1

Running head: CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Final Paper: Social Effects on Campus Sexual Assault Legislation

Bridget M. Macaluso
University at Buffalo

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Final Paper: Social Effects on Campus Sexual Assault Legislation
As gender roles and societal views on appropriate sexual behavior have evolved, the
legislation surrounding sexual violence has changed as well. The progression in the prevention
and security on college campuses in relation to sexual violence over the last 30 years would not
have occurred without the movement toward gender equality in the United States. The growing
rate of college students experimentation with sexual activity has also played a role in the
advancement of sexual violence prevention on campus. Before the 1970s, there were not any
laws pertaining to sexual violence on college grounds. In order to further understand this lack of
legislation, it is important to look at gender roles and the stigmas surrounding sexual violence.
One common misconception about sexual assault and rape is that the only victims are women. In
fact, the Yale Law Journal defined rape as sexual intercourse with a woman without her
consent in 1952 (Yale Law Journal, 1952, p. 55). This belief allowed college administrators to
ignore the issue of sexual violence for many years, as women did not often participate in higher
education. Co-ed campuses were not popular until the 1970s (Thelin, 2004), and it did not seem
necessary to provide prevention and jurisdiction in terms of sexual violence until both males and
females were on campus.
Once women started attending college in greater numbers, the conversation surrounding
rape on college grounds started to occur more frequently. However, the topic was not as
important to college administrators as it is today due to the discrimination of women. As societal
views of women altered and the sexual behavior of college students started to change, it became
necessary to enact laws that would prevent sexual assault in college. The first legislation directly
related to sexual violence on college campuses was enacted in 1990 (Clery Act, 1990), and the
concern of sexual assault on campus continues to grow today (Bogle, 2014). The habits of 21st

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

century adolescents and the growing technological resources that they have create more concern
and debate on the topic of sexual violence (Fantasia & Fontenot, 2011). Fisher, Cullen, and
Turner reported in 2000 that one in thirty-six college women will encounter a rape or an
attempted rape within an academic year.
The concept of a sexualized culture and the technology that supports it will be developed
more in this paper, and I will demonstrate how that has promoted further legislation relating to
rape and sexual assault. I will provide a review of the legislation and policies surrounding sexual
violence on campus in the 20th and 21st centuries. The direct effect of gender roles and dating
patterns on legislation and policy will be shown through a close examination of each topic in the
given decades. The review will begin in 1900-1950, moving to 1950-1980, 1980-2000, and
finally, 2000-2014. I will compare the gender roles and dating culture in each time period in
order to show that as they progressed, more legislation was added.
1900-1950
The first half of the twentieth century was a time when a womans main roles were those
of a wife and mother. Although there were womens colleges in the United States, many women
were discouraged from attending, because it was thought to prevent them from maintaining their
roles in the family (Palmieri, 1997). Courtship was the common dating ritual (Carpenter, 1932),
and there was not much protection for women in terms of sexual violence (Brown & Walklate,
2012). This section will delve further into each of these topics, beginning with the gender roles
of the time period, followed by the courtship practices. Finally, a review of the definition of rape
and the common court findings surrounding these cases will be provided to demonstrate the
effect of the gender inequalities of the time.
Gender Inequality

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

During the early 1900s women did not have access to the rights that men had. In fact, the
suffragettes, women who were working to earn equal voting rights, are commonly discussed
when reviewing this time period. It was not until 1920 that the 19th amendment was ratified
(MacLean, 2006). Even after women were given the right to vote, they were still not treated
equally in terms of education and the workplace. As women were expected to marry and have
children, many people were threatened by the idea of females who chose to pursue an education
and/or a career because this delayed their familial roles (Palmieri, 1997). Women were eligible to
attend state colleges, but they were mostly educated to be teachers and housewives, and if they
were able to pursue degrees in other fields, females were discriminated against in the workplace
(Palmieri, 1997).
In the 1940s women were attending more colleges because many of the men in the
country were serving in World War II. However, women were not studying at the graduate level,
and most of them were not admitted into medical or law school. Even the extra-curricular
activities that were common for women were biased based on gender. One of the popular college
activities for women was the beauty pageant (Thelin, 2004). A womans looks and femininity
were important, not her academic achievements.
Courtship Rituals
As women were expected to marry young and start their families, the purpose of dating
was to choose a spouse. In a courting relationship, couples were expected to either carry their
association to marriage or to withdraw from it (Carpenter, 1932, p. 38). Because women were
beginning to gain more equality in the United States, Carpenter says, they had the opportunity to
meet more men before getting married (1932). However, they were able to learn more about the
personalities of these men in order to decide who they wanted to spend their lives with

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

(Carpenter, 1932). This was not a time when people were simply dating others because of
physical attraction. Sex outside of marriage was not traditional or acceptable.
Sexual Violence- Resistance Required
Due to the inequalities women faced in the United States and the familial expectations on
them, there was a marriage exception to the rape laws well into the 1900s. Even as late as 1960,
most states still found that a husband could not be convicted for sexual violence against his wife.
It was assumed that a woman had entered a contract with her husband upon marriage, and that
the agreement made included the use of her body (Brown & Walklate, 2012).
The definition of rape included the notion of resistance by the victim. According to
Brown and Walklate (2012), there had to be significant evidence of a womans resistance in order
for a man to be convicted of a sex crime (2012). In many cases, it was determined that a woman
had not been raped because she said no but did not physically fight back. Several court cases
found that the defendant was not guilty simply because women were expected to physically
protect themselves in every way possible (Brown & Walklate, 2012).
Lack of Legislation
It would not be correct to say that there was no legislation against those who committed
sex crimes in the early 1900s. Claims of rape were investigated, and sometimes the perpetrators
were convicted. According to Sadoff, there was a movement in the 1930s labeling these people
as sexual psychopaths. These individuals were treated for a mental disability and rehabilitated
so that they would not continue to rape women (1985). However, there was not enough
protection for victims and sexual violence on college campuses was not even discussed.
1950-1980

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Between 1950 and 1980, things changed drastically for women both in terms of society
and in their access to higher education. With the end of World War II in 1945, male soldiers
returned to their positions in the workplace and at home. Women were expected to return home
and support their families. It was difficult for educators to know what their place was in
providing higher education for women, as females were needed mostly in the home, rather than
at school or work (Eisenmann, 2002). However, in the following decades, women worked
towards equality in education and the workplace. Executive Order 11246 was amended by
President Johnson in 1968, prohibiting employment discrimination based on sex. Title IX was
passed in 1972 to eliminate gender discrimination in the education system (Education
Amendments of 1972).
The effects that these changes had on sexual assault legislation will be shown through an
explanation of womens changing roles in society, followed by the increase in sexual
experimentation of the time period. After assessing these topics, Title IX and the rape law
revisions in the 1960s and 1970s will be reviewed. It is clear that these legislations were
necessary at the time due to the transformation of the American society.
Gender Role Modification
During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s women were still seen as the property of men. The
Yale Law Journal described the sole ownership of a womans body to her husband or sexual
partner (Yale Law Journal, 1952, p. 72). Susan Griffin noted that, the two acceptable measures
of masculinity [were] a mans power over women and his power over other men (1971, p. 35).
Men would rape married women to exert power over the husbands of their victims. Because of
this, Griffin described the world as a place that was unsafe for women, and admitted that she was
living in constant fear of rape (1971).

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Although women still did not have equality and were seen as the property of men, they
spoke out about their oppression during this time. The American Feminist movement was very
vocal, especially during the 1960s (MacLean, 2006). Women protested to end sexual
discrimination. One of their reform efforts was in terms of rape laws. The movement advocated
for revisions to rape laws in order to make them more gender neutral and sensitive to a victims
experience (Bohmer & Parrot, 1993).
Women also became more open about their sexuality during this time. Instead of
accepting the societal expectation placed on females to be submissive, women worked harder to
ensure that they were pleasured through sexual activity. Sexual autonomy became one of the
most popular models for books and magazines, and women were encouraged to find what
satisfied them sexually (Weinberg M. S., Swensson, R. G., & Hammersmith, S. K., 1983).
Title IX and Changes in Higher Education
Title IX was enacted to remedy some of the inequalities that women were facing in
higher education (1972). Although more campuses were co-educational, females who applied
would not often be accepted. Even those women who were successful in the application process
were restricted as to what they were allowed to study. Females were expected to become teachers
or secretaries, but they were not studying in programs that focused on law or medicine (Thelin,
2004). Title IX prohibited sexual discrimination in any schools that received federal funding
(Education Amendments of 1972).
According to this legislation, educational institutions that did not create rules and
regulations to disallow discrimination based on sex would risk losing their funding. In terms of
admission, this would not apply to religious schools if the values of the affiliated religion would
not be met through compliance to Title IX. Schools that had traditionally only educated members

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

of one sex were also exempt in terms of admissions. However, if the administrators of such an
educational institution made the decision to change to a co-educational school, their admissions
process would need to be in full compliance with Title IX within seven years (Education
Amendments of 1972).
Gender equality was expected of all the operations of a college, university, or other
postsecondary institution, or a public system of higher education (Education Amendments of
1972, p. 4). One of the largest effects of Title IX was in terms of intercollegiate athletics (Thelin,
2004). As an operation of the colleges that were mandated to follow this new legislation,
athletic departments were scrutinized if they did not allow women to play.
When Title IX was first enacted, it did not directly affect or relate to sexual violence on
campuses, but would later be discussed in relation to this topic. However, Title IX increased
womens access to higher education, and created more opportunities for men and women to
study on the same campuses. The first dormitories that were shared by males and females were
created shortly after Title IX, causing concern for many parents and clergy men about sexual
promiscuity (Thelin, 2004). With these changes, it would soon be necessary to create rules and
regulations surrounding sexual violence on campus.
Rape Law Revisions
With the changing views of women and the movement towards equality, there were
alterations made to the sexual violence legislations in the United States after 1950. The Yale Law
Journal suggested that rather than courts needing proof that a woman resisted her assailant as
much as physically possible, most states looked for an amount of resistance that was proportional
to the strength of the attack (1952). There were also several states that simply needed the
womans lack of consent to be clear (Yale Law Journal, 1952). Some states began to revise their

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

legislations to include wife rape as illegal, but most left the marital exception in their laws
(Brown & Walklate, 2012).
There was still not much conversation surrounding sexual assault on college campuses,
but the developments in terms of womens rights and sexual freedom would force changes within
the coming decades.
1980-2000
The 1980s and 1990s saw in increase in conversation and legislation surrounding the
topic of sexual violence in society and on college campuses. In this next section, I will again
discuss the cultural roles of women and the sexual experimentation that was typical for a collegeaged student. Because of the societal changes, claims of sexual violence became more prevalent,
and were more bothersome to the public. In 1986, Jeanne Clery was raped and murdered in her
college dorm room, and her story dramatically impacted the rights of college students. The
Jeanne Clery case and the legislation that it inspired will be reviewed in this section,
demonstrating the increase in attention that a case involving rape had in the time period. The
Violence Against Women Act, which was also signed into law during this time period to protect
females from violent acts of gender discrimination (Bonner, 2002), will be briefly discussed in
this section as well.
Changing Gender Roles
The last two decades in the 20th century saw some changes for women. This was a time
when a females body began to be seen as a sexual object. Rosalind Coward wrote about the role
that pornography had in sexual violence (1982). The images in pornography implied that the
sexuality of a male must be violent, and in order for a woman to participate in intimacy with a
male she had to be submissive. Coward claimed that in a society where womens sexuality is

10

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

supposed to exist as a stimulant and response to mens predatory sexuality, then rape is clearly a
logical extension and this is why there has been such leniency in the treatment of rapists (1982,
p. 15).
Cowards article was in support of the feminist movement, and the late 80s and early 90s
saw some of the changes that women were working towards. In a 1992 literature review, Ruch
pointed out that there were only eight states remaining in which there was a marital exception to
the rape law. There was more awareness of sexual violence, and advocacy was available for
women in the form of rape treatment centers, victim-witness agencies, and educational programs
(Ruch, 1992). As women became more respected in the workplace and society, they were able to
use more outlets to speak out about the treatment of their bodies. Women like Diana Russell,
Cathy Roberts, and Linda Borque wrote books examining the traumatic experiences of rape
victims, generating more awareness for the community (Ruch, 1992).
Jeanne Clery Murder
Jeanne Clery, a college freshman in 1985 chose Lehigh University in Pennsylvania
because it was close to her parents home and she thought it would be a safe campus. She had
hoped to attend Tulane University in New Orleans where both of her brothers had gone to
school. However, after learning that a female student from that school had been murdered off
campus, Clery and her parents chose Lehigh in order to ensure her safety (Gross & Fine, 1990).
Miss Clery had not even completed her freshman year when she was raped and murdered
in her dorm room in the middle of the night. Jeanne was sleeping in her room when Josoph
Henry came in to steal items from her room (Gross & Fine, 1990). When Miss Clery woke up to
the sounds of Mr. Henry in her room, he raped and killed her to ensure that she would stay quiet.

11

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

It was not until the next morning that a fellow student passed Jeannes partially open door and
found her body (Beyette, 1989).
Clery case decision and impact. Jeannes case became very well-known across her
campus and in the community. According to Rich Harry, there were two district attorneys from
the county who visited the crime scene that weekend, and everyone on campus was discussing
the brutal rape and murder of Miss Clery (1986). Campus administrators visited the residence
halls to remind students of important safety precautions. Some of the girls on Jeannes floor were
so disturbed that they stayed with friends and family members off campus (Harry, 1986). Mr.
Henry was convicted for the murder of Miss Clery in 1987 and sentenced to the electric chair
(Gross & Fine, 1990).
This conviction was not enough for Jeannes parents, Connie and Howard Clery. After the
case, the two looked into Lehighs history and learned that there had been 38 violent offenses
on campus within a three year time period (Gross & Fine, 1990, p.1). As they had chosen the
school for its apparent safety, they were appalled to learn that it had such a high crime rate. The
Clerys felt that such information should have been available to students and parents (Gross &
Fine, 1990).
According to Gross and Fine, the Clery family settled a negligence lawsuit with Lehigh
and used the money to create Security on Campus, Inc., which was a nonprofit organization that
provided information and advice about campus safety (1990). They began working toward
legislation that would force colleges to provide campus security information to the public. Due to
the high impact of the Clery case and the familys plan, there were over 150,000 requests for the
questionnaire that the Clerys created for parents and students to give to schools (Gross & Fine,

12

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

1990). Eventually, the Clerys were able to meet their goal of a federal legislation. The Jeanne
Clery act was passed in 1992 (Clery Act, 1990).
Clery Act. Compliance with the Clery Act required disclosure of campus security policy
and crime statistics (Clery Act, 1990). Each year, federally funded colleges were mandated to
create a report that would be made available to the public. This report would need to include
procedures for reporting emergencies and information about available programs for educating
students and faculty about safety measures. The legislation also required a statement which
would provide information regarding registered sex offenders on campus. Officials of each
institution had to immediately inform all members of the campus community when there was an
emergency or a threat on campus (Clery Act, 1990).
Perhaps most related to the Jeanne Clery case was the section of the report that was to
include the statistics of criminal offenses including: murder, sex offenses,
robbery/burglary/motor vehicle theft, assault, manslaughter, arson, and arrests for liquor, drug,
and weapons possession violations (Clery Act, 1990). Had Jeanne and her parents been given a
report such as this while they were searching for colleges, they may have known about the crime
rate on Lehighs campus and chosen a different school for Jeanne.
In terms of sexual violence, federally funded schools were required to create a policy that
would include sexual assault programs that aimed to prevent sex crimes. This policy was also to
include a protocol regarding sexual violence should it occur (Clery Act, 1990). This was the first
legislation to directly relate to sexual violence on a college campus.
VAWA
In 1994, the Violence Against Women Act was signed into legislation by President
Clinton. This was the first civil rights legislation created to protect women from violent acts of

13

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

gender-discrimination. According to Bonner, VAWA was created in an attempt to replace all of
the differing state laws with a consistent standard across the country (2002). However, VAWA
was declared unconstitutional in 2000, and did not return to legislation until 2013.
2000-Present
The 21st century has seen developments in many areas. The college student of today has
several technological resources on hand that have created a hook-up culture. Adolescents have
access to phone applications that will put other singles at their fingertips, allowing them to meet
someone and immediately form a physical relationship with them. It is not an expectation of
todays culture for young adults to date their sexual partners. Terms like cuddle buddy and
friends with benefits have become just as popular as boyfriend, girlfriend, or fiance. Women
have more equality in school and the workplace, but are often objectified in the media. Females
are to be thin and voluptuous, and many adolescent females feel pressured by the images they
see on television or in magazines. Because of these developments, there has been a need
throughout the last fourteen years to develop more legislations and protocols surrounding sexual
violence on college campuses. In this section, I will discuss in detail the roles of women in a 21st
century society, followed by an overview of the societal expectations of a relationship and the
technology that enforces these ideas. Finally, I will provide information on the legislations of the
time period, including the Dear Colleague Letter that inspired the new guidelines for Title IX and
the Campus SaVE Act.
Hook Up Culture
College students in the 21st century constantly have technology available to them. They
have many differing ideas of what sexual activity and intimate relationships are for, and there is a
celebrated culture of alcohol experimentation in college. With all of these things combined, the

14

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

hook up culture on college campuses has taken over any previous dating traditions (Bogle,
2014).
Three-fourths of the respondents to a 2001 survey agree that a hook up is when a girl
and a guy get together for a physical encounter and dont necessarily expect anything further
(Glenn & Marquardt, 2001, p. 4). Bogle points out that the typical scenario begins at a bar or a
party where two students come together by the end of the night for a physical encounter of some
kind that could range from kissing to intercourse (2008). Because these students are often under
the influence of alcohol, it can be difficult to decipher where hooking up becomes sexual
assault according to the state laws that consider sexual activity to be an assault if the person is
too intoxicated to consent (Bogle, 2008).
This idea of casual sex goes beyond scenarios with alcohol, though. Fantasia and
Fontenot have pointed out the threat that technology can pose to the sexual safety of adolescents
(2011). Popular applications like tinder encourage students to socialize with strangers based
solely on their looks. On tinder, each participant scrolls through the photos of other users and
swipes right when they find someone who they deem to be attractive. If you show attraction to
someone who is also attracted to you, the application will start a conversation between the two of
you (Newall, 2014). Applications like this are very common, and many students are using these
technological resources to find sexual partners.
Dear Colleague Letter and Title IX Changes
In 2011, the Office for Civil Rights noted that Title IX should be applied to cases of
sexual harassment and sexual assault (Dear Colleague Letter, 2011). As Title IX states that
exclusion from participation in an educational activity or program based on sex is prohibited
(Education Amendments of 1972), sexual violence needs to be considered under these terms.

15

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Sexual harassment can create an environment for a student that is not conducive to educational
focus if it forms a hostile environment for the victim (Dear Colleague Letter, 2011, p. 3).
According to the letter, a school is mandated to process any complaint about sexual harassment
or violence if they are made aware of it, regardless of whether or not there is an investigation
from law enforcement. The procedural requirements listed include the publishing of a notice of
nondiscrimination to the campus community, designating an employee as the Title IX
coordinator, and informing the students and employees of the proper procedures for filing a
grievance (Dear Colleague Letter, 2011).
President Obama has also created the Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault.
According to Perkins, the task force is working to provide information on how to comply with
Title IX in terms of sexual assault (2014). Schools are now being asked to increase their efforts
to prevent sexual assault (Perkins, 2014).
The Return of VAWA and the Campus SaVE Act
With the growing concern over sexual assault and todays adolescents, VAWA was
reauthorized in 2013. This legislation is directed toward the entire country, with sections
pertaining to law enforcement, improvement of victim services, protection for young victims,
and violence reduction practices (Violence Against Women, 2013). However, one section of this
legislation is directed solely at the sexual violence education and prevention on college campuses
(Campus SaVE Act, 2013). This legislation requires federally funded higher education
institutions to provide prevention awareness programming for new students and employees. The
programming must address: the definition of consent, how to report a sexual offense, bystander
intervention, and risk reduction. Colleges are required to have continuous campaigns
surrounding these topics as well (Campus SaVE Act, 2013).

16

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Conclusion
The 20th and 21st centuries have seen a constant progression in terms of gender equality
and sexual freedom. Because of these changing beliefs and values in society, it has been
necessary to add more legislation in terms of sexual violence throughout the country, and
especially within the population of a college campus. If women were still seen as the property of
men, there would be no need to protect them from sexual violence. If courtship was still the most
common dating ritual, legislators and administrators might not be aware of the prominence of
sexual activity among adolescents and on college campuses.
Title IX began as a legislation to end gender discrimination and has evolved to protect
women from all kinds of discrimination from admissions privileges, to athletic involvement, and
even violence. The Clery Act would not have been created had it not been for Jeanne Clerys
murder. If Jeanne had been in school in 1900, she most likely would not have been on the same
campus as male students. Had she been raped and murdered in her dormitory in the beginning of
the 20th century, it might not have made as much of an impact, as women were not awarded the
same respect and privileges then as they were in 1986. Finally, the Campus SaVE Act is a section
of VAWA that is directly related to violence on college campuses. In 2014, it is very clear that the
culture of college students is provocative. Each student deserves respect and has the right to say
no. Sexual violence will not be tolerated.

17

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

References
*Beyette, B. (1989, August 10). Campus crime crusade: Howard and Connie
Clery lost their
daughter to a crazed thief; now they're angry and fighting back. Los
Angeles Times. Retrieved from: http://www.latimes.com/
Bogle, K. (2014). Hooking up: what educators need to know. The Chronicle
of Higher
Education, 54(28), A32. Retrieved from:
http://chronicle.com/section/Home/5
Bohmer, C., & Parrot, A. (1993). Sexual assault on campus. New York, NY: Lexington Books.
Bonner, R. J. (2002). Reconceptualizing VAWAs animus for rape in states emerging postVAWA civil rights legislation. The Yale Law Journal, 111(6), 1417-1456.
Brown, M., & Walklate, S. L. (2012). Handbook on sexual violence. New York, NY: Routledge.
*Campus SaVE Act 113-4, 304 (2013).
*Carpenter, N. (1932). Courtship practices and contemporary social change in America. Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 160, 38-44.
*Clery Act, 20 USC 1092 (f) (1990).
*Coward, R. (1982). Sexual Violence and Sexuality. Feminist Review, 11, 9-22.
*Dear Colleague Letter, 72. Fed. Reg. 3432 (2011).
*Education Amendments of 1972, IX U.S.C. 1681 et. Seq.

18

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Eisenmann, L. (2002). Educating the female citizen in a post-war world: Competing ideologies
for American women, 19451965. Educational Review, 54(2), 133-141. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131910220133220
*Executive Order 11246, 30 F.R. 12319 (1965).
Fantasia, H. C., & Fontenot, H. B. (2011). The sexual safety of adolescents. Journal of Obstetric,
Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 40, 217-224. doi: 10.1111/j.15526909.2011.01217.x
*Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2000). The sexual victimization of college women.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
*Glenn, N., & Marquardt, E. (2001). Hooking up, hanging out, and hoping for Mr. Right:
College women on mating and dating today. City, ST: Institute for American Values
Report.
*Griffin, S. (1971, September). Rape: the all-American crime: According to estimates by
independent criminologists, rape is the most frequently committed violent crime in
America today. Ramparts Magazine, 26-35.
*Gross, K., & Fine, A. (1990, February). After their daughter is murdered at college, her
grieving parents mount a crusade for campus safety. People Magazine, 33(7). Retrieved
from: http://www.people.com
*Harry, R. (1986, April 07). Coed abused sexually, strangled. The Morning Call.
MacLean, N. (2006). Gender is powerful: the long reach of feminism. OAH Magazine of
History.
19-23.
*Newall, S. (2014). Tinder: the online dating app everyones talking about. Marie Claire

19

CAMPUS SEXUAL ASSAULT

Magazine. Retrieved from: http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/
Palmieri, P. A. (1997). From republican mother to race suicide: Arguments on the higher
education of women in the United States, 1820-1920. In L. F. Goodchild and H. S.
Wechsler (Eds.). The history of higher education (2nd ed., pp. 173-180). Boston, MA:
Pearson Custom Publishing.
*Perkins, D. C. (2014). Title IX and sexual assault on campus. Mondaq Business Briefing.
Ruch, L. O. (1992). Sexual violence against women. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 2(4),
634-640.
Sadoff, R. L. (1985, October). Sexual Violence. Paper session presented at the meeting of the
Committee on Public Health of the New York Academy of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: John
Hopkins University Press.
*The Yale Law Journal. (1952). Forcible and statutory rape: an exploration of the operation and
objectives of the consent standard. 62(1) 55-83.
*Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act, 113-4, 127 (2013).
Weinberg, M. S., Swensson, R. G., & Hammersmith, K. S. (1983). Sexual autonomy and the
status of women: models of female sexuality in U.S. sex manuals from 1950 to 1980.
Social Problems 30(3), 312-324.