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Notes Eee121 Chapter 2 PDF

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Notes Eee121 Chapter 2 PDF

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Pn Linda Mohd Kasim
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Basic Laws There are 100 many people praying for mountains of efculty to be removed, when what they realy need isthe courage to clinb then! ‘ABET EC 2000 criteria (3.b), “an ability to design and con- duct experiments, as weil as to analyze and interpret data. Engineers must he able to design and condvet experimerts, as well 3s analyze and interpret data, Most stidents have spent may hours per= Torming experiments in high school and in college. Durmg this time, you have been asked to analyze the data and to interpret the data Therefore, you should already’ be skilled in these wo stiviis. My recommendation i that in the process of performing the future, you spend more time i analyzing an interpreting the data Inthe context ofthe experiment. What does this mean? If you are looking at a plot of voltage versus resistance or curent versus resistance oF power versus resistance, what do you actualy see? Does the curve make sense? Does it agree with what the theory tells 4y0¥? Does i fer fom expectation, and, i 0, why? Clearly, pratie ‘with analyzing and interpreting data will enbance this sl Since mos if not all the experiments you are required todo as 8 student involve Title of na practice in designing the experiment, bow ‘en you develop and enhance this ski? ‘Actually, developing this skill under this constrain isnot as df= cult as it seems, What you need to dois to take the experiment and analyze it Just break it down int its simplest pans, recnstruct it uy ing 10 understand why each element is ther, and finally, determine atthe author ofthe experiment i trying to teach you. Even though it may not always seem s0, every experiment you do was designed by somenne who wes sincerely motivated to tach you something AW ° saa ‘a Cre symbol or ® owt? Basco 2A Introduction Chapter 1 introduced basie concepts such as curent voltage, and paar an electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these Popes ina given civeit s2gires that we understand some fonda tape thar govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Obs saad iri’ laws, for the Foundation upon which electric cir ‘exit analysis is bul Teitis chapter, in aon to these laws, we shall discuss some technues come applied in ict design an analysis, These tec ‘ques nce combining resstrs in sexes or pall, wliage division ida vison, and dct-to-wye and wye-to-dela transformations The sprtcain uf tcse laws and techniques wil e resisted 0 resistive aerate chapter Weil finally apply the Iws and techniques seetifepeoblems of electieligting and the design of de mcs ‘Ohm's Law Materias in general havea characteristic behavior of resisting the ow arene ehure. This phyica property or ability 1 resist curen. aoe trance and is represented by the symbol R. The rsit~ vase any material with a uiform cross-sectional area A depends 0” ane te eoath€, as show in Fig. 21(a) We can preset resistance fax measured inthe labora), in mathematical fort, ‘ Rooy ay Avner pis known asthe resitviy ofthe material in hm-meters, Good ardor suchas copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while somtaore such ax mea ad paper, have high resistivities, Table 21 ‘MeNunyte nals of pfosome common materia and bows which Penal ar used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductrs “Ths etait element ual to model the cuentsesisting Behave of rnteral ste nestor. or the purpose of eonstucting cic esis vracedly made fom metallic loys and carbon compounds The ccuit Resistvties of common materials. Material Resistivity (Ch-m)__Us ag _ Siver Von 108 “Condor Comper tnx 10" Conductor ‘ain 28% 10 Gondor ola bas x 10°* ‘Contr Carbon Dew Semioondctr| Germain ar 10 Secondo Silicon a 1? Semicondvctor Pager io Irsltor Mice 5x10" owastoe Gis 10" Insult “Teton 35! Fnslaoe iy Se ee symbol forthe resistor i shown in ig, 2.10), where stands forthe resistance of the resistor. The resistor is the simplest passive element core Simon Ohm (1787-1850), a German physickt is credited with finding the relationship between current and voliage for a resis toe. This relationship is known as Ohm's Law ‘Ohm’ law states thatthe votage vaca esto is re=ty erp tonal tothe curent | lowing tou the resstc That is vai ey ‘Ohm defined the constant of proportionality fora resistor tbe the resistance, R. (The resistance isa material property which ean change if the internal or extemal conditions of the element are atered, ei thre are changes in the temperature.) Ths, Ea. (2.2) becomes iR e3) which isthe mathematical form of Obm’s law. R in Eq (2.3) is mea Sed inthe tnt of ohms, designated 0. Thus, The esitance Rof an element denotes ality t es the Tow oF cect cer, measiret in ors (0) We may deduce frm Eq, (2.3) th ® ea) 0 that 1a=avia ‘To apply Ohm's law as stated in Eq. (2.3), we mut pay’ careful attention tothe current direction and voltage polarity. Tk direction of Current (and the polarity of voltage © must conform wilh the paste Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), » German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law relating velage and cut- ‘ent for a resistor. Ohm's work was nally denied by cites Bor of humble beginnings in Eslangen, Bavaria, Otz drew bm self into electrical research. His efforts reslled in his famous Taw He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1881 by the Royal Society of London, In 1849, he was given the Professor of Physi che bythe University of Munich, To honor him, the uit of resistance was named the ohm, ~H a 2 ‘eit (& = 0), (6) Open eet » - ‘ors a) wirewound pe fm pe » "ho ff) Val estar (bya prentomete Cape? ea ve sig convention, ax shown in ig 2.16). This implies that curren lows from a higher potential os lower potential in order for = /R. Weur- rent flows from a lower potato higher potential, = —iR. Since the valve of R can range from 22:0 to init, iis impor- tant that we consider the wo extreme possible valves of R. An clement With R= O is called a short cc, as shown in Fig. 2.2), Fo a short, circuit, t 0 es) voir showing thatthe voltage is zero but the eurrént could be anything. In practice, a short circuit i usally a connecting wire assumed 10 be a perfect conductor, This, ‘Ashort cuit is cicut erent wit esstance apvoachig 220 Sinitaly, an clement with P= % is known as an open circuit, 38 shown in Fig, 2200) Foran open circu, im 2-0 26) dime eo indicating tht the curent sero though the voltage could be anything. Thus, ‘An open cru isa cic element win resizance approacting ni Aresistr is citer fixed ce variable. Most resistors are ofthe Hixed type, meaning their resistance remains constant. The two common types ‘of xed resistors (wiewound and composition) are shown in Fig. 23, ‘The composition resistors are used when large resistance is needed, “The circuit symbol in Fig. 2.(b) i fr a fixed resistor Variable resis- tors have adjustable resistance, The symbol for a variable resistor is shown in Fig. 24(a), A comron variable resistor is known a8 a poten tiometer of ot for short, withthe syenbol shown in Fig. 2.400) The pot isa three terminal elemert wit a sliding contactor wiper. By si Ing the wipe, te resistances between the wiper terminal and the fixed terminals vary. Like fixed resistors, variable resistors ean be of ekher ‘wirewoubd or composition tye, a shown in Fig. 25. Although resistors Tike thove in Figs. 23 and 23 are used in eicuit designs, today most Figure 2.5, ‘anal esos) emposion typ () ler ps CCoureny of Tech Ame circuit components including resistors are either surface mounted or imegrate, a8 typically shown in Fig. 26 Te should be pointed out that not all resistors bey Ohm's law. A resistor that obeys Ohm's aw is known as a linear resior It has a Constant resistance and thus is current-voltage charctrist is as ils trated in Fig. 27a is -0 graph isa straight line passing through the tizin, A nontiear resistor does aot obey Ohm's law. I resistance ‘ates with current and its 0 characteristic is typically shown in if 2.70). Examples of devices with nonlinear resistance are the light bulb and the diode. Although all practical resistors may exhibit nonlin- fr behavior under certain condos, we will assume in ths book tha al elements actually designated as resistors are linear. ‘Aseful quantity in circuit analysis i the reciprocal of resistance 2, known as conductance and denoted by 6: en “The conductance is measure of how well an element will con uct electric eurent. The unit of conductance is the mho ohm speed backward) or reciprocal ohm, with symbol U, the inverted omega. Although engineers offen use the mo, in this book we prefer to wse the siemens (8), the St unit of conductance: Is=1B=1Av es) “Thus conductance is the abity of n eemere to concuct eee ih it messed in mhos (3) or serens (5). The same resistance can be expressed in ohms or siemens. For example, 10 isthe same as 0.1 S. From Eq. 2.7), we may write i= ov 29 “The power dissipate by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R Using Bgs. (1.7) and (23), vie Pea p 7 0) “The power dissipated by a resistor may als be expressec in tems of Gas ey We should note «wo thing from Eqs. (2.10) and 2.11) 1. The power dissipated in a resistor is @ nonlinear faneion of either cument oF voltage 2. Since R and G are postive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always positive, Ths, a resistor always asorbs power from the ereuit, This confirms the idea tata resistors a passive ‘clement, incapable of generating ener Cee nny sais fetta ta Figure 2.6 Resistors in thick im ici Gamat Pre Ae omer » Figure 2.7 ‘The ho charters of a) inese reso (D4 anlseresistoe wie? pice BUSI ction as 2 Aw 120 V Find it esac 20 2 = 60s. “Tw cawatal component of a toaster isan electrical element (a resis To tnt converts electrical energy t Heat energy, How much cuent erjearn by a taster with asstance 100 at 110 V2 Solution: ‘The wokage across the resigor isthe same as the source voltage (30 V) Tecnu the resistor and the yotlage source are connected so the Same pair of terminals. Henee, the eurrent is = 6ma te 1a ms sx ‘We ean calculate the power in various ways using either Eas. (17, 2.10), o€ G10. pm vi = 36 1074) 180m BR = 6 x 107975 X 10" = 180 W p= 0G = GOPO2 x 107° = 180 mW “For the Great shown in Fig, 29, caleulate the voltage 0, the cond nce G, ad the power P Answers 20 ¥, 100 1S, 40 mW. ———— 23 Necks Bere aneeces Find the current trough the resistor and the power disiptd, Solution: 20 int p= 8 = PSOE cnt, Ro 3x10 Hence, p= vl = 80s? xr mW ‘Asst absorbs an instantancous power of 206081 mW when con PFOCRICE POONER ected 1 8 vollage source v= 100s? V. Find J and Answer: 2 cos mA, 5 KO. 2.3. ‘Nodes, Branches, and Loops Since the elements ofan electric circuit can be interconnected in sev cal ways, we need to understand some basic concepts of network topology. To diferentiate between a cieuit and a netwerk, We may ‘epi’ a network: as an iterconnecion of elements or devices, Whereas 4 circuit is a network providing one or more closed pall. The cow Yention, when addressing network topology, isto use the word network, rather tha ere, We do this even though the words network and ie cit mean the same thing when use inthis context. In network topo ‘ey, we study the properties relating tothe placement of elements in ‘he network and the geometric configuration ofthe network. Such ee ments include branes, nodes, and loops 7 rene represents a snale element such a a votage Stree! 6 3 In other words, a branch represents any two-erminal clement, The ci in Fig. 210 has five branches, namely the 10-V volage source, 2-A current souee, andthe three resistors ‘Annade she point of connection betwen two or more branches. Anode is usally indicated by a doc in a circuit a short cnc (a ‘comecting wirey connects two nodes the wo nodes const a si ‘le node. The circuit in Fig. 210 has three nodes a, nde. Nodce ‘hat the thre poins that form node b are connected by pele con dcting wires and therefore constitute a single point. The same is tue ‘ofthe four points forming node c. We demonstrate that be circuit in Fig. 210 hts only thee nodes by redrawing the circuit in Fig. 2.10 The two circuits in Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 are identical, However, forthe sake of clarity, nodes b and ‘are spread outwith perfec: conductors asin Fig. 2.10, Figure 2.10 [Nosos raches, and oops. ) Figure 2.11 ‘Therternoe cei of Fig 21054 caper? Bescon ‘Albop any closes ahi a crc ‘Atoop is closed path formed by starting at node, passing through & eer podes and returns tc the starting aode without passing through thy node more than once. Toop i sai to be independent contains ft least one branch which not part of any other independent Lop, Independent loops or paths rest in independent sets of equations. Tes posible to form an independent set of loops where one of the Joop does not contain such a branch In Fig. 2.11, abe wit the 202 Tecltor i independent. A second loop with the 39 resistor and the car Font source is independent. Te thir loop could be the one with the 20, Tesistr in prll with the 3 resistor. This does form an independent st of Lops. ‘A netrork witb branches, nodes, ane independent oops will, satisfy the fandamental thee of network topology tao en —_I ‘As the nex two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value to the study of voltages and curents in an electri ect “wo er rere elon are in series if they exchsvel shire Sle rode an corsecuerty any the same cure. orc erent aren paral fey are connected the She {ho odes and conseauety Pave he same voage ars therm ements are in sevies when they are chain-connected or connected aquentaly, end to end. For example, (wo elements are in series if they share one common pode and no other element is connected (0 {hat connmon node, Elemerts in parallel ae connected to the same pair tof terminal. Elements my be connected in a way that they ae Wei ther in series nor in paral nthe circuit shown in Fi 2.10, the vol dis source andthe 3-42 resistor ar in eres because the same current Teli tlow through them, The 2-0 resistor the 3-0 resistor, and the eur Tent source ae in parallel acause they are connected 10 the same £0 odes and © and consecuently have the same voltage across them. ‘The fl and 2-1 resistors are neither in series nor in parallel with each other. ‘Determine the numberof ranches and nodes in the cireit shown in Fag, 212, Identify which elemens are in series and which are in parallel Solution: Since there are four elements in the cieuit, the circuit has four Tmanchess 10,V, 542,60, and 2A, The cicult has three nodes as lemifed in Fig. 2-13. The 5-0 resistor is in series with the 10° toltage source because the same current would low in ott. The 6-0. Tesisor isin parallel wih the 2-A current source because both are ‘soected 0 the same nedes 2 and 3. : Be ae ~e ee oi ‘ov gon za | Figure 2.42 3 forsale 24 Figure 2.13, “Tete rns inte cit of Re 2 How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. 2.14have? Men- PFOCHC2/PFOOIEA IN ‘ify the elements that ae in series and in parle Answer: Five branches and three nodes ae identified in Fi. 2.15. The 1-M aed 2.0 resistors ar in pale. The 4-0 resistor and 10-V souce se also in parallel. fe bebe PTe bt Figure 2.14 7 ForPracce Prob. 24 Figure 2.15 ‘ne for Practice Prob, 24, 24 Kirchhoff’s Laws (Ohm's law by itself s not suficient to analyze circuits, However, when itis coupled with Kirchhof’s two laws, we have sulin, powerta set of tools for analyzing large variety of electric cicuts. Kirehot's laws were fist introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), These laws are formally known 38 Kischhof?s curent law (KCL) and Kirchhol's voltage law (KVL) Kirchlot's first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires tha the algebra sum of charges within «sytem cannot change Krcnhoms current aw (KCL) states tht the algebraic sum of cents erteing anode (ra closed boundary) 6280. Mathematically, KCL implies that e213) ‘where Wis the number of branches connected to the nace and iy is the mh curren entering (r leaving) the node. By this law, cutents ‘ccter®BaicLans Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), a German physics, stated two basic laws in 1847 concerning the relationship between the eur rents and voltages in an electrical network. Kirchho's laws, along ‘vith Ohm's la, Form the bass of cient theory: ‘Born the son of lawyer in Konigsberg, East Prssia, Kirchhoft centered the University of Konigserg at age 18 and later became le {ure in Berlin, His collaborstive work in spectroscopy with German chemist Robert Bunsen ted fo the discovery of cesium in 1860 and rubidiuin in 1861, Kirchhoff was aso credited withthe Kirehho law ‘f radiation, Thus Kirchhol is famous among engineers, chemists, and physicists. 246 ‘anode stains KCL, 247 KCL 104 else Bound ces (or creuts in gee) re ioe equvelet they have the sreaorshipate parc ae centering «node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the noe may be taken a negative or vice vers. "To prove KCL, assume set of eurents i(k = 1.2... flow imo @ node, The algebraic sum of curents at the node is (= fe) + Ha) + 1 any) Inegrating both sides of Bq, 2.14) gives at) = qu * ast + a+ eas) hese gel) = fialtbt and gy) = fit But the law of conserva tion of electiic charge requires dat the algebraic sum of electric charges at the node must net chang; that is, the node sores no net Charge, Thus gr(#) = 0 f() = O, confirming the validity of KCL, ‘Consider the node in Fig. 2.16. Applying KCL gives WAC HLA Ci =O 2.16) since cutens i and i entering the node, while eurents nd jg are leaving i By rearranging the terms, we get Aththrhtis ean, Equation (2.17) isan alternative form of KCL: The sum ofthe cuensertrrg 8 node equel othe sum af the cu res leaving tbe node Note that KCL als applies to closed boundary. This may be regarded as a generalized case, because a node may be regarded a8 a Closed surface shrink 0 a goin. Tn tvo dimension, a closed bound fay is the same as a closed path As typically ustated inthe circuit Of Fig. 217, the total caren! entering the closed surface is equal the tot current leaving the surace. [Asimple application of KCL. is combining current sourees in par allel The combined currents the algebraic sum ofthe carent supplied by the individual sources. For example, the current sources shown in Fig, 2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig, 2.18(0). The combined of cavivalent eurent source can be found by applying KCL to node taal Ae 3 | ste 2.18) A circuit cannot contain two different curents, fy and i, in series, unless 7) =f therwise KCL will be violated, Kirchhotl’s second law is based on the principle of sonservaion oF enemy Iercnhots voltage law (KVL) sates tthe algebra sum fal vel {96s wound a closed path (r loop is ze. [Expressed mathematically, KVL states that Deeno 2.19) Where Mis the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of ‘ranches in the Loop) and ay isthe math voltage ‘To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.19. The sign on each voltage is the polarity ofthe terminal encountered fist as we ‘eave around the loop. We ean start with any branch and go around the loop either elockvise or counterlockwise, Suppose me start with, the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop shown; thea voltages would be —0y,-+aHis, ta, and +5 in tht order, For example, as we reach branch 3, the postive terminalis me fist; ene, ‘we have +s For branch 4, we reah the negative terminal fist: hence, =o, Thus, KVL yields Dit by Foy ey toy =D 220) Rearanging terms gives bates tos= U1 +o ean ‘which may be interpreted as Sumofvotase cops = Sum ofvetaserees (2.22) ‘his isan alternative form of KVL. Notice that if we had traveled counterlockwise, the result would have been +0), —Us +04, —0yy tnd vs, which isthe same as hofor excep hit the signs are reversed, Hence, Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21) remain the same. ‘When voltage sources ate connected in series, KVL eax be applied 'o obtain he total voltage. The combined voltage isthe algebra sum ofthe voltages of the individual sources. For example, forthe voltage sources shown in Fig. 2.20), the combined or equivalent voltage Source in Fig. 2.200) is obtained by applying KVL, Vay + Vat Vs yao © Figure 2.18 Cote sources ia pra a erga sie b equvalemt ecu ML can be apple in wo way: by teking eter a clockwise or acount Clockwise ip toad the loop Ether way the algae sum of oases Boind reieop is 260, © 2 & ‘Asgle loop cic illosting KVL, cape? Becta we VtVE— Ms 023) “To avoid violating KVL, a uit cannot contain two diferent voliages 1 and Vin parallel unless Vy = Vs \ +N « » Figure 2.20 ola soe in seri) xg ict () equivalent rei RIS Cetera ig. 2.21), find voltages 0, and v3 2a 20 ab ke he © ® Figure 2.21 For Example 25, Solution: To find band vs, we apply Ohm's law and Kirchlol’s voltage la [Assume that current lows “rough the Toop as shown in Fig. 221¢b). From Ohms lw, v8, pe 3% es) Applying KVL around the Toop gives 240-2 282) Substituting Eq. 2.5.1) into By, (25.2), we obtain -0+2%+380 oF SRD > 4a ‘Sobtitaing# in Fg, 5.1) finally gives we8V, B=-RV ‘Find v and o> in the circuit of Fig 2.22. Answer: 12 V, ~6V. Figure 2.22 For Practice Prob 25 Determine, and 1 in the etcuit shown Fig, 2230. Figure 9.23 For Example 26 Solution: ‘We apply KVL. around the lop as shown in Fig, 2.230). The rests 244i + 20,4 + 6=0 26 Applying Ohm's law to the 6-0 resistor gives 6 61 2.62) Substiting Eq. 26.2) nto Ea. (2.6.1) yields -16+10-1=0 0 and 0, = 48 ¥. Find v, and », inthe circuit of Fig, 224 “Answer: 10 V, ~5 ¥. Figure 2.24 For Pratce Prob 26 crc ics Find curent J, and voltage vin the cireuit shown in Fig, 2.25, Solution: ‘Applying KCI. to node, we obtain B40S,= > ty 8542 GD* ror the 4M resistor, Ohm's lw gives ve My Find 2, and i, inthe citcut of Fig. 226. newer: $V, 4A. tice Prob 27. (GBI Find currents and voltages in the cieuit shown in Fig, 227). » Figure 2.97 For Example 28 Solution: We apply Ohm’s law aad Kirchhoft’s laws. By Ohm's lw, a es 25 Seer texitors an ote Dison Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by Ohm's law as shown, we ae tally looking for three things: (€y,02-0s) of (in. At mode a, KCL gives ° 282) Appling KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2270), 30-40) +o = 0 We express this in terms of dy and f a in Eq. (2.8.1) t0 obtain -30+ 8 +3, =0 30 = 3s j= aM 283) Applying KVL to loop 2, mty=0 yo exe) as expected since the two resistors a in parallel, We express by and ‘vn terms of fy and fs a8 in Eg. (2.8.1). Equation (2.8.4) becomes em + hed van ‘Substiting Eqs. 8.3) and (28.8) ino (2.82) gives 30-3: cor ig= 2A. From the value of i, we now use Eqs. 28.1) 0 28.5) to obtain AS3A STA B= 28V, m=6V, y= 6V Find the currents and voliages in the circuit shown in Fig 2.28 Answer: v; =3 Vv =2 Vy =S MALS Ab = 123.8, 2.51 Series Resistors and Voltage Division “The-noed t0 combine resistors in series or in parallel ocsurs so fre- quently that it warrants special tention. The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of them ata ime. With this in mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig, 2.29. The wo resistors Figure 2.28 For Pace Prob, 28 ‘pct wiht resistors in 2.30 ‘ore of he Fig. 229 reat inseresbetave asa sre Fefiaerestance i ecualto hroftheessances of he ‘resisters ner? bins ar in series, since the same current lows in both of them. Applying (Ons law to each of the resistors, we obtain oy =i, = HR ean 1 we apply KVL tothe lop (moving in the clockwise direction}, we have =v +0, +0:=0 225) Combining Egs. 2.24) and (225), we get pao tera aR RD 226, ie ean Natice that Eq, (2.26) can be writen a Rag 228) ‘implying thatthe two resistrs can bo replaced by an equivalent resis- tor Rag tha is, Pag = Ret Re a2 “Thus, Fig, 229 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.30. ‘The two circuits in Figs 229 and 2.30 are equivalent Because they ‘exhibit the same voltage-caent relationships atthe terminals ab, AN fquivalent cist such a6 the one in Fig, 2.30 i useful in simplifying the analysis of circuit In general The equivalent resitance of any number of resistors cometed in sete isthe sum ofthe incl resistances For resistors in series thea, “To determine the voltage across cach resistor in Fig. 229, we sub- stitute Eq (2.26) ito Eq. (2.24) and obtain ea Be Re . ean [Notice tht the source voltage ois divided among the resistors in direct, proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the Nolte drop, This is eallc the principle of voltage division, and the {retin Fig, 2.20 called a voltage divider. In general, if a voltage Giver has N resistors (Rj, Re...» Ry) in series with the source volt ‘age v. the mh resistor (R,) wll have a voltage drop of % fe ¥ 232) RE Rte Ry 2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors se comected in parallel and therefore have the same vollage across them Prom Onn’ la, DAR, = Re onze aed (233) Applying KCL at node a gives the total eure i as fateh aay Subtting Eq, (233) nto Eq, (2.34, we get Wi fila A ara ae 7, ha, ea here Ru th equivalent resistance ofthe resis in pr Pepa bebe x6) e3n Thus, ‘Tre equivalent resstance of wo pall esitersis equal othe proce Lt of ei restnces cided by their sun, 18 mast be emphasized that this applies only to two eesistrs in pra Jel From Eq. (2.37) if R, = Ro then Rey = Ri/2. ‘We can extend the result in Eq, (2.36) tothe general exe ofa ci cuit with resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is ax [Note that Rays always smaller than the resistance ofthe smallest resis: tor in the parallel combination, I R, = Rs ="~" = Ry =, then 229) Figure 9.31 ‘Two ressors npr, tances in peal behave 3 8 Sroketance whose value Stresumaf he nav 2.39 conto Fig. 231 re 233 ‘ons srut, a open cc Groots? Bac ens For example, if four 100-9 resistors are connected in parallel, thee ‘equivalent resistance is 25 0, Tt is often more convenient to use conductance rather than esis nee when Jaling wit resistor in paral. From Ea, (2.38), the equiy- stent conductance for resistor in parallel is here Gog = 1/Req G Vy. uation (2.40) states Vio Ge Ua. UR G The equivalent conductance of restr connected in paral sumof tek inci conductances. ‘This means that we may replace the circuit in Fig, 231 with that in ig. 232. Notice the simility berween Eqs, (2.30) and 2.40). The ‘equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is obtained the same way fs the equivalent resistance of series resistors, Inthe same manner, the equivalent conductanes of resistors in series is obtained just the same way as the resitance of eesistors in parallel. Thus the tyuivalent conductance Gy, of resistors in series uch as shown in Fig. 2.29) is ea Given the total current i entering node in Fig. 2.31, bow do we obtain curent i and {2 We know thatthe equivalent resistor has the same volage, oF ins, RR ° ean) ‘Combining Eqs. (2.38) and (242) resus in eas) which shows thatthe font curtent / is shared by the resistors in Inverse proportion to thei resistances, Tis is known as the princi: pple of current division, and the citcuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as @ Current divider, Notice tat the larger current flows through the ‘smaller resistance. IAs an exttome €48e, suppose one of the resistors in Fig. 2.31 is eto, say Ry 0; that is, Ry is a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 33a). From Eq, (243), Ra = O implies that = 0. ~ i This means that the entite cument i bypasses Ry and flows through the ‘hor eircuit Ry — O the pth of last resistance. Thus when a circuit is short circuited, as shown in Fig. 2.330), to things should be kept in mind 1. The equivalent resistance Ray =O. [See what haypens. when y= 0 in Eq, 2.39) 2, The entre current flows though the short circuit As smother extreme ease, suppose R= =, that is, R: isan open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2335). The evrrent sill ows through the pth of leas resistance, By taking the limit of Eq, (2.37) as R=, sve obtain Ray = Ry in this case, If we divide both the numerator and denominator by 3.243) a= gt (24a) Se (2.44) Gta om “Thus in gener face vider hs W coms (Gu, GG) in pallet with the source current i the nth conductor (G,) will have 6, GF G tay 248) In general, it soften convenient and possible to conbine resis: tors in series and parallel and reduce a resistive network to single equivalent resistance Rog Such an equivalent resistance isthe resit= face between the designated terminals of the network and must exhibit the same 6p characteristics as the original network atthe terminals Find Ra, forthe eiteut shown in Fig. 2 eS) Solution: Ta get Ray We combine resistors in series end in parallel. The 6-02 and 3.41 resistors ae in parle, s0 their equivalent resistance is 6x3 nyse ~ $3 ~ 20 (The symbol | use 0 inate a parallel combination) Also, the 1-0 and 5-0 resistors are in soros; hence their equivalent resistance is 1a+sn=60 Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.34 is reduced to that in Fig. 235(a). In Fig. 235(8), we notice thatthe (wo 2-0 resistors ar in seis, So the equivalent resistance is 2n+2n=40 Figure 2.34 For Exangie 28, covered bacon aa “This 4 resistor is now in peallel withthe 6-0 resistor in Fig. 2.380); ae el) their equivalent resistance is 4x6 a sgjoa=*E=240 “The cireit in Fig 2.35) is now replaced with that n Fig. 2.3500). fn Fig. 2350), the thee resisors are in series. Hence, the equivalent resistane forthe circuit is Rg = 40-2404 80= 1440 240 lf ‘Toke for Example 29. HHERIPPODIEM 2.9 By combining the resistors Fig. 2.36, find Re Answer 6.0. 2 sa 2.36 sce Pob 28 Ze the equivalent redistance Ry inthe circuit in Fig. 2.37 Figure 2.37 For Example 21C Solution: ‘The 3+) and 6-9 resistors are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes ¢ and b. Their combined resistance is 3x6 3ayjon=>~F=20 0.4) the 12-0 and 4 sessors ae in pall since they ae paneer tomate ote sre two nodes dan. Hence nia i a xa hodin da naisa- 2X49 2.102) pep} Also the 1-0 and 5-0 resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent . > » » 1N+52=60 (2.10.3) = ‘With these thre combinations we can replace the circuit in Fig. 237 with gg $0 tht in Fig. 238) In Fig. 238), 3 eral ith 6-0 gies 20, teal in E2101). Tis 2-0 equivalent stan rom in sees 20 S30 Sine ince give aconbad wssane of 1.20. 3.0. Theres res bocra aig 23a wins Fg 20) Io *° | Fie 2380, we combine the 21) and 31 ss in pre opt A Figure 2: 21a 120 Ee cis or Example 210, “This 12.0 resistors in sees withthe 10-0 resis, stat Ry 10412-1120 ad Re fixe ct a Fig 299, Answer: 1 0 7 2a\ Figure 2.39 the cca in ia 2400. «Examples Find the equivalent conductance Ga, for Solution: ‘The BS and 12-S resistors are in parallel, so their conductance is 88+ 128=208 ‘This 20.8 resistor is now in series with S $ as shown in Fig, 240(0) 0 thatthe combined conductance Is 2x5 2045 s ‘This isin parallel with the 6S resistor, Hence, 10s. 6. ‘We should note that dhe circuit in Fig. 2401) i the same as that in Fig. 24040), While the resistors in Fig. 240(a) are expressed in cir? face ‘expressed in ohms To show that the siemens, those in Fig. 24002) are Tor the creit in Fig. 24040). Heit are the same, we fad Rey Seb eletbles) 1h \ w° fo, 6s Ems a “This isthe same as we oftained prevowsy. © re 9.40 ‘Same 2.1: origi cies cit) same ici ‘arnt ae expres in hms HEGIGRIPOSTET DAT Caete in ie oreo Be 24 = 4S ure 2.41 Pracice Prob. 2.10 st btn sh tet HRGUBISIDTT ad ine cee town ig 2a). Caleta the power ‘sited in the 3-0 sisOF Solution: Sai a 3-0 resisors ae in pall, so ther combined resistane> is ox3 saisa= 25-20 ‘sour eet reduces to tat shown in Fig, 2.420), Notice dha Tas eid by the combination of the resstors because the reision 9 we ll and therefre have the same voltage From Fig, 210) ain tim two ways, One way is t0 apply Ohm's law to Get 2 inert 26 role teers onaCiretOMen ri teiact nelaV ny 2a) neal wenn eed Ee a i snes Hees. G7 hd wan - : mit eibe earn Fp 23a) ha es > ty Te power dpe nthe 3-0 sae i Flow 2.48 guts nonina(!)= anew ind vy anv i the etcuit shown in Fig. 2.43. Ako cabulate and Practice PFOBIE NI 4 and the power dissipated inthe 12-0 and 40-0 resists. Answer: 0) = 5, iy = 416.7 mA, py = 2.083 W, vs mss 250.mA, p= 25 W. as Figure 2.43 For Price Prob. 2.12, For the ciruit shown in Fig. 244(a), determine: (2) the voltage « Examples (©) the poser supplied by the curent souree, (c) the power absorbed by each resistor. Solution: () The 640 and 12-k0 resistors are in series 50 that tk combined value is 6-+ 12 = 18 KO Thus the cicat in Fig. 24(e) reduces 10 tha shown in Fig, 2-44), We now appl the eurent dvi technique to find jy and i 18,000 37000 + 15000" ™) 9.000 t= Sono e reo 20 MA) = 1OmA Oma rte 2 Bice ota [Notice that the voltage acrssthe 9-41 and 18-40 resistors isthe same, find ty = 9.0004, = 18.0%, = 180 V, a expected. bitbs fn OP moe 7 Pe = tiie = 1BOGO) mW = 54. W {6} Power absorbed by the 12-40 resistor is Jv = ifhgR) = BR = (10% 107) (12,000) » sat oe yn ior i D eno suo p= BR = (0x 10°77 6000) = 06 seesaw e213 (gin iit, ‘Nate ere o p= vd, = 18000) mW =36W Notice thet the power supried (54 W) equals the power absorbed (12-4 06-4 36= 54 W). This is one way of checking results HHGEIPFODIERDTS Forte cca stow in Fig 25, i) and) te power spate inthe 3-KO) and 20-K0 resistors, and () the power supplied by the cutent source. Figure 2.45 Fer race Prob 213 “Answer: (a) 15 V, 20°, (b; 75 mW, 20 mW, (e) 200 mW. > : zg Wye-Delta Transformations ‘Situations often arise incre analysis when the resistors are nether in Ry ye my parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 246. = How do we combine resist R, tirolgh Ry when the resistors are neither 2.46 in series nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. 246, sero can be simplified by sing tre terminal equivalent networks, These ae 27 Wye censors the wye (¥) or tee (7) network shown in Fig. 247 andthe deta (A) 11) network shown in Fig. 2.48. These networks occur by themselves fr as part of lager network. Tey are used in thoe-phase networks, ‘ectricl fillers, and matching networks. Our mai interest here isin how to ientify thm when they occur a8 part of network and Bow to apply vwye-delis wansformation inthe analysis of that network —— “Two lo ofthe same network: a) ¥. (6) Delta to Wye Conversion ‘Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in & pace ‘where the circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta notwork and find the equivalent resist ances in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent ressances in the ‘aye network, we compare the 1Wo networks and make sue thatthe resistance between each pur of nodes in the A (or [1) network is the same asthe resistance between the same pair of nodes inthe Y (or T), rnotwork. For terminals 1 and 2in Figs. 2.47 and 2.48, fo example Ril) = Ry + Ry 246) RCA) = Ry | (Ry + RD Seting RisC¥) = R268) gives R= Rit Ry (ara) Similar, atm) RRs + Ro) “Ree are Subsractng Ea. (247) fom Eq. (2470), we Bot RelBy — Ra) RR Co) ‘Adding Bas. (247) and (2.48) gives ea) oo ni fe Vv, ze Figure 2.48 “Two forms of the same network) 3, On ‘iow ofY and 4 networks ah an ‘ning oe fo tbe oer camer? trict and subtracting Bg, (248) from Eq, (2.47) yields 2.50 ORF RAR me Subiractng Eq, (249) from Ea, (2478) we obain Rak Re RAR, & en, ‘We donot need to memorize Eas. (249) co (251). To transform a net work to, we crete an exra node mas shown in Fig, 2.49 and fllow this conversion tle: Eich resitr in the ¥retwok he prod of he esters nie two acjacert A beeches, vice bythe sam ofthe ee resisters (One ea follow this ule and aban Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51) om Fig. 2.49. Wye to Delta Converson ‘To obtain the conversion fomnulas for wansforming a wye network to an equivalent delta network, we note from Eqs. 2.49) to (2.51) that Ra + Ry + Ryn, — RaBoReCRa Re + Red (Ra + Ry + BO RRR, RRR. Dividing Eq, (2.52) by each of Eqs. (2.49) 0 (2.5) leads f0 the fo lowing equations: es ess) Fay + Rol + RAR ae es uf + RoR + Roky a 238) From Eqs. (2.83) to (2.55) and Fig. 249, the conversion rule for Yo A ie as follows: Each eine A network the sum of al posible rods FY resstr taken two & ote, divides bythe oppose restr, 27 Weta entomaons s “The Y and & networks are said to he balanced when RRR Ry Rye Rem Re Re 256) LUnder these conditions, conversion formulas become or R= Ry es (One may wonder why Ry connection is ike a “serie ‘8 “parallel” connection. NNote that in making the transformation, we do not ke anything ‘out of the circuit or putin anything new. We are merely substiuting tiferent bat mathemstically equivalent thre-tenminal network pallens {o crete a cireuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel allowing us 1 calculate Re if necessary. less than Ry, Well, we notice thatthe ¥ ‘ometion while the connection i ike Figure 2.50 For Example 214) rg network, (¥en! network Solution Using Bas. (2.49) vo 2.51), we obeain eee lox2s_ 250 FRR 1S 10425 50 RR _ 28x15 130 RR 50 eu Is x10 RtRtR” 0 Ry 30 ‘The equivalent ¥ network is shown in Fig, 2500). [NBISEHGEIPFOBIERTD14 Tans te wye ntvrk in Fig 251 to « deta network Answer: R= 140.0, y= 70.0,R, = 35.0 Figure 2.51 solution 1 Define. The probly dod las mt, hi pa - : Present. Clearly, when we remove the voltage source, we end 02 Clements together We can use wye-delta transformations 3s one ao pas Spprosch to find solution, Ii useful to locate the wyes (there at andthe other atc) and the dels ae two of thm, there aze three: car, abn, cb). Alternative. There ae different approaches that can be used Solve this problem. Since the foes of Sec. 27 isthe wye delta transformation, this shoul be the technique 10 use. Another approach would be fo solve forthe equivalent resistance by injecting one amp into the circuit and finding the voltage between a and b: we will lean about this proach in Chap. 4 The approach we can apply here asa check would be to use a wyevdelt transformation a8 the first solution co the problem. with delta-wye Figure 2.52 Fr Erampie 2.15, Later we ean check the solution by stat transformation 4, Attempt In tis circu, there are two Y networks and three A networks, Transforming just one ofthese will simplify the circu If we convert the ¥ network comprising the 5-0, 10-0, and 20-0 resistors, we may select R= 100 R=20, B=50 RyRy _ 10% 20420%5 45X10 = 2-350 10 RiRs+ RRS + RGR, _ 350 _ R 20 RyRy + BaP + RRs _ 350 p= Sut Bas Bal on R 5 . 7 he Ema 500 toe I co . ; pms i Figure 2.53 : ‘With the ¥ convert voltage source removed for now) is show in Fig. 253(4) Combining the three pits of resistors in parle, we obtain to A, the equivalent circuit (withthe ro30 = 22-210 ras x 113 nasiins = srs 1535 = 5% 35 - sa is 35 so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. .53(b) Hence, we find Ruy = (7292 + 105))21 = 272*21 gana 17790.+ 3F Then he I= RA, 7 9.650 ~ ASA We observe that we have successfully solved the problem, Now we mst evaluate the solution, 5, Bvaluate, Now we must determine ifthe answer is comect and then evaluate the Fin solution, Ie is relatively easy to check the answer; we do this by solving the problem starting witha del-wye transformation. Let ts transform the delta, can, into a wye. Let R= 100, Ry = 50, and R, = 12:50, This will lead to (et d represent the mie of the Wye) R ae 10x BS _ 45450 RRR, S++ 125 f RR. _ 5x10 R Laisa 15 ea Bo wa soo 254 co Phub.25 ‘shave asumed tat cornect ‘sare patectconcictos (.e. to of 210 resiance). eal ayes, owe the ei the carnecting wre may oe lady lg, anc the modes stem mustneluce tat te Bact “This now leads to the cuit shown in Figure 283(¢) Looking at the resistance beteen d and b, we have two series ination in pale, giving us 2.273 + 150.8182 +20) _ 3769 te 2773 + 15+ Lala2 +20 3909 27 “This isin series with the 4,585.0 resistor, both of which are in parallel with the 30-0 resistor. This then gives us the equivalent existance ofthe circuit, 0612+ 4515)90 _ 4256 “962 +4 oa 5 +30 4.19 ‘Tis now leads to 0 Ky 9631 We note that sing two aratons on the sye-dela transformation leads tothe same results. This represents a very good check 6, Satisfactory? Since we have found the dested answer by ‘determining the equivalent resistance of the circuit fist ad dhe lanier checks, then we clay have a satsfctry solution. This represen what can be reseed t the individual assigning the problem, i 12468 For the bidge network in Fig, 234, find Ry and Answer: 40,25 A. 2.8 Applications Resistors ate often use to mode devices that convert electra energy into heat or other forms of energy. Such devices include conducting ‘wire, lightbulbs, electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers. In this section, we will eonsder 90 real-life problems tat apply the con saps developed in this chaper electrical ighting systems and design of de meter 2.8.1. Lighting Systems Lighting systems, such asin a house or on a Christmas te often eon ‘ist off lamps connected ether in parallel in series, as shown in Fig. 255. Each lamp is modeled as a resistor. Assuming that al tbe lamps sa identical and ¥, isthe powerne voltage, the vokage across each, Tamp is V, forte parallel connection and U,/ forthe series connee- tion. The series comnetion i easy {0 manufacture but is seldom wed in practice, frat east two reisons. Fist its Fess reliable; when lamp fal all the lamps go ou, Second itis harder to maintain: when a lamp is bad, ane must test ll the lamps one by one to detet the Tally one Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) was perhaps the greatest American inventor, He patented 109% inventions, including. such history-making invention asthe incandescent electric bu, the phono ‘raph, and the fist commercial motion pictares, ‘Born in Milan, Ohi, the Youngest of Seven children, Edkon ceived only tree months of formal education because he hated soo}. He Was homeschooled by his mother and quickly began to read oa his ow. 1868, Edison read one of Faraday’s books and found bis ealing. He moved to Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 187, where he managed a well staffed research laboratory. Most of his inventions came out of this laboratory. His laboratry serve as « model fr modern research organ ination, Because of his diverse interests and the overwhelming number of his inventions and patents, Bison began to establish mmanuturing. Liar of Congress ‘companies for making the devices he averted. He designed the fist ele tre power station to supply electric light, Formal eles engineering ‘cation began nthe mi-880s with Fson a a role mode and leader. DP Figure 2.55, (G) Parle! conection of fihbulbs, bse onnstion opal Three Tielibulbs are connected toa 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.56( «Exams Calculate: (2) the total current supplied by the batery.(b the current ‘yough each bulb, (c} the resistance of each bulb Figure 2.56 (a) Liphing ysem with thes tlts,() esisive cet quale model coven fails 13, The formulas fora wye-t-delta transformation ate RRS RR +R, g Rika + RoR + Ray R . : E Rafi + Ras + Rai B 14, Te basi laws covered inthis chaper can be applied to the prob- lems of electrical lighing and design of de meters, EE “The epoca esisance i 2.7 Tac curent of Fig. 264s Cayvotiage (by eurent WA 2A HA IBA (eeanddctnce —(@) coulombs “An eeti hetedraws 10 fram 120-V line, The ‘euntaneof he eaer s @nma — @ 200 wna @ue “The slag drop acs a S-AW tose that avs 1D Ao eament ee nas ny @uay “The maximum cuent tht #2, DKA resistor ean sally conde is (ones 40a Figure 2.64 (sma (25 HA For Rovian Question 27. ‘Aetwork has 12 bashes and 8 independent Inops, How many nodes are here inthe setwork? oy ON @s ws “The comet inthe iit of Fla 2.68 (08a )-02A (02a (08a 28 Inte cet ia Fig. 265, Vis MV MEY OWV wev 92.63 Figure 2.65 ‘Siew Question 2.6 For Revi Question 28 29) Whi ofthe cies in Fig. 266 wl give you ae ee For Review Question 29. 2.0 nthe cel of Fig. 2.67 a decease in eds wa eons of (heuer trough (@)voage across (er otage aro fy (power dsipaod in {e)none ofthe above Figure 2.67 Fi Review Question 210. Irovers: 276, 220, 2.3, 246, 25¢, 2.6, 270, 2.8, 294, 2.10 ——_———_——— Section 22. Ohms Law 21, Design problem, complete with soliton, op 24d studzets ober understand Ohn's Law. Use a least two resistors and one vllage sure. Hit, you ‘ould use oth eins at nce or nea ime, it ‘he hot esisance of bub te 60 W, 120. ‘Abr of alicon is mong with ilar crs se thn he estan he ar 240 foo em errs, what ihe crossonl radio oth ba 22 23 2.4 (9) Calclate coment in Fig. 268 whan he site is ‘a posi (@ Find the cure when the ich is in pion 2 Figure 2.68 ee iok 2 Section 23 Nodes, Branches, and Loops 2.5 Forthe network graph in Fig. 26, find the number of nds branche, and lope. 2.6. Inthe network arp shown in Fi. 2.70, decermine the number of branches and node N\ Figure 2.70 Ex Proh 26 Find he number of branches and nodes in each of thereto ig, 2271 la 30 Rv 2a saz 302 1a 30 @ ° ean 22. sn 24 Kirehhoffs Laws Design problem, complete witha ot, to help ‘ter students Bor undesand Kino Coen ‘La, Design he problem by speiyng vale of, Jean show in Fig 2.72, an king ther 0 Selve or vals of i ad Be caret speci ‘eae eoent 22.72 eae “Find ji. and sin Fg. 273 tm de (ff) “teri andi in he ici of Fig 2.74 Y 22.78 baa fr» she ict of Fig, 2.75 calculate Vad Figure 2.75 FirProb 21 Fe he cic of Fig. 276, obs, band Figure 2.76 ForProb. 212, ‘othe iret in Fig, 2.7, we KCL t0 Sind the ech erent fl Figure 2.77 ForProb. 213, Fae pnt ie Fig 2.78 un KVL id he aoe Figure 2.78 ForProb. 214, 98 Calta inthe cet of Fig. 2.79, Figure 2.79 For Prob. 215 26 Deine Vi the uit of Fie 280 ® 4 Ov | Figure 2.80 ForPrab 216. 247 brain through oy nthe cit of Fi 281 w@® 5s hs @pv By Figure 2.81 For Poh 217 bs 1 and Vay inthe circuit of Fig. 2.82 “oe Ow Figure 2.82 ForPrab- 218 2.19 From ect in Fig. 283 find the power spat bythe resistor, nd de power abr by Figure 2.83, 1.20 Detemine in he cit of Fig. 284 Figure 2.84 a Pro 220, 4a tn Y, nie cit F285 7 Figure 2.85 A ot once cig 296 ta pro 7 Minch accu oe Figure 2.86 a Pre. 222 coin? ne ens Inthe cuit shown in Fig, 287, termine vand—_—-2.27 Calle V. inte iret f Fig. 29 the power aborted by the 12-0 resis. 20. ta Ena wy oa Figure 2.91 oeProb. 227, 22.87 228 enecrna ane 2shinav/inemat fig Metts rt pa (Ri Ro Road Ry HER = Re ens “eso wil roe V1 10? tN a “ w nem 588 2.88 pare Figure 292 For Prob. 228 Fore network in Fig 28, ind te cures, ‘lage and power asocned wih the 20402 ae 229. Alessors in Fig. 298 are 1 each, Find Ry ne an Figure 2.93, For Prob 22, ‘ons 2.5 and2.6. Series and Parle! Resistors 6 Fortheciresitin Fig. 290.4, =2A Colla, 2,30 Fad R forthe cet o Fig. 294. ‘dhe al power sired bythe iui B saa ey F saz 40 ite 2.90 ‘ob. 238, 2.31 Forthe cei in Fig. 298, determine 10 all lt safe} Figure 2.95 For rob 231 2.32 Find tough in the csi of ig 2.95, A wa Figure 2.96 For Prob. 232 2.38 Obi and /in the cet of Fig 2.7 Aas on a 28 in Figure 2.97 ForProb. 233, 36h sing ssp snob de 2.38 Colette V, and Jin the cuit Fig. 299. Figure 2.99 Ferro. 235, rE wv@ py wag mae wot fea Lj} ff Faure 2.100 rem 2.37 Find fo the crest in Fig. 2.101 (ahovrm Indi cut Fi 2.102 txt renin sen escent oe oe city 158 Find be ove dsp poes ry i nv® waz wa na wv® in f na we Tey Figure 2.98 Figure 2.102 Rom iss Fem a3s canis tacos Fvalaate Ro foreach ofthe ccs sown in Big 2108, tia Lona me 2 ia mia. = jee} » 2.103 Skip. 1 orthe Inder networkin i, 2104 find and Ry re 2.105, ‘th 2a reduc ech ofthe rei in Fg 2106 asin resis at terminal so 2a 40 sa 7 -ob saia| wa ® Figure 2.106 ForProb. 22, 2.43 Calo the agua resistance ya ermine ‘eb foreach ofthe cca Pi 2.107 peal a Swe Zwa © wa wa’ vo » Figure 8.107 Foros. 8, gd torte rutin Fig. 2108, bain tbe uae PPscace aerial 00 sa . Figure 2.108 For Prob 24, 2.456 the piven resin at trina bof och cl Fig. 2.109, Esa soa @ Figure 2.109 For Prob 25; o dine of F210, — 13/4/ty the equivalent resistance Rin the ici af Pe 2 sa 68 a G Figure 2.111 Far Prob, 27 Section 2.7. Wye-Dela Transformations 2.48 Convert the cnt in Fig 211 from Yo. i a wa xa 9a = ® 2112 2 ® Figu 2.49 Transform the cruisin Fig. 2.113 from A 10 ¥. Figure 2.110 For rob 246, owes 0 Design a problem to help ter students tester A undersand wye-delawatsformation sing boy ease foreach ofthe cet in Fig 2.105 soa aa wae 200 @ soo MO asa | wo 9a a pt fa » e245 wast Teeth circu show equivalent resistance 22.116 232, vale of 300, a] eel I

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