Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism or
other equation is maintained or altered in accordance which a desired manner.

Mathematical Modeling

The Differential Equation of the system is formed by replacing each element by

corresponding differential equation.
For Mechanical systems
(1)

F M d dt M

(2)

F K x1 x2

(3)

d2 x
dt2

K v1 v 2 dt

F f v1 v 2 f

dx1
dt

dx 2
dt

(4)

Jd Jd2

dt
dt2

(5)

Jd Jd2

dt
dt2

(6)

T K 1 2 K

1 2 dt

Analogy between Electrical & Mechanical systems

Force (Torque) Voltage Analogy

Translation system
Force F
Mass M
Visuals Friction coefficient f
Spring stiffness K

Rotational system
Torque T
Moment of Inertia J
Viscous Friction coefficient f
Tensional spring stiffness K

Electrical system
Voltage e
Inductance L
Resistant R
Reciprocal of capacitance 1

Displacement x
Velocity

Angular Displacement
Angular velocity

Charge q
Current i

Force (Torque) current Analogy

Translation system
Force F
Mass M
Visuals Friction coefficient f
Spring stiffness K

Rotational system
Torque T
Moment of Inertia J
Viscous Friction coefficient f
Tensional spring stiffness K

Electrical system
Current i
Capacitance C
Reciprocal of Resistant 1/R
Reciprocal of Inductance 1

Displacement x
Velocity

Angular Displacement
Angular Velocity

Magnetic flux linkage

Voltage e

Transfer function
The differential equation for this system is
F M

d2 x
dt

dx
kx
dt

Take Laplace Transform both sides

F(s) = Ms2 X s fsX s kX s [Assuming zero initial conditions]
X s
F s

1
2

Ms fs k

Transfer function of the system

Transfer function is ratio of Laplace Transform of output variable to Laplace Transform of input
variable.

The steady state-response of a control system to a sinusoidal input is obtained by

replacing s with jw in the transfer function of the system.

X jw
F jw

1
2

M jw f jw k

1
w M jwf+K
2

Block Diagram Algebra

The system can also be represented graphical with the help of block diagram.

Various blocks can be replaced by a signal block to simplify the block diagram.

=>

=>

=>

=>

=>

=>

Signal Flow Graphs

Node: it represents a system variable which is equal to sum of all incoming signals at
the node. Outgoing signals do not affect value of node.

Branch: A signal travels along a branch from one node to another in the direction
indicated by the branch arrow & in the process gets multiplied by gain or transmittance
of branch

Forward Path: Path from input node to output node.

Non-Touching loop: Loops that do not have any common node.

Masons Gain Formula

Ratio of output to input variable of a signal flow graph is called net gain.
1
T Pk k
K

Pk = path gain of k th forward path

= determinant of graph = 1 (sum of gain of individual loops)

+ (sum of gain product of 2 non touching loops)
(sum of gain product of 3 non touching loops) +

1 Pm1 Pm2 Pm3 ............

K

Pmr = gain product of all r non touching loops.

K = the value of for the part of graph not touching kth forward path.

T = overall gain
Example :
Forward Paths: P1 a12 a23a34 a45
P2 a12 a23a35

Loops :

P11 a23a32

P21 a23a34 a42

P31 a44
P41 a23a34 a45 a52
P51 a23a35 a52

2-Non Touching loops

P12 a23a32 a44 ; P12 a23a32 a44

1 a23a32 a23a42 a44 a23a34 a45a52 a23a35a52

+ a23a32a44 a23a35a52a44
First forward path is in touch with all loops
1 1
Second forward path does not touch one loop

1 1 a44
T

P1 1 P2 2

a12 a23 a34 a45 a12 a23 a35 1 a44

Effect of Feed back

System before feedback

System after feedback

Effect on Gain
Positive feedback
Gain =

G
G (gain increases)
1 GH

Negative feedback
Gain =

G
G
1 GH

(gain decreases)

Effect on Stability
Feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability if not applied properly.
G
Eg. Gain =
& GH = 1, output is infinite for all inputs.
1 GH
Effect on sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of relative change in output to relative change in input
T T LnT
T
SG

G G LnG

For open loop system

T=G
G T G
T
SG

1 1
T G G
For closed loop system
G
T
1 GH
G T G 1 GH
1
1
T
SG

1 (Sensitivity decreases)
2
T G
G
1 GH 1 GH
Effect on Noise
Feedback can reduce the effect noise and disturbance on systems performance.
Open loop system

Y S
N S

G2

Closed loop system

Y S
N S

G2

1 G1 G2H

G2

(Effect of Noise Decreases)

Positive feedback is mostly employed in oscillator whereas negative feedback is used in

amplifiers.

Time Response Analysis

Standard Test signals

Step signal
r(t) = Au(t)
u(t) = 1; t > 0
= 0; t < 0
R(s) = A
s

Ramp Signal
r(t) = At, t > 0
=0,t<0
R(s) = A

s2

Parabolic signal
2

r(t) = At 2 ; t > 0
=0;t<0
R(s) = A 3
s

Impulse
t 0 ; t 0

t dt 1

Time Response of first order systems

Unit step input

R(s) = 1
S
1
1
T

C(s) =
S Ts 1 S Ts 1
C(t) = 1 e

Unit Ramp input

R(s) = 1
C(s) =

S2

1
S

Ts 1

t
C(t) = t T 1 e T

Type of system
Steady state error of system ess depends on number of poles of G(s) at s = 0.
This number is known as types of system
Error Constants
For unity feedback control systems
lim
K P (position error constant) =
G s
s0

K v (Velocity error constant) =

lim
s G s
s0

K a (Acceleration error constant) =

lim 2
s G s
s0

Steady state error for unity feedback systems

Type of

Error

system

cons tants

KP K v K a
0
1
2
3

Step input Ramp input Parabolic Input

R
R
R
1 Kp
Ka
Kv
R
1K
0
0
0

K 0 0
K 0
K

R
K
0
0

R
K
0

For non-unity feedback systems, the difference between input signal R(s) and feedback
signal B(s) actuating error signal Ea s .
Ea s
ea ss

1
R s
1 G sHs

lim
sR s
s 0 1 G sHs

Transient Response of second order system

G s
Y s
R s

wn2
S S+2wn
wn2

s2 2wns wn2

Characteristic Equation: s s2 2wns wn2 0

For unit step input

Y s

wn2

s s2 2wns wn2

if < 1 (under damp)

y(t) = 1

ewnt
1 2

sin wd t

wd wn 1 2 ;

=tan-1

1 2

if = 1 (critical damp)
y(t) = 1 (1 + wn t) e wnt
if > 1 (over damp)

2
y(t) = 1 cos h wn 2 1 t
sin h wn 2 1
2

t e

wnt

Roots of characteristic equation are

s1 ,s2 wn jwn 1 2
wn

is damping constant which governs

decay of response for under damped system.
= cos

= 0, imaginary axis

If corresponds to undamped system or sustained oscillations

Pole zero plot

Step Response

Important Characteristic of step Response

Maximum overshoot : 100e

/ 12

1 2
tan1

Rise Time :

Peak Time :

Settling Time : ts

4
(for 2% margin)
wn

ts

3
(for 5% margin)
wn

wn 1 2

wn 1 2

Effect of Adding poles and zeroes to Transfer Function

1. If a pole is added to forward transfer function of a closed loop system, it increases
maximum overshoot of the system.
2. If a pole is added to closed loop transfer function it has effect opposite to that of case1.
3. If a zero is added to forward path transfer function of a closed loop system, it decreases
rise time and increases maximum overshoot.
4. If a zero is added to closed loop system, rise time decreases but maximum overshoot
decreases than increases as zero added moves towards origin.
Stability of control system
A linear, time-invariant system is stable if following notions of stability are satisfied:

When system is excited by bounded input, the output is bounded.

In absence of inputs, output tends towards zero irrespective of initial conditions.

For system of first and second order, the positive ness of coefficients of characteristic
equation is sufficient condition for stability.

For higher order systems, it is necessary but not sufficient condition for stability.

Routh stability criterion

If is necessary & sufficient condition that each term of first column of Routh Array of its
characteristic equation is positive if a0 0 .

Number of sign changes in first column = Number of roots in Right Half Plane.

Example :

a0 sn a1 sn1 ............ an 0
sn

a0

a2

a 4

sn1

a1

a3

a5 .

sn2

a1 a2 a0 a3

sn3

..

..

..

a1 a4 a0 a5

a1

..

a1

..
0

an

Special Cases

When first term in any row of the Routh Array is zero while the row has at least one nonzero term.
Solution : substitute a small positive number for the zero & proceed to evaluate rest
of Routh Array
eg. s5 s4 2s3 2s2 3s 5 0
s5

s3

s2

2 2

4 4 5 2
2 2
5

s1
s0

5
2

2 2
0 , and hence there are 2 sign change and thus 2 roots in right half plane.

When all the elements in any one row Routh Array are zero.
Solution : The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of row just above row of
zeroes in Routh Array is called auxiliary polynomial.
o

The order of auxiliary polynomial is always even.

Row of zeroes should be replaced row of coefficients of polynomial generated by

taking first derivative of auxiliary polynomial.
Example : s6 2s5 8s4 12s3 20s2 16s 16 0
s6

20 16

2 12 16

s5

s4

s6

s5
s5

8
6

20 16
8

2 12 16

4 12

s2

s1

Auxiliary polynomial : A(s) = s4 6s2 8 0

Types of stability

Limited stable : if non-repeated root of characteristic equation lies on jw- axis.

Absolutely stable: with respect to a parameter if it is stable for all value of this parameter.

Conditionally stable : with respect to a parameter if system is stable for bounded range
of this parameter.

Relative stability

If stability with respect to a line s 1 is to be judged, then we replace s by z 1 in

characteristic equation and judge stability based on Routh criterion, applied on new
characteristic equation.

Roots locus Technique

Root Loci is important to study trajectories of poles and zeroes as the poles & zeroes
determine transient response & stability of the system.
Characteristic equation
1+G(s)H(s) =0
Assume G(s)H(s) = KG1 s H1 s
1 KG1 s H1 s 0

G1 s H1 s 1 K

Condition of Roots locus

1
G1 s H1 s
k
k
G1 s H1 s 2i 1
G1 s H1 s 2i

K 0 = odd multiples of 180

K 0 = even multiples of 180

Condition for a point to lie on root Locus

The difference between the sum of the angles of the vectors drawn from the zeroes and
those from the poles of G(s) H(s) to s1 is on odd multiple of 180 if K > 0.

The difference between the sum of the angles of the vectors drawn from the zeroes &
those from the poles of G(s)H(s) to s1 is an even multiple of 180 including zero degrees.

Properties of Roots loci of 1 KG1 s H1 s 0

1. K = 0 points

: These points are poles of G(s)H(s), including those at s = .

2. K = point : The K = points are the zeroes of G(s)H(s) including those at s = .
3. Total numbers of Root loci is equal to order of 1 KG1 s H1 s 0 equation.

4. The root loci are symmetrical about the axis of symmetry of the pole- zero configuration
G(s) H(s).
5. For large values of s, the RL (K > 0) are asymptotes with angles given by:
2i 1
i
180
nm
for CRL(complementary root loci) (K < 0)

2i
180
nm

where i = 0, 1, 2, ., n m 1
n = no. of finite poles of G(s) H(s)
m = no. of finite zeroes of G(s) H(s)
6. The intersection of asymptotes lies on the real axis in s-plane.
The point of intersection is called centroid ( )
1 =

real parts of poles G(s)H(s) real parts of zeroes G(s)H(s)

nm
7. Roots locus are found in a section of the real axis only if total number of poles and zeros
to the right side of section is odd if K > 0. For CRL (K < 0), the number of real poles &
zeroes to right of given section is even, then that section lies on root locus.
8. The angle of departure or arrival of roots loci at a pole or zero of G(s) H(s) say s1 is found
by removing term (s s1) from the transfer function and replacing s by s1 in the
remaining transfer function to calculate G s1 H s1

Angle of Departure (only applicable for poles) = 1800 + G s1 H s1

Angle of Arrival (only applicable for zeroes) = 1800 - G s1 H s1
9. The crossing point of root-loci on imaginary axis can be found by equating coefficient of
s1 in Routh table to zero & calculating K.
Then roots of auxiliary polynomial give intersection of root locus with imaginary axis.
10. Break-away & Break-in points
These points are determined by finding roots of
for breakaway points :
For break in points :

d2k
ds2
d2k
ds2

0
0

dk
0
ds

11. Value of k on Root locus is K

G1 s1 H1 s1

Addition of poles & zeroes to G(s) H(s)

Addition of a pole to G(s) H(s) has the effect of pushing of roots loci toward right half
plane.

Addition of left half plane zeroes to the function G(s) H(s) generally has effect of moving
& bending the root loci toward the left half s-plane.

Frequency Domain Analysis

Resonant Peak, Mr
It is the maximum value of |M(jw)| for second order system
1
Mr =
, 0.707 = damping coefficient
2
2 1

Resonant frequency, wr
The resonant frequency wr is the frequency at which the peak Mr occurs.
wr wn 1 2 2 , for second order system

Bandwidth, BW
The bandwidth is the frequency at which |M(jw)| drops to 70.7% of, or 3dB down from, its
zero frequency value.
for second order system,

2
BW = wn 1 2 2 4 4 2 2

Note : For > 0.707, wr = 0 and Mr = 1 so no peak.

Effect of Adding poles and zeroes to forward transfer function

The general effect of adding a zero to the forward path transfer function is to increase
the bandwidth of closed loop system.

The effect of adding a pole to the forward path transfer function is to make the closed
loop less stable, which decreasing the band width.

Nyquist stability criterion

In addition to providing the absolute stability like the Routh Hurwitz criterion, the
Nyquist criterion gives information on relative stability of a stable system and the degree of
instability of an unstable system.
Stability condition

Open loop stability

If all poles of G(s) H(s) lie in left half plane.

Closed loop stability

If all roots of 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 lie in left half plane.

Encircled or Enclosed
A point of region in a complex plane is said to be encircled by a closed path if it is found
inside the path.
A point or region is said to enclosed by a closed path if it is encircled in the counter
clockwise direction, or the point or region lies to the left of path.

Nyquist Path

If is a semi-circle that encircles entire right half plane

but it should not pass through any poles or zeroes
of s 1 G s H s & hence we draw small
semi-circles around the poles & zeroes on jw-axis.

Nyquist Criterion
1. The Nyquist path s is defined in s-plane, as shown above.
2. The L(s) plot (G(s)H(s) plot) in L(s) plane is drawn i.e., every point s plane is mapped to
corresponding value of L(s) = G(s)H(s).
3. The number of encirclements N, of the (1 + j0) point made by L(s) plot is observed.

4. The Nyquist criterion is

N= Z P
N = number of encirclement of the (1+ j0) point made by L(s) plot.
Z = Number of zeroes of 1 + L(s) that are inside Nyquist path (i.e., RHP)
P = Number of poles of 1 + L(s) that are inside Nyquiest path (i.e., RHP) ; poles of 1 + L(s) are
same as poles of L(s).
For closed loop stability Z must equal 0
For open loop stability, P must equal 0.
for closed loop stability
N=P
i.e., Nyquist plot must encircle (1 + j0) point as many times as no. of poles of L(s) in RHP
but in clockwise direction.
Nyquist criterion for Minimum phase system
A minimum phase transfer function does not have poles
or zeroes in the right half s-plane or on axis excluding origin.
For a closed loop system with loop transfer function L(s)
that is of minimum phase type, the system is closed loop
stable if the L(s) plot that corresponds to the Nyquist path
does not encircle (1 + j0) point it is unstable.
i.e. N=0

Effect of addition of poles & zeroes to L(s) on shape of Nyquiest plot

K
If L(s) =
1 T1 s

Addition of poles at s = 0
K
1. L s
s 1 T1 s
Both Head & Tail of Nyquist plot are
rotated by 90 clockwise.

2. L s

3. L s

s 1 T1 s
2

s 1 T1 s
3

Addition of finite non-zero poles

L s

1 T1 s 1 T2 s

Only the head is moved clockwise by 90 but tail point remains same.
Addition of zeroes

Addition of term 1 Tds in numerator of L(s) increases the phase of L(s) by 90 at w and
hence improves stability.

Relative stability: Gain & Phase Margin

Gain Margin
Phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the L(jw) plot intersect the negative
real axis.
or where L jwP 180
gain margin = GM = 20log10

L jwP

if L(jw) does not intersect the negative real axis

L jwP 0

GM = dB

GM > 0dB indicates stable system.

GM = 0dB indicates marginally stable system.
GM < 0dB indicates unstable system.
Higher the value of GM, more stable the system is.

Phase Margin
It is defined as the angle in degrees through which L(jw) plot must be rotated about the
origin so that gain crossover passes through ( 1, j 0) point.
Gain crossover frequency is s.t.

L jwg 1

Phase margin (PM) = L jwg 180

Bode Plots
Bode plot consist of two plots

20 log G jw vs log w

w vs log w

Assuming G s

K 1 T1s 1 T2s
2

s 1 Tas 1 2 s 2 s
2
n
n

Tds

G jw dB 20log G jw 20log10 K 20log10 1 jwT1

20log10 1 jwT2 20log10 jw 20log10 1 jwTa

20log10 1 j2

w w2

w2
wn
n

2
G jw 1 jwT1 1 jwT2 jw 1 jwTa 1 2 jw / wn w 2 jwTd rad
wn

Magnitude & phase plot of various factor

Factor
K

jw

Magnitude plot

Phase Plot

jw

1 jwTa

1 jwTa

G jw

j2 w w

1 w w
n

Example : Bode plot for

10 s 10
G s
s s 2 s 5
G jw

10 10 jw

jw jw 2 jw 5

If w = 0.1

G jw

102
100 ;
0.1 2 5

For 0.1 < w < 2

G jw

102
10 w
w 25

; slope = 20 dB / dec

G jw 90

For 2 < w < 5

G jw

10 10
20
2 ; G jw Slope = 40 dB/ dec
jw jw 5 w

G jw 180

For 5 < w < 10

G jw

10 10
100
j 3 ; G jw Slope = 60 dB/ dec
jw jw jw
w

G jw 270

For w > 10

G jw

10 jw
10 2 ; G jw slope = 40 dB/ dec
w
jw jw jw

G jw 180

Designs of Control systems

P controller
The transfer function of this controller is KP.
The main disadvantage in P controller is that as KP value increases, decreases &
hence overshoot increases.
As overshoot increases system stability decreases.

I controller
The transfer function of this controller is

ki
.
s

It introduces a pole at origin and hence type is increased and as type increases, the SS
error decrease but system stability is affected.

D controller
Its purpose is to improve the stability.
The transfer function of this controller is KDS.
It introduces a zero at origin so system type is decreased but steady state error increases.

PI controller
Its purpose SS error without affection stability.
Transfer function = KP

K i SKP K i

s
S

It adds pole at origin, so type increases & SS error decreases.

It adds a zero in LHP, so stability is not affected.
Effects:
o

Improves damping and reduces maximum overshoot.

Increases rise time.

Decreases BW.

Improves Gain Margin, Phase margin & Mr.

Filter out high frequency noise.

PD controller
Its purpose is to improve stability without affecting stability.
Transfer function: KP KD S
It adds a zero in LHP, so stability improved.
Effects:

Improves damping and maximum overshoot.

Reduces rise time & setting time.

Increases BW

Improves GM, PM, Mr.

May attenuate high frequency noise.

PID controller

Its purpose is to improve stability as well as to decrease ess.

K
Transfer function = KP i sKD
s
If adds a pole at origin which increases type & hence steady state error decreases.

If adds 2 zeroes in LHP, one finite zero to avoid effect on stability & other zero to

improve stability of system.

Compensators

Lead Compensator
Ge s

ZS 1

ZS 1

c1 ; < 1

= phase lead

= tan1 w tan1 w
For maximum phase shift
w = Geometric mean of 2 corner frequencies
=
tan m

1
2

Effect

It increases Gain Crossover frequency

It reduces Bandwidth.

It reduces undamped frequency.

Lag compensators
1 s
; 1
Ge s
1 s
Ge jw

1 jw
1 jw

For maximum phase shift

1
w

tan m

1
2

Effect

Increase gain of original Network without affecting stability.

Reduces steady state error.

Reduces speed of response.

Lag lead compensator

S 1 S 1

1
2
Ge s

S 1 S 1
1
2

>1; <1

Ge jw

1 jw1 1 jw2
1 jw1 1 jw2 /

State Variable Analysis

The state of a dynamical system is a minimal set of variables (known as state variables)
such that the knowledge of these variables at t = t0 together with the knowledge of input
for t t0 completely determine the behavior of system at t > t0.

State variable
x1 t

x2 t

x(t) =
; y(t) =
..

xn t

y1 t

y 2 t ; u(t) =
..

yp t

u1 t

u2 t
..

um t

Equations determining system behavior :

= A x (t) + Bu(t) ; State equation
()
y(t) = Cx (t) + Du (t) ; output equation

State Transition Matrix

It is a matrix that satisfies the following linear homogenous equation.
dx t
Ax t
dt
Assuming t is state transition matrix
1
t 1 SI A

t eAt I At

1 2 2 1 33
A t A t .........
2!
3!

Properties:
1) 0 = I (identity matrix)
2) 1 t t
3) t2 t1 t1 t0 t2 t0
K

4) t kt

for K > 0

Solution of state equation

State Equation: X(t) = A x(t) + Bu(t)
At

X(t) = e x 0 e
0

A t

Bu d

Relationship between state equations and Transfer Function

X(t) = Ax (t) + Bu(t)
Taking Laplace Transform both sides
sX(s) = Ax (s) + Bu(s)
(SI A) X(s) = Bu(s)
X(s) = (SI A)1 B u (s)
y(t) = Cx(t) + D u(t)
Take Laplace Transform both sides.
y(s) = Cx(s) + D u (s)
x(s) = (sI A)1 B u (s)
y(s) = [C(SI A)1 B + D] U(s)
y s
1
C SI A B D = Transfer function
U s
Eigen value of matrix A are the root of the characteristic equation of the system.
Characteristic equation = SI A 0
Controllability & Observability

A system is said to be controllable if a system can be transferred from one state to

another in specified finite time by control input u(t).

A system is said to be completely observable if every state of system Xi t can be

identified by observing the output y(t).

Test for controllability

QC = controllability matrix

= [B AB A2B An 1 B]
Here A is assumed to be a n x n matrix
B is assumed to be a n x 1 matrix

If det QC = 0 system is uncontrollable

det QC 0 , system is controllable

Test for observability

Q0 = observability matrix

CA

CA

= .

C A n1

A is a n x n matrix
C is a (1 x n) matrix
If det Q0 0 , system is unobservable
det Q0 0 , system is observable