Introduction to TOPOLOGY AND MODERN ANALYSIS GEORGE F. SIMMONS Associate Professor of Mathematics Colorado College © ROBERT E. KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDAFor Virgie May Hatcher and Elizabeth B. Blossom TO EACH OF WHOM | OWE MORE THAN | CAN POSSIBLY EXPRESS Original Edition 1963 Reprint Edition 1983 Printed and Published by ROBERT E. KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. KRIEGER DRIVE MALABAR, FLORIDA 32950 Copyright © 1963 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Reprinted by arrangement All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any Sorm or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Simmons, George Finlay, 1925- Introduction to topology and modern analysis. Reprint. Originally published: New York: McGraw- Hill, 1963 (International series in pure and applied mathematics) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1, Topology. , 2. Mathematical analysis. 1. Title. IL. Title: Topology and modern analysis. IIL. Series: International series in pure and QAGIL.S49 1983 34 82-1484, ISBN 0-89874—551-9 098765Preface For some time now, topology has been firmly established as one of the basic disciplines of pure mathematics. Its ideas and methods have transformed large parts of geometry and analysis almost beyond recogni- tion. It has also greatly stimulated the growth of abstract algebra. As things stand today, much of modern pure mathematics must remain a closed book to the person who does not acquire a working knowledge of at least the elements of topology. There are many domains in the broad field of topology, of which the following are only a few: the homology and cohomology theory of com- plexes, and of more general spaces as well; dimension theory; the theory of differentiable and Riemannian manifolds and of Lie groups; the theory of continuous curves; the theory of Banach and Hilbert spaces and their operators, and of Banach algebras; and abstract harmonic analysis on locally compact groups. Each of these subjects starts from roughly the same body of fundamental knowledge and develops its own methods of dealing with its own characteristic problems. The purpose of Part 1 of this book is to make available to the student this “hard core” of funda- mental topology; specifically, to make it available in a form which is general enough to meet the needs of modern mathematics, and yet is unburdened by excess baggage best left in the research journals. A topological space can be thought of as a set from which has been swept away all structure irrelevant to the continuity of functions defined on it. Part 1 therefore begins with an informal (but quite extensive) treatment of sets and functions. Some writers deal with the theory of metric spaces as if it were merely a fragment of the general theory of topological spaces. This practice is no doubt logically correct, but it seems to me to violate the natural relation between these topics, in which metric spaces motivate the more general theory. Metric spaces are therefore discussed rather fully in Chapter 2, and topological spaces are introduced in Chapter 3. The remaining four chapters in Part 1 are concerned with various kinds of topological spaces of special importance in applications and with the continuous functions carried by them. It goes without saying that one aspect of this type of mathematics is its logical precision. Too many writers, however, are content with this, and make little effort to help the reader maintain his orientation in vilviii Preface the midst of mazes of detail. One of the main features of this book is the attention given to motivating the ideas under discussion. On every possible occasion I have tried to make clear the intuitive meaning of what is taking place, and diagrams are provided, whenever it seems feasible, to help the reader develop skill in using his imagination to visualize abstract ideas. Also, each chapter begins with a brief introduction which describes its main theme in general terms. Courses in topology are being taught more and more widely on the undergraduate level in our colleges and universities, and I hope that these features, which tend to soften the austere framework of definitions, theorems, and proofs, will make this book readable and easy to use as a text. Historically speaking, topology has followed two principal lines of development. In homology theory, dimension theory, and the study of manifolds, the basic motivation appears to have come from geometry. In these fields, topological spaces are looked upon as generalized geometric configurations, and the emphasis is placed on the structure of the spaces themselves. In the other direction, the main stimulus has been analysis. Continuous functions are the chief objects of interest here, and topological spaces are regarded primarily as carriers of such functions and as domains over which they can be integrated. These ideas lead naturally mto the theory of Banach and Hilbert spaces and Banach algebras, the modern theory of integration, and abstract harmonic analysis on locally compact groups. In Part 1 of this book, I have attempted an even balance between these two points of view. This part is suitable for a basic semester course, and most of the topics treated are indispensable for further study in almost any direction. If the instructor wishes to devote a second semester to some of the extensions and applications of the theory, many possibilities are open. If he prefers applications in modern analysis, he can continue with Part 2 of this book, supplemented, perhaps, with a brief treatment of measure and integration aimed at the general form of the Riesz representation theorem. Or if his tastes incline him toward the geometric aspects of topology, he can switch over to one of the many excellent books which deal with these matters. The instructor who intends to continue with Part 2 must face a question which only he can answer. Do his students know enough about algebra? This question is forced to the surface by the fact that Chapters 9 to 11 are as much about algebra as they are about topology and analy- sis. If his students know little or nothing about modern algebra, then a careful and detailed treatment of Chapter 8 should make it possible to proceed without difficulty. And if they know a good deal, then a quick survey of Chapter 8 should suffice. It is my own opinion that education in abstract mathematics ought to begin on the junior level with a course in modern algebra, and that topology should be offered only to studentsPreface ix who have acquired some familiarity, through such a course, with abstract methods. Part 3 is intended for individual study by exceptionally well-qualified students with a reasonable knowledge of complex analysis. Its principal purpose is to unify Parts 1 and 2 into a single body of thought, along the lines mapped out in the last section of Chapter 11. Taken as a whole, the present work stands at the threshold of the more advanced books by Rickart [34], Loomis (27], and Naimark [32]; and much of its subject matter can be found (in one form or another and with innumerable applications to analysis) in the encyclopedic treatises of Dunford and Schwartz (8] and Hille and Phillips [20].!_ This book is intended to be elementary, in the sense of being accessible to well-trained undergraduates, while those just mentioned are not, Its prerequisites are almost negligible. Several facts about determinants are used without proof in Chapter 11, and Chapter 12 leans heavily on Liouville’s theorem and the Laurent expansion from complex analysis. With these excep- tions, the book is essentially self-contained. It seems to me that a worthwhile distinction can be drawn between two types of pure mathematics. The first—which unfortunately is somewhat out of style at present—centers attention on particular func- tions and theorems which are rich in meaning and history, like the gamma function and the prime number theorem, or on juicy individual facts, like Euler’s wonderful formula 14M+wt--- = 9/6. The second is concerned primarily with form and structure. The present. book belongs to this camp; for its dominant theme can be expressed in just two words, continuity and linearity, and its purpose is to illuminate the meanings of these words and their relations to each other. Mathe- matics of this kind hardly ever yields great and memorable results like the prime number theorem and Euler’s formula, On the contrary, its theorems are generally small parts of a much larger whole and derive their main significance from the place they occupy in that whole. In my opinion, if a body of mathematics like this is to justify itself, it must possess aesthetic qualities akin to those of a good piece of architecture. It should have a solid foundation, its walls and beams should be firmly and truly placed, each part should bear a meaningful relation to every other part, and its towers and pinnacles should exalt the mind. It is my hope that this book can contribute to a wider appreciation of these mathe- matical values, George F, Simmons 1 The numbers in brackets refer to works listed in the Bibliography.A Note to the Reader ‘Two matters call for special comment: the problems and the proofs. The majority of the problems are corollaries and extensions of theorems proved in the text, and are freely drawn upon at all later stages of the book. In general, they serve as a bridge between ideas just treated and developments yet to come, and the reader is strongly urged to master them as he goes along. In the earlier chapters, proofs are given in considerable detail, in an effort to smooth the way for the beginner. As our subject unfolds through the successive chapters and the reader acquires experience in following abstract mathematical arguments, the proofs become briefer and minor details are more and more left for the reader to fill in for himself. The serious student. will train himself to look for gaps in proofs, and should regard them as tacit invitations to do a little thinking on his own. Phrases like “it is easy to see,” “‘one can easily show,” “evidently,” “clearly,” and so on, are always to be taken as warning signals which indicate the presence of gaps, and they should put the reader on his guard, It is @ basic principle in the study of mathematics, and one too seldom emphasized, that a proof is not really understood until the stage is reached at which one can grasp it as a whole and see it as a single idea, In achieving this end, much more is necessary than merely follow- ing the individual steps in the reasoning. This is only the beginning. A proof should be chewed, swallowed, and digested, and this process of assimilation should not be abandoned until it yields a full comprehension of the overall pattern of thought.Contents Preface vii A Note to the Reader xi PART ONE: TOPOLOGY Chapter One SETS AND FUNCTIONS 3 Sets and set inclusion 3 The algebra of sets 7 Functions 14 Products of sets 21 Partitions and equivalence relations 25 Countable sets 31 . Uncountable sets 36 Partially ordered sets and lattices 43 exes eee Chapter Two METRIC SPACES 49 9. The definition and some examples 51 10. Open sets 59 11, Closed sets 65 12, Convergence, completeness, and Baire’s theorem 70 13. Continuous mappings 75 14, Spaces of continuous functions 80 15, Euclidean and unitary spaces 85 Chapter Three TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 91 16. The definition and some examples 92 17. Elementary concepts 95 18. Open bases and open subbases 99 19. Weak topologies 104 20, The function algebras €(X,R) and e(X,C) 106 Chapter Four COMPACTNESS 110 21, Compact spaces 111 22, Products of spaces 115 xlxiv Contents 23, Tychonofi’s theorem and locally compact spaces 118 24, Compactness for metric spaces 120 25. Ascoli’s theorem 124 Chapter Five SEPARATION 26. Tr-spaces and Hausdorff spaces 130 27, Completely regular spaces and normal spaces 132 28. Urysohn’s lemma and the Tietze extension theorem 135 29. The Urysohn imbedding theorem 137 30. The Stone-Cech compactification 139 Chapter Sit CONNECTEDNESS 31. Connected spaces 143 32. The components of a space 146 33, Totally disconnected spaces 149 34, Locally connected spaces 150 Chapter Seven APPROXIMATION 35. The Weierstrass approximation theorem 153 36. The Stone-Weierstrass theorems 157 37. Locally compact Hausdorff spaces 162 38. The extended Stone-Weierstrass theorems 165 PART TWO: Chapter Hight ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS 39, Groups 172 40. Rings 181 41. The structure of rings 184 42, Linear spaces 191 43. The dimension of a linear space 196 44, Linear transformations 203 45, Algebras 208 Chapter Nine BANACH SPACES 46, The definition and some examples 212 47, Continuous linear transformations 219 48, The Hahn-Banach theorem 224 49, The natural imbedding of Nin N** 231 50. The open mapping theorem 235 51. The conjugate of an operator 239 Chapter Ten HILBERT SPACES 52. The definition and some simple properties 244 53. Orthogonal complements 249 54, Orthonormal sets 251 129 142 153 OPERATORS 171 211 243Contents xv 55. The conjugate space H* 260 56. The adjoint of an operator 262 57. Self-adjoint operators 266 58, Normal and unitary operators 269 59. Projections 273 Chapter Eleven FINITE-DIMENSIONAL SPECTRAL THEORY 278 60. Matrices 280 61. Determinants and the spectrum of an operator 287 62. The spectral theorem 290 63. A survey of the situation 295 PART THREE: ALGEBRAS OF OPERATORS Chapter Twelve GENERAL PRELIMINARIES ON BANACH ALGEBRAS 301 64. The definition and some examples 302 65. Regular and singular elements 305 66. Topological divisors of zero 307 67. The spectrum 308 68, The formula for the spectral radiue 312 69. The radical and semi-simplicity 313 Chapter Thirteen THE STRUCTURE OF COMMUTATIVE BANACH ALGEBRAS 318 70. The Gelfand mapping 318 71. Applications of the formula r(z) = lim lz" 323 72, Involutions in Banach algebras 324 73. The Gelfand-Neumark theorem 325 Chapter Fourteen SOME SPECIAL COMMUTATIVE BANACH ALGEBRAS 327 74, Ideals in €(X) and the Banach-Stone theorem 327 75. The Stone-Cech compactification (continued) 330 76. Commutative C*-algebras 332 APPENDICES ONE Fixed point theorems and some applications to analysis 337 TWO Continuous curves and the Hahn-Mazurkiewics theorem 341 THREE Boolean algebras, Boolean rings, and Stone’s theorem 344 Bibliography 355 Index of Symbols 359 Subject Index 363PART ONE CopologyCHAPTER ONE Sets and Functions It is sometimes said that mathematics is the study of sets and func- tions. Naturally, this oversimplifies matters; but it does come as close to the truth as an aphorism can. The study of sets and functions leads two ways. One path goes down, into the abysses of logic, philosophy, and the foundations of mathematics. The other goes up, onto the highlands of mathematics itself, where these concepts are indispensable in almost all of pure mathe- matics as it is today. Needless to say, we follow the latter course. We regard sets and functions as tools of thought, and our purpose in this chapter is to develop these tools to the point where they are sufficiently powerful to serve our needs through the rest of this book. As the reader proceeds, he will come to understand that the words set and function are not as simple as they may seem. In a sense, they are simple; but they are potent words, and the quality of simplicity they possess is that which lies on the far side of complexity. They are like seeds, which are primitive in appearance but have the capacity for vast and intricate development. 1, SETS AND SET INCLUSION We adopt a naive point of view in our discussion of sets and assume that the concepts of an element and of a set of elements are intuitively clear. By an element we mean an object or entity of some sort, as, for example, a positive integer, a point on the real line (= a real number), 34 Topology or a point in the complex plane (= a complex number). A set is a collec- tion or aggregate of such elements, considered together or as a whole. Some examples are furnished by the set of all even positive integers, the set of all rational points on the real line, and the set; of all points in the complex plane whose distance from the origin is 1 (= the unit circle in the plane). We reserve the word class to refer to a set of sets. We might speak, for instance, of the class of all circles in a plane (thinking of each circle as a set of points). It will be useful in the work we do if we carry this hierarchy one step further and use the term family for a set of classes. One more remark: the words element, set, class, and family are not intended to be rigidly fixed in their usage; we use them fluidly, to express varying attitudes toward the mathematical objects and systems we study. It is entirely reasonable, for instance, to think of a circle not as a set of points, but as a single entity in itself, in which case we might justifiably speak of the set of all circles in a plane. There are two standard notations available for designating a par- ticular set. Whenever it is feasible to do so, we can list its elements between braces. Thus {1, 2, 3} signifies the set consisting of the first three positive integers, {1, 1, —1, —1} is the set of the four fourth roots of unity, and {+1, +3, +5, . . .} is the set of all odd integers. This manner of specifying a set, by listing its elements, is unworkable in many circumstances. We are then obliged to fall back on the second method, which is to use a property or attribute that characterizes the elements of the set in question. If P denotes a certain property of elements, then {z:P} stands for the set of all elements x for which the property P is meaningful and true. For example, the expression {x:a is real and irrational}, which we read the set of all x such that x is real and irrational, denotes the set of all real numbers which cannot be written as the quotient of two integers. The set under discussion contains all those elements (and no others) which possess the stated property. The three sets of numbers described at the beginning of this paragraph can be written either way: {1, 2, 3} = {n:n is an integer and 0 < n < 4}, {1, 4, -1, —7} is a complex number and z‘ = 1}, and {+1, £3, +5, ...} = {n:nis an odd integer}. We often shorten our notation. For instance, the last. two sets mentioned might perfectly well be written {z:z4 = 1} and {n:nis odd}. Our pur- pose is to be clear and to avoid misunderstandings, and if this can be achieved with less notation, so much the better. In the same vein we canSets and Functions 5 write the unit circle = {z:|z| = 1}, the closed unit dise = {z:|z| < 1}, and the open unit disc = {z:|z| < 1}. We use a special system of notation for designating intervals of various kinds on the real line. If @ and 6} are real numbers such that a < 6, then the following symbols on the left are defined to be the indicated sets on the right: [a,b] = {za Sx <5}, (a,b] = {z:a A and BD A. It will often be convenient to have a symbol for logical implication, and = is the symbol we use. If p and q are statements, then p> q@ means that p implies q, or that if p is true, then q is also true. Similarly, « is our symbol for two-way implication or logical equivalence. It means that the statement on each side implies the statement on the other, and is usually read #f and only if, or is equivalent to. The main properties of set inclusion are obvious. They are the following: (1) ACA for every A; (2) ACBand BCAA =B; (3) ACBandBOCSACC. It is quite important to observe that (1) and (2) can be combined into the single statement that A = B@ACB and BCA. This remark contains a useful principle of proof, namely, that the only way to show that two sets are equal, apart from merely inspecting them, is to show that each is a subset of the other. Problems 1. Perhaps the most famous of the logical difficulties referred to in the text is Russell’s parador. To explain what this is, we begin by observing that a set can easily have elements which are themselves sets, e.g., {1, {2,3}, 4}. This raises the possibility that a set might well contain itself as one of its elements. We call such a set an abnormal set, and any set which does not contain itself as an element we call a normal set. Most sets are normal, and if we suspect that. abnormal sets are in some way undesirable, we might try to confine our attention to the set NV of all normal sets. Someone is now sure to ask, Is N itself normal or abnormal? It is evidently one or the other, and it cannot be both. Show that if N is normal, then it must be abnormal. Show also that if N is abnormal, then it must be normal. We see in this way that each of our two alternatives is self-contradictory, and it seems to be the assumption that N exists as a set which has brought us to this impasse. For further discussion of these matters, we refer the interested reader to Wilder [42, p. 55]Sets and Functions = 7 or Fraenkel and Bar-Hillel [10, p. 6]. Russell’s own account of the discovery of his paradox can be found in Russell [36, p. 75]. The symbol we have used for set inclusion is similar to that used for the familiar order relation on the real line: if z and y are real numbers, 2 2 <2. It also has an important additional property: (4) for any z andy, either z < yor y < z. Property (4’) says that any two real numbers are comparable with respect to the relation in question, and it leads us to call the order relation on the real line a total (or linear) order relation. Show by an example that this property is not possessed by set inclusion. It is for this reason that set inclusion is called a partial order relation. (a) Let U be the single-element set {1}. There are two subsets, the empty set § and {1} itself. If A and B are arbitrary subsets of U, there are four possible relations of the form A € B. Count the number of true relations among these. (b) Let U be the set {1,2}. There are four subsets. List them. If A and B are arbitrary subsets of U, there are 16 possible relations of the form A C B. Count the number of true ones. (c) Let U be the set {1, 2, 3}. There are 8 subsets. What are they? There are 64 possible relations of the form A C B. Count the number of true ones. (d) Let U be the set {1, 2,..., m} for an arbitrary positive integer n. How many subsets are there? How many possible relations of the form A C B are there? Can you make an informed guess as to how many of these are true? 2. THE ALGEBRA OF SETS In this section we consider several useful ways in which sets can be combined with one another, and we develop the chief properties of these operations of combination. As we emphasized above, all the sets we mention in this section are assumed to be subsets of our universal set U. U is the frame of reference, or the universe, for our present discussions. In our later work the frame of reference in a particular context will naturally depend on what ideas we happen to be considering. If we find ourselves studying sets of real8 Topology numbers, then U is the set R of all real numbers. If we wish to study sets of complex numbers, then we take U to be the set C of all complex numbers. We sometimes want to narrow the frame of reference and to consider (for instance) only subsets of the closed unit interval [0,1], or of the closed unit dise {z:|z| < 1}, and in these cases we choose U accordingly. Generally speaking, the universal set U is at our disposal, and we are free to select it to fit the needs of the moment. For the présent, however, U is to be regarded as a fixed but arbitrary set. This generality allows us to apply the ideas we develop below to any situation which arises in our later work. Fig. 1. Set inclusion. Fig. 2. The union of A and B. It is extremely helpful to the imagination to have a geometric picture available in terms of which we can visualize sets and operations on sets. A convenient way to accomplish this is to represent U by a rectangular area in a plane, and the elements which make up U by the points of this area. Sets can then be pictured by areas within this rectangle, and diagrams can be drawn which illustrate operations on sets and relations between them. For instance, if A and B are sets, then Fig. 1 represents the circumstance that A is a subset of B (we think of each set as consisting of all points within the corresponding closed curve). Diagrammatic thought of this kind is admittedly loose and imprecise; nevertheless, the reader will find it invaluable. Nomathematics, however abstract it may appear, is ever carried on without the help of mental images of some kind, and these are often nebulous, personal, and diffi- cult to describe. The first operation we discuss in the algebra of sets is that of forming unions. The union of two sets A and B, written A U B, is defined to be the set of all elements which are in either A or B (including those which are in both). A U B is formed by lumping together the elements of A and those of B and regarding them as constituting a single set. In Fig. 2, 4 UB is indicated by the shaded area. The aboveSets and Functions 9 definition can also be expressed symbolically: AVB = {z:z¢A or zé B}. The operation of forming unions is commutative and associative: AUB=BUA and AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC. It has the following additional properties: AVA=A,AUG=A,andAUU=U, We also note that AGCBoAUB=B, so set inclusion can be expressed in terms of this operation. Our next operation is that of forming intersections. The inter- section of two sets A and B, written A ( B, is the set of all elements which are in both A and B. In symbols, AB = {a:a¢ A and xe B}. A(\B is the common part of the sets A and B. In Fig. 3, AM Bis represented by the shaded area. If AQ Bis non-empty, we express this by saying that A intersects B. If, on the other hand, it happens that A and B have no common part, or equivalently that A B = G, then Fig. 3. The intersection of A and B. we say that A does not intersect B, or that A and B are disjoint; and a class of sets in which all pairs of distinct sets are disjoint is called a disjoint class of sets. The operation of form- ing intersections is also commutative and associative: ANB=BONA and AN(BNC)=(ANB)NC. It has the further properties that ANA=A,ANG6=§$,and ANU = A; and since ACBeANB=A, we see that set inclusion can also be expressed in terms of forming intersections. We have now defined two of the fundamental operations on sets, and we have seen how each is related to set inclusion. The next obvious step is to see how they are related to one another. The facts here are given by10 Topology the distributive laws: AN (BUC) = (ANB)U(ANO) and AU(BNC) = (AUB) N(AUC). ‘These properties depend only on simple logic applied to the meanings of ttf ily / Fig. 4. A U(BNC) = (A UB) N(A UC). the symbols involved. For instance, the first of the two distributive laws says that an element is in A and is in B or C precisely when it is in A and Bor isin A and C. We can convince ourselves intuitively of the validity of these laws by drawing pictures. The second distributive law is illustrated in Fig. 4, where A U (B 1 C) is formed on the left by shading and (A U B)(\ (A UC) on the right by cross-shading. A moment’s Stare ai baal a < grams ought to convi th di that one obtains the same set in each case. Fig. 5. The complement of A. those which make up JU, it goes with- out saying—but it ought to be said The last of our major operations on sets is the formation of comple- —that A’ consists of all those elements in U which are not in A. Symbolically, ments. The complement of a set A, A’ = {xing A}. Figure 5 (in which A’ is shaded) illustrates this operation. The operation of forming complements has the following obvious properties: (A'’ = 4, 8 = U, U' = AUVA'=U,and AN A' =.Sets and Functions 11 Further, it is related to set inclusion by ACBeBCA’ and to the formation of unions and intersections by (AUB) =A’ OB and (AM BY = A’UB’. (1) The first equation of (1) says that an element is not in either of two sets precisely when it is outside of both, and the second says that it is not in both precisely when it is outside of one or the other. The operations of forming unions and intersections are primarily binary operations; that is, each is a process which applies to a pair of sets and yields a third. We have emphasized this by our use of parentheses to indicate the order in which the operations are to be performed, as in (A, U As) U As, where the parentheses direct us first to unite A; and A, and then to unite the result of this with A3. Associativity makes it possible to dispense with parentheses in an expression like this and to write Ai\U A; U A;, where we understand that these sets are to be united in any order and that the order in which the operations are performed is irrelevant. Similar remarks apply to Ai A: As. Furthermore, if {Ai, 42, ..., An} is any finite class of sets, then we can form AL\UA21U+++UAn and Ai NAI1N +++ OAs in much the same way without any ambiguity of meaning whatever. In order to shorten the notation, we let J = {1, 2,... , n} be the set of subscripts which index the sets under consideration. J is called the index set. ‘We then compress the symbols for the union and intersection just mentioned to Usar Ai and Mr Ai. As long as it is quite clear what the index set is, we can write this union and intersection even more briefly, in the form U;A; and (;A,. For the sake of both brevity and clarity, these sets are often written UZ, A; and Mf, Ai These extensions of our ideas and notations don’t reach nearly far enough. It is often necessary to form unions and intersections of large (really large!) classes of sets. Let {A;} be an entirely arbitrary class of sets indexed by a set J of subscripts. Then User Ay = {u:2 ¢ A; for at least one ¢ ¢ 7} and Over Ag = {ata € A; for every i€ I} define their union and intersection. As above, we usually abbreviate these notations to U:A; and (,A,; and if the class {A,} consists of a sequence of sets, that is, if {As} = (Ai, As, As, ...}, then their union and intersection are often written in the form UZ, A;and (2, Ai Observe that we did not require the class {A,} to be non-empty. If it does12 Topology happen that this class is empty, then the above definitions give (remem- bering that all sets are subsets of U) U.A; = § and M4; = U. The second of these facts amounts to the following statement: if we require of an element that it belong to each set. in a given class, and if there are no sets present in the class, then every element satisfies this requirement. If we had not made the agreement that the only elements under consider- ation are those in U, we would not have been able to assign a meaning to the intersection of an empty class of sets. A moment’s consideration makes it clear that Eqs. (1) are valid for arbitrary unions and intersections: (UA)! = OA! and (NiAy’ = UsAY. (2) It is instructive to verify these equations for the case in which the class { A.} is empty. We conclude our treatment of the general theory of sets with a brief discussion of certain special classes of sets which are of consider- able importance in topology, logic, and measure theory. We usually denote classes of sets by capital letters in boldface. First, some general remarks which will be useful both now and later, especially in connection with topological spaces. We shall often have occasion to speak of finite unions and finite intersections, by which we mean unions and intersections of finite classes of sets, and by a finite class of sets we always mean one which is empty or consists of n sets for some positive integer n. If we say that a class A of sets is closed under the formation of finite unions, we mean that A contains the union of each of its finite subclasses; and since the empty subclass qualifies as a finite subclass of A, we see that its union, the empty set, is necessarily an element of A. In the same way, a class of sets which is closed under the formation of finite intersections necessarily contains the universal set. Now for the special classes of sets mentioned above. For the remainder of this section we specifically assume that the universal set U is non-empty. A Boolean algebra of sets is a non-empty class A of subsets of U which has the following properties: (@) AandBeAS>AUBEA; (2) AandBeA>AMBeEA; (3) AcAsd4’ed. Since A is assumed to be non-empty, it must contain at least one set A. Property (3) shows that A’ is in A along with A, and since A A’ = 6 and A U A’ = JU, (1) and (2) guarantee that A contains the empty set and the universal set. Since the class consisting only of the empty set and the universal set is clearly a Boolean algebra of sets, these two distinct sets are the only ones which every Boolean algebra of sets mustSets and Functions = 13 contain. It is equally clear that the class of all subsets of U is also a Boolean algebra of sets. There are many other less trivial kinds, and their applications are manifold in fields of study as diverse as statistics and electronics. Let A be a Boolean algebra of sets. It is obvious that if {A1, 42, ... , 4a} is a non-empty finite subclass of A, then AiVUA2U+++UAn, and Ai MA2N +++ OAs are both sets in A; and since A contains the empty set and the universal set, it is easy to see that A is a class of sets which is closed under the formation of finite unions, finite intersections, and complements. We now go in the other direction, and let A be a class of sets which is closed under the formation of finite unions, finite intersections, and comple- ments. By these assumptions, A automatically contains the empty set and the universal set, so it is non-empty and is easily seen to be a Boolean algebra of sets. We conclude from these remarks that Boolean algebras of sets can be described alternatively as classes of sets which are closed under the formation of finite unions, finite intersections, and comple- ments. It should be emphasized once again that when discussing Boolean algebras of sets we always assume that the universal set is non- empty. One final comment. We speak of Boolean algebras of sets because there are other kinds of Boolean algebras than those which consist of sets, and we wish to preserve the distinction. We explore this topic further in our Appendix on Boolean algebras. Problems 1. If {Ai} and {B;} are two classes of sets such that {Aj C {B;}, show that U.A. C U;B; and NB; © MAG. 2. The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A — B, is the set of all elements in A and not in B; thus A — B = AM B’. Show the following: A-~B=4A-~(AMB)=(AUB)-B; (A - B)-C=A-(BUC); A-(B-C) (AUB)-C=(A-C)UB-O); A-(BUC)=(A-B)N(A-0C). 3. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by AAB, is defined by A AB = (A — B) U (B — A); it is thus the union of14. Topology their differences in opposite orders. Show the following: AA(BAC) = (AAB)AC; AAG = A;ADA =; AAB=BAA; AM (BAC) = (ANB)A(ANC). 4. A ring of sets is a non-empty class A of sets such that if A and B are in A, then A AB and A‘) B arealsoin A. Show that A must also contain the empty set, AU B, and A — B. Show that if a non- empty class of sets contains the union and difference of any pair of its sets, then it is a ring of sets. Show that a Boolean algebra of sets is a ring of sets. 5. Show that the class of all finite subsets (including the empty set) of an infinite set is a ring of sets but is not a Boolean algebra of sets. 6. Show that the class of all finite unions of closed-open intervals on the real line is a ring of sets but is not 2 Boolean algebra of sets. 7. Assuming that the universal set U is non-empty, show that Boolean algebras of sets can be described as rings of sets which contain U. 3. FUNCTIONS Many kinds of functions occur in topology, in a great variety of situations. In our work we shall need the full power of the general con- cept of a function, and since its modern meaning is much broader and deeper than its elementary meaning, we discuss this concept in con- siderable detail and develop its main abstract properties. Let us begin with a brief inspection of some simple examples. Con- sider the elementary function yor of the real variable x. What do we have in mind when we call this a function and say that y is a function of z? In a nutshell, we are drawing attention to the fact that each real number z has linked to it a specific real number y, which can be calculated according to the rule (or law of correspondence) given by the formula. We have here a process which, applied to any real number z, does something to it (squares it) to produce another real number y (the square of x). Similarly, y=o?—3c and y= (2? +1) are two other simple functions of the real variable z, and each is given by a rule in the form of an algebraic expression which specifies the exact, manner in which the value of y depends on the value of =.Sets and Functions 15 The rules for the functions we have just mentioned are expressed by formulas. In general, this is possible only for functions of a very simple kind or for those which are sufficiently important to deserve special symbols of their own. Consider, for instance, the function of the real variable z defined as follows: for each real number 2, write z as an infinite decimal (using the scheme of decimal expansion in which infinite chains of 9’s are avoided—in which, for example, 4 is represented by .25000 . . . rather than by .24999 . . .); then let y be the fifty-ninth digit after the decimal point. There is of course no standard formula for this, but nevertheless it is a perfectly respectable function whose rule is given by a verbal description. On the other hand, the function y = sin x of the real variable z is so important that its rule, though fully as compli- cated as the one just defined, is assigned the special symbol sin. When discussing functions in general, we want to allow for all sorts of rules and to talk about them all at once, so we usually employ noncommittal notations like y = f(x), y = g(x), and so on. Each of the functions mentioned above is defined for all real numbers a. The example y = 1/z shows that this restriction is much too severe, for this function is defined only for non-zero values of z. Similarly, y = log z is defined only for positive values of z, and y = sin! z only for values of x which lie in the interval [—1,1]. Whatever our conception of a function may be, it should certainly be broad enough to include examples like these, which are defined only for some values of the real variable z. In real analysis the notion of function is introduced in the following way. Let X be any non-empty set of real numbers. We say that a function y = f(z) is defined on X if the rule f associates a definite real number y with each real number z in X. The specific nature of the tule f is totally irrelevant to the concept of a function. The set X is called the domain of the given function, and the set Y of all the values it Assumes is called its range. If we speak of complex numbers here instead of real numbers, we have the notion of function as it is used in complex analysis. This point of view toward functions is actually a bit more general than is needed for the aims of analysis, but it isn’t nearly general enough for our purposes. The sets X and Y above were taken to be sets of numbers. If we now remove even this restriction and allow X and Y to be completely arbitrary non-empty sets, then we arrive at the most inclusive concept of a function. By way of illustration, suppose that X is the set of all squares in a plane and that Y is the set of all circles in the same plane. We can define a function y = f(x) by requiring that the rule f associate with each square z that circle y which is inscribed in it. In general, there is no need at all for either X or Y to be a set of16 Topology numbers. All that is really necessary for a function is two non-empty sets X and Y and a rule f which is meaningful and unambiguous in assigning to each element z in X a specific element y in Y. With these preliminary descriptive remarks, we now turn to the rather abstract but very precise ideas they are intended to motivate. A function consists of three objects: two non-empty sets X and Y (which may be equal, but need not be) and a rule f which assigns to each element x in X a single fully determined element y in Y. The y which corresponds in this way to a given z is usually written f(x), and is called the image of x under the rule f, or the value of f at the element x. This f fee eee aa Fig. 6. A way of visualizing mappings. notation is supposed to be suggestive of the idea that the rule f takes the element z and does something to it to produce the element y = f(z). The rule f is often called a mapping, or transformation, or operator, to amplify this concept of it. We then think of f as mapping 2’s to y’s, or transforming 2's into y’s, or operating on z’s to produce y’s. The sct X is called the domain of the function, and the set of all f(z)’s for all z’s in X is called its range. A function whose range consists of just one element is called a constant function. We often denote by f:X — Y the function with rule f, domain X, and range contained in Y. This notation is useful because the essential parts of the function are displayed in a manner which emphasizes that it is a composite object, the central thing being the rule or mapping f. Figure 6 gives a convenient way of picturing this function. On the left, X and Y are different sets, and on the right, they are equal—in which case we usually refer to f as a mapping of X into itself. If it is clear from the context what the sets X and Y are, or if there is no real need to specify them explicitly, it is common practice to identify the function f:X— Y with the rule f, and to speak of f alone as if it were the function under consideration (without mentioning the sets X and Y). It sometimes happens that two perfectly definite sets X and Y are under discussion and that a mapping of X into Y arises which has nu natural symbol attached to it. If there is no necessity to invent aSets and Functions 7 symbol for this mapping, and if it is quite clear what the mapping is, it is often convenient to designate it by x—» y. Accordingly, the function y = 2 mentioned at the beginning of this section can be written as 2— x? or x— y (where y is understood to be the square of x). A function f is called an extension of a function g (and g is called a restriction of f) if the domain of f contains the domain of g and f(z) = g(z) for each z in the domain of g. Most of mathematical analysis, both classical and modern, deals with functions whose values are real numbers or complex numbers. f emer esa Pepe es Fig. 7. The inverse of a mapping. This is also true of those parts of topology which are concerned with the foundations of analysis. If the range of a function consists of real numbers, we call it a real function; similarly, a complex function is one whose range consists of complex numbers. Obviously, every real function is also complex. We lay very heavy emphasis on real and complex func- tions throughout our work. As a matter of usage, we generally prefer to reserve the term function for real or complex functions and to speak of mappings when dealing with functions whose values are not necessarily numbers. Consider a mapping f:X — Y. When we call f a mapping of X into Y, we mean to suggest by this that the elements f(z)—as x varies over all the elements of X—need not fill up Y; but if it definitely does happen that the range of f equals Y, or if we specifically want to assume this, then we call f a mapping of X onto Y. If two different elements in X always have different images under f, then we call f a one-to-one mapping of X into Y. If f:X— Y is both onto and one-to-one, then we can define its inverse mapping f-!: ¥ + X as follows: for each y in Y, we find that unique element x in X such that f(z) = y (z exists and is unique since f is onto and one-to-one); we then define z to be f-!(y). The equation z = f-'(y) is the result of solving y = f(x) for x in just the same way as x = log y is the result of solving y = e* for x. Figure 7 illustrates the concept of the inverse of a mapping.