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NETWORKING
INTRODUCTION
At its most elementary level, a network consists of two computers connected to each
other by a cable so that they can share data. While the idea of two computers connected by a
cable may not seem extraordinary, it was a major achievement in communication.
DEFINITION
A group of computers and other devices connected together is called a network, and
the concept of connected computers sharing resources is called networking.

Computers that are part of a network can share the following:

Data

Messages

Graphics

Printers

Fax machines

Modems

Other hardware resources

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LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

Networks started out small, with perhaps ten computers connected together with a
printer. The technology limited the size of the network, including the number of computers
connected as well as the physical distance that could be covered by the network. Such a
network might be on a single floor of a building, or within one small company. This type of
network, within a limited area, is known as a local are network (LAN).
As the geographical scope of the network grows by connecting users in different cities
or different states, the LAN grows into a Wide Area Network (WAN). The number of users
in a company network can now grow from ten to thousands.
Organizations implement networks primarily to share resources and enable online
communication. Resources include data, applications, and peripherals. A peripheral is a
device such as an external disk drive, printer, mouse, modem, or joystick. Online
communication includes sending messages back and forth, or e-mail.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKING
There are many benefits to networking, including:

Cost cutting through sharing data and peripherals.

Standardization of applications.

Timely data acquisition.

More efficient communications and scheduling.

NETWORKING OVERVIEW
In general, all networks have certain components, functions, and features in common.
These include.

Servers Computers that provide shared resources to network users.

Clients Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.

Media The way those computers are connected.

Shared data Files provided by servers across the network.

Shared printers and other peripherals Other resources provided by servers.

Resources Files, printers, or other items to be used by network users.

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Network can be divided into two broad categories:

Peer-to-peer

Server-based

The distinction between peer-to-peer and server-based networks is important because

each has different capabilities. The type of network will depend on numerous factors,
including the:

Size of the organization.

Level of security required.

Type of business.

Level of administrative support available.

Amount of network traffic.

Needs of the network users.

Network budget.

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the
computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Normally, each
computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no one assigned to be an
administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer determines what
data on their computer gets shared on the network.

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Peer-to-peer networks are also called workgroups. The term workgroup implies a
small group of people. In a peer-to-peer network, there are typically fewer than 10 computers
in the network.
Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple. This networks can be less expensive than
server based networks.
SERVER- BASED NETWORKS
In an environment with more than 10 users, a Peer-to-peer network will not be
adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated server is one that
only functions as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Servers are dedicated
because they are optimized to quickly service requests from network clients and to ensure the
security of files and directories.

As networks increase in size and traffic, more than one server on the network is
needed. Spreading the tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed
in the most efficient manner possible.

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SPECIALIZED SERVERS
The variety of tasks that servers must perform is varied and complex. Servers for
large networks have become specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users. The
different types of servers include the following :
FILE AND PRINT SERVERS
File and print servers manage user access and use of file and printer resources.

APPLICATION SERVERS
Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as well
as the data, available to clients. With an application server, the database stays on the
server and only the results of a request are downloaded to the computer making the
request. A client application running locally would access the data on the application
server. Instead of the entire database being downloaded from the server to your local
computer, only the results of query would be loaded onto the computer.
Mail servers
Mail servers manage electronic messaging between network users.
Fax servers
Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network, by sharing
one or more fax modem boards.
Communication Servers
Communications servers handle data flow and e-mail messages
between the serverss own network and other networks, mainframe computer,
or remote users using modems and telephone lines to dial in to the servers.
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ADVANTAGES OF SERVER-BASED NETWORK

Sharing Resources
A server is designed to provide access to many files and printers while maintaining
performance and security to the user. Server-based sharing of data can be centrally
administered and controlled. The resources are usually centrally located and are easier to
locate and support than resources on random computers.
Security
In a server-based environment, one administrator who sets the policy and applies it to
every user on the network can manage security.
Backup
Because crucial data is centralized on one or a few servers, it is easier to make sure
that the data is backed up on a regular schedule.
Redundancy
Through redundancy systems, the data on any server can be duplicated and kept
online so that even if something happens to the primary data storage area for the data, a
backup copy of the data can be used to retrieve the data.
Number of Users
A server- based network can support thousands of users.
Hardware Considerations
Client computer hardware can be limited to the needs of the user because clients do
not need the additional RAM and disk storage needed to provide server services. A typical
client computer has at least a 486 processor and 8 to 16 MB of RAM.
NETWORK DESIGN
TOPOLOGY
The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement
or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network.
Standard Topologies
All network designs stem from three basic topologies.
Bus
Star
Ring

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If computers are connected in a row along a single cable, the topology is referred to as
a bus. If the computers are connected to cable segments that branch out from a single point
or hub, the topology is known as a star. If the computers are connected to a cable that forms a
loop, the topology is known as a ring.
BUS
The bus topology is also known as a linear bus. This is the simplest and most
common method of networking computers. It consists of a single cable called a trunk that
connects all of the computers in the network in a single line. Computers on a bus topology
network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer and putting that data on the
cable in the form of electronic signals.

STAR
In the star topology, computers are connected by cable segments to a centralized
component, called a hub. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub
to all computers on the network.
The star network offers centralized resources and
management. However, because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology
requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation.

If one computer, fails on a star network only the failed computer will not be able to
send or receive network data. The rest of the network continues to function normally.

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RING
The ring topology connects computers
on a single circle of cable. There are no
terminated ends. The signals travel around the
loop in one direction and pass through each
computer. Each computer acts like a repeater
to boost the signal and send it on to the next
computer. Because the signal passes through
each computer, the failure of one computer
can impact the entire network.
Token Passing
One method of transmitting data
around a ring is called token passing. The
token is passed from computer to computer
until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending computer modifies the token,
puts an electronic address on the data, and sends it around the ring.
The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches
the address on the data. The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer
indicating that the data has been received.
Selecting a Topology
There are many factors to consider when determining what topology best suits the
needs of an organization. The following table provides some guidelines for selecting a
topology.
Topology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Bus

Economical use of cable

Media is inexpensive and easy to
work with;
Simple, reliable
Easy to extend.

Network can slow down in heavy

traffic .
Problems are difficult to isolate.
Cable break can affect many users.

Ring

Equal access for all computers.

Even performance despite many
users.

Failure of one computer can impact

the rest of the network.
Problems hard to isolate.
Network reconfiguration disrupts
operation.

Star

Easy to modify and add new

computers.
Centralized monitoring and
management.
Failure of one computer does not
affect the rest of the network.

If the centralized point fails, the

network fails.

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HUBS
One network component that is becoming standard equipment in more and more
networks is the hub. A hub is the central component in a star topology.
Types of Hubs
Active Hubs
Most hubs are active in that they regenerate and retransmit the signals the
same way a repeater does. Active hubs require electrical power to run.
Passive Hubs
Some types of hubs are passive. They act as connection points and do not
amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal passes through the hub. Passive hubs do
not require electrical power to run.
Hybrid Hubs
Advanced hubs that will accommodate several different types of cables are
called hybrid hubs. Connecting more than one hub can expand a hub-based network.

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NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

Over view
Personal computer network operating software was added to existing operating
systems. A personal computer that was part of a network was actually running both a standalone and a network operating system. This operating system is the foundation for all
computer hardware and software activity.
Hardware and Software Coordination
The operating system controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as
the following:
Memory
CPU time
Disk space
Peripheral devices
The operating system coordinates the interaction between the computer and the
application programs it is running. It is also the base upon which applications such as word
processing and spreadsheet programs are built.
Software Components
All network operating systems used to be application programs that were loaded on
top of a stand-alone operating system. A significant difference between the Microsoft
Windows NT operating system and other operating systems is that the networking capabilities
are built into Windows NT.
A network operating system :
Ties together all of the computers and peripherals in the network.
Coordinates the functions of all computers and peripherals in a network.
Provides security for and access to data and peripherals in a network.
There are two major components of network software:
The network software that is installed on clients
The network software that is installed on a server
Network Communications

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Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex
process can be broken into discrete tasks;
Recognize the data
Divide the data into manageable chunks
Add information to each chunk of data to:
o Determine the location of the data
o Identify the receiver
Add timing and error checking information
Put the data on the network and send it on its way.
The network operating system follows a strict set of procedures in performing each task.
These procedures are called protocols, or rules of behavior. The protocols guide each activity
to successful completion.
There arose a need for standard protocols to allow hardware and software from various
vendors to communicate. There are two primary sets of standards: the OSI model and a
modification of that standard called Project 802.
A clear understanding of these models is an important first step in understanding the
technical aspects of how a network functions.
THE OSI MODEL
In 1978, the International Standards Organization (ISO) released a set of
specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. In 1984,
the ISO released a revision of this model and called it the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model. The 1984 revision has become an international standard and serves as
a guide for networking.
A Layered Architecture
The OSI model is an architecture that divides network communication into seven
layers. Each layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data link Layer
Physical Layer

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The lowest layer 1 and 2 define the networks physical media and related tasks, such
as putting data bits onto the network adapter cards and cable. The highest layers define how
applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more complex its task.
Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the
network to another computer. The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called
interfaces. All requests are passed from one layer, through the interface, to the next layer.
Each layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer below it.
At each layer there is software that implements certain network functions according to
a set of protocols. Before data is passed from one layer to another it is broken down into
packets. A packet is a unit of information transmitted as a whole from one device to another
on a network. The network passes a packet from one software layer to another in the order of
the layers. At each layer the software adds some additional formatting or addressing to the
packet, which it needs to be successfully transmitted across the network.
The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI
model and identify service that they provide to adjacent layers.
Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI model, is the Application layer. It serves as the
window for application processes to access network services. This layer represents the
services that directly support user applications, such as software for file transfers, for
database access, and for e-mail. The lower level support these tasks performed at the
application level. The application layer handles general network access, flow control, and
error recovery.
Presentation Layer
This layer, determines the format used to exchange data among networked computers.
It can be called the networks translator. This layer is responsible for protocol conversion,
translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and
expanding graphics commands. The Presentation layer also manages data compression to
reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted.
Session Layer
This Layer allows two applications on different computer to establish use, and end a
connection called a session. This layer performs name recognition and the functions, such as
security, needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network.
The Session layer provides synchronization between user tasks by placing
checkpoints in the data stream. This layer also implements dialog control between
communicating processes, regulating which side transmits, when, for how long, and so on.

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Transport Layer
This Layer provides an additional connection level beneath the Session layer. The
Transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and with no losses
or duplications. This layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets
and collecting small packets together in one package. This allows the packets to be
transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving end, the Transport layer unpacks
the messages, reassembles the original messages, and typically sends an acknowledgement of
receipt.
The Transport layer provides flow control, error handling, and is involved in solving
problems concerned with the transmission and reception of packets.
Network Layer
The Network layer is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical
addresses and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the
source to the destination computer. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as
packet switching, routing, and controlling the congestion of data.
Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer, sends data frames from the Network layer to the Physical layer.
On the receiving end, it packages raw bits from the Physical layer into data frames. A data
frame is an organized, logical structure in which data can be placed.
The Data Link layer is responsible for providing the error-free transfer of these frames
from one computer to another through the Physical layer. This allows the Network layer to
assume virtually error-free transmission over the network connection.
Physical Layer
This layer transmits the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. The
Physical layer relates the electrical, optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the
cable. The Physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by all of the
higher layers.
The Physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one
computer to another. This layer defines data encoding and bit synchronization, ensuring that
when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit.

PROTOCOLS
Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating. The use of communication
rules applies in the same way in the computer environment. When several computers are
networked, the rules and technical procedures governing their communication and interaction
are called protocols.

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There are three points to keep in mind when thinking about protocols in a network
environment;
1.
There are many protocols. While each protocol allows basic communication,
they have different purposes and accomplish different tasks. Each protocol has its
own advantages and restrictions.
2.
Some protocols work at various OSI layers. The layer at which a protocol
works describes its function.
3.

Several protocols may work together in what is known as a protocol stack.

How Protocols Work

The entire technical operation of transmitting data over the network has to be broken
down into discrete systematic steps. At each step, certain action takes place which cannot
take place at any other step. Each step has its own rules and procedures, or protocol.
The Sending Computer
At the sending computer, the protocol;
Breaks the data into smaller sections, called packets that the protocol can handle.
Adds addressing information to the packets so the destination computer on the
network will know the data belongs to it.
Prepares the data for actual transmission through the network adapter card and out
onto the network cable.
The Receiving Computer
At the receiving computer, a protocol carries out the same series of steps in reverse
order. The receiving computer;
Takes the data packets off the cable.
Brings the data packets into the computer through the network adapter card.
Strips the data packets of all of the transmitting information added by the sending
computer.
Copies the data from the packets to a buffer for reassembly.
Passes the reassembled data to the application in a usable form.
Protocol Stacks

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A protocol stack is a combination of protocols. Each layer specifies a different

protocol for handling a function or subsystem of the communication process. Each layer has
its own set of rules.
Application Layer

Initiates a request or accepts a request

Presentation Adds formatting, display, and encryption

Layer
information to the packet
Session Layer

Adds traffic flow information to determine

when the packet gets sent

Transport Layer

Adds error-handling information

Network Layer

Sequencing and address information is

added to the packet

Data Link Layer

Adds error-checking information and

prepares data for going on to the physical
connection

Physical Layer

Packets sent as a bit stream

Standard Stacks
The computer industry has designed several stacks as standard protocol models.
The most important ones include;

The ISO/OSI protocol suite

The IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
Digital DECnet TM
Novell NetWare
AppleTalk
The Internet Protocol suite, TCP/IP

Protocols exist at each level of these stacks doing the job specified by that level.
However, the communication tasks networks need to perform are assigned to protocols
working as one of three protocol types. These protocol types map roughly to the OSI model.
They are;
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer

Application-level network service users

Transport Services
Network Services

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Physical Layer
Application Protocols
Application protocols work at the upper layer of the OSI model. They provide
application-to-application interaction and data exchange. More popular application protocols
include;
APPC (advanced program-to-program communication)
FTAM (file transfer access and management)
X.400 - A CCITT protocol for international e-mail transmissions.
X.500 A CCITT protocol for file and directory services across several systems.
SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) An Internet file transfer protocol.
SNMP (simple network management protocol) An Internet protocol for monitoring
networks and network components.
Telnet An Internet protocol for logging on to remote hosts and processing data
locally.
Microsoft SMBs (server message blocks) and client shells or redirectors.
NCP (Novell NetWare Core Protocol) and Novell client shells or redirectors.
Apple Talk and Apple Share@ - Apples networking protocol suite.
Transport Protocols
Transport protocols provide for communication sessions between computers and
ensure that data is able to move reliably between computers. Popular transport protocols
include: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) The TCP/IP protocol for guaranteed delivery
of sequence data.
SPX Part of Novells IPX/SPX (internet work packet exchange/sequential packet
exchange) protocol suite for sequenced data.
NWLink is the Microsoft implementation of the IPX/SPX protocol.
NetBEUI [net BIOS extended user interface] - Establishes communication sessions
between computers (Net BIOS) and provide the underlying data transport service
(NetBEUI).
ATP (Apple Talk transaction protocol). NBP (name binding protocol) Apples
communication session and data transport protocol.

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Network Protocols
Network protocols provide what are called link services. These protocols handle
addressing and routing information, error checking, and retransmission requests. Network
protocols also define rules for communicating in a particular networking environment such as
Ethernet or Token Ring. The more popular network protocols include;
IP (Internet Protocol) The TCP/IP protocol for packet forwarding and routing.
IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) NetWares protocol for packet forwarding and
routing.
NWLink The Microsoft implementation of the IPX/SPX protocol.
NetBEUI A transport protocol that provides data transport services for NetBIOS
sessions and applications.
DDP (Datagram Delivery Protocol) An Apple Talk data transport protocol.
Common Protocols
This section looks as some of the most commonly used protocols. They are:
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
X.25
Xerox Network System (XNS)
IPX/SPX and NWLink
APPC
Apple Talk
OSI protocol suite
DECnet
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry standard
suite of protocols providing communications in a heterogeneous environment. In addition,
TCP/IP provides a routable, enterprise networking protocol and access to the worldwide
Internet and its resources.
It has become the standard protocol used for interoperability among many different
types of computer. This interoperability is one of the primary advantages to TCP/IP. Almost
all networks support TCP/IP as a protocol. TCP/IP also supports routing, and is commonly
used as an internetworking protocol.

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Because of its popularity, TCP/IP has become the de facto standard for
internetworking.
Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include:
SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) E-mail
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) For exchanging files among computers running TCP/IP
SNMP (simple network management protocol) Network Management.
TCP/IP Installation
Microsoft TCP/IP on Windows NT enables enterprise networking and connectivity on
Windows NT-based computer. TCP/IP provides:
A standard, routable, enterprise networking protocol for Windows NT.
An architecture that facilitates connectivity in heterogeneous environments.
Access to the world wide Internet and its resources.
Installing TCP/IP is simple and straightforward. From the Control Panel, double-click
the Network icon, and then select Add Software. Choose the TCP/IP and related components
selections.
Installation Parameters
When you install Microsoft TCP/IP, you need the following three configuration
parameters to use it in a routed network environment.
IP Address
An IP address is a logical 32-bit address used to identify a TCP/IP host. Each IP
address has two parts: the network ID and the host ID. The network ID identifies all hosts
that are on the same physical network. The host ID identifies a specific host on a network.
Each computer that runs TCP/IP requires a unique IP address. For example, the following is a
valid IP address: 131.107.2.200
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is used to mask a portion of the IP address so that TCP/IP can
distinguish the network ID from the host ID. TCP/IP hosts communicate by using the subnet
mask to determine whether the destination host is located on a local or remote network. The
following is a valid subnet mask: 255.255.0.0.

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Default Gateway
For communication with a host on another network, an IP host must be configured
with a route to the destination network. If a configured route is not found, the host uses the
gateway to transmit the traffic to the destination host. The default gateway is where the IP
sends packets that are destined for remote networks. If a default gateway is not specified,
communications are limited to the local area network.
Configuring TCP/IP Manually
For manual configurations, assign an IP address, the subnet mask, and the default
gateway in the Windows NT-based computer to use TCP/IP. Enter these parameters for each
network adapter card in the computer that will use TCP/IP. If you are installing Windows
NT Server on an existing network that contains computers with TCP/IP addresses, you should
see your network administrator for details on installing TCP/IP.
Configuring TCP/IP Automatically
Microsoft Windows NT Server provides a service called the dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP) server service. When a DHCP server is configured on the
network, clients that support DHCP can request TCP/IP configuration information from the
DHCP server. This can greatly simplify the configuration of TCP/IP on the client computer.
If there is a DHCP server available, TCP/IP can be configured automatically by
selecting the Enable Automatic DHCP Configuration check box when installing TCP/IP.
With the Enable Automatic DHCP Configuration option selected, the DHCP Client contacts a
DHCP server for its configuration information, such as the IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway. This option can also be configured at a later time through the Network
option in Control Panel.
When you select Enable Automatic DHCP Configuration, DHCP configures TCP/IP
on all of the network adapter cards in the computer. TCP/IP automatically binds to all
network adapter cards in the computer.
After you select Enable Automatic DHCP Configuration, no further configuration of
TCP/IP is necessary on the DHCP client.
WAN
Local area networks are well, but have physical and distance limitations. Using
components such as bridges and routers, and communication service providers, the LAN can
be expanded from an operation that serves a local area to one that can support data
communications over a state, a country, or even the globe. When a network does this, it is
called a wide area network (WAN).
The WAN appears to function in the same way as a local area network. Most WANs
are combinations of LANs and other types of communications components connected by
communication links called WAN links. WAN links can include the following:
Packet-switching networks

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Fiber-optic cable
Microwave transmitters
Satellite links
Cable television coaxial systems
WAN links, such as wide-area telephone connections, are too expensive and complex
for most private companies to purchase, implement, and maintain on their own. Therefore,
they are usually leased from service providers.
Communication between LANs will involve one of the following transmission
technologies:
Analog
Digital
Packet switching
Analog Connectivity
The same network that telephone uses is available to computers. One name for this
world-wide network is the public switched telephone network (PSTN). IN the computing
environment, the PSTN, offering voice grade dial-up telephone lines, can be thought of as
one large WAN link.
MODEMS
A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over a
telephone line. Computers cannot simply connect over a telephone line because the computer
communicates in digital pulses (electronic signals) and a telephone line can only send analog
pulses (sound).
A digital signal is synonymous with binary, and the signal can only have a value of
0 or 1. An analog signal is a smooth curve, which can represent an infinite range of values.
A modem at the sending end converts the computers digital signals into analog and
transmits the analog signals onto the telephone line. A modem at the receiving end converts
the incoming analog signals back into digital signals for the receiving computer.
In other words, sending modem MOdulates digital signals into analog signals, and
receiving modem DEModulates analog signals back into digital signals.

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Modem Hardware
Modems are known as data communications equipment (DCE)
following characteristics:

and share the

A Serial (RS-232) Communications Interface

An RJ-11 telephone-line interface (a four-wire telephone plug)
Modems are available in both internal and external models. The internal models are
installed in an expansion slot like any other circuit board. An external modem is a small box
that is connected to the computer by a serial (RS-232) cable running from the serial port to
the modems computer cable connection. The modem uses a cable with RJ-11C connector to
connect to the wall.
Types of Modem
There are broadly two types of modems:
Asynchronous
Synchronous
The type of modem a network uses will depend on the environment and what the
network needs to do.
In the asynchronous environment, data is transmitted in a serial stream. Each
character is turned into a string of bits. Each of these strings is separated from the other
strings by a start-of-character bit and a stop bit sequence. The receiving computer uses the
start and stop bit markers to schedule its timing functions so it is ready to receive the next
byte of data.
Synchronous communication relies on a timing scheme coordinated between two
devices to separate groups of bits and transmit them in blocks known as frames. Special
characters are used to begin the synchronization and check its accuracy periodically.
Modem Installation
The following steps provide instructions for installing external modem.

Turn off the computer.

Plug the male (25 pins) end of the serial cable into the connector marked RS232 on the back of the modem.
Plug the other end of the serial cable into the computers serial port.
Plug the telephone cable into the connector marked LINE on the back of the
modem.
Plug the other end of the telephone cable into a telephone wall jack.

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Make sure to verify the modem power switch is in the off position. Plug the
AC adapters power cord into the connector marked POWER on the back of the
modem.

Plug the transformer end of the AC adapter into a standard AC wall outlet.

Optionally connect: (a) telephone to the modems PHONE connector. Lift the
handset and listen for a dial tone to check for a working connection. (b) a speaker
to the modems SPK connector, and (c) a microphone to the modems MIC
connector.

Turn on the modem. The modem should perform a self-test, and then be ready
for use.

Software Installation
Click Modem icon in Control Panel.
Select Add to install modem driver.
When the driver information is asked for, select from disk.
The system will ask for driver diskette. Insert the provided diskette and hit
ENTER.
The file will then be accessed, and the name should now appear on the list of
choices.
Follow the default settings provided by Win 95/98 to complete the installation
process.
Indicator Lights
External modem features LED indicators on the front panel that report modem status:
MR

Modem Ready

On when power is applied to the modem

TR
SD

Terminal Ready
Transmit Data

RD

Receive Data

OH
CD
CS

Off Hook
Carrier Detect
Clear to Send

On when DTR signal is active

On when modem is transmitting data to remote
modem
On when modem is receiving data from the remote
modem
On when modem is off hook
On when remote carrier has been detected
On when CTS signal is active

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INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks, gateways, servers, and computers
using a common set of telecommunications protocols to link them together.
The Internet provides worldwide access to information and resources. There are vast
stores of resource information that are easily accessible from universities, government
organizations, the military, or libraries.
Internet Services
Today the Internet is growing tremendously and is known mainly for the services it
provides. Some of the best known services available on the Internet include the following:
World Wide Web (WWW)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers
Electronic mail
News
Gopher
Telnet
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (WWW) is the Internets multimedia service that contains a vast
storehouse of hypertext documents written using the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML). Hypertext is a method for presenting text, images, sound, and videos that are
linked together in a non-sequential web of associations. The hypertext format allows the
user to browse through topics in any order. There are tools and protocols that help to
explore the Internet. These tools help to locate and transport resources between
computers.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) support is one method of supporting remote networks. It
is a protocol which allows simple file transfers of documents. There are FTP servers
which provide vast amounts of information stored as files. The data in these files cannot
be accessed directly, rather the entire file must be transferred from the FTP server to the
local servers. It is a file transfer program for TCP/IP environments and is implemented at
the Application layer of the OSI model.
The most common protocol used for sending files between computer is the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP allows for transferring both text and binary files.

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E-mail
Electronic mail, the sending and receiving of electronic messages, is currently one of
the most popular activities on the Internet. E-mail is used on most commercial online
services, and is the primary reason for getting onto the Internet or an online service.
To send e-mail, one must know the recipients e-mail address. These addresses are
composed of the users identification, followed by the @ sign, followed by the location of
the recipients computer. For example, the e-mail address of the President of the United
States is [email protected]. The last three letters indicate this location is a
government-sponsored domain on the Internet.
News
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is an Internet standard protocol defined for
distribution, inquiry, retrieval, and posting of news articles. Network News (USENET) is
a popular use of NNTP. It offers bulletin boards, chat rooms, and Network News.
Gopher
Gopher is a widely-used tool on the Internet. It is a menu-based program that enables
you to browse for information without having to know where the material is specifically
located. Gopher is one of the most comprehensive browser systems and is integrated to
allow you access to other programs such as FTP and Telnet.
Telnet
Telnet was one of the first Internet protocols. You can use Telnet to act as a remote
terminal to an Internet host. When you connect to an Internet host, your computer acts as
if your keyboard is attached to the remote computer. You can run programs on a
computer on the other side of the world, just as if you were sitting in front of it.
This terminal/host system evolved from UNIX character-based systems in the early
days of the Internet. Microsoft Windows NT and Windows 95 install a Telnet program as
part of the TCP/IP utilities. This program allows you to act as either a VT-52 or VT-100
terminal to a system accessible by means of TCP/IP, including computer reached by
means of the Internet.
Locating Resources
Locating resources on the Internet is possible because each resource on the Internet
has an address. There are special programs called browsers that use these resource
addresses and search engines to help users find information on a specific topic.
Internet Names
Every resource on the Internet has its own location identifier or Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). The URLs specify the server to access as well as the access
method and the location.

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A URL consists of several parts. The simplest version contains:

The protocol to be used
A colon
The address of the resource
The address begins with two forward slashes. The address below is the entry for
accessing the Microsoft World Wide Web server. The http: indicates the protocol you
use. The rest of the entry, //www.microsoft.com, is the address of the computer.
http: //www.microsoft.com
The entry below shows how to access the Microsoft FTP server. In this case,
you are using the FTP protocol.
ftp://ftp.microsoft.com
Domain Name System (DNS)
In addition to URLs, every computer on the Internet has a unique IP address.
The IP address is four sets of digits separated by dots: 198.46.8.34.
Because these strings of numbers are hard to remember and difficult to
accurately type, the domain name system (DNS) was created. Domain names enable
short, alphabetical names to be assigned to IP addresses to describe where a computer
is located. In the example, http://www.microsoft.com, the domain name is
www.microsoft.com
The last three characters of the DNS or UNC address indicate the type of
domain. Some domain types you might see with U.S addresses:
com

Commercial organizations

edu

Educational institutions

gov

Government organizations (except the military)

mil

Military organizations

net

Network service providers

org

Organizations

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E-Mail
Electronic mail, or e-mail , is a powerful, sophisticated tool that allows a user to send
anything that can be created on a computer to anyone with an e-mail address. E-mail
messages can include text, graphics, other attached files, audio, and video. E-mail
communications can be:
Read and discarded
Read and saved
Read and replied to
Edited and saved or forwarded
Printed in hard copy form
E-mail systems can provide instant communications between everyone in any
organization, regardless of the size of the organization. E-mail correspondence takes place at
the convenience of both the sender and the receiver. Messages can be sent at any time with
the assurance that they will be available at the receivers earliest convenience. E-mail can
also provide a historical record of a series of communications on a particular topic.
E-mail Functions
E-mail functions include how e-mail works and its capabilities.
Mailboxes
In an e-mail environment, the network administrator creates a mailbox for each user
on the system. A mailbox is the delivery location for all incoming e-mail for a designated
owner.
Notification
E-mail systems can notify recipients when they have received messages. The
receivers computer uses sound, a visual cue, or a combination of sound and a visual cue to
announce the arrival of new messages.
Return Receipt
An e-mail program can inform a user whether or not a message they sent was received
and read.
Reply
Most e-mail systems offer a reply feature. Users can answer any e-mail
communication by simply clicking a reply button instead of entering a complete e-mail
address. Users can save messages from people they communicate with frequently and use the
reply feature for future communications without having to be concerned with addressing
details.

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Attachments
Current e-mail systems allow users to attach more than just ext files to messages.
Attachments can include spreadsheet, databases, graphics, video, and sound clips.
Large System E-mail Providers
E-mail is also available through large service providers to provide communications
and services for users around the country beyond any company affiliation. Five major online
providers are:
Microsoft
CompuServe
America Online
MCI MAIL
AT&T
These are becoming standard communication platforms through which subscribers can
communicate with anyone else on the service who has a mail box. Typically, one service can
communicate with another service.
MANAGING NETWORK ACCOUNTS
Network Management
The network that will run itself has not been invented. New users will need to be
added. Existing users will need to be deleted. New resources will need to be installed,
shared, and given the appropriate access permissions. Access permissions are rules
associated with a resource, usually a directory file or printer. Permissions regulate the users
access to the resource.
Five Management Areas
There are five major areas of network management. A network administrator needs to
be familiar with:
User administration Creating and maintaining user accounts and appropriate access
to resources.
Resource management The implementation and support of network resources.
Configuration management Planning the original configuration, expanding it, and
maintaining the configuration information and documentation.
Performance management Monitoring and tracking network activity to maintain and
enhance the systems performance.
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Maintenance The prevention, detection, and solution of network problem.

Administrator Responsibilities
From the five management areas, it is possible to create a check list of network
administration duties for which an administrator is responsible. These include:
Creating and managing user accounts
Security
Training and supporting users as needed
Updating existing software and implementing new software.
Archiving
Preventing data loss
Monitoring and regulating server storage space
Tuning the network to achieve maximum performance
Data backup
Protecting the network against viruses
Troubleshooting
Upgrading and replacing network components as needed
Adding new computers to the network
Creating User Accounts
Everyone working on the network needs a user account. An account is composed of a
user name and logon parameters established for that user. This information is entered by the
administrator and stored on the network by the operating system. The network uses this
name to verify the account when the user attempts to log on.
All networks have a utility, which the administrator can use to enter a new account
name into the network security database. This process is sometimes referred to as creating a
user. The Microsoft Windows NT Server networks utility for creating accounts is called the
User Manager for Domains, and is found in the Administrative Tools Program group.
To creating user accounts
Open User Manager, on the User menu, select the menu option New User. A window
appears for entering the information to create a new use.
Entering User Information

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The new account contains information that defines a user to network security system.
This includes:
The user name and password.
Rights the user has for accessing the system and using its resources.
Administrative groups to which the account belongs and other groups to which it has
been assigned.
Some of the fields used to create a new user are explained in the following text.
Username This identifies the user account. A user name cannot be identical to any other
user or group name of the domain or computer being administered. It can contain up to 20
characters and any uppercase or lowercase characters except the following:
/ \ : ;| = , + * ? < >
Full Name The users complete name.
Description Any text describing the account or the user.
Password and Confirm Password A password can be up to 14 character in length. It is
case-sensitive. You must type the identical password in both fields.
SETTING USER PARAMETERS
Most networks will allow administrators to set a number of parameters for users
including:
Logon times To restrict when users can log on
The home directory To give the user a storage area for private files.
The expiration data To limit a temporary users life on the network.
Profiles
It may be advantageous for an administrator to be able to structure a network
environment for certain users. This might be necessary, for example, to maintain some level
of security, or if the users are not familiar enough with computers and networks to be able to
use the technology on their own. The administrator can use user profiles to control the users
logon environment.
Profiles are used to configure and maintain a users logon environment including
network connections and program items, which appear when the user logs on. These can
include:
Printer connections
Window sizes and positions

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Icons
Mouse settings
The screen arrangement of colors
Screen savers
The profile parameters may also include special logon conditions and information about
where the user may store personal files.
Default User Accounts
Network operating systems come with certain types of user accounts already created
and which are automatically activated during installation.
The administrator the Initial Account
The Administrator account is the account used to manage the workstation. When a
network operating system is installed, the installation program automatically creates an
account with complete network authority. Someone has to be able to :
Start the network.
Set the initial security parameters
Create other user accounts.
In the Microsoft networking environment, this account is called Administrator. In the
Novell environment, this account is known as a supervisor.
The first person to log on to the network is normally the person installing the network
operating system after logging on as administrator, that person has full control over all
network functions.
The Guest Account
Another default account created by the installation program is an account called
Guest. This is an account for people who do not have a valid user account but need
temporary access to the network. Some network operating system such as Microsoft
Windows NT Server leave the Guest account disabled after installation. The network
administrator has to activate it.
Passwords
Passwords help ensure the security of a network environment. The first thing the
administrator needs to do when setting up the initial account is enter a password. This will
prevent unauthorized users from logging on as administrator and creating accounts.
Users should develop unique passwords and store them in a secure place. There are
certain traditional suggestions governing the use of passwords including:
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Do not use obvious passwords such as birth date, social security number, or the name
of spouse, children, a pet, and so on.
Memorize the password instead of writing it down
Be conscious of the password expiration date.
Group Accounts
Network can support thousands of accounts. There will be occasions when the
administrator needs to conduct network business with each of these accounts or at least a
certain percentage of all of the network accounts.
A group is an account that contains other accounts. The primary reason for
implementing groups is administration. Groups make it possible for an administrator to treat
large numbers of users as one account.
If 100 accounts were put in one group, the administrator could simply send one
message to the group account, and all of the members of the group would automatically get
the message. Permissions would be set for the group, and all of the members of the group
would automatically get those permissions.
Planning for Groups
Because groups are powerful network administration tools, they should be considered
when planning a network. All accounts will have certain access rights and activities in
common. Access rights authorize a user to perform certain actions on the system. Rights
apply to the system as a whole and are different from permissions.
Groups are used to :
Grant access to resources, such as files, directories, and printers. The permissions
granted to a group are automatically granted to its members.
Give rights to perform system tasks, such as to back up and restore files or change the
system time. By default, user accounts have no rights. They obtain rights through
group membership.
Simplify communications by reducing the number of messages that need to be created
and sent.
Creating Groups
Creating groups is similar to creating individual user accounts. Most networks feature
a utility with which the administrator can implement new groups. In Microsoft Windows NT
Server, this utility is called User Manager for Domains and is located in the Administrative
Tools program group.

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In User Manager, click New Local Group on the User menu. This selection
presents you with a dialog box for entering the information to create a new local group.
The fields used to create a new user are explained in the following text.
Group Name This field identifies the local group. A group name cannot be identical
to any other group or user name of the domain or computer being administered. It
can contain any uppercase or lowercase characters except for the following : / \ :
;| = , + * ? < >
Description. This field contains text describing the group or the users in the group.
The major difference between creating a group and creating an individual user
account is that the group will need to know which users it has as members. The administrator
needs to select the appropriate user accounts and assign them to the group.
Types of Groups
Microsoft Windows NT Server uses four types of groups.
Local Groups
This type of group is implemented in each computers account database. Local
groups consist of the individual user accounts that have rights and permissions on the local
computer and other group accounts.
Default Local Groups
Windows NT Workstation comes with several built-in local groups for the
convenience in adding new users to the workstation. Each group has a default set of rights
and capabilities, which makes it easy to categorize user accounts. The Administrator may
modify these rights and capabilities, or create custom groups after NT has been installed.
These groups are:

Administrators
Power users
Users
Guests
Backup Operators
Replicator

Administrators
Administrators hold full rights and privileges over all files and other resources on the
workstation. Operations that can be performed by members of the Administrators group
include:
-

Partition or format a hard disk

Display, initialize, and control the security data

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Perform volume backups and restores

Access system memory locations for debugging

Take ownership of files

Unlock a locked workstation

Assign user rights

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Global Groups
This type of group is used across an entire domain. Global groups are created on a
primary domain controller (PDC) and can contain user accounts from only their own
domains account database.
Special Groups
Windows NT Server generally uses these groups for internal system access to
resources and permissions.
Built-in-Groups
Certain functions are common to all networks. These include most administration and
maintenance tasks. Built-in-groups are divided into three categories:
Administrators Members of this group have full capabilities on a computer.
Operator-type groups Members of these groups have limited administrative
capabilities to perform specific tasks.
Other Members of these groups have capabilities to perform limited tasks.
Microsoft Windows NT Server.
Disabling and Deleting User Accounts
Disabling an Account
If an account has only been disabled, it still exists in the networks account database,
but no one can use the account to log on to the network. It is best if the administrator
disables the account as soon as it has been established that the user will no longer be using
the account. Once it has been determined that the account will never be needed again, it can
be deleted.
Windows NT Server uses the User Properties window in User Manager to disable
users. To disable a user, double click the name of the account, select the Account Disabled
check box, and then click OK . The account is now disabled.
Deleting an Account
Deleting an account erases the users information from the networks user account
database; the user no longer has access to the network.
A user account should be deleted when:
The user has left the organization and will no longer have a business reason to use the
network.
The users employment has been terminated.

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The user has moved within the organization and no longer needs access to that
network.
The actual process of deleting a user is usually a simple matter of making a choice
and clicking the selection in a dialog box. Microsoft Windows NT Server, uses the User
Manager utility for deleting user accounts. In User Manager, select the account to be
deleted, and then press the DELETE key.
Sharing a Printer
Sharing a printer on the network allows other users to print to a printing device
connected to one computer. Users workstations will first spool the print job to their spooler,
then it will be sent to that spooler (where the printer is connected) for final processing and
printing.
Before sharing a printer on the network, first create it locally on the computer where
the printer is installed.
Sharing a Printer on the Network
1. Select the Sharing tab in the Printer Properties dialog box.
2. Give it a share name (the default is the first eight characters of the printer name).
3. Choose what other operating system will print to this printer. NT loads the drivers for
each of the selected operating systems, so when users point and print, the driver
automatically is copied to their system.
4. Click OK.
Connecting to a Shared Printer
1. Browse the Network Neighborhood and double-click the computer that has the
printer.
2. Double-click the printer .
3. NT then starts the Add Printer Wizard and installs the printer on your system.

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WINDOWS NT SERVERS
Windows NT Server computers may have any one of three roles in a domain:
Primary Domain Controller, Backup Domain Controller, and Member Server.
Primary Domain Controller
The Primary Domain Controller (PDC) must be installed in order to create a domain.
The PDC is the heart or brain of a domain. All account creation and maintenance is
performed on the PDC, though the User Manager for Domains may be run on another system.
Logon scripts are typically created and maintained on the PDC as well. In smaller domains,
it might also serve most of the resources in the domain, and it could be the only Windows NT
Server system present.
Backup Domain Controller
One or more Windows NT Servers may be installed as Backup Domain Controllers
(BDC) after a domain has been created. The entire account database is basically mirrored on
each BDC, and the PDC keeps the information updated within five minutes by default. If
your PDC becomes unavailable, you may promote a BDC to be the PDC, which allows you
to make account changes while your primary server is down. A BDC is not automatically
selected and promoted to a PDC when it becomes unavailable. This is in contrast to a PDCs
role as Master Browser where a new Master Browser is selected.
In addition to keeping another copy of critical account information, each BDC acts as
another logon server. This means that the account database on a BDC may authenticate user
logons in the domain, as well as serve any logon scripts. Adding a BDC is useful in
spreading the logon load among more domain controllers. In order to keep the PDC and
BDC logon scripts synchronized; the servers usually have the replication service installed.
Typically, a shared export directory keeps the updated logon scripts and files, which are then
replicated, on a regular basis, to the import directories of all the domain controllers.
Member Server
A Member Server is any Windows NT Server computer in a domain that is not acting
as a domain controller. Its participation in the domain is almost identical to a system running
Windows NT Workstation. Member Servers are typically used as resource-intensive servers,
running applications such as Microsoft SQL Server.
While a workgroup server may join a domain at any time and become a member
server, a PDC or BDC requires a re-install of Windows NT Server to join another domain.
FEATURES
Portability
A business network operating system must be able to support not only small
businesses, but also complex corporate networks of the most powerful machines available.
Portability is the capability of Windows NT to be ported to other architectures, such as

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DEC Alpha, MIPS, and Motorolas Power PC. Different CPU architectures often work quite
differently. The most notable examples of these differences can be found in Intel processors
and Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) processors.
POSIX
The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) is a standard developed by the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) for file naming and identification.
Windows NT supports POSIX as an environment subsystem, just as it supports the OS/2 and
Win 32 subsystems. The POSIX subsystem makes it possible for UNIX applications to run
on NT.
Networking
The computer networking industry exploded in the last decade, and although
Windows NT got a late start, it is picking up speed and challenging other competitors in this
area. Novell Net Ware dominates the current networking arena.
Windows NT supports the following protocols for communicating in the various
operating environments.
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
NWLink
Apple Talk
DLC
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the choice for most
networks these days. TCP/IP is the protocol of the Internet and of many company networks.
Multitasking
Multitasking is the ability to run several applications at once using one Processor.
The rapid execution of the different applications makes them appear as if they are all running
at once.
There are two types of multitasking: preemptive and cooperative.
Preemptive
Preemptive multitasking gives the operating system the ability to take control
of the processor without the consent of the application. This is the most common type
of multitasking in Windows NT.
There are two ways the operating system can take control of the processor
from the application.

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When the time slice (or time quantum) for the task runs out.
When a task with a higher priority is ready to be executed. The lower priority task
must yield control to the higher priority task.
Cooperative
Cooperative multitasking or non-preemptive multitasking requires an
application to check the queue for other waiting applications and relinquish control to
those applications.
Multithreading
Multithreading makes different tasks performed within the same application appear as
if they are running simultaneously. Every running application is considered a process, and
every process can spawn one or more threads. Threads are the smallest units of execution in
a process.
On a single-processor system, threads from multiple processes appear to run at the
same time, even though only one thread is executed at a time. On a system with multiple
processors, however, the threads can actually execute simultaneously. Multithreaded
applications must be written carefully to avoid conflicts between threads.
Multiprocessing
Windows NT Workstation provides support for two processors. Multiprocessing
allows threads, which are small components of applications, to run on any processor.
Multiprocessing can be broken into two discrete categories:
Asymmetric Multiprocessing (ASMP)
Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)
Asymmetric Multiprocessing uses one processor for the operating system functions,
and any other processors are used for user threads. Symmetric multiprocessing is the ability
of threads to be processed simultaneously by any processor in the system.
File Systems
Windows NT has introduced the New Technology File System (NTFS) for greater
flexibility, security, and performance provided by the operating system. Windows NT also
has maintained compatibility with its predecessors by providing support for the File
Allocation Table (FAT) file system.
FAT
The FAT file system has been the most supported file system for Microsoft
operating systems for many years. It has limitations with respect to security,
reliability, and hard drive capacity. Microsoft even recommends using a FAT partition
as your primary partition, so that you can perform diagnostics on the partition in an

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emergency. This would allow you to boot the computer from the floppy and run
surface scanning and data recovery tools on the FAT partition.
NTFS
NTFS is the file system of choice for the Windows NT operating system,
because it can support the new features of Window NT. Among these features is the
capability to assign attributes to files for security reasons. You can limit use of a file
or folder to a certain user or group by assigning the appropriate Permissions directly
to the file or folder. A compression attribute can be set for files and folders, as well.
This attribute enables you to compress the contents of a file or folder, without
compressing the entire volume. Another reason to choose NFTS is the larger capacity
hard disk support.
The new NTFS file system offers home users and business users considerable
advantages over the FAT file system of Windows 95.
NTFS supports larger capacity hard disks than FAT.
Compression for individual files and folders comes in handy when you need
extra space, or for files or folders that will not be accessed for a period of time.
NTFS has less file system overhead than the FAT file system, and therefore
maximizes valuable hard disk space.
Hot fixing, commonly known as sector sparing, automatically moves the
contents of a sector that is found to be bad, and marks that sector as unusable.
This is transparent to the user, but only available if you are using SCSI
devices.
Security
Windows NT can restrict access right down to the file level for greater security. This
may be necessary when a folder is shared by a group of users, but access to a certain file in
that folder is restricted to fewer users.
Secure logon. Users must have the proper credentials in order to access any of the
resources located on the system.
Access control. Resource owners can determine who can access resources, and the
nature of that access.
Auditing.

The system can audit successful and failed attempts to access system

resources.
Memory protection.

A process cannot read another processs data without

permission.

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Multiple Clients
A client is most commonly defined as the workstation accessing the resources in a
Client/Server model. A Windows NT network uses an NT server, and can support multiple
client workstations of different operating system types.

MS-DOS
Windows 3.x
Windows 95
Windows NT Workstation
Macintosh
OS/2

A Windows NT network can contain any or all of these client workstations. Each
operating system is subject to its own limitations or benefits. Windows NT Workstation is
used in conjunction with NT servers to take full advantage of its increased security, stability,
and reliability.
Compatibility
Maintaining compatibility is important in any release of an operating system, and
Windows NT is no different. Some companies have found out why not maintain backward
compatibility is referred to as corporate suicide. NT was originally planned not to support
any older applications, but those plans were soon changed to support business applications.
Application compatibility is maintained through the various subsystems, most notably the
virtual MS-DOS machine which runs both MS-DOS and Windows applications.
Storage
An operating system must be able to anticipate future growth of hardware and
components. One area that has been continually improving is storage. Hard disk and RAM
capacities are increasing at an alarming pace. Luckily, Windows NT supports a large amount
of RAM (4GB) and an even larger capacity of hard disk space (16 exabytes).
Domain vs. a Workgroup
Windows NT supports the use of a workgroup or domain for the managing and
sharing of resources for users. In any network of computers, resources are shared, and clients
access the shared resources. Each of the models, workgroup and domain, supports the
sharing of resources, but they do so in different ways. The choice of workgroup of domain is
based on the network environment and several other factors. Important factors to consider in
deciding between the two are the number of users who will share the resources, and their
technical knowledge.
Workgroup Model
The workgroup model, is most often used in a small group of users, due to the way
resources are managed and shared. Each computer in the workgroup must maintain the
account information for each user in the workgroup. This is because there is no central

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means of providing authentication for users. The workgroup model is much easier than the
domain group model in terms of user account management and access to resources.
Pros
Easier to install than a domain.
Does not require NT Server or another server for authentication.
No central point of failure.
Cons
Requires users to have knowledge about sharing resources and account
management.
Not for groups of more than ten computers.
Account information must be kept on every computer that participates in the
workgroup.
Domain Model
Under the domain model, a Windows NT Server acts as a domain controller. The
domain controller authenticates users into the domain before they can access resources that
are a part of the domain. These resources can be located on the NT Server, or any computer
on the network. The domain model is strongly recommended for networks of ten computers
or more. It enables an administrator to centrally manage the accounts in the domain,
including account policies that regulate password restrictions such as length of password,
password age, and account lockout. The administrator also can add users to groups, give the
user special permissions, and disable or delete accounts from the Windows NT tools
including User Manager available in NT Workstation, or User Manager for Domains in NT
Server.
In the Workgroup model user account information is kept on each computer that
participates in the workgroup. In the domain model, the user account information database
can be shared by users or groups, and also is shared by the servers in the domain. These
servers require access to this database if they are to perform logon validation for users. They
are, most likely, the Primary Domain Controller or a Backup Domain Controller. The PDC
is responsible for the changes to the directory database. Any adjustments by the
administrator are recorded in this database on the PDC. There would be one PDC for each
domain. The other computer in the illustration is a Backup Domain Controller (BDC). The
BDC maintains a copy of the directory database that has been replicated from the PDC. The
BDC can authenticate user logons with this database.
Pros
Provides a central source for user account management and resource
management.
Can support a large number of users.
Can coexist with other domains in the organization.
Cons
Central point of failure if backup domain controllers are not used.
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More difficult to install and configure.

INSTALLING WINDOWS NT 4.0 WORKSTATION

Minimum Hardware Requirements
The minimum requirements for Windows NT Workstation x 86 are:
Intel processor 486/33 or higher (Pentium, Pentium-Pro, Pentium II)
12MB of RAM for x86 (Intel) (16 to 32MB of memory is recommended)
120MB of free hard disk space
CD-ROM drive (or have access to a network share or CD-ROM)
VGA or higher resolution graphics card
Microsoft mouse or compatible pointing device
Recommended Hardware
The following hardware is recommended for users who want to get the most out of
Windows NT 4.0 Workstation:
Intel Pentium, Pentium-Pro, Pentium II Processor
32 to 48 MB of RAM for x 86 (Intel)
2GB of free hard disk space this amount allows enough space for large page file and
software applications.
Bootable CD-ROM drive
SVGA or higher resolution, 3D graphics card
Microsoft mouse or compatible pointing device
33.6 modem or ISDN adapter to connect to the Internet
10/100MB network interface card with a PCI bus for greater throughput.
Partitioning the Hard Disk
It is common to partition the hard disk before you install Windows NT 4.0 to make
installation easier. If you have a large hard disk, you can set up as many partitions as
necessary. A partition is a logical division of a physical disk. After partitioning the hard disk,
you need to decide which partition will be the system partition and which will be the active
partition.

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The active partition is the partition that the operating system will boot from; it is often
called the boot partition. The other partition is the system partition. Once partition is
finished you can format your drives. This is the final step before you begin the installation
procedure. It is a good idea to make your disk partitions as large as possible, so that you have
enough room to install all of your applications and still leave enough room for your pagefile.
FAT Partitions
The File Allocation Table (FAT) file system is used predominantly for MS-DOS and
Microsoft Windows systems. To allow for backward compatibility, Windows NT fully
supports the FAT file system. The FAT file system has the following characteristics:
Good for smaller hard disks of 200 to 400 MB because of overhead.
Does not offer any file or directory security.
Does not protect files through the security features of Windows NT.
Good if your system needs to be accessible through DOS or OS/2, but can be easily
fragmented.
Can accept partitions up to 2GB.
Handles hard disks under 511MB.
Universally accepted as a file system.
Necessary if you wish to dual-boot between NT and DOS or OS/2.
Cannot take advantage of fault tolerance.
Needed for dual-boot capability with MS-DOS and Windows 95.
Uses the 8.3 naming scheme.
NTFS Partitions
The New Technology File System (NTFS) is the file system of choice for Windows
NT. NTFS provides granular security to both files and directories on the local workstation.
This level of security is not available on a FAT partition. Another reason to use an NTFS
partition with NT is fault tolerance.
NTFS is characterized by:
Better support for hard disks over 500MB.
File and directory security that allows you to specify access levels.
Complete Windows NT security model support.
Recognition only by Windows NT.
Capability for expanding partitions beyond 2 GB.
Allowing up to 255 characters per filename.

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Fast access, recoverable and secure.

Support for partitions as large as 16 exabytes.

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Creating and Deleting Partitions

If you are running Windows NT, you can create both NTFS and FAT partitions using
the Disk Administrator tool found in the Administrative Tools common group. You can also
convert existing FAT partitions to NTFS using Disk Administrator, but you cannot later
convert an NTFS partition back to a FAT partition.
DELETING PARTITIONS
To delete existing partitions:
Boot your computer to MS-DOS.
At the command prompt, type FDISK.EXE
To display your partition information, Press 4.
Press ESC to continue.
Select 3 to indicate that you want to delete partitions.
Decide which partition to delete and press the number associated with it.
Type the volume label of the partition to verify the deletion.
Type Y to confirm.
Press ESC to continue.
CREATING PARTITIONS To create new partitions:
1.

Create the Primary DOS partition.

2.

Create the extended DOS Partition.

3.

Create a logical partition or individual partitions on the extended partition

4.

Convert your FAT partition either by using the CONVERT utility during
Windows NT setup or by using DISK Administrator from Windows NT \
Administrative Tools (Common Group)

5.

Select option 2 to make one of your partitions active (usually this is your boot
partition).

6.

Type the number of your partition to mark it as active.

7.

Press ESC to continue.

8.

Press ESC again to continue and exit FDISK.EXE.

9.

Reboot your computer to make the changes take effect.

10.

Format your active partition by typing.

A:\format C: /S

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This formats your C: Partition with the necessary system files so that you can
boot your machine.
Converting an Existing FAT Partition to NTFS
To convert a FAT partition into NTFS:
1.

Log on to your computer as Administrator.

2.

Click Start Menu | Programs | Command Prompt.

3.

At the command prompt. Start the CONVERT.EXE conversion utility by

typing.
C:\CONVERT D: /FS:NTFS
This converts the D: Partition to NTFS.

4.

Reboot the computer to create the file system.

To Add or Remove a Windows Component

Click on Control Panel to open the Add/Remove Programs Properties dialog
box at the Windows Setup tab.
Under Components, click the component you want to add or remove.
o To add all parts of the component, select its check box.
o To remove all parts of the component, click to clear its check box.
o To add or remove some parts of the component, click Details, and then click
to select or clear check boxes for those parts.
Notes

You can also open the Add/Remove Programs Properties dialog box at the
Windows Setup tab by clicking Start, pointing to Settings, clicking Control Panel,
double-clicking Add/Remove Programs, and then clicking the Windows Setup tab.

If you use a compact disc to install Windows, you will be prompted to insert it into
your computer.

To change dialing settings for a Dial-Up Networking connections

Double-click My Computer, and then double-click Dial-Up Networking.
Click the icon for the connection that has settings you want to change.
On the Connections menu, click Settings.

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To change the properties for a Dial-Up Networking connection

In the Dial-Up Networking folder, click the icon for the connection that has
properties you want to change.
On the File menu, click Properties.
Click Configure.
Make changes to the modem properties.
Your changes will take effect when you connect to a network that uses this
connection, or the next time you open this connection.
Notes

To change the type of server that you are connecting to, or to specify which protocols
the connection uses, click the Server Types tab.

You can change settings only if you have already set up a connection.

To set up a Dial-Up Networking server

1. Double-click My Computer, and then double-click Dial-Up Networking to start
Dial-Up Networking.
2. Click Connections and then click Dial-Up Server.
3. Click Allow caller access to enable others to connect to your computer.
4. Click Server Type and then choose a server type from the Type of Dial-Up Server
list.
Notes

You can also start Dial-Up Networking by clicking Start, pointing to Programs,
pointing to Accessories, pointing to Communications, and then clicking Dial-Up
Networking.
If Dial-Up Networking is not in My Computer or the Accessories menu, it is not
installed.
Dial-Up Networking and Dial-Up Server must be installed on your computer before
you can set up a Dial-Up Networking server.

Using Dial-Up Networking

If you have a modem, you can connect to another computer or to your corporate
network by using your phone line. With Dial-Up Networking, you can have access to
information on another computer, even if your computer is not on a network. The computer
you are dialing into must be set up as a network for you to use its shared resources. Both
your home computer and the network server must have modems installed.
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To connect to another computer or corporate network, you need to install your modem
and then configure the connection. If your modem is already installed, start the New
Connection wizard by double-clicking My Computer and then double-clicking Dial-Up
Networking.
CHANGING PASSWORD
To change your network password
1. Display the Passwords Properties dialog box by pressing CTRL + ALT + DEL.
2. Click Change Passwords.
3. Type your old password.
4. Type your new password, and then type it again in Confirm New Password.
Notes

You can also open the Password Properties dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking Passwords.

A server is a computer on a local area network that is running software for controlling
access to all or part of the network and its resources. A computer with server capabilities can
make resources available to other computers on the network.
To change your password for a NetWare server
1. Connect to your preferred server .
2. Click Start, point to Programs, and then click MS-DOS Prompt.
3. Change to the drive mapped to your preferred server.
4. Change to the folder that contains the SETPASS utility.
5. Type your old password.
6. Type your new password.
Notes

If you do not know where the SETPASS utility is, use the Find command on the Start
menu to locate it.
If your password has already expired, you cannot log on to the network to change the
password. Contact your network administrator.

To protect your files by assigning a screen saver password

1.
2.
3.
4.

Open the Display Properties dialog box at the Screen Saver tab.
In Screen Saver, click the screen saver you want to use.
Make sure the Password protected check box is selected, and then click Change.
Type your password, and then confirm the password by typing it again.

Note

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You can also open the Display Properties dialog box at the Screen Saver tab by
clicking Start, pointing to Settings, clicking Control Panel, double-clicking Display,
and then clicking the Screen Saver tab.

To change the password for a shared folder or printer

1. In Windows Explorer or My Computer, click the folder you want to share.
2. On the File menu, click Properties.
3. Click the Sharing tab, and, if necessary, click the Access Type you want for the
shared resource.
To control access to a folder or printer
1. In Windows Explorer or My Computer, click the shared folder or printer to which
you want to limit access.
2. On the File menu, click Properties.
3. Click the Sharing tab.
4. If you are using user-level access control, click Add to specify the people with whom
you want to share the printer or folder.
If you are using share-level access control, type the password you want to use for the
folder or printer.
To control access by using a list of names
1. Open the Network dialog box.
2. Click the Access Control tab, and then click User-level access control.
3. In Obtain list of users and groups from, type the name of the computer or network
domain where the list of names is stored.
For example, if the name list is stored on a computer or network domain called
Marketing, you would type: marketing
Note. User-level access control is available only if your network is set up for it. If you're not
sure whether your network is set up for user-level access control, contact your network
administrator.

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To control access by using passwords

1.

Open the Network dialog box.

2. Click the Access Control tab, and then click Share-level access control.
To enable file and printer sharing on your computer
1.
2.
3.

Open the Network dialog box.

Click File and Print Sharing.
Select the check box for the sharing options you want. A check mark indicates the
feature is activated.
4. Click OK.
Note

You can also open the Network dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to Settings,
clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking Network.

To share a folder
1.
2.
3.
4.

In Windows Explorer or My Computer, click the folder you want to share.

On the File menu, click Properties.
Click the Sharing tab, and then click Shared As.
Click the Access Type you want, and, if necessary, enter a password.

To share your printer

1.
2.
3.
4.

Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Printers.

Click the printer you want to share.
On the File menu, click Properties.
Click the Sharing tab, and then click Shared As.

To change your Windows password

1. Open the Password Properties dialog box.
2. Click
Change
Windows
Password,
and
then
click
OK.
If you have other network passwords, these will be listed. If you want, you can change
them to match your new Windows password.
3. Type your old password.
4. Type your new password, and then type it again in Confirm New Password.
Notes

You can also open the Password Properties dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking Passwords.
If you are using Windows with a network, you need to be logged on to the network to
change your Windows password.
HYPER TERMINAL

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You can use HyperTerminal and a modem to connect to a remote computer, even if
the remote computer isn't running Windows. You can also use HyperTerminal to send and
receive files, or to connect to computer bulletin boards and other information programs.
Notes

You can also start HyperTerminal by clicking Start, pointing to Programs, pointing
to Accessories, pointing to Communications, clicking HyperTerminal, and then
clicking Hypertrm.exe.

For information about how to use HyperTerminal, click the Help menu in
HyperTerminal.

To gain access to files and printers on another computer running Windows, use DialUp Networking rather than HyperTerminal.

Using Direct Cable Connection to connect to another computer

With Direct Cable Connection, you can gain access to shared folders on another
computer, even when your computer is not on a network. If the other computer is connected
to a network, you can also gain access to that network.
For example, if you have a portable computer, you can use a cable to connect it to your work
computer and network.
UTILITIES
To remove unneeded files
1. Open Windows Explorer or My Computer.
2. Right-click the disk you want to free space on, and then click Properties.
3. On the General tab, click Disk Cleanup.
4. Click the unnecessary files you want to remove. You can read a description of each
file type in the area under the list.
5. Click OK.
To determine how much free space is on your disk
1. Open Windows Explorer or My Computer.
2. Select the disk you want to check.
3. On the File menu, click Properties.

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To free more disk space

To free disk space, click the method you want to try, and then carry out the suggested
steps.

Use Disk Cleanup to remove unneeded files.

Use ScanDisk to check for errors that may be using up disk space.

Remove Windows components that you no longer use.

Remove programs that you no longer use.

Create more disk space by using Drive Converter (FAT32) or using

DriveSpace 3 disk compression.
Back up unneeded files and remove them from your hard disk.

To use the IP configuration (WINIPCFG) utility

1. Click Start, and then click Run.
2. In the Open box, type:

winipcfg
3. Click More Info.
4. To see the addresses of the DNS servers, the computer is configured to use, click the
ellipsis (...) button to the right of DNS Servers.
5. To see address information for your network adapter(s), select an adapter from the list
in Ethernet Adapter Information.
Notes

The IP Configuration utility allows users or adminstrators to see the current IP address
and other useful information about your network configuration.

You can reset one or more IP addresses. The Release or Renew buttons respectively
release or renew one IP address. If you want to release or renew all IP addresses click
Release All or Renew All.
When one of these buttons is clicked, a new IP address is obtained from either the
DHCP service or from the computer assigning itself an automatic private IP address.

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Overview of assigning automatic private IP addresses for a simple network

With Windows 98, Microsoft TCP/IP provides a new mechanism for IP addressing,
called automatic private IP addressing. If you have a small network, you can assign a unique
IP address to your network adapter using the "LINKLOCAL network" IP address space.
LINKLOCAL network addresses always begin with 169.254 and have the following format:
169.254.X.X

LINKLOCAL network addresses are used only for private, internal address and are
not valid for host computers that are visible on the Internet.
After the network adapter is assigned a LINKLOCAL network IP address, computers
can communicate, using the TCP/IP protocol, with any other computer on the network that
uses the same addressing.
A Windows 98 computer that is configured for automatic private IP addressing can
assign itself a private IP address in either of the following applies:

If the computer is not configured as a laptop, it can assign itself an automatic IP

address at startup if the computer does not have a valid DHCP lease and no DHCP
server is found on the network.

If the computer is configured as a laptop, it can assign itself an automatic IP address if

no DHCP server is found on the network, regardless of whether it has a DHCP lease.

Notes

Automatic IP addressing allows the IP address to be configured automatically. This

method decreases administration time and allows the reuse of IP addresses. It is
recommended for all sizes of networks that do not have a direct Internet connection or
the DHCP service available.

Static IP addressing allows you to manually enter a permanent IP address. This

method is not recommended except as a last resort.

If a DHCP service is later found, the computer stops using the automatic IP address
and uses the IP address assigned by the DHCP service. A DHCP IP address will not
override a static IP address, and it must be changed manually.

If a computer is moved from a local area network (LAN) with a DHCP service to a
LAN without a DHCP service, you can use the IP configuration utility (WINIPCFG)
to release the assigned DHCP address. You can then have the computer automatically
assign a private IP address.

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To assign a private IP address for a simple network

1.

Open the Network dialog box.

2. Select the TCP/IP Ethernet adapter from the list titled The following network
components are installed. Click Properties.
o To assign an automatic IP address, click Obtain an IP address automatically.
o To assign a static IP address, click Specify an IP address, and then type in the
IP address and Subnet mask .
Subnet masks are 32-bit values that allow the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the
network ID and host ID portions of the IP address. Typically, subnet masks use the format
255.x.x.x.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) offers dynamic configuration of IP
addresses and related information. DHCP provides safe, reliable, and simple TCP/IP network
configuration; prevents address conflicts; and helps conserve the use of IP addresses through
a centralized address collection. A computer running Windows 98 cannot be a DHCP server.
A DHCP server runs as a service on Windows NT Server 3.5 or later.

If your computer is connected to a network with a DHCP service and a failure occurs,
the computer assigns itself a private IP address. When the DHCP service is restored,
the computer gets the DHCP address and relinquishes the private address.

Assigning a static IP address overrides the ability to get addresses dynamically from
DHCP servers.
Private automatic IP addresses use the LINKLOCAL network IP address space and
the format is 169.254.X.X.

TELEPHONEY DEVICE
Using Phone Dialer to dial from your computer
Using Phone Dialer, you can place telephone calls from your computer by using your
modem or another Windows telephony device.
Notes

You can also start Phone Dialer by clicking Start, pointing to Programs, pointing to
Accessories, pointing to Communications, and then clicking Phone Dialer.

For information about how to use Phone Dialer, click the Help menu in Phone Dialer.

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DEVICE MANAGER
Disable a hardware device
1.

Open the System Properties dialog box at the Device Manager tab.

2. Click the plus sign next to the hardware type, and then double-click the hardware.
3. Under Device usage, select one of the following check boxes:
o

Select the Disable in this hardware profile check box to disable the device in
the current Hardware Profile. Disabling the device will prevent its Windows
driver from being loaded when you start Windows.
Select the Remove from this hardware profile check box to remove the
device from the hardware profile.

Hardware Profile
Hardware profiles instruct Windows to load the correct drivers when the
available devices change. For example, you may have different devices available for
your portable computer, depending on whether the computer is docked or undocked.
Windows will load only the drivers needed for the correct hardware profile.
Notes

You can also open the System Properties dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking System.

The device will be disabled, but the resource settings may not be freed unless you
have Plug and Play hardware.

To free resource settings used by disabled hardware

1.

to open the System Properties dialog box at the Device Manager tab.

2. In the hardware list, click the plus sign next to the type of hardware, and then rightclick the device that is disabled.
3. Click Remove, and then click OK.
4. Click Start, click Shut Down, and then click OK. When the message appears saying
it is safe to do so, turn off and unplug your computer, and then remove the card for
this hardware from the slot inside your computer.
Notes

You can also open the System Properties dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking System.

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If you have a Plug and Play device, resources are freed automatically when you
disable or remove a device. To see if resources are free after the device is disabled but
before removing the device, double-click the device in the hardware list in Device
Manager, and then click the Resources tab.

Enable a hardware device

1.

To open the System Properties dialog box at the Device Manager tab.

2. Click the plus sign next to the hardware type, and then double-click the hardware.
3. Under Device status, click Enable Device.
Notes

You can also open the System Properties dialog box by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking System.

To enable a device that was removed from a profile, add the device to the profile by
using the Add New Hardware wizard. When the profile is active, start Add New
Hardware and follow the instructions on the screen. For more information, click
Related Topics.

Set up new hardware

1. To start the Add New Hardware wizard.
2. Follow the instructions on your screen.
Notes

If you are installing a Plug and Play device, do not use the Add New Hardware
wizard. Click Related Topics for information about installing a Plug and Play device.

You can also open the Add New Hardware wizard by clicking Start, pointing to
Settings, clicking Control Panel, and then double-clicking Add New Hardware.

Whenever possible, let Windows detect your new hardware. Make sure you have
connected your hardware or installed its components on your computer before
running the wizard.

Get additional drivers from the Microsoft Download Library

From one of the following sources, download or copy the drivers you want to a folder on
your computer:
o

If you do not have a modem, request a disk that contains the driver by calling
Microsoft Technical Support, then proceed to step 3.

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If you have the CD-ROM version of Windows, you can obtain some drivers
from the Drivers folder. If the driver you need is in that folder, proceed to step
3.
If you have a modem, connect to the Microsoft Download Library and
download the driver you want. If you are in the United States, call (425) 9366735 ; if you are in Canada, call (905) 507-3022 .

Microsoft Download Library

The Microsoft Download Library contains a Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) as well as
device drivers for many printers and adapters, including, display, multimedia, network, and
other adapters. New and updated device drivers are added to the Microsoft Download Library
as they become available.
1.
In My Computer or Windows Explorer, double-click the file you downloaded to
extract the driver file.
2.

Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.

3.

Double-click Add New Hardware, and then follow the instructions on your screen.

4.

When you see Do you want Windows to search for your new hardware?, click
No.

5.

Click the hardware type for the driver you are installing.

6.

Click Have Disk, and then enter the location of the driver file.

7.

Follow the instructions on your screen.

Notes

The driver file may have an .exe, a .dll, or another type of extension.

The driver file is extracted to the same location as the downloaded file.

If you have an Internet connection, you can click Start, click Windows Update, and
then click Update Wizard.

To install a Plug and Play device

1. Turn off your computer.
2. Connect the device to your computer according to the manufacturer's instructions.
3. Turn on your computer and start Windows. Windows will automatically detect the
new Plug and Play device and install the necessary software.

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Notes

If Windows does not detect a new Plug and Play device, then the device itself is not
working properly, is not installed correctly, or is not installed at all. Do not use the
Add New Hardware wizard. The Add New Hardware wizard cannot solve any of the
problems noted here.

If your device is not a Plug and Play device, click Related Topics for information on
how to set up new hardware.
COMPUTER CENTRE SECURITY

Introduction
The problem of security of a computer and the data or information it may contain, has
received much publicity since it became apparent that a computer can play a major role in
processing and storing secret, private or proprietary information. They can, therefore,
possess tremendous capability for effective dissemination, and thus sharing, or useful facts.
Security
It can be considered as to managerial procedures and technological safeguards applied
to computer hardware and data to assure against either accidental or deliberate unauthorized
access to, and dissemination of any data held in a computer system.
Security Measures
These can be clearly divided into two environments.
(a)

Security of large computer centers/automated data processing centres .

(b)

Security of personal computer in automated office environment.

Security of Large Computer Centre

Risk Factors : Factors disturbing the function of a data centre can be either
intentional or unintentional. Unintentional disturbances are caused by the forces of nature,
computer failures or other similar factors. Intentional disturbances are deliberately caused by
employees, visitors or intruders. The disturbances can be divided into the following
categories.
(a)

Interruption of production, data communications etc.

(b)

Leakage of information to unauthorized persons

(c)

Damage to information, equipment, constructions or persons

(d)

Stealing of information or equipment.

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The most important risk factors which can cause disturbances in data centres and
some possible security measures.
Fire
Gas fumes and dust
Vibrations and explosions
Flooding and other water damages
Earthquakes
Energy failures etc
Loss of key persons
Crimes
The purpose of the security measures is to ensure an undisturbed functions of the data
centre by protecting equipment, spaces, information and personnel. To achieve this, the
supervision and protection mechanism should :(a)

Prevent disturbances.

(b)

Detect disturbances at an early stage.

(c)

Start the right alarms and indications.

(d)

Start preventive measures to prevent or minimize damage.

(e)

Report and follow up disturbances, and promote recovery from disturbance.

The choice of security measures should be based on risk analysis. With this in mind
the following should be done.
(a)

Risk to be identified.

(b)

The losses and their probability to be determined.

(c)

Security measures and systems to be planned.

(d)

Recovery plan to be prepared.

(e)

Decisions to be checked at regular intervals.

Prevention of Disturbances
The prevention of disturbances and damages is important, even if it has only a limited
effect on intentional damage done by professionals. Some preventive measures are
presented below:

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(a)
Security checks When new employees are hired, their background and
experience should be checked from reliable sources. This should apply to office
cleaners, sub-suppliers, service personnel, etc., who often have unlimited access to the
computer rooms.
(b)
Job rotation Through proper job rotation it can be ensured that the same
person does not handle a risk-prone duty for too long.
(c)
Supervision of use
Rights of use of a device/eqpt can be limited or
controlled by ensuring that terminals, copying machines, etc. are equipped with
locks, programs and files can similarly be protected by passwords.
Detection of Disturbances
The detection of disturbances by means of technical equipment or by the personnel is
essential for the prevention of disturbances. This process should also include follow-up and
reporting so that the function of the security systems can be supervised. Some detection
measures are presented below:(a)
Fire-detecting equipment: Gas fumes, smoke, increase in temperature or
flames can be detected by means of different devices. The detecting equipments
should be connected to the automatic fire extinguishing equipment, and it must not
cause false alarms.
(b)
Burglar alarms : The surroundings of the data center, the fence, and the
exterior and interior of the building can be equipped with burglar alarms, such as
infra-red, ultrasonic and vibration detectors. With devices in the right places the
intruder can be stopped before he reaches the computer rooms.
(c)
Water damage detecting equipment: Water damages can be detected by
placing on the floor, in the piping and in the manholes devices which react on very
small amounts of water.
Prevention of Damages
The prevention of damages requires quite expensive structural measures and spare
equipment for air conditioning and electricity.
(a)
Structural water protection : The spaces above the computer room should
be water insulated. The walls and the floor should also be water insulated.
(b)
Fire-extinguishing systems : The data center should generally always be
equipped with an automatic fire extinguishing system.
(c)
Reserve air-conditioning system : Air-conditioning equipment is very easily
damaged, therefore, depending on the technical realization, a spare capacity of 50
percent should be installed as reserve. This also ensures the possibility of a flexible
expansion of the computer hardware.

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(d)
Protection against electromagnetic radiation : The data center can be
protected against the electromagnetic radiation caused by a nuclear explosion.
Security of Automated Office Environment
Designers and users of large automated data processing (ADP) systems have long
been aware of the need to provide security and privacy for these systems. In the automated
office environment, there is a need to protect both office equipment and information. The
protection needs of each are different and discussed separately.
Electrical Power Quality : The typical PC is sensitive to the quality of its electrical
power source. If the local power supply quality is unusually poor then more
expensive power conditioning or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems should
be considered. In many cases, it will be sufficient to just keep other appliances on
separate power sources.
Cleanliness: The general cleanliness of the area in which personal computer
equipment operates has an obvious effect on reliability both of equipment and
magnetic media. It should be recognized that electronic equipment will naturally
attract charged particles in the air. Eliminating such contaminants as smoke and dust
will certainly have a beneficial effect on equipment and magnetic media.
Magnetic Media care: Particular attention should be given to the protection of
magnetic media. Exposure to contaminants and direct contact with magnetic devices
should be minimized.
Contingency Planning: With a personal computer on every desk there is obviously
a need to encourage regular and systematic backup of files, since such backup can no
longer be done centrally and systematically as it is possible with a large-scale system.
Unfortunately, it often takes the loss of need for regular backup. Equipment backup
must also be considered.
Electromagnetic Emanations: All electronic equipment emanates electromagnetic
signals. For some equipment these emanations may carry information which can be
detected by appropriately placed monitoring devices. Applications involving
classified data generally must be processed on equipment that has been specially
shielded or modified to minimize emanations.
Risk Management Approach : This approach requires that three elements be
analyzed, the value of assets being protected, the nature and likelihood of threats
facing those assets, and the cost-effectiveness of existing or potential safeguards. For
a single personal computer application, a less formal, qualitative analysis might well
be sufficient. However, for applications involving multiple PCs, networking , or
host systems, the analysis would require a considerably more rigorous process.
Registers To Be Maintained By Computer Centre
Personnel In / Out Register
On Duty Register

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Record of Documents Register

Details of Computer and Peripherals Register
Details of Repair of Computers and Peripherals Register
Internet Details Register
Persons Using Internet Register
Password Changing Register
AMC Register
Inspection Register
SCANNER SETTING UP
1. Disconnect the computer power cable.
2. Remove the printer cable from the parallel port on the back of the computer and plug
it into the appropriate port on the back of the scanner. Leave the other end connected
to the printer.
3. Take the scanner cable and plug it into the parallel port on the back of the scanner.
4. connect the small end of the power supply to the back of the scanner.
5. Plug the large end of the power supply to an electrical outlet. The scanner will be
automatically powered on.
6. Unlock the scanner (the switch under the scanner) to set the chassis free.
7. Turn on the computer. Now its time to install the software.
Install the Scanner Software
Insert the software CD into the CD-ROM drive and run setup.exe, an installation
menu will automatically pop up.
1. Click Scanner Driver to install the scanner driver.
2. Click Install Application to install Xerox TextBridge Classic 96 (the OCR
software), MGI PhotoSuite (the image editing and personal photo application), or
PaperCom (the office document management application).
3. Click View Manual to view or print the detailed user manual.
4. In TextBridge Classic 96,
a) Select TWAIN as the type of scanner driver.
b) Select the scanner source.

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First Photo Scan with PhotoSuite

1. Click on Start => Program =>MGI PhotoSuite SE => MGI PhotoSuite SE
2. Click on Work on your own => File => Get Photos From => Select Source to select
the TWAIN source. Select the appropriate driver.
3. Click on File => Get Photos From => Camera/Scanner. The Mr. Scan Vx.xx scanning
dialog box appears. This dialog box allows to change the setting of the scan (image
type, resolution, scan area, etc.), and also to use some special functions (color
matching, descreen, etc.)
4. Open the scanner document cover, place a picture or a document face down on the
glass of the screen.
5. Click on PREVIEW. The scanner will scan the image for preview on screen.
6. Use the mouse to drag the margin handles to properly frame the picture, select image
type, resolution etc. and click on SCAN.
7. After the scanning is completed, go back to PhotoSuite and play with the first scanned
photo.
First OCR Scan with TextBridge
1. Click on Start => Program => TextBridge Classic => TextBridge Classic.
2. Place a document in the scanner.
3. Click on GO in TextBridge. The MrScan dialog box will show up.
4. Click on PREVIEW. The scanner will scan the image for preview on screen.
5. Select the scanning area, set Line Art 300 dpi and click on SCAN.
6. Once the scanning is complete, TextBridge will automatically convert the image into
text, and then let you save it to a file.
7. Start the word processor to edit the file.
ScanDisk
Windows 98 supplies ScanDisk, which checks the disk for problems to avoid future
troubles. Scandisk contains two levels of disk drive inspection: a standard scan and a
thorough scan. The standard scan checks the disk files for errors. The thorough scan checks
the files and performs a disk surface test to verify the integrity and safety of disk storage.
Run ScanDisk regularly (perhaps once or twice a week). Scandisk checks only disk
drives, not CD-ROM drives.
Checking a Disk with ScanDisk
1. Display the Start menu and select Programs | Accessories | System Tools | ScanDisk.
Windows 98 displays the ScanDisk window.

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2. The Standard option is initially checked by default. To perform a standard ScanDisk,

press Enter to choose the Start command button now. ScanDisk begins its chore of
checking files. Its window displays a moving graphics bar to show how much time
remains in each ScanDisk step, as well as a description of each step in the process.
3. When ScanDisk finishes, a results window will appear. The most important line in the
results window is the number of bad sectors. If bad sectors appear, ScanDisk will
attempt to repair them and report the results. Press Enter to close the results window.
4. Click the Advanced command button. ScanDisk displays the ScanDisk Advanced
Options dialog box. The default values are usually fine. Click the OK command
button to close the dialog box.
5. Click the Thorough option and click the Start command button to perform a thorough
ScanDisk check. The thorough scan performs a more intense disk check than the
standard scan, but it can take up to two hours to finish, depending on the disk speed
and size. The results dialog box appears when ScanDisk finishes.
Disk Defragmentation
Disk Defragmenter fills empty gaps on the disk. As we add and delete files, the
deleted space leaves free holes around the disk. Disk response time will slow down as we
add or delete document files to and from the disk drive. Disk Defragmenter not only closes
empty disk gaps but rearranges the hard disk drive so that often used programs run faster.
Correcting Disk Fragmentation
1. Display the Start menu and select Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Disk
Defragmenter. Windows 98 displays an opening window that asks to select the drive
to record the defragmentation results.
2. Click the settings button and the Disk Defragmenter Settings dialog box appears.
Disk Defragmenter scans the disk during the defragment process and looks for
common files and recently accessed programs to place in the early spaces of the disk.
3. Disk Defragmenter places the programs that uses most often in an efficient disk
location so that those programs start faster than the others. Click on one or more
programs to select them before clicking Next.
4. Disk Defragmenter then starts each selected program, one at a time, and asks that to
close the program after its startup.
5. Click the Finish button to move to the disk-selection process.
6. Select the disk drive

you want to defragment.

Disk Defragmenter begins the

defragmentation process.

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7. Click OK to start the defrag process. Windows 98 can multitask , so you can run
other programs while Disk Defragmenter runs.

At any point during the

Defragmentation, you can pause Disk Defragmenter or cancel the process.

Running DriveSpace
DriveSpace compresses drives and is easy to run. After compressing the disk drive,
the drive stays compressed and acts as got more disk space.
Compressing Disk Using DriveSpace
1.
Display the Start menu and select Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Drive
Space. Windows 98 displays the DriveSpace window
2.
Insert a formatted disk in the disk drive. The disk can have data on it. The disk
should contain 30 % free space. On the free space, the DriveSpace can write some temporary
files during the compression process.
3.

Select the floppy disk drive from the list of drives.

4.
Select Drive > Compress. DriveSpace analyzes the disk and displays the Compress
a Drive dialog box.
5.
Click the Options command button. Windows 98 displays the Compression dialog
box that describes the host drives name and free space. Click the OK command button to
close the Compression Options dialog box and return to the Compress a Drive dialog box.
6.
Click the Start command button to initiate the drive compression. Before
compressing, DriveSpace gives one last chance to cancel the compression. DriveSpace also
offers the option of backing up files.
7.
When the compression begins, DriveSpace checks the disk for errors and then
compresses the disk. The compression can take a while. After finishing, DriveSpace displays
a completion dialog box. Close the dialog box and look at My Computers properties for the
compressed drive to see how much disk space you gained.
ADD NEW HARDWARE WIZARD
1.
Double click the Add New Hardware icon in the control panel window. Window 98
starts the Add New Hardware Wizard, which helps walk you through the installation process.
2.
The wizard goes through a series of tests and attempts to detect the newly added
hardware.
3.
Windows 98 cannot automatically recognize all plug and play hardware. The wizard ,
therefore, first analyzes the system in detail, looking for hardware that is plug and play.

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4.
After the Add New Hardware Wizard searches for plug and play hardware, you can
have it search for non plug and play hardware, or you can select the hardware from the list of
vendors and products Windows 98 offers.
5.
Often the new hardware comes with updated drivers that fix minor bugs and add
features to drivers that Windows 98 already includes. Therefore, instead of letting the wizard
search for the new device and instead of selecting from the list of supported devices, use a
disk or CD ROM that comes with the new hardware to add the latest hardware support for the
device to windows 98.
6.
Click on the dialog boxs Have Disk button and select the hardwares Disk or CDROM location to complete the installation.
FILE SECURITY SYSTEM
Password on Files
The file sharing options, protect documents that are shared with others. If you
password protect a document, you and other must use the password each time you reopen the
document. Document password can be a maximum of 30 characters. Upper and lower case
matters, so make sure when assigning and entering passwords.
Password to Open
This type of password prevents someone from opening a document without knowing
its password. If you use protection passwords, dont forget them.
Password to Modify
Document saved with only write reservation passwords let users open them without
knowing the password. Only users who know the write-reservation password can save
changes though.
Read Only Recommended
A check in this option box instructs Word to recommend that users open the document
as read-only. It will prevent modification or deletion.
Adding a password to a Word document File
To password protect a Word document file, follow these steps:

Open the file that you want to password protect.

Choose File

Click on the Options button.

Select Save tab and enter a password in the Protection Password field.

Save As

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If you enter a password in the Write Reservation Password field, other people
can view the file but cant write data to it or change the file without the correct
password.

Click on the OK button. Word asks you to verify the password by making you
type in once more.

Removing a Password from a file

To remove a password from a Word document and make the file freely accessible,
follow these steps:

Open the file that contains the Password.

Choose File Save As

Chick on the Options button.

Select the password and press Delete ; then click on the OK button.

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