob loses kinetic energy after passing through the middle of the swing, and then stores the energy as potential energy as it rises to the top of the swing. The reverse occurs as it swings back. In the case of oscillating layers of air when-a sound wave passes, kinetic energy of the moving air molecules is converted to potential energy when the air is compressed. In the case of electrical oscillations, a coil L and a capacitor C in the circuit constantly exchange energy; iis is stored alternately in the magnetic field of L and the electric ield of C. EXAMPLES 1. Define simple harmonic motion and state the relation between displacement from its mean position and the restoring force when a body executes simple harmonic motion. A body is supported by a spiral spring and causes a stretch of 1:5 cm in the spring. If the mass is now set in vertical oscillation of small amplitude, what is the periodic time of the oscillation? (L.) First part. Simple harmonic motion is the motion of an object whose accelera- tion is proportional to its distance from a fixed point and is always directed towards that point. The relation is: Restoring force = —k x distance from fixed point, where k is a constant. Second part. Let m be the mass of the body in kg. Then, since 1-5cm = 0015 m =kx00iS 2. @ where k is a constant of the spring in N m7 '. ~ Suppose the vibrating body isxm below its original position at some instant and is moving downwards. Then since the extension is (x +0-015) m, the net downward force = mg—Kx +0015) = mg—kx0015—kx = —ke from (i). Now mass x acceleration = force. .. mxacceleration = —kx -, acceleration = —x, k But, from (i), oe ons +, acceleration = 9 001: where @? = g/0-015. iod T = 2% = 2n a =n 0015 ie “98 = 025 — 2. A small bob of mass 20 g oscillates as a simple pendulum, with amplitude 5 cm and period 2 seconds. Find the velocity of the bob and the tension in the supporting thread, when the velocity of the bob is a maximum. First part. See text.SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 55 Second part. The velocity, v, of the bob is a maximum when it passes through its original position. With the usual notation (see p. 45), the maximum velocity Dm is given by Vm = Or, where r is the amplitude of 0-05 m. Since T = 2x/o, =RaBan . Coe 2. Om = Oa = 1X005 = 016ms~!. Suppose P is the tension in the thread. The net force towards the centre of the circle along which the bob moves is then given by (P—mg). The acceleration towards the centre of the circle, which is the point of suspension, is v,,7/l, where lis the length of the pendulum. “P= ngs tm Now gx4_ og a -2 , it follows from above that 0.02 x (0-052)? x x? 98 Since m = 002 kg, g = 98ms P = 002x98+ = 19-65 x 10-? newton Waves. Wave equation Waves and their properties can be demonstrated by producing them on the surface of water, as in a ripple tank. As the wave travels outwards from the centre of disturbance, it reaches more distant particles of water at a later time. Thus the particles of water vibrate out of phase with each other while the wave travels. It should be noted that the vibrating particles are the origin of the wave. Their mean position remains the same as the wave travels, but like the simple harmonic oscillators previously discussed, they store and release energy which is handed on from one part of the medium to another. The wave shows the energy travelling through the medium. If the displacement y of a vibrating particle P is represented by y = asin at, the displacement of a neighbouring particle Q can be represented by y = asin (wt+@). @ is called the phase angle between the two vibrations. If ¢ = 2/2 or 90°, the vibration of Q is y = asin (wt+7/2). In this case, y = 0 when t = 0 for P, but y = asinz/2 =a when t = 0 for Q. Comparing the two simple harmonic variations, it can be seen that Q leads on P by a quarter of a period. If the wave is ‘frozen’ at different times, the displacements of the various particles will vary according to their position or distance x56 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS from some chosen origin such as the centre of disturbance. Now the wavelength, 4, of a wave is the distance between successive crests or ‘ troughs. At these points the phase difference is 2x. Consequently the phase angle for a distance x is (x/A) x 2x or 2nx/d. The wave equation, which takes x into account as well as the time t, can thus be written as: qd) Other forms of the wave equation may be used. The velocity v of a wave is the distance travelled by the disturbance in 1 second. If the frequency of the oscillations is f then f waves travel outwards in 1 second, Each wave occupies a length 4. Hence v = fd. Further, the period T is the time for 1 oscillation. Thus f = 1/T and hence v = fA = 4/T. Substituting for T in (1), the wave equation may also be written as: y= asin Z(er—x) oe. The wave equation in (1) or (2) is a progressive wave. The energy of the wave travels outwards through the medium as time goes on. Longitudinal and transverse waves Waves can be classified according to the direction of their vibrations. A longitudinal wave is one produced by vibrations parallel to the direc- tion of travel of the wave. An example is a sound wave. The layers of air are always vibrating in a direction parallel to the direction of travel of the wave. A longitudinal wave can be seen travelling in a ‘Slinky’ coil when one end is fixed and the other is pulled to-and-fro in the direction of the coil. A transverse wave is one produced by vibrations perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave. Light waves are transverse waves. The wave along a bowed string of a violin is a transverse wave. Velocity of waves There are various types of waves. A longitudinal wave such as a sound wave is a mechanical wave. The speed v with which the energy travels depends on the restoring stress after particles in the medium are strained from their original position. Thus v depends on the modulus of elasticity of the medium. It also depends on the inertia of the particles, of which the mass per unit volume or density p is a measure. By dimensions, as well as rigorously, it can be shown that a ‘modulus of elasti | a . For a solid, the modulus is Young’s modulus, E. Thus v = ,/E/p. For a_liquid or gas, the. modulus is the bulk modulus, k. Hence v = ./k/p. In air, k = yp, where y is the ratio of the principal specific heats of air and p is the atmospheric pressure. Thus v = ,/yp/p (p. 163). When a taut string is plucked or bowed, the velocity of the transverse wave along it is given by v = ,/T/m, where T is the tension and m is theSIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 57 mass per unit length of the string. In this case T provides the restoring force acting on the displaced particles of string and m is a measure of their inertia. Electromagnetic waves, which are due to electric and magnetic vibrations, form an important group of waves in nature. Radio waves, infra-red, visible and ultra-violet light, X-rays, and y-rays are all electromagnetic waves, ranging from long wavelength such as 1000 metres (radio waves) to short wavelengths such as 10~® m (y-waves). Unlike the mechanical waves, no material medium is needed to carry the waves. The speed of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is the same, about 3x 10® metre per second. The speed varies with wave- length in material media and this explains why dispersion (separation of colours) of white light is produced by glass. Stationary waves The equation y = asin 2n(t/T —x/A) represents a progressive wave travelling in the x-direction. A wave of the same amplitude and frequency travelling. in the opposite direction is represented by the same form of equation but with —x in place of x, that is, by y= asin 2n(t/T + x/A). The principle of superposition states that the combined effect or resultant of two waves in a medium can be obtained by adding the displacements at each point due to the respective waves. Thus if the displacement due to one wave is represented by y,, and that due to the other wave by y,, the resultant displacement y is given by t x 5 t x Y=Yity2 = asin 2n| 3} +asin2a(743) = Jasin ane COs ant = Asin daz, where A = 2a cos 2nx/A. A represents the amplitude at different points in the medium. When x = 0, y = A; when x = 4/4, A = 0; when x = 4/2, y= —A; when x = —3//4, y = 0. Thus at some points called antinodes, A, the amplitude of vibration is a maximum. At points half-way between the antinodes called nodes, N, the amplitude is zero, that is, there is no vibration here. Fig. 2.19 (i). This type of wave, which stays in one place in a medium, is called a stationary or standing wave. Stationary waves may be produced which are either longitudinal or transverse. Bek \ pe ¥ Stationary wave Progressive wave o wo Fig. 2.19 Stationary and progressive waves58 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Unlike the progressive wave, where the energy travels outwards through the medium, Fig. 2.19 (ii), the energy of the stationary wave remains stored in one part of the medium. Stationary waves are produced in musical instruments when they are played. Stationary radio waves are also produced in receiving aerials. Stationary waves, due to electron motion, are believed to be present around the nucleus of atoms. Interference. Diffraction A stationary wave is a special case of interference between two waves. Another example occurs when two tuning forks of nearly equal fre- quency are sounded together. A periodic variation of loud sounds called ‘beats’ is then heard. They are due to the periodic variation of the amplitude of the resultant wave. If two very close coherent sources of light are obtained, interference between the two waves may produce bright and dark bands. Diffraction is the name given to the interference between waves coming from coherent sources on the same undivided wavefront. The effect is pronounced when a wave is incident on a narrow opening whose width is of comparable order to the wavelength. The wave now spreads out or is ‘diffracted’ after passing through the slit. If the width of the slit, however, is large compared with the wavelength, the wave passes straight through the opening without any noticeable diffraction. This is why visible light, which has wavelengths of the order of 6 x 10-7 m, passes straight through wide openings and produces sharp shadows; whereas sound, which has wavelengths over a million times longer and of the order of say 0-5 m, can be heard round corners. Further details of wave phenomena are discussed in the Sound and Optics sections of the book. GRAVITATION Kepler’s Laws The motion of the planets in the heavens had excited the interest of the earliest scientists, and Babylonian and Greek astronomers were able to predict their movements fairly accurately. It was considered for some time that the earth was the centre of the universe, but about 1542 CopERNICUuS suggested that the planets revolved round the sun as centre. A great advance was made by KEPLER about 1609. He had studied for many years the records of observations on the planets made by TycHo BRAHE, and he enunciated three laws known by his name. These state: (1) The planets describe ellipses about the sun as one focus. (2) The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.GRAVITATION 59 (3) The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. The third law was announced by Kepler in 1619. Newton’s Law of Gravitation About 1666, at the early age of 24, NEWTON discovered a universal law known as the law of gravitation. He was led to this discovery by considering the motion of a planet moving in a circle round the sun S as centre. Fig. 2.20 (i). The force acting on the planet of mass m is mro?, where r is the radius of the circle and @ is the angular velocity of the motion (p. 38). Since @ = 2n/T, where T is the period of the motion, force on planet = 2x)? _ ea force on planet = mr(7-) = 2 This is equal to the force of attraction of the sun on the planet. Assuming an inverse-square law, then, if k is a constant, Planet Q T= 27:3 days (i) (ii). Fic. 2.20 Satellites force on planet = ken . km _ 4r?mr a - 724s TT? = . a Tarociay since k, z are constants. Now Kepler had announced that the squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun (see above). Newton thus suspected that the force between the sun and the planet was inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The great scientist now proceeded to test the inverse-square law by applying it to the case of the moon’s motion60 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS round the earth. Fig. 2.20(ii). The moon has a period of revolution, T, about the earth of approximately 27-3 days, and the force on it = mRw’, where R is the radius of the moon’s orbit and m is its mass. arimk *. force = ma (| = If the planet were at the earth’s surface, the force of attraction on it due to the earth would be mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Fig. 2.20 (ii). Assuming that the force of attraction varies as the inverse square of the distance between the earth and the moon, 4n?mR 11 Spring = Ran where r is the radius of the earth. - 4?R_ [2g RP _ 47? R3 Caribe : : - Newton substituted the then known values of R, r, and T, but was disappointed to find that the answer for g was not near to the observed value, 98 ms~7. Some years later, he heard of a new estimate of the radius of the moon’s orbit, and on substituting its value he found that the result for g was close to 9-8 m s~ 7. Newton saw that a universal law could be formulated for the attraction between any two particles of matter. He suggested that: The force of attraction between two given masses is inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. Gravitational Constant, G, and its Determination From Newton’s law, it follows that the force of attraction, F, between two masses m, M at a distance r apart is given by F oc my rae. where G is a universal constant known as the gravitational constant. This expression for F is Newton’s law of gravitation. From (2), it follows that G can be expressed in ‘N m? kg~?’. The dimensions of G are given by 2 [o] = MET xt’ _ XL? MLT-2, 16-2 Thus the unit of G may also be expressed as m3 kg~1's A celebrated experiment to measure G was carried out by C. V. Boys in 1895, using a method similar to one of the earliest determina- tions of G by CAVENDISH in 1798. Two identical balls, a, b, of gold,GRAVITATION 61 Torsion (quartz) wire Plan view Fic. 2.21 Experiment on G 5 mm in diameter, were suspended by a long and a short fine quartz fibre respectively from the ends, C, D, of a highly-polished bar CD, Fig. 2.21. Two large identical lead spheres, A, B, 115 mm in diameter, were brought into position near a, b respectively. As a result of the attraction between the masses, two equal but opposite forces acted on CD. The bar was thus deflected, and the angle of deflection, 6, was measured by a lamp and scale method by light reflected from CD. The high sensitivity of the quartz fibres enabled the small deflection to be measured accurately, and the small size of the apparatus allowed it to be screened considerably from air convection currents. Calculation for G Suppose d is the distance between a, A, or b, B, when the deflection is 0. Then if m, M are the respective masses of a, A, torque of couple on CD = omy x CD. But torque of couple = cé, where c is the torque in the torsion wire per unit radian of twist (p. 192). . xen = ob. Od? mM x CD @ The constant c was determined by allowing CD to oscillate through a small angle and then observing its period of oscillation, T, which was of the order of 3 minutes. If I is the known moment of inertia of the system about the torsion wire, then (see. p. 75), _ IT raf Ge62 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS The constant c can now be calculated, and by substitution in (i), G can be determined. Accurate experiments showed that G = 6:66 x 107"! N m? kg~? and Heyl, in 1942, found G to be 6:67 x 1071! N m? kg~?. Mass and Density of Earth At the earth’s surface the force of attraction on a mass m is mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Now it can be shown that it is legitimate in calculations to assume that the mass, M, of. the earth is concentrated at its centre, if it is a sphere. Assuming that the earth is spherical and of radius r, it then follows that the force of attraction of the earth on the mass m is GmM/r?. _M ea ot = mg. go gor _~ G Now, g = 98 ms~2, r = 64x 10° m, G = 67x 1071! N m? kg™?. 98 x (6-4 x 10°) 67x10" The volume of a sphere is 4zr?/3, where r is its radius. Thus the density, p, of the earth is approximately given by Mor P= 0 GaP GB 4nrG By substituting known values of g, G, and r, the mean density of the earth is found to be about 5500 kg m~*. The density may approach a value of 10000 kg m~ > towards the interior. It is now believed that gravitational force travels with the speed of light. Thus if the gravitational force between the sun and earth were suddenly to disappear by the vanishing of the sun, it would take about 7 minutes for the effect to be experienced on the earth. The earth would then fly off along a tangent to its original curved path. M= = 60 x 104 kg, Gravitational and inertial mass The mass m of an object appearing in the expression F = ma, force = mass x acceleration, is the inertial mass, as stated on p. 13. It is a measure of the reluctance of the object to move when forces act on it..It appears in F = ma from Newton’s second law of motion. The ‘mass’ of the same object concerned in Newton’s theory of gravitational attraction can be distinguished from the inertial mass. This.is called the gravitational mass. If it is given the symbol m,, then F, = GMm,/r”, where F, is the gravitational force, M is the mass of the earth and r its radius. Now GM/r? = g, the acceleration due to gravity (see above). Thus F, = m,g = W, the weight of the object.GRAVITATION 63 In the simple pendulum theory on p. 48, we can derive the period T using W = weight = m,g in place of the symbols adopted there. Thus —mgy = ma, = 9 y= ~~ or a ml? @*y. TT 22 oy a oO mg Experiments show that to a high degree of accuracy, T = 2z,/I/g no matter what mass is used, that is, the period depends only on ! and g. Thus m = m,, or the gravitational mass is equal to the inertial mass to the best of our present knowledge. Mass of Sun The mass Mg of the sun can be found from the period of a satellite and its distance from the sun. Consider the case of the earth. Its period T is about 365 days or 365 x 24 x 3600 seconds. Its distance rs from the centre of the sun is about 1-5 x 10*1 m. If the mass of the earth is m, then, for circular motion round the sun, 2 GMgm _ me mrsAr’ Ts T?? . _ 4 re 4n? x (1:5 x 101)3 on Ms = “GEE = Bx 10- 1 x (365 x 24 x 3600)? = 2% 10°? ke. Orbits round the earth Satellites can be launched from the earth’s surface to circle the earth. They are kept in their orbit by the gravitational attraction of the earth. Fic. 2.22 Orbits round earth Consider a satellite of mass m which just circles the earth of mass M64 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS close to its surface in an orbit 1. Fig. 2.22 (i). Then, if r is the radius of the earth, mv? _ (Mm _ =~ = Gar =m, where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface and » is the velocity of m in its orbit. Thus v? = rg, and hence, using r = 64x 10° m and g = 98 ms~?, v = Vrg = J64x 10°x98 = 8x 10° ms“! (approx), =8kms"?. The velocity v in the orbit is thus about 8 kms~'. In practice, the satellite is carried by a rocket to the height of the orbit and then given an impulse, by firing jets; to deflect it in a direction parallel to the tangent of the orbit (see p. 66). Its velocity is boosted to 8 km s~* so that it stays in the orbit. The period in orbit __ circumference ofearth _ 27x 64x 10° m z v ~~8x 10% ms! = 5000 seconds (approx) = 83 min. Parking Orbits Consider now a satellite of mass m circling the earth in the plane of the equator in an orbit 2 concentric with the earth. Fig. 2.22 (ii). Suppose the direction of rotation as the same as the earth and the orbit is at a distance R from the centre of the earth. Then if v is the velocity in orbit, mv? _GMm Ree Roe But GM = gr?, where r is the radius of the earth. If T is the period of the satellite in its orbit, then v = 22R/T. 472 R? _ gt? "TT?" R 2 _ 4n?R? . P= eo @) If the period of the satellite in its orbit is exactly equal to the period of the earth as it turns about its axis, which is 24 hours, the satellite will stay over the same place on the earth while the earth rotates. ThisGRAVITATION 65 is sometimes called a ‘parking orbit’. Relay satellites can be placed in parking orbits, so that television programmes can be transmitted continuously from one part of the world to another. Syncom was a satellite used for transmission of the Tokio Olympic Games in 1964. Since T = 24 hours, the radius R can be found from (i). Thus from = 42400km The height above the earth’s surface of the parking orbit = R—r = 42 400—6 400 = 36 000 km. In the orbit, the velocity of the satellite _2nR___2mx42400_ 4, y =" = 34x 3600 seconds ~ 71 kms" '. Weightlessness When a rocket is fired to launch a spacecraft and astronaut into orbit round the earth, the initial acceleration must be very high owing to the large initial thrust required. This acceleration, a, is of the order of 15g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the earth’s surface. Suppose S is the reaction of the couch to which the astronaut is initially strapped. Fig. 2.23 (i). Then, from F = ma, S—mg = ma = m.15g, where m is the mass of the astronaut. Thus S = 16mg. This force is 16 times the weight of the astronaut and thus, initially, he experiences a large force. S=0 g-— S=16mg = Onin ~~ Spacecraft tig! / | a=15g g arth i \ OOS N. Rocket / mg \ al Qe i) (i) Fic. 2.23 Weight and weightlessness In orbit, however, the state of affairs is different. This time the acceleration of the spacecraft and astronaut are both g’ in magnitude,66 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS where g’ is the acceleration due to gravity outside the spacecraft at the particular height of the orbit. Fig. 2.23 (ii). If S’ is the reaction of the surface of the spacecraft in contact with the astronaut, then, for circular motion, F = mg'—S' = ma = mg’. Thus S’ = 0. Consequently the astronaut becomes ‘weightless’; he experiences no reaction at the floor when he walks about, for example. At the earth’s surface we feel the reaction at the ground and are thus conscious of our weight. Inside a lift which is falling fast, the reaction at our feet diminishes. If the lift falls freely, the acceleration of objects inside is the same as that outside and hence the reaction on them is zero. This produces the sensation of ‘weightlessness’. In orbit, as in Fig. 2.23 (ii), objects inside a spacecraft are also in ‘free fall’ because they have the same acceleration g/ as the spacecraft. Consequently the sensation of weightlessness is experienced. EXAMPLE A satellite is to be put into orbit 500 km above the earth’s surface. If its vertical velocity after launching is 2000 m s~ at this height, calculate the magnitude and direction of the impulse required to put the satellite directly into orbit, if its mass is 50 kg. Assume g = 10ms~?; radius of earth, R = 6400 km. Suppose u is the velocity required for orbit, radius r. Then, with usual notation, mu? _GmM _gR?m |_ GM roe eS RES Re - r Now R = 6400 km, r = 6900 km, g = 10ms"”. _ 10x (6400 x 10°)? =" 6900x 10> wy ". u = 7700 m s~! (approx. Us At this height, vertical momentum 8 U Uy Uy = mv = 50x 2000 = 100000 kg ms~*. Fig. 2.24. Fic. 2.24 Example Horizontal momentum required Ux = mu = 50x 7700 = 385000 kgm s~'. <, impulse needed, U, = Uy? + U2 = ,/100 000? + 385 0007 = 40x 105 kgms"? Soe ee Direction. The angle @ made by the total impulse with the horizontal or orbit tangent is given by tan @ = Uy/Ux = 100 000/385 000 = 0-260. Thus 8 = 146°. Magnitudes of acceleration due to gravity (i) Above the earth’s surface. Consider an object of mass m in an orbit of radius R from the centre, where R > r, the radius of the earth. Then, if g’ is the acceleration due to gravity at this place, Poet eeGRAVITATION 67 But, if g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface, GmM . mg=— 7 . . . i) Dividing @) by (i), -. 2 =, org’ = "5 BG) by Gi, “= RR Ord! = Faw. Thus above the earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity g’ varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centre. Fig. 2.25. For a height h above the earth, R = r+h. since powers of (h/r)? and higher can be neglected when h is small compared with r. .'. g—g’ = reduction in acceleration due to gravity. 2h Se g(surface) Assuming uniform clean density inside earth y Inverse— = square law Fic. 2.25 Variation of g (ii) Below the earth’s surface. Consider an object of mass m at a point below the earth’s surface. If its distance from the centre is b, the ‘effec- tive’ mass M’ of the earth which attracts it is that contained in a sphere of radius b, Assuming a constant density, then, since the mass of a sphere is proportional to radius*, Be M'="3M,68 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS where M is the mass of the earth. Suppose g” is the acceleration due to gravity at the radius b. Then, from above, » _ GmM' _ GmMb mg = b — Since GM/r? = g, it follows by substitution that a) 9 = 79: Thus assuming a uniform density of core, which is not the case in practice, the acceleration due to gravity g” is directly proportional to the distance from the centre. Fig..2.25. If the depth below the earth’s surface is h, then b = r—h. oo Epo [ co-gat9 2 we Comparing (1) and (2), it can be seen that the acceleration at a distance h below the earth’s surface is greater than at the same distance h above the earth’s surface. Potential The potential, V, at a point due to the gravitational field of the earth is defined as numerically equal to the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point. This is analogous to ‘electric potential’. The potential at infinity is conventionally taken as zero. For a point outside the earth, assumed spherical, we can imagine the whole mass M of the earth concentrated at its centre. The force of attraction on a unit mass outside the earth is thus GM/r?, where r is the distance from the centre. The work done by the gravitational force in moving a distance dr towards the earth = force x distance = GM.6r/r?. Hence the potential at a point distant a from the centre is given by y= [Ba MH : ; if the potential at infinity is taken as zero by convention. The negative sign indi- cates that the potential at infinity (zero) is higher than the potential close to the earth. On the earth's surface, of radius r, we therefore obtain GM ya ee Velocity of Escape. Suppose a rocket of mass m is fired from the earth’s surface @ so that it just escapes from the gravitational influence of the earth. Then work done = m x potential difference between infinity and Q. GM =mx——. r “kinetic energy of rocket = 4mo* = mx 2M. a velocity of escape.GRAVITATION 69 Now GM/r? = 9. 2.0 = /2x98x 64x 10° = 11x 10° ms“! = 11 kms! (approx). With an initial velocity, then, of about 11 km s~1, a rocket will completely escape from the gravitational attraction of the earth. It can be made to travel towards the moon, for example, so that eventually it comes under the gravitational attraction of this planet. At present, ‘soft’ landings on the moon have been made by firing retarding retro rockets. Hyperbola (v>\) Parabola v=y,) v= N2gr=11 kms Ellipse (V since the moments of inertia, I, about the two perpendicular diameters are the same and Ma?/2 is the moment of inertia of the disc about an axis perpendicular to its plane. ma I+]= _ Ma =" Couple on a Rigid Body Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis O with an angular velocity w at some instant. Fig. 3.7. Couple about 0 =I x angular acceleration Fic. 3.7 Couple on rigid body The force acting on the particle A = m,x acceleration = m, x 2, = mri oe since @ = 6 The moment of thisROTATION OF RIGID BODIES 81 force about the axis O = force x perpendicular distance from O = 2 aa r,, since the force acts perpendicularly to the line OA. 20 . Moment or torque = m,: ae *, total moment of all forces on body about O, or torque, 30 @0 a0 = my Gat mare at Mars Gat #0 = Emr) x Fs, since the angular acceleration, d?6/dt?, about O is the same for all particles. . @6 .', total torque aboutO = lp : : (i) where I = Emr? = moment of inertia about O. The moment about O is produced by external forces which together act as a couple of torque C say. Thus, for any rotating rigid body, @0 Couple, C = I ae This result is analogous to the case of a particle of mass m which undergoes an acceleration a when a force F acts on it. Here F = ma. In place of F we have a couple C for a rotating rigid object; in place of m we have the moment of inertia I; and in place of linear acceleration a, we have angular acceleration d?0/dt?(de/dt). EXAMPLES 1. A heavy flywheel of mass 15 kg and radius 20 cm is mounted on a horizontal axle of radius 1 cm and negligible mass compared with the flywheel. Neglecting friction, find (i) the angular acceleration if a force of 4 kgf is applied tangentially to the axle, (ii) the angular velocity of the flywheel after 10 seconds. 2 = @ Moment of inertia = ue = x02" = 03 kg m?, Couple C = 4x98 (N) x 001 (m) = 0-4.N m approx. .’. angular acceleration = 24 = 1.3 rad s~?. 03 (ii) After 10 seconds, angular velocity = angular acceleration x time. = 13x10 = 13 rads7’. 2. The moment of inertia of a solid flywheel about its axis is 0-1 kg m2. It is set in rotation by applying a tangential force of 2 kgf with a rope wound round the circumference, the radius of the wheel being 10 cm. Calculate the82 ADVANCED ..LEVEL PHYSICS angular acceleration of the flywheel. What would be the acceleration if'a mass of 2 kg were hung from the end of the rope? (0. & C) 2 Couple C = as + moment of inertia x angular acceleration. Now C = 2x98x01Nm. 2x 98x01 0 = 196 rads”. ., angular acceleration = If a mass of 2kg is hung from the end of the — 2kfg rope, it moves down with an acceleration a. Fig. if T is aoe Fi. 3.8 BE: rT 3.8. In this case, if T is the tension in the rope, " xample mg-T=ma. . . . . @ eo For the flywheel, T.r=couple=IGz - ss where r is the radius of the flywheel. Now the mass of 2 kg descends a distance given by r6, where @ is the angle the flywheel has turned. Hence the acceleration a = rd*6/dt, Substituting in (1), : = 8 J. mg—T = mr. . 0 Jomgr-Tr=mPoe es Adding (2) and (3), oe #0 mgr = (mr) ae PO mgr _ 2x 10x04 GP © T+mr? ~ 0142x017" = 167 rad s~?. using g = 10ms~?. Angular Momentum and Conservation In linear or straight-line motion, an important property of a moving object is its linear momentum (p. 18). When an object spins or rotates about an axis, its angular momentum plays an important part in its motion. Consider a particle A of a rigid object rotating about an axis O. Fig. 3.9. The momentum of A = mass x velocity = m,v = m,r,o. The ‘angular momentum’ of A about O is defined as the moment of the momentum about O. Its magnitude is thus m,vx p, where p is the perpendicular distance from O to the direction of v. Thus angular momentum of A = mvp = myry@ xr, = myr,7@.ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES" 83 -”. total angular momentum of whole body = Emr,2@ = wLm,r,? = Io, where I is the moment of inertia of the body about O. Angular momentum is analogous to ‘linear momentum’, my, in the dynamics of a moving particle. In place of m we have I, the moment of inertia; in place of v we have @, the angular velocity. Further, the conservation of angular momentum, which-corresponds to the conservation of linear momentum, states that the angular momentum about an axis of a given rotating body or system of bodies is constant, if no external couple acts about that axis. Thus when a high diver jumps from a diving board, his moment of inertia, I, can be decreased by curling his body more, in which case his angular velocity @ is increased. Fig. 3.9 (ii). He may then be able to turn more somer- saults before striking the water. Similarly, a dancer on skates can spin faster by folding her arms. JS High J Low w ng, OD =Zmv.p =In Low I High w Fic. 3.9 Angular momentum (i) The earth is an object which rotates about an axis passing through its geographic north and south poles with a period of 1 day. If it is struck by meteorites, then, since action and reaction are equal, no external couple acts on the earth and meteorites. Their total angular momentum is thus conserved. Neglecting the angular momentum of the meteorites about the earth’s axis before collision compared with that of the earth, then angular momentum of earth plus meteorites after collision = angular momentum of earth before collision. Since the effective mass of the earth has increased after collision the moment of inertia has increased. Hence the earth will slow up slightly.84 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS Similarly, if a mass is dropped gently on to a turntable rotating freely at a steady speed, the conservation of angular momentum leads to a reduction in the speed of the table. Angular momentum, and the principle of the conservation of angular momentum, have wide applications in physics. They are used in con- nection with enormous rotating masses such as the earth, as well as minute spinning particles such as electrons, neutrons and protons found inside atoms. Experiment on Conservation of Angular Momentum A simple experiment on the principle of the conservation of angular momentum is illustrated below. Fic. 3.10. Conservation of angular momentum Briefly, in Fig. 3.10 (i) a bicycle wheel A without a tyre is set rotating in a horizontal plane and the time for three complete revolutions is obtained with the aid of a white tape marker M on the rim. A ring D of known moment of inertia, J, is then gently placed on the wheel con- centric with it, by ‘dropping’ it from a small height. The time for the next three revolutions is then determined. This is repeated with several more rings of greater known moment of inertia. If the principle of conservation of angular momentum is true, then Ig = (Ip +1,)@1, where I, is the moment of inertia of the wheel alone, @p is the angular frequency of the wheel alone, and «, is the angular frequency with a ring. Thus is to, t, are the respective times for three revolutions, Tots _ To ty © ty I, ty worst dare to Thus a graph of t,/ty v. I, should be a straight line. Within the limits of experimental error, this is found to be the case. EXAMPLE Consider a disc of mass 100 g and radius 10 cm is rotating freely about axis through its centre at 40 r.p.m. Fig. 3.11. Then, about O, 5 moment of inertia J = Me = 4x 0-1 (kg) x 0-1? (m2) = 5x 10-4 kg m?, and angular momentum = Iw = 5x 10-4, where @ is the angular velocity corresponding to 40 r.p.m.ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES 85 Suppose some wax W of mass m 20 g is dropped gently on to the disc at a distance r of 8 cm from the centre O. The disc then slows down to another speed, corresponding to an angular velocity «, say. The total angular momentum about O of disc plus wax o—~ = Io, +mra, = 5x 1074, +002 x 008? .«, = 628x 10-40. From the conservation of angular momentum for the disc and wax about O eee 628 x 10-40, = 5x 10-40. +1 7500 “oOo 68 0 where n is the r.p.m. of the disc. 500 _ Gag * 40 = 32 (approx). Kepler’s law and angular momentum Consider a planet moving in an orbit round the sun S. Fig. 3.12. Orbit Fic. 3.12 Angular momentum and planets At an instant when the planet is at O, its velocity v is along the tangent to the orbit at O. Suppose the planet moves a very small distance ds from O to B in a small time 6t, so that the velocity v = 6s/dt and its direction is practically along OB. Then, if the conservation of angular momentum is obeyed, mv X p = constant, where m is the mass of the planet and p is the perpendicular from S to OB produced. _ m.6s.p = constant. ot86 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS But the area dA of the triangle SBO = } base x height = ds x p/2. «284 ee m.2e = constant . 6A o. Gp = constant, since 2m is constant. Thus if the conservation of angular momentum is true, the area swept out per second by the radius SO is constant while the planet O moves in its orbit. In other words, equal areas are swept out in equal times. But this is Kepler’s second law, which has been observed to be true for centuries (see p. 58). Consequently, the principle of the conservation of angular momentum has stood the test of time. From the equality of the angular‘momentum values at O and C, where p is less than p,, it follows that v is greater than v,. Thus the planet speeds up on approaching S. The force on O is always one of attraction towards S. It is described as a central force. Thus the force has no moment about O and hence the angular momentum of the planet about S is conserved. Kinetic Energy of a Rolling Object When an object such as a cylinder or ball rolls on a plane, the object is rotating as well as moving bodily along the plane; therefore it has rotational energy as well as translational energy. Fic. 3.13 Rolling object Consider a cylinder C rolling along a plane without slipping, Fig. 3.13. At any instant the line of contact, PQ, with the plane is at rest, and we can consider the whole of the cylinder to be rotating about this axis. Hence the energy of the cylinder = 31,«*, where J, is the moment of inertia about PQ and o is the angular velocity. But if J is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the centre of gravity of the cylinder, M is the mass of the cylinder and a its radius, then I, =1+Ma?, from the result on p. 79. .”. energy of cylinder = 4(I-+ Ma)? = fw? +4Ma’o? .. Energy = $1w?+4Mv? : @ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES 87 since, by considering the distance rolled and the angle then turned, v = aw = velocity of centre of gravity. This energy formula is true for any moving object. As an application of the energy formula, suppose a ring rolls along a plane. The moment of inertia about the centre of gravity, its centre, = Ma? (p. 76); also, the angular velocity, w, about its centre = v/a, where v is the velocity of the centre of gravity. .”. kinetic energy of ring = }Mv? + 31a? 2 = 4Mv? +4Ma? «( = Mo. By similar reasoning, the kinetic energy ofa sphere rolling down a plane = Mv? + fo 2 O = 4Mv?4+4x3Ma?x ( = JpMv?, since I = 2Ma?/5 (p. 78). Acceleration of Rolling Object We can now deduce the acceleration of a rolling object down an inclined plane. As an illustration, suppose a solid cylinder rolls down a plane. Then kinetic energy = $Mv? +4]. But moment of inertia, J, about an axis through the centre of gravity parallel to the plane = 4Ma?, and = v/a, where a is the radius. .. kinetic energy = 4Mv?+4Mv? = 3Mv?. If the cylinder rolls from rest through a distance s, the loss of potential energy = Mgssina, where « is the inclination of the plane to the horizontal. f ©. Mv? = Mgssina 2 = Wssina But v* = 2as, where a is the linear acceleration. ©. 2as = 8s sina a= ee sin a zl S . : (0) The acceleration if sliding, and no rolling, took place down the plane is g sin a. The cylinder has thus a smaller acceleration when rolling. The time t taken to move through a distance s from rest is given by s = 4at?. Thus, from (i), s = 4gt? sina,88 ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS If the cylinder is hollow, instead of solid as assumed, the moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of gravity parallel to the plane is greater than that for a solid cylinder, assuming the same mass and dimensions (p. 88). The time taken for a hollow cylinder to roll a given distance from rest on the plane is then greater than that taken by the solid cylinder, from reasoning similar to that above; and thus if no other means were available, a time test on an inclined plane will distinguish between a solid and a hollow cylinder of the same dimen- sions and mass. If a torsion wire is available, however, the cylinders can be suspended in turn, and the period of torsional oscillations determined. The cylinder of larger moment of inertia, the hollow cylinder, will have a greater period, as explained on p. 89. Measurement of Moment of Inertia of Flywheel The moment of inertia of a flywheel W about a horizontal axle A can be determined by tying one end of some string to a pin on the axle, winding the string round the axle, and attaching a mass M to the other end of the string, Fig. 3.14. The length of string is such that M reaches the floor, when released, at the same instant as the string is completely unwound from the axle. IM Fic. 3.14 Moment of inertia of flywheel M is released, and the number of revolutions, n, made by the wheel W up to the occasion when M strikes the ground is noted. The further number of revolutions n, made by W until it comes finally to rest, and the time t taken, are also observed by means of a chalk-mark on W. Now the loss in potential energy of M = gain in kinetic energy of M-+ gain in kinetic energy of flywheel + work done against friction. *Mgh =4Mro*+hottn, 6. where h is the distance M has fallen, r is the radius of the axle, co is the angular velocity, I is the moment of inertia, and fis the energy per turn expended against friction. Since the energy of rotation of the flywheel