First Edition, 2009

ISBN 978 93 80168 90 6

All rights reserved.

Published by:
Global Media
1819, Bhagirath Palace,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006
Email: [email protected]

Table of Contents
1. Quantum Physics
2. Elementary Particles
3. The Accelerators
4. Decay of Radioactive Nucleus
5. Atomic Mode
6. The Spectrum
7. The Crystalline
8. Crystal Structure
9. Space Lattice
10. Phase Space
11. Monatomic Linear Crystal
12. The Diodes
13. The Semiconductors
14. Distribution of Energy
15. Energy Band Structure
16. Photoconductive Device
17. Microelectronic Circuits

Quantum Physics

1
Quantum Physics
Duality of Wave-Particle
(de-Broglie Wavelength) : Each material particle in motion
behaves as waves and the wavelength associated with any
moving particle of momentum p is given by
h h

p mv
de-Broglie wavelength of particle of K.E. = Ek is given by
=

de-Broglie wavelength for charged particle of charge q and

accelerated through a potential difference of V volts is
=

h
2mEk

h
2mqV

de-Broglie wavelength of a material particle at temperature

T is
h
=
k Boltzmann constant
2mkT

Quantum Physics

de-Broglie wavelength of helium atom

h
He =
3mkT
The relativistic expression for the de-Broglie wavelength
of an electron accelerated through a high p.d. of V volts

h
1 eV

2m0 eV
2m0c 2

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

The product of uncertainties in determining the position

and momentum of a particle at the same instant is
x p

If E is the uncertainty in determining energy of the system

and t uncertainty in time
E t

Also J
J Uncertainty in angular momentum
Uncertainty in angle

Exact Statement : The product of the uncertainties in

determining the position and momentum of the particle can

never be smaller than the number of the order

2

x p
2
Similarly,

J
2

E t

Applications:
(i) Non-existence of the electrons in the nucleus.

Quantum Physics

(ii) Radius of Bohrs first orbit.

(iii) Minimum energy of a harmonic oscillator.
(iv) Energy of a particle in one dimensional box.
(v) Finite width of spectral lines.

Schrodinger Wave Equation

(i) Time independent Schrodinger equation
2

2m
2

E V = 0

(ii) Time dependent Schrodinger equation

2 2

V = ih
2m

2 2

The operator
V is called Hamiltonian represented
2m

by H while operator ih

, operated on , gives E
t

TDSE H = E

The Commutator : The commutation relation can be

written as
[xpx px x] = [x, px] = i
The quantity
[, ] = = [, ]
is said to be the commutator of the two operators and .

Probability Current Density

J

i2
* *
2m

and Position probability density.

Quantum Physics

Expectation values
<x> =

* x d
* d

Since * d = 1

<x> =

* x d

In general, for any function f(r), the expectation value

< f(r) > =

* f x d

Since operator, E ih

<E> =

* ih t d

and operator, p ih
px =

* ih x d

2 2

*
p x =
h
d
x 2

Ehrenfests theorem (Relationship between classical and

quantum motion)
d
1
px
<x> =
dt
m
V
d

px =
x
dt

One dimensional wave packet : Concepts of group and

phase velocities

A wave packet obtained by the superposition of plane

wave

Quantum Physics

1
A k ei kx t dk
2

x, t

...(1)

Now using p = k and E = . we get equation (1) as

1
2 h

x, t

a p exp

i
px Et dp

Thus

1
i
a p exp px dp

x , 0

1
has been introduced so that a(p) is given by symmetrical
2

relation

1
i
x, 0 exp px dx

a p

Group velocity
vg

d dE
p k
U sin g

E
dk dp

Phase velocity
vp

k
The One Dimensional Gaussian Wave Packet : Propagation
of Gaussian wave packet (x1 t = 0)

2 14

x x0 2
i

exp
exp p0 x
2

Wave function is normalised

x2

* x dx x0

* x 2 dx

2
x0 2
2

Quantum Physics

p2

* ih
dx p0
x

2
p0 2
* h 2 2 dx
2
x
2

Simple Solutions of the Schrodinger Equation

I : One Dimensional Consideration
Orthogonality Condition

n * n dx

= 0

Normalization condition

dx = 1

Orthonormality condition

k * n dx

= kn

kn kronecker delta function

kn = 0, k n = l, k = n

Particle in a One-Dimensional Infinitely Deep Potential Well

The allowed energy levels are given by
En =

2n2 2
2ma2

, n = l, 2, 3

n2 2
8ma2

The corresponding eigenfunctions are

n =

n
sin
x
a

Quantum Physics

Particle in a One-Dimensional Potential Well of Finite Depth

Energy eigenvalues would given as
E

2 p2 2 2
2ma2

; p = 1, 2, 3 for V

For V0 >> E
E =

2 p 12 2 2
2ma2

Linear Harmonic Oscillator

The potential energy for this

V(x) =

1
m2 x 2
2

The energy eigenvalues

1
E n , n 0, 1, 2, ...

Zero point energy

E =

The normalised harmonic oscillator wave functions are

1

n x Nn exp 2 x 2 Hn x
2

where,

Nn =

n
2 n !

12

12

and

m
=

and Hn (x) Hermite polynomial.

Quantum Physics

The Double Well Potential

ForE << V0

2 2 n2

En0 =

2ma2

2En0

E0
4 n e2 k0 b

and

En En0

where

2m

k0 = 2 V0 En0

For

V , En En0

k0 a

k0 a

12

Wave function
x , t

(1)
1 iEa1 t k (1)
it
e
x x e
2
a
S

where
s1 Lowest symmetric wave functions
a1 Lowest antisymmetric wave functions

One Dimensional Barrier Transmission Problems

The Potential Step

The current densities associated with the wave function

Ae ikx , Be ikx and ce ik1x represent the incident current,

Quantum Physics

reflected current and transmitted current respectively, these

are
k 2
A
Jinc =
m
Jref = k B 2
m
k1

Jtr =

C2

m
2k
k k1
A
B
A and C
k k1
k k2

The reflection and transmission coefficients are

Jref
Jinc

k k1 2
k k1 2

k C2
4kk1
J
T tra 1 2
Jinc k A
k k1 2

The Rectangular Potential Barrier

Transmission coefficient

4 p12 p2 2 sec h2 ip2 a

p12 p2 2 tanh 2 ip2 a 4p12 p2 2

p

p2 2 tanh 2 ip1 a h
2

p2 2 tanh 2 ip2 a h 4 p12 p2 2

2

A special case when the barrier is thick

R=

16 p12 p2 2 e2ip2 a

p12 p2 2 2 4p12 p2 2
16E V0 E

V0 2

16 p12 p2 2 e2 ip2 a

p12 p2 2 2

e 2 2mV0 E a

p12 p2 2 2 1
p12 p2 2 2

Quantum Physics

10

Simple Solutions of the Schrodinger Equation

II: 3-Dimensional Consideration
The hydrogen atom. The Hamiltonian for hydrogen atom
H

h2 2 h2 2
1
2 V r1 r2
2m1
2m2

The energy depends on the total quantum number n.

For each n we have values of l ranging from 0 to n 1, and

for each value of l, the m values range from l to +l there
are

n 1

2l 1 n2 , states belonging to a particular energy.

l 0

For the Ground State of hydrogen atom the Wave Function

is Spherically Symmetric
100

1 z

4 a0

32

zr
exp
a0

P(r)dr the probability of finding the electron between r

and r + dr is
2

2
P(r)dr = 100 4r dr

z
4
a0

2
2 zr
r exp
dr

a0

The Particle in a Box (In 3-D)

Wave function
nx nynz

2 2

abc

nyy
n x
n z
sin x sin
sin z
a

Energy levels

Enxnynz

2
2 nx 2 ny
n 2
2 2 z2
8m a
b
c

Quantum Physics

11

Energy states between E and E + dE is

2m
2 V 2
h

32

E1 2 , V Volume

Three-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator

For isotropic oscillator, energy is given as
3

E = n
2

The degree of degeneracy is

1
(n + 1) (n + 2)
2

Angular Momentum

Angular momentum operator representations of Lx, Ly, and

Lz and L2 Lx 2 Ly2 Lz2

z
y
z

Lx = ih y

Ly = ih z x
z
x


Lz = ih x y y x

In terms of spherical polar coordinates

Lx ih sin

Ly ih cos

and

Lz = ih

cot cos

cot sin

Ly h 2 r 2 2

1 2
r

r 2 r

Quantum Physics

12

Eigenvalues of L2:
L2Ylm, ll 1 2Ylm,
eigenvalues of L2 is l(l + l) 2

Lz m

and for

The Commutation Relations

[Lx, Ly] = iLz ;

[Ly, Lz] = iLx ;

[Lz, Lx] = iLy

[L2, Lx] = [L2, Ly] = [L2, Lz] = 0

Angular momentum in general
J = L + Se

J2 = J x 2 J y 2 J z 2
Ladder operators :
J+ = Jx + iJy
J = Jx iJy
Then

[Jz, J+] = J
[Jz, J_] = J

and

[J+, J_] = 2J z
[J2, J+] = [J2, J_] = 0

Expectation Value
J 2 J x 2 J y2 m2 2

Jx and Jy are Hermitian and the expectation value of

Hermitian are non-negative.

Quantum Physics

13

Operator

Eigenvalue

J2

2 j j 1 2

|jm >

j j 1

J |jm >

Jz

|Jm >
J+ |jm >
J_ |jm >

(m + 1)
(m 1)
J+ |jm > = |j, m + 1>

and

J_ |jm > = |j, m 1>

Eigenket
2

Matrix Formulation

Matrix element for J2 and Jz are given as

j ' m' J 2 jm = j j 1 2 jj ' mm'

j ' m' J z2 jm = m jj ' mm'

where < j m and jm> represents column and row

respectively.
Thus each matrices of J2 and Jz has the form

Note : J2 and Jz matrices contain only principal diagonal

Quantum Physics

14

For Example :
1. j = 1

A = B=C
= j (j + 1) 2 = 1(1 + 1) 2 22
0
1 0 0
0 = 22 0 1 0
0 0 1
22

22

J = 0
0

and

JZ = m jj ' mm' [As m = 1, 0, 1 for j = 1]

0
22
0

1.2

0
0

0
0.2
0

0
0
1.2

1 0

0
0
0 0 1

2
= 0 0

2. For

and

j =

1
[order of matrix = 2 2]
2
1 0
0 1

J2 =

3 2

JZ =

1 1 0

2 0 1

Quantum Physics

15

Matrix elements of Jx and Jy in a representation in which

J2 and JZ are diagonal.
j ' m' J x jm

and j ' m' J y jm

j m j m 1 jj ' m', m1

i
2

j m j m 1 jj ' m', m1

Matrix element for J+, J_

j ' m' J jm j j 1 m m 1 jj ' m', m1

and j ' m' J jm j j 1 m m 1 jj ' m', m1

For example
1.

j =

1
2

J+ = 00 01

and
2.

and

0 0
J = 1 0

j = 1
J+ =

0 1 0
2 0 0 1
0 0 0

J_ =

0 0 0
2 0 0 0
0 1 0

Matrix elements for L+ and L

l' m' L lm ll 1 m m 1 ll' m', m1
l' m' L lm ll 1 m m 1 ll' m', m1

Quantum Physics

16

j = 1

For

= 0
0

Similarly,

L_ = 2

0
2
0

2
0
0
0
0
2

0
0

Spin Angular Momentum

A particle having intrinsic (spin) angular momentum S

which is unrelated to its orbital motion. Also it obey
[S, L] = 0
S2 |SMS > = s(s + 1) 2 |SMS >

Sz|SMS > = Ms 2 |SMS >

where MS = S, S 1, ... -s, there are (2s + 1) values of MS
for given S and (2s + 1) states are possible

s =

For

1
1
1
; Ms = ,
2
2
2

1
Only 2 1 2 states are possible |s, Ms>
2
1 1
,
2 2
state

1
1
,
2
2
state

1
0
0 and 1

Quantum Physics

17

is wave function for ms

1
or spin up while stands
2

1
or spin down wave function.
2
General wave function

for ms

x = ba a 01 b 01 = a + b

a Probability amplitude that particle has spin up and

b Probability amplitude for particle has spin down

Also

1
2
Pauli matrices and defined as

0 1
0 i
1 0
x 1 0 ; y i 0 ; z 0 1

S+ = Sx + iSy
S_ = Sx iSy

or,

S+ =

1
x i y
2
2

0 1 0 1

2 1 0 1 0

0 2
0 1

0 0 Raising operator
2 0 0

S_ =

1
0 0
_ 1 0
2

Properties of Pauli Spin Matrix

(1) x 2 y2 z2 1 and 3 3
(2) x y = y x = i z
(3) 2 = 2 0

Lowering operator

Quantum Physics

18
(4) = 21 z
(5)

.A .B = A.B i . A B

Addition of Angular Momentum

j1 and j2 are two independent angular momentum. The eigenvector

(j1 j2.m1m2) defines eigenstates with four observable respectively
j1 (j1 + 1), m1, j2 (j2 + 1) and m2.

For given values of j1 and j2 there will be (2j1 + 1) possible

values of m1 and (2j2 + 1) possible values of m2.

There will be (2j1 + 1) (2j2 + 1) eigenstates.

Clebsch-Gorden Coefficients (C-G Coeff.) Addition of Angular

Momenta

m1m2 JM JM m1' m2 '

m1m1 ' m2m2 '

Definition
JM m1m2 m1m2 J' M'

m1m2

JJ' MM'
jm

Recurrence Relations for Calculation of C. G. Coefficient

(1)

J J 1 mm 11 2 m1m2 | JM 1
j1 j1 1 m1 m1 11 2 m1 1,

m2 | JM j 2 j 2 1 m2 m2 11 2
m1 , m2 1| JM

(2)

J J 1 mm 11 2 m1m2 | Jm 1
j1 j1 1 m1 m1 11 2 m1 1,

m2 | JM j 2 j 2 1 m2 m2 11 2
m2 1, m1| JM

Quantum Physics

19

So to determine C.G. coefficient m1m2 | JM we use

recurrence relation (1) and (2).

Operator Method in Quantum Mechanics

If the operator , and are of such that
f(x) = f x f x

The operator is called the commutator of the

operator and .

e.g.,

x p x p x x x
i
x p x p = i

Theorem : The necessary and sufficient condition that

simultaneous eigenfunctions exist for two operators O 1 and
O 2 is that they commute.

d
dx
and a plane wave which represent a state of definite
momentum p

Momentum operator i

1
e1 px
2

Normalised eigenfunction

If an operand u is a simultaneous eigenfunction of two

operators and such that
u = u and = u

where and are numerical constants, then u is also an

eigenfunction of the operator and belongs to the

eigenvalue 0.

Quantum Physics

20

Operator associated with linear momentum

p = i
Energy operator

E = ih

and velocity operator,

Hermitian Operator
For any two well behaved functions f(x) and g(x) vanishing
at infinity, an operator O satisfying the equation

g * x O f x dx
O gx * f x dx

is said to be Hermitian.

Parity Operator defined as

x = x

Eigenvalue

+1 Corresponds to even eigenfunction.

1 Corresponds to odd eigenfunction.

operator commutes with Hamiltonian operator H

Projection Operator

p i i i Projection operator

pi
i 1

= 1

Quantum Physics

21

Properties
(1)
(2)
(3)

p i 2 = p i
p i p j = p j ij
Projection operator p i is Hermitian

Unitary Operator : When the inverse and adjoint of an

operator all identical, then the operator is known as unitary
operator. If U is unitary operator, then
U = U 1

Properties of Hermitian Operations

(a) The sum of two Hermitian operators is Hermitian.
(b) The product of the Hermitian operators is Hermitian if
and only if they commute.
(c) The operators as position r , momentum
2

p V r are Hermitian.
p and energy H
2
i

(d) Hermitian operators give real eigenvalues.

Theorem : The eigenfunctions of a Hermitian operator

corresponding to different eigenvalues will be orthogonal
function.
Equation of Motion

f = [f, H]

or,

x = [x, H]

Quantum Physics

22

Theory of Scattering
The complete wave function in this case
ikr

eik.r. f er
r

eikr incident wave and f

eikr
Scattered wave
r

where f Scattering amplitude

Differential scattering cross section
=

Total scattering cross section (for spherically Symmetrical

potential)

= 2 sin d
0

The Born Approximation

Scattering amplitude

f (, ) =

V r e

ik.r

dr

If potential is spherically symmetric

K = 2k sin

r sin Kr V r dr

k propagation constant

The differential scattering cross section

=

K 0

r sin Kr V r dr

Quantum Physics

23

Condition for validity of Born approximation

1
4

eik r r
r ei k.r dr 1
r r

The Method of Partial Waves : The method of partial

waves is mainly applicable to spherically symmetric potential
and consists of the expansion of the wave function as a series
of spherical harmonics multiplied by a radial wave function.
Scattering amplitude

f
l 0

2l 1 sin
k

l eil P cos

The D.C.S. (Differential Scattering cross section)

2l 12 Pl 2 cos sin 2

l0

k2

The T.C.S. (Total scattering cross section)

2l 12 sin 2
2
k
l 0

Optical Theorem
t =

where

Im f 0

k
1

. Im f 0

2l 12 sin 2

k
l 0

Scattering by Hard Sphere : For sufficiently low energies

TCS

4a2

For high energies

2a2

Perturbation Theory
Hamiltonian for He[e e interaction]

Quantum Physics

24

i 1

2
ze2 e2

i ,

2
ri r12

e2
Produces problem in solving the problem exactly.
r12
This term is known as perturbation.

Time-Independent Perturbation Theory

When a small disturbance is applied we can break

Hamiltonian as
H = H+ H
H Non-perturbed, term
H Small perturbed term
(i) Non-degenerate Case : (i.e., there will be one eigenfunction
corresponding to each (energy level) eigenvalue)

In 1st Order Perturbation

1st order corrections are
(a)

E = Em m H m
m H m

1st order correction in energy

(b)
where

| 1 |m S
k

k H m
|k
Em Ek

k H m
| k
k Em Ek

| 1 = S

1st order correction in wave function.

Quantum Physics

25

IInd Order Perturbation

W2 = S

m H k 2
Em Ek

This is IInd order correction in energy.

(ii) Degenerate Case : (Two or more eigenvalues corresponding
to one eigenfunction).
1st order correction in energy
W1

Hmm Hll Hmm Hll 2 4 Hml Hlm

2

Degeneracy is removed in 1st order.

where
Hmm = < m|H|m >
Hll = < l|H|l >
Hml = < m|H|l >

Hlm = <l|H|m >

1st Order Correction in Wave Function
Hkmam H kl al |k
| 1 S
Ek Em
k
IInd Order Correction in Energy

1 H 2 mm H 2 ln
Em En
2n

W2 S

2
H mn Hln
1
S

2 n Em En

22

4 Hmn Hln Hnm H nl

Em En 2

12

Degeneracy is removed in IInd order.

Zeeman Effect (Without e-Spin)

The effect of uniform external magnetic field on energy
levels of an atom, is called the Zeeman effect.

Quantum Physics

26

Perturbation
e
H
B . L represents the energy M . B of a magnetic
2

dipole with M

e
L
2

So 1st order energy correction term

E1 = m

e
2

BLz m =

eB
2

So, for a given n, m can take value from l to l i.e., the

degeneracy is of (2l + 1) states. So, energy levels are splited
by applying magnetic field. The nth level being splited into
(2l + 1) levels. This is Zeeman effect.

Stark Effect : The splitting of energy levels of an atom

caused by a uniform external electric field E is called Stark
effect.

For ground state there is no 1st order Stark effect.

For 1st excited state, n = 2

There is four fold degeneracy. For which we have four

roots 0, 0, 3e Ea0 and 3eEa0. So, two roots 0, 0 are same and
hence two fold degeneracy have been removed by 1st order
Stark effect.
So, behaviour of hydrogen atom in 1st excited state (n - 2)
is like a permanent electric dipole moment of, magnitude
3ea0 that can be mapped in three different ways.
(1) One state parallel to external field.
(2) One state antiparallel to field.
(3) Two states with zero component along field.

Quantum Physics

27

Golden Rule of Fermi

Transition probability per unit time is
T =

2 1 2
H
m
ml

T =

2 1 2
H
m
ml

1 = m H1 l
Hml

This is Fermis Golden rule and states that the transition

probability per unit time
(i) Is non-zero only between continuum states of the same
energy.
(ii) Is proportional to the square of H1 of the perturbation
ml

connecting the states.

(iii) Is proportional to the density of final states.

The probability of finding the system in mth state

Considering the mth level above lth level, then
ml En El / = positive quantity

If lth level above mth level, then

ml En El / = negative quantity

So, when Em > El, the probability is

2

4 Hml1 sin 2 ml t0 / 2

2
h2
ml

When El > Em, then the probability is

2

4 Hml1 sin 2 ml t0 / 2

2
h2
ml

Quantum Physics

28

Identical Particles and Spin

Postulates
(1) The identical particles having an integral quantum
number for their intrinsic spins are described by the
symmetric wave function of type
(l, 2, 3,..., r,... s,..., N) = +(l, 2, 3,...s,...r,...N)
The particles described by this type of wave function are
known as Bose particles (Bosons). Examples of Bosons
are photon (spin 1), neutral helium atom in their normal
state (spin 0) and -particle (spin 0) etc.
(2) The particles with half odd integral quantum number for
their intrinsic spins are described by antisymmetric wave
function and given as
(l, 2, 3,..., r,... s,..., N) = (l, 2, 3,...s,...r,...N)
This type of particle are known as Fermi particle
(Fermions) because they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Examples : Electrons, protons, neutrons, muons (all with

spin 1/2)
Antisymmetric wave function can be built by adding
all the functions with even number of interchanges and
subtracting the sum of all those with an odd number
of interchanges.

Paulis Exclusion Principle

The probability of two antisymmetric identical particles is

zero or two non-interacting Fermions cannot both be in
same quantum state.

Elementary Particles

29

2
Elementary Particles

Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays are highly penetrating radiations consisting
of high-energy atomic nuclei which are continuously coming
from outer space. About 1018 of them reach the earth each
second. They have a wide range of energy from 109 to 1018
electron-volts.
Elster and Geital in 1899 and Wilson in 1900 first detected
the cosmic rays. They found that the charge on a very wellinsulated electroscope always leaked away in time although
there was no ionising agent nearby which could make the air
conducting. It was then thought that the leakage of charge was
due to the ionising radiation from radioactive minerals in the
earth.
Hess, in 1911, sent electroscope up in ballon and found that
the intensity of the unknown ionising radiation was larger at
high altitudes than at the surface of the earth. He therefore
proposed that the radiation originated from somewhere outside

30

Quantum Physics

the earths atmosphere. The radiation was finally called cosmic

rays by Millikan in 1925.
From 1926 to 1928, Millikan and Cameron conducted
experiments on the penetration of cosmic rays through water
by lowering the electroscope in deep lakes. They found that
the cosmic rays reaching the earth consisted of two components,
soft and hard, of very different penetrating powers.
The soft component (now known to consist of electrons,
positrons and photons) was absorbed at a depth of about 1
meter of water, but the more penetrating hard component
(now known to consist of mesons) was not fully absorbed even
at the bottom of the 500-meter deep lake. This showed that the
energy of the cosmic rays was higher than any radiation known
at that time.

Primary and Secondary Cosmic Rays : Investigations

have shown that there are two types of cosmic rays : primary
cosmic rays and secondary cosmic rays.
The primary cosmic rays are those which come from outer
space and enter the upper part of the earths atmosphere. They
consist of atomic nuclear which have lost their orbital electrons.
Most of them are hydrogen nuclei (protons), some are helium
nuclei (-particles), and a few are the nuclei of heavier elements.
Their energies are distributed over a wide range.
The secondary cosmic rays are produced in the upper
atmosphere by the collision of primary rays with the nuclei of
the atmospheric gases. Thus the rays found near earths surface
are the secondary cosmic rays. These rays consist chiefly of
-mesons, and positive and negative electrons. When a primary
cosmic-ray proton collides with an air nucleus in the upper
atmosphere, it produces mostly -mesons (positive, negative
and neutral) and some hyperons.
The air nucleus is left in an excited state from which the
remaining nucleons (protons and neutrons) come out. These

Elementary Particles

31

secondary nucleons and charged -mesons multiply further by

undergoing similar nuclear collisions.
Many of the charged -mesons decay into -mesons :
+ v

(neutrino).

The -mesons do not interact with nuclei and arrive at sea

level with very little energy loss. Many of them even penetrate
deep into the ground. Hence at sea level, about 80% of the
(secondary) cosmic rays are -mesons.

Cosmic-ray Showers : The neutral -mesons produced in

the upper atmosphere decay into -ray photons :
+ .
These -rays in turn produce pairs of positive and negative
electrons :
e+ + e.
The electrons radiate more photons which, in turn, produce
pairs.
Thus a cascade shower process continues, whose
alternate links are electron pair and photon. Such showers
were actually seen by Blackett and Occhialini in 1933 in cloudchamber photographs.

Variations in Cosmic Rays : The intensity of cosmic rays

varies with latitude, direction and altitude.

32

Quantum Physics

Latitude Variation
The intensity of cosmic rays is greatest and practically
uniform in the regions of earths magnetic poles ; it decreases
more and more rapidly as the equator is approached.
This variation is easily explained. As the primary cosmic
rays, which are positively-charged particles, approach the
earths atmosphere vertically, their paths are deflected away
from the normal by the earths magnetic field. This deflection
varies with magnetic latitude. Particles falling along the
magnetic axis of the earth (towards the magnetic poles) do not
suffer any deviation and reach the earth even if they have very
small energy.
Therefore, the number of cosmic-ray particles reaching the
magnetic poles is maximum. Particles falling at an angle with
the earths magnetic axis describe a helical path, and those
moving very slowly may be bent so much that they do not
reach the earths surface. Those arriving on the magnetic equator
suffer the largest deflection because they are moving
perpendicular to the magnetic field. So, only most energetic
particles can reach the earth at the equator.

Directional Variation : East-West Asymmetry : Particles

of opposite signs are bent in opposite directions by earths
magnetic field. If the positive and negative particles in cosmic
rays are different in number, then the cosmic rays reaching the
earth from west will differ in intensity from those reaching
from east. It is seen that more cosmic ray particles come from
the west than from east, the difference being maximum at the
equator.
Calculations show that a positive particle coming
from west requires less energy to reach the equator than that
coming from the east. Since primary cosmic rays are positivelycharged, they are expected more frequently from west than
from east.

Elementary Particles

33

Altitude Variation
The intensity of cosmic rays increases with altitude. It,
however, reaches a maximum not at the top of the atmosphere
but well below it, above which the intensity again drops.
The position of the maximum indicates that much of the
cosmic radiation must actually be produced there. This happens
as the primary rays suffer nuclear collisions, producing
secondary rays.

Origin of Cosmic Rays

The origin of primary cosmic rays is still an unsolved
problem. We do not know definitely where cosmic rays come
from and how they acquire their tremendous energies.
One of the views is that some of the cosmic rays may come
from the sun. According to this view, some of the protons in
the sun acquire high energies at times of solar activity when
great eruptions take place and masses of ionised gases shoot
out from the sun into interplanetary space. The main argument
against this assumption is the uniform intensity of cosmic rays
at all hours of the day and night. Counter-arguments are,
however, also in progress.
Another view is that the cosmic rays come from the stars.
This view is based on the fact that the total energy flux at the
top of the atmosphere due to cosmic rays is about equal to the
radiant energy flux received from all stars excluding the sun.
This view is also unacceptable because every star cannot emit
equally the light and the cosmic rays.
It has also been suggested that some special class of stars
known as flare stars, magnetic variables and supernova
may be responsible for most of the cosmic rays.
Most scientists believe, however, that cosmic-ray particles
are accelerated by electro-magnetic processes as take place in

34

Quantum Physics

solar flares. Stars have been observed in which eruptions

resembling solar flares occur. Double stars with large magnetic
moments and revolving around a common centre have also
been observed. All of these are possible sources of cosmic rays.

Elementary Particles : An elementary particle is one whose

internal structure cannot be described as a combination of other
particles.
Until 1932, the only elementary particles known were the
positively-charged proton (p), the negatively-charged electron
(e) and the photon (). In that year two new elementary particles
were discovered, namely, the neutron (n) and the positive
electron or positron (e+).
From 1932 onwards the number of elementary particles
known has increased continuously. The negatively and
positively charged mu-mesons or muons ( and +) were
discovered in 1936, charged pi-mesons or pions (+ and ) in
1947, a neutral pion () in 1950 and the negatively-charged
counterpart of the proton known as antiproton p in 1955.
Then came the antineutron n , a new family of charged and
neutral mesons known as K-mesons or kaons (K+, K, K), and
hyperons (particles heavier than proton). The hyperon family
includes lambda-hyperon (^), sigma-hyperons (+, , ), xihyperons (, ) and omega-hyperon ().
The existence of a neutral, massless particle neutrino (v) was
suggested by Pauli in 1930 and theoretically established by
Fermi in 1934. The particle was actually discovered in 1956.
Further in 1963, it became known that there are two kinds of
neutrinos, the electron-neutrino (ve) and the muon-neutrino
(v).

Characteristic Properties of Elementary Particles : The

elementary particles are characterised by their mass, charge,
life-time, spin, etc.

Elementary Particles

35

Mass : An elementary particle has always the same rest

mass. If two particles have different rest masses, we consider
them different particles. The magnitude of the rest mass serves
as the principal label which identifies the particle uniquely.
The value of the rest mass may allow us to infer the existence
of a particle even without a direct observation, just from the
conservation of energy and momentum. The neutral pion
was discovered in this very way.
Charge : All known elementary particles have charge +e,
e, or zero. Further, the charge is always conserved in any
collision process. This is clear in the following neutron-proton
collisions :
n + p p + p + .
n + p n + n + +
n + p n + p + K + K+.
Average Lifetime : All elementary particles, except photon,
electron, proton and neutrinos are unstable and undergo decay
into other elementary particles of smaller mass. The decay
probability of a particular particle is, however, independent of
the length of line the particle has lived. It is impossible to
predict when a given (unstable) particle will decay. Hence an
elementary (unstable) particle has an average life-time, which
is independent of the way the particle decays.
Spin : Many elementary particles spin in a manner
analogous to that of the earth on its axis, but with certain
differences. The spin property forms a basis for the classification
of elementary particles.
Interactions : Four kinds of interactions between elementary
particles are known : gravitational, weak, electromagnetic and
strong. Their relative magnitudes are in the ratios 1039; 1013;
103: 1. The (weakest) gravitational interaction is universal. All
elementary particles without any exception are subjected to it.

Quantum Physics

36

It is the interaction that holds the earth together, binds the sun
and planets into the solar system, and binds stars into galaxies.
It is, however, insignificant in dealing with atoms and nuclei.
The weak interaction causes the light particles to interact
with one another and with heavier particles. It is responsible
for particle decays in which neutrinos are involved, notably
beta decays. The electromagnetic interaction binds electrons to
atoms and binds atoms together to form molecules and crystals.
The strong interaction is found between heavier particles.
For example, it binds neutrons and protons to form the nuclei
of all the elements. It is the dominant interaction in highenergy particle physics.

Antiparticles : The Diracs relativistic quantum theory of

electron predicted the existence of what is called an antiparticle.
The antiparticle of a given particle has exactly the same mass,
spin and life-time (if unstable) but opposite charge (if any).
Further, the alignment between the spin and magnetic moment
of an antiparticle is opposite to that of the corresponding particle.
Further, when an antiparticle meets its particle, they mutually
annihilate.
The first antiparticle known was the positron which was
discovered in 1932 in a cloud chamber exposed to cosmic rays.
It is a particle having the same mass as an electron, but opposite
charge. When a positron comes to rest in matter, it is quickly
annihilated by an electron resulting in two -photons :

e+ + e 2.
The -photons fly away in different directions such as to
conserve both momentum and energy.
Conversely, when a -photon of energy greater than 1.02
MeV passes near a nucleus in a substance, an electron and a
positron are created (pair production):
+ X e + e+ + X,

Elementary Particles

37

where X is the nucleus in whose force field the pair is born.

Any available energy in excess of 1.02 MeV goes into the
kinetic energies of the electron and the positron. The presence
of a nucleus X is required in order that momentum as well as
energy be conserved in the process. The nucleus receives the
excess momentum of the -photon over the total momentum
of an electron and a positron.
The antiparticle of a proton is called the antiproton (or
negative proton) and is denoted by p . It was first produced
in 1955 in proton-proton and proton-neutron collisions :

p+pp+p+p+ p
p+np+n+p+ p
The energy of the bombarding proton on metal targets was
of the order of 6 GeV (1 GeV = 109 eV). An antiproton differs
from a proton in the sign of its electric charge and in its
magnetic moment (in an antiproton the magnetic moment is
directed oppositely to the mechanical angular momentum).
Antineutrons

n were observed in 1956 in certain

antiproton-proton collisions :

p+ p n+ n .
An antineutron differs from a neutron in the sign of its
instrinsic magnetic moment (in an antineutron the direction of
the magnetic moment coincides with that of the mechanical
angular momentum).
The annihilation of a particle-antiparticle pair need not
always result in a pair of -photons (energy), as it does in the
case of electron-positron annihilation. When an antiproton is
annihilated with a proton, for example, several neutral and
charged re-mesons are usually produced :

Quantum Physics

38

p + p + + + + + +
p + p + + + + +
An antiproton may annihilate when it encounters not only
a proton, but also a neutron. For example, the following process
is possible :

p + n + + + + +
Similar annihilations are observed for neutrons.
The distinction between the neutrino and the antineutrino
is particularly interesting. The neutrino spins counter clockwise
when viewed from behind, while antineutrino spins clockwise.
There are particles that are identical with their antiparticle
(i.e. they have no antiparticles). Such particles are called
absolutely neutral. These include the photon, -meson and
the -meson. These particles are not capable of annihilation.
All the other particles do have their antiparticles.

Classification of Elementary Particles : Elementary

particles are usually classified into four groups according to
their mass and spin. These are :
1. Photon () : Photon forms a group by itself. It is a stable
particle with zero charge and zero rest mass. It has
a spin equal to 1, and is therefore a boson. It is the
quantum of the electromagnetic field and participate
in electromagnetic interactions.
2. Leptons : These are light-weight particles. They include
electrons (e, e+), muons (, +), electron-neutrinos
(ve, ve ) and muon-neutrinos (v, v ). All leptons have
a spin equal to , and are therefore fermions. They
interact weakly with other particles. Except muons,
the leptons are stable.

Elementary Particles

39

3. Mesons : These are middle-weight particles having

masses intermediate between the muons and the
nucleons (protons and

neutrons). They include pions (+, , ), kaons (K+,

K, K, K ), and the eta-meson (). The spin of all
mesons is zero, so that they are bosons. All mesons
are unstable.
4. Baryons : These are the heavy-weight particles which
include nucleons (p, p , n, n ) and hyperons (^0, +, ,
, , , ). The spin of all baryons is except that
3
. Thus baryons are
of the hyperon, which is
2
fermions. Except for the proton, all baryons are unstable.
When a baryon decays, another baryon is formed
without fail in addition to other particles. This is one
of the manifestations of the law of baryon charge
conservation.

Quantum Physics

40

Mesons and baryons are strongly-interacting particles, and

collectively they are called hadrons.
The classifying table shows particles as well as antiparticles.
When the antiparticle is designated with the aid of a bar
(), the name of the antiparticle is obtained by adding the
prefix anti to the name of the relevant particle. For example,
the antiparticle of the lambda hyperon is called antilambda
hyperon. The antiparticle of the electron is the positron. In the
remaining cases, the names of particles and antiparticles are
distinguished by adding the words positive and negative.
For example, the negative pi-meson is the antiparticle of the
positive pi-meson. Those antiparticles which are identical with
their particles are shown in brackets.
Besides above, there are elementary particles predicted
theoretically but not yet discovered, e.g., quarks which have
fractional charges.

Leptons : These are light-weight elementary particles which

are stable, or decay only by weak interactions. They are all
fermions (having an intrinsic spin of ) and occur as particles
and antiparticles. Leptons include electrons, -mesons, electronneutrinos and muon-neutrinos and their antiparticles.
(i) Electrons and Positrons : Electron is a stable atomic
particle of mass of 9.1 1031 kg and negative charge
of l.6 1019 coulomb. Its antiparticle positron is identical
with electron except that it is positively charged. When
electron and positron meet, they annihilate each other,
producing two -photons :

e+ + e + .
(ii) Ma-mesons (or Muons) : Mu-mesons, discovered in 1936
by Anderson and Neddermeyer, are the components
of cosmic radiation which are found in abundance in
the cosmic rays at the ground level. They are created
as a result of pi-meson decay in cosmic radiation.

Elementary Particles

41

Mu-mesons exist as both negative and positive and are

denoted as and + respectively. Both have the same rest
mass of 207 mc. (intermediate between the rest mass of an
electron and the rest mass of a proton) and the same spin of
. The + meson is the antiparticle of meson. There is no
neutral mu-meson.
Both and + mesons are unstable, having an average life
of 2.2 106 sec. They decay spontaneously into electron (or
positron) according to the following scheme :
e + ve + v
+ e+ + ve + v .
The neutrino and antineutrino are not actually observed,
their emission is postulated to conserve both energy and
momentum. An energy of 105 MeV is released in this decay.
Unlike pi-mesons (which interact strongly with nuclei), the
-mesons interact weakly with nuclei. Hence they penetrate
considerably through matter before being absorbed. Generated
high in the atmosphere, most of them reach sea-level and some
penetrate considerable distances into the earth. Hence the hard
component of secondary cosmic rays consist mostly of mesons.
The negative mu-meson can replace electron in atomic
Bohr orbit to form mesic (or muonic) atom. Thus, apart from
its extra mass, a mu-meson behaves like an electron.
(iii) Electron-neutrinos and Muon-neutrinos : These particles,
denoted by ve and v , have negligible rest mass and
no charge, and are spin fermions. They are
distinguished from their anti-particles ve , and v by
their helicities which are left-handed for neutrinos and
right-handed for antineutrinos. They participate in
weak interaction with matter.

Quantum Physics

42

Mesons : These are middle-weight particles having masses

intermediate between the muons and the nucleons (protons
and neutrons). They are all bosons having zero spin and are
unstable. They include pions (+, , ), kaons (K+, K, K, K )
and the eta-meson ().
(i) Pi-mesons (or Pions) : Pi-mesons were discovered in
1947 in the upper atmosphere, although their existence
was predicted much earlier by Yukawa in his meson
theory of nuclear forces. They are created in nature
when primary cosmic-ray protons collide with
atmospheric nuclei and cause energetic nuclear
disintegrations. After the development of high-energy
accelerators, pi-mesons have also been created
artificially.
Pi-mesons can exist in all three states; +, and , all
having a zero spin. The + and mesons have rest masses of
273 me, while that of the mesons is slightly less, 264 me. The
meson is the antiparticle of the + meson, while the meson
is its own antiparticle.
Pions interact strongly with nucleons. For example, they
are produced by collisions of high-energy (several hundred
MeV) protons produced in synchrocyclotron. Some pion
production reactions are

p + p p + n + +
p + n p + p +
p + n + +
p + p +
The pi-mesons are highly unstable. The average life-time
of (charged) + and mesons is only 2.6 108 sec, while that
of (neutral) meson is still shorter, 9 1017 sec. These lifetimes are so short that only a fraction of cosmic ray pi-mesons

Elementary Particles

43

can reach earth. Charged pi-mesons decay in flight by weak

interaction into lighter mu-mesons and mu-neutrinos :

+ v

+ v

These mu-neutrinos are somewhat different from the

neutrinos involved in beta-decay which are better called
electron-neutrinos. The emission of the mu-neutrinos is
postulated to conserve both energy and momentum.
As the rest mass of a mu-meson is 207 me and that of
neutrino is zero, a mass-energy of (273 207)me = 66 me is
available in the above decay. As me is equivalent to 0.51 MeV,
the energy released is 66 0.51 = 33.7 MeV. Of this energy,
a constant amount of 4 MeV appears as the kinetic energy of
the mu-meson. The mu-mesons are also unstable and decay
into electrons.
The neutral pi-meson decays spontaneously by an
electro-magnetic interaction into two high-energy photons :
+ .
The energy released is shared equally between the two
-photons.
(ii) K-mesons (or Kaons) : There is also a heavier class of
mesons, called K-mesons, which were first discovered
in high-altitude cosmic ray experiments but now are
available from the accelerators. They exist as K+ and its
antiparticle K, and also as K and its antiparticle K .
The charged K-mesons (K+ and K) have rest masses of
966 me, spin of zero, and mean-lives of 1.2 108 sec.
K-mesons are easily produced through strong interaction.
An example is the reaction
+

^ + K

Quantum Physics

44

The charged meson decay in a variety of ways :

K + + + + +
K

+ v

There are two distinct varieties of neutral K-mesons, K1

and K2. Both have rest masses 974 me, but half-lives of the
order of 1010 and 108 sec respectively. They can decay in
several modes :
K1 + +
+
K2 + + +
+ + .
(iii) -mesons : The neutral eta-meson was discovered in
1961. It has a rest mass of 1073 me, which is intermediate
between that of a K-meson and that of a nucleon. Like
others, the -meson is also a zero spin boson. It decays
electromagnetically in about 1019 sec into two photons.

Moons and Pions

Muons and pions are elementary particles having rest
masses intermediate between the rest mass of an electron and
that of a nucleon (proton or neutron). The muon was discovered
in 1936 in the cosmic rays at ground level, while the pion was
discovered in 1947 also in cosmic rays but in the upper
atmosphere although its existence had been predicted by
Yukawa in 1935 in connection with nuclear forces.
Although the rest masses of muon and pion are close to
each other, but they so much differ in their spin and interaction
properties that they have been placed in different classes of
elementary particles. The muon is a lepton, while the pion is
a meson. Their comparative properties are as under:

Elementary Particles

45
MUON

1.
2.
3.
4.

Kinds:
Rest Mass :
Spin:
Interaction
with nuclei:
5. Half-life (sec):
6. Decay mode :

PION
+, ,
273 me (+, ); 264 me ()
0 (boson)

,
207 me
(fermion)
weak
2.2 106

strong
2.6 108 (+, ); 9 1017 ()

e + ve + v

+ + + v

+ e+ + ve + v

+ v
+

Baryons : These are heavy-weight elementary particles

which include nucleons (protons and neutrons) and particles
heavier than nucleons. They are all fermions and are strongly
interacting. Except proton, all baryons are unstable. The two
sub-classes of baryons are :
(i) Nucleons : These are the nuclear particles proton (p),
neutron (n) and their antiparticles, antiproton ( p ) and
antineutron ( n ). The mass of proton is 1836 me and that
of neutron is 1839 me. They all have a spin of .
(ii) Hyperons : Elementary particles heavier than nucleons
are called hyperons. They are unstable and have an
average life-time of the order of 1010 sec. The known
hyperons fall into four classes :
(1) lambda hyperons ^ (with zero charge) and their
antiparticles.
(2) sigma hyperons +, , , (with positive, zero and
negative charges) and their antiparticles.
(3) xi hyperons , (with negative and zero charges)
and their antiparticles.
(4) Omega hyperons (with negative charge) and
its antiparticle.

Quantum Physics

46

The spin of all hyperons is except that of -hyperon,

which is

3
. Some possible decay modes for the hyperons are
2

as follows :

p +

n +

p +

n + +

n +

+
+ K

Conservation Laws Governing Elementary Particles : The

modes of decay of the elementary particles are governed by
the conservation laws of charge, mass-energy, linear momentum
and angular momentum (spin). The application of these laws
have led to the prediction of new particles e.g. neutrinos.
There are, however, certain modes of decay that are allowed
by the above conservation laws, but they are never observed.
For example, let us consider the possible modes of protondecay :

p+

e+ +

p+

+ +

These modes of decay, however, never occur in nature

(proton is a stable particle). Therefore, it is natural to suppose

Elementary Particles

47

that these are prevented by some unknown laws of

conservation. Thus new laws of conservation have been
deduced from a study of all possible types of particle decay.
These are conservation laws of baryon-number (B), electron
lepton-number (L) and muon lepton-number (M). These laws
plus the old conservation laws help us to determine whether
any given decay is capable of taking place or not.
To establish the new conservation laws, three new quantum
numbers B, L and M have been introduced.

Conservation of Baryon Number

Each particle is assigned a baryon number B, such that

B =+ 1 for all baryons (p, n, , +, , , , , )

B =1 for all antibaryons p, n, , , , , , ,
B = 0 for all others (photon, leptons, mesons). According to the
law of conservation, the total value of B remains constant in
any process involving elementary particles.
Conservation of Electron Lepton-number : There is an
electron lepton number L for all particles, such that
L = + 1 for electron (e) and electron-neutrino (ve),
L = 1 for antielectron (e+) and electron-antineutrino ( ve )
L = 0 for all others.
Again, the total value of L remains constant in any decay
or reaction of elementary particles.

Conservation of Muon Lepton-number : There is a muon

lepton-number M for all particles, such that
M = +1 for muon () and muon-neutrino (v)

M = 1 for antimuon (+) and muonantineutrino v

M = 0 for all others.

Quantum Physics

48

The total value of M remains conserved in any process of

elementary particles.
As example of the above laws, let us consider the decay
of a free neutron:

n p + e + ve
For this

B=

and

L=

1+0+0
0 + 1 + (1).

The total value of B before and after the decay is 1, and

that of L is 0. Thus both B and L are conserved and hence the
neutron decay does take place in nature. We know that a free
neutron is unstable.

Stability of Proton : The laws of baryon and lepton number

conservations are responsible of the stability of the proton. Let
us consider a possible mode of a free proton decay :
p

e+ +

For this

B=1

0+0

and

L=0

(1) + 0

The total values of both B and L are not the same

before and after the decay, and so the decay is forbidden by
both B and L conservations. Proton decay is really forbidden
because there are no baryons of mass smaller than that of
proton.
It is for the conservation of the lepton number that in
beta-decays an electron is produced together with an
antineutrino, and a positron is produced together with a
neutrino.

Maximum available Energy for e + 2v : The

meson decays from rest. Therefore, the conservation of linear
momentum requires that two particles must be ejected. The
only particle observed is the electron. Since the charge is

Elementary Particles

49

conserved, the second particle must be a neutrino. But

since the spin of -meson is , and the sum of the spins of
the electron and neutrino can only be 0 or 1 (but never ),
the conservation of spin (angular momentum) requires
another particle of opposite spin to be ejected at the
same time. This must be an antineutrino, so that the equation
would be

spins

e + v + v

1
+0
2

This raises another difficulty. If the neutrino and

antineutrino are ejected simultaneously, they would annihilate
in flight to produce two -photons (v + v 2). This, however,
is not found.
This shows that v and v do not form particle-antiparticle
pair. Hence v and v must be the neutrinos of different species.
Two types of neutrinos are therefore postulated : e-neutrinos
and -neutrinos, and the decay equation should now be written
as
e + v + ve .
Now, taking M = 207 me, the total available energy Q of
the reaction is given by
207 m me + 0 + 0 + Q,
because the mass of neutrinos is zero.

Q = 206 me.

But me is equivalent to 0.51 MeV, therefore

Q = 206 0.51 = 105 MeV.

If this energy is equally divided among the three particles,
the average energy of the electron is 35 MeV.

Quantum Physics

50

PROBLEMS
1. An electron and its antiparticle are annihilated after
collision. How much energy will be obtained ? (Mass of electron
=9.l 1031 kg, speed of light = 3.0 108 m/s and Plancks
constant = 6.6 1034 J-s).
Solution: The positron is antiparticle of electron. In electronpositron collision, both are annihilated and the total mass is
converted into two -photons (energy) :
e + e+ 2.
The mass-loss in this process is
m = 2 (9.1 1031) = 18.2 1031 kg.
According to mass-energy relation, the energy released is
E = (m)c2
= (18.2 1031 kg) (3.0 108 m/s)2
= 1.64 1013 joule
=

1.64 10 13
1.6 10 19

eV

[because 1 eV = 1.6 1019 joule]

= l.02 106 eV = 1.02 MeV.
This is total energy obtained.
Two -photons are produced in this process, hence energy
of each photon

E=

E
1.64 10 13 joule
=
2
2

= 0.82 1013 joule = 0.51 MeV.

2. A positron and an electron with negligible kinetic energy
annihilate each other to produce two photons. What are their
frequencies.

Elementary Particles

51

Solution: According to the above example, the energy of

each of the two photons produced by the union of an electron
and a positron is
0.82 1013 joule.

E=

If the frequency of the photon be v, then E = hv.

E
0.82 10 13 joule
=
h
6.6 10 34 joule second

v=

= 1.2 1020 hertz.

3. If a pion decays from rest to give a muon of 4.0 MeV
energy, what is the kinetic energy of the accompanying neutrino?
What is the mass of the neutrino in this process ?

Solution:

The pion decay is

+ + + v + Q .

From this, we have

Q = M M

(neutrino has zero rest mass)

= 273 me 207 me
= 66 me
= 66 0.51

(...

me 0.51 MeV)

= 33.7 MeV.
Since the muon takes 4.0 MeV of energy, the energy shared
by the neutrino is 33.7 4.0 = 29.7 MeV.
Mass of this neutrino
=

29.7
me = 58.2 me.
0.51

4. Find the maximum kinetic energy of the electron emitted

in the beta decay of the free neutron. The neutron-proton mass
difference is 1.30 MeV.

Quantum Physics

52

Solution:

The decay equation is

n p+ + e + ve + Q.
From this, we have

Q = Mn Mp me
= (1.30 MeV) me
= (1.30 MeV) (0.51 MeV)
= 0.79 MeV.
This energy-release goes into the kinetic energy of the
electron plus the kinetic energy of the antineutrino. The two
particles can share the 0.79 MeV of energy in any way they
choose. Thus the electron may have a maximum kinetic energy
of 0.79 MeV.

The Accelerators

53

3
The Accelerators

Purpose of Accelerators
Particle accelerators are machines for imparting high
energies of the order of MeV, to more, to charged particles
(electrons, protons, deuterons, -particles), and also to bare
nuclei of lighter atoms. Such energetic particles are required
in making nuclear investigations, and in the production of
transuranic elements.
There are three main types of particle accelerators :
(i) electrostatic accelerators (such as Van de Graff generator);
(ii) linear accelerators; and (iii) orbital accelerators (such as
cyclotron, synchro-cyclotron, betatron, and the synchrotron).

Linear Accelerator
A linear accelerator can impart energies to heavy ions,
protons and electrons up to more than 10 MeV, which is the
upper limit attainable by an electrostatic accelerator. In this
accelerator the particle receives a series of additive accelerations
in successive stages.

54

Quantum Physics

Construction : The principle diagram of an accelerator is

shown in Fig. It consists of a long, evacuated tube carrying a
series of coaxial cylindrical electrodes, 1, 2, 3, 4,..., of successively
increasing length. Alternate sets of cylinders are connected
together, and a high-frequency alternating p.d. is applied
between the two sets by a radio-frequency oscillator. Thus
alternate cylinders have opposite potentials. For example, in
one half-cycle, cylinders, 1, 3, 5, ... are positive whilst 2, 4,,..
are negative; whereas in the next half-cycle 1, 3, 5,... become
negative whilst 2,4, become positive.

Working : A charged particle keeps a constant speed while

moving in the field-free space within a cylinder, but is accelerated
while moving across the gap between two cylinders having a
p.d.
Suppose that a positive particle enters cylinder 1 at a
moment when the cylinders 1, 3, 5,... just acquire a negative
potential, and the cylinders 2, 4,... a positive potential. The
particle travels inside the cylinder with a constant speed. The
frequency of the alternating p.d. applied between the two sets
of cylinders is so chosen that the time taken by the particle to
move through the cylinder is equal to the time of one half-cycle
of the p.d. Thus as soon as the positive particle leaves the
cylinder 1, the cylinders 1, 3, 5,... become positive and the
cylinders 2, 4,... negative. The particle is therefore accelerated
in the gap between cylinders 1 and 2, and enter the cylinder
2 with an increased speed. Once inside the cylinder 2, it travels
with constant increased speed remaining unaffected by the
changing potential of the cylinder. Since the successive cylinders
are made longer, the particle takes the same time to traverse
each cylinder in spite of its increased speed. Therefore, by the

The Accelerators

55

time the (positive) particle leaves the cylinder 2, the cylinders

2, 4,.... become again positive and the cylinders 1, 3, 5,... again
negative. The particle is therefore again accelerated in the gap
between 2 and 3 and reaches the cylinder 3 with a further
increase in speed. The same happens at each successive gap
right down the tube, and the particle goes on gaining energy.
There is no theoretical limit to the final energy which is limited
only by the length of the surrounding tube and the available
power.
A typical length for a proton accelerator is between 5 and
30 meters. It can be fed with 4-5 MeV protons already accelerated
by a Van de Graff generator, and can further increase their
energy to about 50 MeV.
A linear accelerator can also impart energies to electrons.
An electron, however, has a speed as high as 98% of the speed
of light at an energy of only 2 MeV. The transit times through
cylinders are therefore so short that extremely high frequency
p.d.s ( l000 Mc/s) are required. Furthermore, beyond 2 MeV
any further increase in electron speed is hardly possible, and
any gain in energy comes rather from the relativistic increase
in mass of the electron. The worlds longest linear accelerator,
about 3 km in length, delivers electrons with an energy of
30,000 MeV or more.

Cyclotron
A linear accelerator is inconvenient in shape. A more
compact machine called a cyclotron was devised by Lawrence
and Livingston in 1932 to accelerate positive ions such as
protons, deuterons and -particles.

Constriction : It consists of two hollow D-shaped copper

electrodes D1 and D2 (called the dees) with a small gap between
them (Fig.). The dees are enclosed in an evacuated steel box
placed between the poles of a very large magnet. The magnet
produces a field B of about 15,000 gauss perpendicular to the

Quantum Physics

56

plane of dees. A high-frequency alternating p.d. ( 12 Mc/sec

105 volts) is applied across the dees by means of a powerful
valve oscillator.

The ion source consists of a small chamber carrying a

heated filament and the gas concerned (hydrogen for protons,
heavy hydrogen for deuterons). The electrons emitted by the
filament ionise the gas. The ions so produced pass through a
capillary tube which ejects them at the centre 5 of the gap
between the dees.

Working : Suppose that a positive ion is injected at S at a

moment when D2 just acquires a negative potential and D1 a
positive potential. The ion is then accelerated towards D2
and enters it with increased velocity. Once inside D2 it becomes
free from the electric field and travels with constant speed.
Since the ion is moving in a magnetic field B perpendicular to
the plane of dees, it adopts a circular path of radius r given
by
mv2
r

= Bqv.

where m is the mass, q the charge and v the speed of the ion.

The Accelerators

v =

57

Bqr
.
m

... (i)

The time T required by the ion to complete one circular

revolution is 2r/v. Therefore

T =

2r

2m

Bq

The frequency of revolution is

f =

Bq
.
2m

(ii)

Thus, if B, m and q are constants, the period of revolution

T, or the frequency, is independent of the radius of the path
and of the speed of the ion. That is, all ions (same m, same q)
take the same time to describe a circle (or semi-circle)
irrespective of their speeds or energies. (In fact, it is this result
which makes the cyclotron possible).
The frequency of the applied p.d. is adjusted to be equal
to the frequency of revolution of the ions. When this is the case,
the positive ion moving in D2 completes a semi-circle and
leaves it just at the moment when D2 becomes positive and D1
negative. The ion is therefore further accelerated in the gap
and enters D1. On account of its increased speed its semicircular path in D1 is of greater radius. The time of passage
through D1, however, is still the same. The process is repeated
after every half-cycle of the p.d., and the ion gains speed each
time it passes from one dee to the other. Finally, the ion reaches
the outer edge of one dee where it is pulled out of the system
by a negatively-charged deflector plate.
Evidently, eq. (ii), when f is taken as the frequency of the
applied p d., is the resonance condition for the successful
operation of the cyclotron.
The cyclotron has produced positive particles having
energies of 20 MeV.

Quantum Physics

58

Attained Energy
The velocity, and hence the kinetic energy, with which the
ion leaves the cyclotron can be obtained by putting r = R
(radius of dees) in eq (i). Thus

v =

BqR
m

Therefore, the kinetic energy of the emerging ion is

K =

1
1 BqR
mv2 = m

2
2 m

=
But f =

1
B
m B2R2 .
m
2

Bq
, where f is the frequency of the applied p.d.
2 m

Therefore K = 22 f2 m R2.
This is the expression for the energy of the particle in terms
of the frequency of applied p.d. and the radius of the dees. The
frequency, in turn, depends upon the flux density B. Thus in
the non-relativist range the limitation on the maximum energy
attained by a particular ion is determined by the size of the
dees and the pole-faces of the magnet.

Limitation : The maximum energies of particles attainable

in a cyclotron cannot be increased indefinitely by increasing
the size of the apparatus because of the relativistic increase in
mass of the particles in accordance with the equation
m =

m0

v2
1 2
c

where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and in the mass at

speed v. As the speed v of the particle increases to become
comparable with the speed of light c, its mass m increases

The Accelerators

59

appreciably. Therefore the frequency of revolution f

Bq

goes on decreasing. Thus the particle traverses each

2 m

dee too slowly and becomes more and more out of step with
the applied p.d. until it can no longer be accelerated further.
At 20 MeV the mass of a proton is about 2% greater than
its rest mass, but beyond this the increase in mass becomes
serious enough to affect the operation of the cyclotron. Thus
it is the upper limit of proton energy attainable by a cyclotron.
The electrons due to their very small mass approach the
speed of light very quickly so that the relativistic increase in
mass becomes appreciable at low enough energies. For example,
the mass of an electron is doubled at an energy of only about
0.5 MeV. Hence the cyclotron cannot be used to accelerate
electrons even to moderate energies.

Overcoming of Limitation (Synchro-cyclotron) : The energy

limitation of 20 MeV resulting from the relativistic increase m
the mass of the particle has been removed in a modified form
of the cyclotron known as synchro-cyclotron (or frequencymodulated cyclotron). In this machine a high-frequency p.d.
is applied at the moment of injection ; but as the frequency of
revolution of the particle begins to slow down, the frequency
of the p.d. is also reduced so that synchronism between the
revolving particle and the accelerating p.d. is maintained. Using
this technique, protons of 300 MeV energy and -particles of
384 MeV energy have been obtained. The maximum energy is
decided by the size of the magnet.
Betatron : The betatron is used to accelerate electrons to
energies higher than the electrons (-particles) emitted
from radioactive substances. The betatron-accelerated
electrons can produce X-rays so short in wavelength and so
penetrating in character as to surpass the -rays from radioactive
substances.

Quantum Physics

60

Principle : In the betatron the electrons are put in a stable

circular orbit in which they are continuously accelerated due to
an emf produced by an increasing magnetic flux through the
orbit.
Let us consider an electron moving in a circular orbit of
radius r in a magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the
orbit (Fig.). The magnetic field is non-uniform in space, and

increasing with time. Suppose, at a given instant, B is the

average flux density through the orbit and B, the flux density
at the orbit itself. The instantaneous magnetic flux through
the orbit will be given by

= average flux density through the orbit area enclosed

by the orbit
= B r2 = r2 B

... (i)

As the magnetic field is increasing with time, the magnetic

d
. As a result,
flux through the orbit is increasing at a rate
dt
an emf is induced in the orbit. If V is the induced emf, then

V =

d
(numerically).
dt

The work done on the electron in one complete revolution is

W = charge on electron emf

= eV.

The Accelerators

61

Hence the tangential force acting on the electron is

F =
=

work done in one rev.

.
distance moved in one rev.

W
eV
e d
=
=
.
2r
2r dt
2 r

Substituting the value of from eq. (i), we obtain

F =

2
e d r B
dt
2 r

er d B
.
2 dt

... (ii)

The electron is accelerated by this force acting upon it. This

force arises due to the emf produced by the increasing average
flux density B through the entire orbital area. As B increases
the electron energy increases and the electron tends to move
it in an orbit of increasing radius.
Now, the electron is moving in a circular orbit of radius
r in a magnetic field perpendicular to it. The instantaneous
magnetic flux density at the orbit is Br. If v be the instantaneous
speed of the electron, the instantaneous radial force on it will
be Brev. This must be equal to the centripetal force mv2/r. Thus

Brev =

mv2
.
r

Therefore, the instantaneous momentum of the electron is

p = mv = Brer.
The rate of change of momentum is

dp
=
dt

d b1 er
dBr
= er
.
dt
dt

By Newtons law this must be equal to a tangential force

F acting on the electron. Thus

F = er

dBr
.
dt

... (iii)

Quantum Physics

62

Clearly this force arises by the increasing flux density Br at

the orbit. As Br increases, the electron tends to move in an orbit
of decreasing radius (Br ev = mv2/r).
Thus the forces given by eq. (ii) and (iii) have opposite
actions on the radius of the orbit ; the former tends to increase
while the latter tends to decrease the radius Hence, to preserve
a constant radius of the orbit these two forces must be equal
numerically. That is
er dB
2 dt

dBr
.
dt
Integrating both sides of the equation, assuming that

= er

B = Br = 0 at t = 0, we obtain
erB
2

or

= erBr
= 2Br.

(Betatron condition)

Thus the average magnetic flux density through the orbit

must always be twice the flux density at the orbit. This is the
condition of betatron. This condition is achieved by suitably
designing the size and shape of the magnet providing the
magnetic field. When this is done, the electrons once put in the
orbit go again and again around the same orbit with continuous
increasing speed so long as the magnetic field is increasing
(with time).
In betatron the increase in speed around the circular orbit
is continuous and there is no synchronism to be maintained.
Hence any relativistic increase in mass of the electron and the
consequent slowing down of the rate of revolution do not
affect the operation of the betatron.

Construction : The construction of the betatron is illustrated

in Fig. It consists of a large highly-evacuated annular tube
DD, called a donut tube, in which the electrons revolve.

The Accelerators

63

Their orbit is a circle at right angles to the plane of the page.

They are shown entering the page at the right (e) and emerging
the page at the left (x). The tube DD is placed between the
specially-designed pole-pieces of a large electromagnet
energised by an alternating current. The magnet satisfies the
betatron condition by providing a larger flux density in the
central part of the field. Since the magnet is energised by
alternating current, an increasing magnetic field in a given
direction is obtained only during one-quarter cycle in which
the current increases from zero to the peak value. Hence the
electrons are kept in their orbit only during this part of each
cycle, and the output electron beam is in pulses.

Action : The plane of the orbit is shown in the diagram.

The electrons to be accelerated are injected into the donut tube
D by means of an electron-gun. The gun is so pulsed that the
electrons are injected only at the start of a quarter-cycle in
which the magnetic field increases in a given direction from
zero to the peak value. These electrons are soon captured into
a stable orbit and make several hundred thousand revolutions
during the quarter-cycle, being accelerated continuously. At
the end of each accelerating quarter-cycle the orbit is

Quantum Physics

64

momentarily expanded by means of an auxiliary magnetic

field (produced by sending a pulse of an extra current through
an auxiliary coil), so that the electrons strike the target or
emerge through a window.
Betatrons have produced electrons with energies of greater
than 300 MeV.

PROBLEMS
1. A cyclotron in which the magnetic flax density is 3
weber/ m2 and whose dees radius is 0.5 m, is used to accelerate
(i) protons, (ii) -particles. What must be the frequency of the
p.d. applied across the dees in each case ? Also calculate
the maximum kinetic energy of the emerging particles. The
mass of a proton is 1.67 1027 kg and the charge on it is
1.6 1019 coul.
Solution: The resonance frequency of the applied p.d. for
the successful operation of a cyclotron is
f =

Bq
2m

... (i)

where B is the flux density, and q and m are respectively

the charge and mass of the accelerating particle. Substituting
the given values for proton

fp =

3 1.6 10 19
2 3.14 1.67 10 17

= 46 106 cycles/sec
= 46 mc/sec.
The mass of an -particle is 4 times that of proton, while
the charge is twice that of proton. Hence, by eq. (i), the required
frequency is

fa =

1
f = 23 mc/sec.
2 p

The Accelerators

65

To find the maximum energy of the emerging particles let

us consider the relation
mv2
r

so that

= Bqv

v =

Bqr
m

If r =R, the radius of dee, then v would represent the

(maximum) velocity of the emerging particle. Thus, the
maximum kinetic energy is

K =
=

1
1
Bqr
mv2 = m

m
2
2

1 B2 q2 R 2
.
m
2

... (ii)

Substituting the given values for protons,

2

Kp =

19
0.5
1 3 1.6 10

2
1.67 10 27

= 1.72 1011 joule.

Now 1 eV = 1 .6 1019 joule.

Kp =

1.72 10 11
1.6 10 19

= 1.1 108 eV = 110 MeV.

It can be seen from eq. (ii) that the kinetic energy of the
emerging -particles (charge double, mass four times than
proton) would be the same as for protons. Thus

K = Kp = 110 MeV.
2. A cyclotron is being used for accelerating -particles.
The frequency of potential on the dees for -particles has been
16 mc/sec and maximum energies of 48 MeV have been attained.
What change in frequency, if any, is needed to accelerate

Quantum Physics

66

deuterons and what maximum energies may be attained ? (The

mass, as well as the charge, of a deuteron is half of that of
an -particle).
Ans. No change in frequency, 24 MeV]
[Ans.
3. The diameter of a cyclotron is 18 m and the strength of
magnetic field is 0.7 weber/m2. Calculate the energies to which
(i) a proton, (ii) a deuteron can be accelerated. Mass of a
proton, mp= l.008 amu ; charge of an electron, e=1.6 1019
coulomb and 1 amu = l.66 l027kg.
Solution: When the particle describes a circle of radius R,
equal to Dees radius, the velocity reaches maximum value.
Equating the magnetic force to the centripetal force, we have
Bqv =
v =

or

mv2
R
BqR
.
m

the (maximum) kinetic energy is

K =
=

1
mv2
2

B 2 q2 R 2
2m

... (i)

The charge on a proton is + l.6 1019 coul (equal to the

negative charge of electron) and its mass is 1.008 (1.66 10
27
kg) = l.67 1027 kg. Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy
of the proton is

0.7 weber / m 1.6 10

2 2

Kp =

19

coul

0.9 m
2

2 1.67 10 27 kg

= 3.0 1012 joule

=

3.0 10 12
1.6 10 19

= 1.9 107 eV = 19 MeV.

The Accelerators

67

The charge on deuteron is same as on proton, but its mass

is almost double than that of proton. Hence, as seen from eq.
(i) its kinetic energy will be almost half than that of proton.

K = 9.5 MeV.

4. A cyclotron with a radius of 10 m has a magnetic field

of 2.0 T (tesla). Determine the maximum energy of the
accelerated deuterons. Through what potential difference would
they have to travel to attain the energy ? The mass of deuteron
is 3.34 x 1027 kg and electronic charge is 1.6 1019 coulomb.
Solution: The maximum kinetic energy of the deuterons
is given by
K =

B 2 q2 R 2
2m

Substituting the given values, remembering that the positive

charge on deuteron is equal to the negative charge on electron,
we get

2.0 tesla 1.6 10

2

K =

19

coulomb 1.0 m
2

2 3.34 1027 kg

= 1.53 1011 joule

=

1.53 10 11
1.6 10 19

= 0.96 108 eV = 96 MeV.

To achieve this energy, the deuteron will have to travel

through a p.d. of 96 million volts.

5. Calculate the maximum energy which a cyclotron can

give to -particles if the diameter of dee is 1.2 meter and the
magnetic field is 15 wb/m2. At what frequency the cyclotron
be operated to achieve this energy ? The mass of an -particle
is 6.645 1027 kg and the charge on it is 3.2 10 19 coulomb.
(1 MeV = 1.6 1013 joule).
Ans. 39 MeV, 11.5 Mc/sec.]
[Ans.

Quantum Physics

68

6. A cyclotron whose magnetic pole faces have a diameter

of 1.52 meters is operated with a radio-frequency field at l07
cycles per sec. Show that it can accelerate protons to an energy
of approximately 12 MeV and -particles to approximately 48
MeV. The mass of a proton is 1.67 1027 kg and that of an
-particle roughly four times.
[Hint : K = 2 2mf2R2
7. A cyclotron of diameter 1 meter is used to accelerate
protons. Across it is applied an alternating voltage of 10 mc/
sec frequency and of peak value 5000 volts. Calculate the
magnetic field needed and the energy of the emergent beam. The
mass and charge of proton are 1.671027 kg and 1.6 1019
coulomb respectively.

Solution: The resonance frequency of the applied voltage

for the successful operation of the cyclotron is
Bq
f = 2 m'
so that the required field is

B=

2 mf

q
Substituting the given values :

B=

2 3.14 1.67 10 27 kg 10 10 6 sec 1

1.6 10

19

coul

= 0.66 weber/meter .
The kinetic energy of the emerging proton is

B 2 q2 R 2
K=
2m

0.66 weber/m 1.6 10

2 1.67 10
2 2

= 8.0 l013 joule =

19
27

8.0 10 13
1.6 10 13

coul 0.5 meter

2

kg

= 5 MeV.

The Accelerators

69

8. Calculate the energy of a proton when it emerges out of

a cyclotron after 50 revolutions. The voltage applied across
the dees is 20 kV.
Solution: The proton (charge e) passes across the gap
between the two dees twice in each revolution, and acquires
energy eV during each transit, where V is the peak value
of the voltage applied. Thus the energy acquired in 50
revolutions is
K = 2 eV 50 = 100 eV
= l00 (l.6 l019coul) 20,000 volts
= 3.2 l013 joule.
Now,1 MeV = l.6 l013 joule.

K =

3.2 10 13
1.6 10 13

= 2 MeV.

9. If the maximum r. f. voltage applied to a cyclotron be

10 kV, show that a proton has to make 900 revolutions within
1
the cyclotron before achieving th the velocity of light. Take
5
proton mass 1.6 l027 kg and charge 1.6 1019 coulomb. The
velocity of light is 3 x 108 m/sec.
10. An alternating potential difference of 50 kV maximum
value is applied to the dees, whose radius is 40 cm, of a
cyclotron by an oscillator. A deuteron of mass 2 amu acquires
energy of 4 MeV in the cyclotron. Calculate (i) magnetic field
strength, (ii) frequency of oscillator, (iii) number of revolutions
which the deuteron has to make inside the cyclotron to gain
energy.
(1 amu= 1.6 1027 kg, e = 1.6 l019 coulomb).

Solution: The expression for the kinetic energy of particles

of mass m and charge q emerging from a cyclotron is
K =

B 2 q2 R 2
2m

where B is the magnetic field and R the dees radius.

Quantum Physics

70
Here

q = e = l.6 l019 coul,

R = 0.4 meter,
m = 2amu = 2 l6 l027 kg,
K = 4MeV = 4 l.6 1013joule.

and
Thus

B2 =

2 Km

q2 R 2

0.4

2 4 1.6 10 13 2 1.6 10 27

B =

1.6 10

19 2

= 1.0.

1.0 weber/m2.

The (resonance) frequency of p. d. required for the successful

operation of the cyclotron is

f =

1.0 1.6 10 19
Bq
=
2m
2 3.14 2 1.6 10 27

= 8 10 cycles/sec = 8 mc/sec.
Suppose the deuteron makes n revolutions to gain energy
K. In each revolution it is pushed twice and in each push gains
energy qV, where V is the peak value of the applied alternating
voltage. Thus

n 2qV = K

n =

K
2 qV

4 1.6 10 13 joule

2 1.6 10 19 coul 50, 000 volts

= 40.

11. In a certain betatron the maximum magnetic field at

the orbit was 0-4 tesla, operating at 50 cps with a stable orbit

The Accelerators

71

diameter of 1.5 meter. Calculate the average energy gained per

revolution and the final energy of the electrons. Assume that
the electrons move with nearly the velocity of light.
Solution: In betatron the electrons move with velocity nearly
c so that the total distance travelled in the acceleration time
(one-quarter cycle) is
d = c

T
4

c
4f

where f is the frequency of the A.C. supply feeding the magnet.

If r be the radius of the stable orbit, then the total number of
revolutions made by the electrons in the acceleration time is

n =

d
2r

c
8 f r

Substituting the given values :

n =

3 10 8 m / sec
= 3.17 105.
8 3.14 50 / sec 0.75 m

Relativistically, the momentum of the electron is given by

p =

E
c

where E is the final energy acquired. If B is the maximum

magnetic field at the orbit, and v is the final velocity acquired,
then we have

Bev = mv2/r,
where m is the (relativist) mass of the electron at velocity
v. Thus

mv = Ber
or

p = mv = Ber =

or

E = Berc.

E
c

Quantum Physics

72

Substituting the given values, the final energy acquire is

E = (0.4 weber/m 2 ) (1.6 10 19 coul)

(0.75 m) (3 108 m/sec)
= 1 .44 l011 joule
=

1.44 10 10
1.6 10 13

= 90 MeV.

[ 1 Mev = 1.6 1013 joule]

The average energy per revolution is

90 10 6 eV
3.17 10 5

= 284 eV.

12. Calculate average energy per revolution and final energy

gained by electrons in a betatron to which is applied a maximum
magnetic field of 5000 gauss operating at 60 hertz in a stable
orbit of diameter 2 meters. (1 gauss=104 tesla, c = 3 l08
m/sec, e = 1.6 1019 coul and 1 MeV = 1.6 1013 joule).
[Ans. 750 eV, 750 MeV]

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

73

4
Decay of Radioactive Nucleus
Explanation of -emission from Radioactive Nuclei : The
nuclei of heavier atoms, beyond bismuth (83Bi209), are unstable
(radioactive) with respect either to - or to -emission. This
is because these nuclei are so large that the short-range nuclear
forces holding the nucleons together are hardly able to counterbalance the electrostatic repulsion between the large number
of protons in them, -emission occurs in such nuclei as a
means of increasing their stability by reducing their size. In
fact, all nuclei with Z > 83 and A>209 spontaneously decay into
lighter nuclei through the emission of -particle which is 2He4
nucleus. The equation for -decay can be written as :
zX

A4
Z2Y

Parent

Daughter

nucleus

nucleus

4
2He

Alpha
particle

Since each -particle is a helium nucleus composed of two protons

and two neutrons, their emission from nuclei fits with the protonneutron picture of the nucleus.

74

Quantum Physics

An important question is that why do the radioactive nuclei

emit -particles (2He4) rather than protons (1H1) themselves.
The answer lies in the high binding energy of the -particle.
To escape from a nucleus, a particle must have kinetic energy.
Only the -particle mass is sufficiently smaller than the sum
of the masses of its constituent nucleons. Therefore, in the
formation of -particle within the nucleus sufficient energy is
released which becomes available to the particle to escape.
Again, there remains the problem of how an -particle can
actually escape the nucleus. A nucleus is surrounded by a
potential barrier, and the escaping particle must have enough
energy to cross the barrier. The uranium nucleus, for -particles,
has a potential barrier of 27 MeV height so that only particles
having 27 MeV or more energy would be able to escape. But
-particles emitted by uranium have an energy of only 4 MeV.
Then how they get out across the barrier at all ? The explanation
is quantum-mechanical and is based on the following lines :
(i) An -particle, before emission, exists as such within
the nucleus.
(ii) It is in constant motion but is kept inside the nucleus
by the surrounding potential barrier.
(iii) There is a small, but finite, probability that the particle
may leak through the barrier each time it collides
with it. (This is due to the wave nature of the particle).
(iv) Once the particle leaks through the barrier, it escapes
from the nucleus because of its kinetic energy and the
electrostatic repulsion.
An -particle within a nucleus collides with the surrounding
barrier about 1021 times per second. Calculations show that in
case of U238 nucleus the chance of escape in any single collision
is only 1 out of 1038. Thus an -particle may have to try for
10 38
= 1017 sec = 3 109 years before it actually escapes. This
10 21

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

75

explains the very long half-life of U238 which runs in billions

of years (4.5 billions).
Po214, in contrast to U238, has a half-life of only 0.0001 sec.
There are two reasons for it : (i) An -particle in Po214 nucleus
has a large energy. (ii) The height of the potential barrier is
smaller. Therefore the chance of escape in a single collision is
much larger, 1 out of 1017. Hence the mean waiting time for
10 17
the escape reduces to
= 0.0001 sec.
10 21

Explanation of -emission from Radioactive Nuclei : Like

-decay, the -decay and positron emission are the means by
which a nucleus alters its composition (neutron/proton ratio)
to achieve greater stability.
-decay is the mission of electrons from nuclei. All
properties of nuclei, however, firmly indicate that they do not
contain electrons. They are composed of protons and
neutrons only. Then how electrons are emitted from radioactive
nuclei? Yukawas meson theory supplies an answer to this
question.
In the nucleus the protons and neutrons are held together
by the continual exchange of pi-mesons between them. The
electron emission takes place on the spontaneous conversion
of a neutron into a proton by ejecting a -meson. This meson decays almost instantly into an electron (e) and an
antineutrino . The reaction is

n p + p + e + v .
Since in -decay a neutron is converted into a proton, the
neutron/ proton ratio decreases.
In -decay, the mass number (number of nucleons) of the
radioactive nucleus remains unchanged, but the atomic number
(number of protons) increases by unity. Hence the equation for
-decay can be written as

Quantum Physics

76

zXA
Parent
nucleus

A
z+1Y

_lo + v .
Beta particle
(electron)

Daughter
nucleus

Similarly, the positron emission takes place on the

spontaneous conversion of a proton into a neutron by ejecting
+-meson which decays almost instantly into a positron (e+)
and a neutrino. The reaction is

p n + + n + e+ + v.
In this process the neutron/proton ratio increases.
In positive -decay (positron emission) the mass number
remains unchanged, but the atomic number decreases by unity.
Hence the equation for positron emission can be written as

zXA
Parent
nucleus

z-1Y

+
Daughter
nucleus

+l

+ v.
Positron

The significance of the emission of antineutrino in -decay

and of neutrino in positron emission is that it keeps energy,
linear momentum and angular momentum all conserved.

Electron Capture
The electron capture is a process which is competitive with
positron emission. In this process, a nucleus captures one of
the inner orbital electrons of the atom, with the result that a
nuclear proton is converted into a neutron and a neutrino is
emitted. The reaction is

p + e n + v.
Usually the captured electron comes from the K-shell, and
an X-ray photon is emitted.
Electron capture occurs more often than positron emission
in heavy nuclei because in them the electron orbits are much
nearer.

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

77

Because the absorption (capture) of an electron by a nucleus

is equivalent to the emission of a positron from it, the electron
capture reaction (p + e n + v) is essentially the same as the
positron emission reaction (p n + e+ + v).

Experimental Investigation of -ray Energy Spectra : The

-rays emitted from radioactive nuclei consist of electrons with
varying high velocities (energies). Their energy variation can
be studied by a -ray spectrometer. The radioactive material
(-ray source) is placed in vacuum upon a fine wire at S (Fig.).
The emitted electrons pass through fairly wide slits and are
bent by means of a magnetic field B so that they are received
by a Geiger counter placed in a fixed position.
The magnetic field B is directed upwards perpendicular to
the plane of paper. An electron (mass m, charge e) emitted with
a velocity v and entering the field B perpendicularly, describes
a circular path in the field. The magnetic force on the electron,
evB, supplies the centripetal force mv2/r, where r is the radius
of the path. Thus

ev B = mv2/r
or

r =

mv
eB

The position of the counter is fixed. Thus r is fixed.

Quantum Physics

78

Therefore, for a given value of B, only those, electrons are

recorded by the counter whose momentum is given by

p = mv = eBr.
The magnetic field B is varied and the number of electrons
reaching the counter per unit time is obtained for different
values of B. Since each value of B corresponds to a different
value of p, the numbers of electrons corresponding to different
momenta are obtained. The observed momenta p can be
converted into corresponding kinetic energies K from the
relativist formula

K = V m02 c4 p2 c2 m0 c2
where c is the speed of light. A curve between the relative
number of electrons and the corresponding kinetic energy is
then plotted (Fig.).

Characteristic Features of -ray Energy Spectra : The

-particles emitted from a given radioactive nucleus have a
continuous distribution of kinetic energies from 0 to a maximum
value Kmax. The value Kmax, called the end-point energy, is a
characteristic of the emitter. It is 1.17 MeV for RaE (Fig.). Most
of the -particles have energies considerably less than 1.17
MeV, and the average energy per particle is about 039 MeV,
only about one-third the end-point energy.

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

79

Thus the process of -disintegration differs from

-disintegration in two important respects. Firstly, the
-particles are already present in the initial nucleus but the
-particles are not present in the initial nucleus and are created
at the time of emission. Secondly, the energy spectrum of the
-particles is continuous, and not discrete as of -particles.

Difficulties with -ray Continuum : In experiments with

-decay the conservation of energy, linear momentum and
angular momentum were all appeared to be violated. Let us
first consider energy. A parent nucleus in a definite state of
energy emits a -particle and leaves a daughter nucleus which
is also in a definite state of energy. Thus the -particle must
emit with a fixed energy, equal to the difference between the
energies of the parent and the daughter nuclei. But, in practice,
the energy spectrum of -particles is continuous, i.e. a -particle
can have any kinetic energy between zero and Kmax.
Meitner argued that all -particles start from the parent
nucleus with same kinetic energy Kmax but suffer varying energyloses by collision with the atomic electrons surrounding the
nucleus. Hence they come out with continuously varying
energies. Ellis and Wooster in 1927, performed an experiment
to verify this hypothesis. They placed a -emitting source
(RaE) in a thick-walled calorimeter designed to absorb all of
the emitted -particles and measured the total heat (energy)
produced by a known number of disintegrations. The heat
produced divided by the number of disintegrations gave the
average energy per disintegration, Kaverage. This was found to
be 0.35 MeV, which fairly agreed with the average energy
computed from the distribution curve, but was much less than
Kmax. Thus Meitners hypothesis proved to be incorrect. Since
the balance of energy, Kmax Kavarage was unaccountable in
-disintegration, the conservation of energy appeared to be
violated.
Linear and angular momenta were also found not to be

Quantum Physics

80

conserved in -decay. If in a single disintegration the directions

of the emitted -particle and of the (recoiling) daughter nucleus
are observed (by recording their ionisation tracks), they are not
exactly opposite as required for the conservation of linear
momentum.
The non-conservation of angular momentum arises because
the intrinsic spins of the electron, proton and neutron are all
1
. In -decay a neutron is converted into a proton with the
2
emission of an electron :
n p + e.
After the decay, the proton and the electron spins can be
parallel (total spin = 1) or anti-parallel (total spin = 0); but in
1
no case the total spin can be (the spin of the original neutron).
2
Thus the spin (and hence angular momentum) is not conserved
in the above reaction.

Neutrino Hypothesis of -Disintegration : In 1930, Pauli

suggested that if a particle having zero charge, zero rest mass,
1
is supposed to be emitted together with the electron,
2
then the energy, momentum and angular momentum would
all be conserved. Fermi, in 1934, named this particle as neutrino
and developed a complete theory of -disintegration. According
to this theory, when a neutron (n) is converted into a proton
(p); an electron (e) and a neutrino (v) are emitted. It was later
on found that there are two kinds of neutrino, the neutrino
1
itself (symbol v ) and the antineutrino (symbol
). In
2
-disintegration it is the anti-neutrino that is emitted. Thus the
basic equation for -disintegration is

and spin

n p + e + v .
This equation removes the various difficulties encountered
in -disintegration in the following way :

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

81

(i) The neutrino (in fact antineutrino) carries no charge.

This maintains conservation of charge in the
-disintegration,
(ii) The neutrino has a zero rest mass, and hence a zero
rest mass energy. Therefore, in a -disintegration, the
maximum energy which can be carried off by an electron
is equal to the energy equivalent of the mass-difference
between the parent and the daughter nuclei. If this is
Emax , then

Emax = m0C2 + Kmax,

where moc2 is the rest energy of the electron and Kmax
is the end-point (kinetic) energy of the -ray spectrum.
The energy Emax is distributed among the electron, the
neutrino, and the recoiling daughter nucleus in a
continuous range of different ways. Since the daughter
nucleus carries away negligible kinetic energy, the
neutrino carries off the difference between Kmax and the
actual kinetic energy of the electron for the particular
disintegration. Thus the energy remains conserved in
the process.
(iii) The neutrino has a momentum exactly balancing the
sum of the momenta of the electron and the recoiling
daughter nucleus. Thus momentum remains conserved.
1
. This leads to
2
the conservation of angular momentum because the
1
spins of the three decay particles can combine to give .
2

(iv) Like electron, the neutrino has a spin

(v) Lacking mass and charge, the neutrino can pass

unhindered through vast amounts of matter. If this
were not so, the neutrinos would have been stopped
in the calorimeter experiment and their energy would
have been absorbed by the calorimeter, giving a
temperature rise corresponding to Kmax.

82

Quantum Physics

Line Spectrum of -rays

Internal Conversion : For certain -emitters the continuous
distribution curve has a number of distinct peaks superimposed
upon it (Fig.), which are the characteristics of the emitter. This
means that some -ray sources emit, in addition to the
continuous spectrum, a number of -particles of discrete
energies. They are said to constitute a line spectrum of -rays.
The line spectrum of -rays arises due to extra nuclear
electrons ejected from the atom by a process called internal
conversion. A nucleus in an excited state may return to a
lower energy state in two ways : (i) by emitting a -ray photon
of energy hv equal to the difference between (Fig.) the energies
of the two nuclear states, (ii) by giving up the energy hv to an
electron in the K-, L-......shell of the same atom. In the second
case (internal conversion) the electron is ejected from the shell
with a discrete kinetic energy hvEk , hvEi,......, where Ek ,
EL,....... are the binding energies of, the electron in the K-,
L-,....... shells respectively. (The vacancy created in the shell is
filled by electrons in higher shells cascading down with the
emission of X-rays characteristic of the atom.) Thus the process
of internal conversion, which gives rise to -ray line spectrum,
is a direct transfer of excitation energy from the nucleus to one
of the surrounding electrons. Since in the internal conversion
the electrons do not come from the nucleus, the not a true form
of -disintegration.

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

83

Interaction of -rays with Matter : The -rays are

electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelengths ( 0.004
to 0.4 A). They have no electric charge, and so they cannot
be deflected by magnetic or electric fields. Consequently, direct
measurements of their energies (or wavelengths) with a
magnetic spectrometer are not possible. The absorption of
-rays by matter is also different from that of charged particles
such as - and -rays. Charged particles lose their energy by
inelastic collisions so that they slow down and finally come
to rest and absorbed at the end of their range. On the other
hand, when a beam of -ray photons passes through matter,
the intensity of the beam (number of photons) decreases
exponentially according to the law
I = I0 e

-x

where I0 is the initial intensity of the beam, is the absorption

coefficient of the substance and x is the thickness of the absorber.
Thus -rays have no definite range, as do - and -rays.
Three separate processes are responsible for the decrease
in intensity (absorption) of -rays. They are photoelectric
absorption, Compton scattering and pair production.
(i) Photoelectric Absorption : In this process all the energy
of a -ray photon is transferred to a bound electron,
and the -ray photon ceases to exist. The ejected electron
may either escape from the absorber or reabsorbed due
to collisions. At low photon energies (5.0 keV for
aluminium and 500 keV for lead), the photoelectric
effect is chiefly responsible for the -ray absorption.
(ii) Compton Scattering : At energies in the neighbourhood
of 1 MeV, Compton scattering becomes the chief cause
of removal of photons from the -ray beam. In this
process the -ray photon is scattered by one of the
atomic electrons which is separated from its atom. The
scattered photon moves with reduced energy in a

Quantum Physics

84

direction different from the original direction and is

thus removed from the incident beam.
(iii) Pair Production : At high enough energies, both the
photoelectric absorption and Compton scattering
become unimportant compared with pair production.
In the latter process, a -ray photon, in passing close
to an atomic nucleus in the absorbing matter, disappears
and an electron and a positron are created :

(-photon)

e
(electron)

e+
(positron)

The electron and the positron form a pair of particles and

hence the process is called pair production. The conservation
of charge is obvious from the above equation. The rest mass
m0, and hence the rest mass energy m0c2, of the positron is the
same as that of the electron i.e. 0.51 MeV. The energy of the
-ray photon, hv, must be atleast 2 0.51 = 1.02 MeV for pair
production to be possible, because this amount of energy is
needed to supply the rest energy of the two particles. If hv is
greater than 1.02 MeV, the balance of energy appears as kinetic
energy of the particles (neglecting the small recoil energy of
the nucleus).

Measurement of the Wavelengths of -rays : There are two

chief methods for measuring -ray wavelengths.
(i) By a Crystal -ray Spectrometer : The method is suitable
for measuring the wavelengths of the longer -rays. A
quartz diffracting crystal C (Fig.) is bent and clamped
so that the diffracting planes meet, when extended, in
a line at A, normal to the plane of the figure. The radius
of curvature of the crystal is then equal to the diameter
of the focussing circle whose centre is O. Suppose
the source of -rays is at a point S on the focussing
circle such that the Bragg condition (2d sin = n) is
satisfied. Then a diffracted beam enters the detector

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

85

D(a scintillation counter) as if it came from the virtual

source at S. For each different wavelength there is a
particular position of the source on the focussing circle
for which a strong diffracted beam is obtained.

In order to perform the experiment, the source position on

the circle is varied, and the corresponding counting rates of
the detector are determined. A graph is plotted between the
counting rate and the angle (position of the source). This
graph is found to have sharp peaks which correspond to strong
diffracted beams. The angle corresponding to a peak is the
Braggs angle. Thus, knowing the crystal lattice spacing ds the
wavelength A of the -radiation in a known order can be
calculated by using Braggs equation.
This method has two disadvantages. Firstly, the
measurements become more difficult and less precise as the
energy of the -rays increases and the wavelength decreases,
and so the method can be used upto 1 MeV only. Secondly,
the method requires highly active -ray source.
(ii) By a Magnetic Spectrograph : The wavelengths of -rays
of moderate energy can be determined by an indirect
method using a magnetic spectrograph. In this
method we obtain a magnetic spectrum of the
secondary electrons which are produced by
photoelectric absorption or by Compton scattering of
-rays in matter.

Quantum Physics

86

A simple arrangement, used by Ellis, is shown in Fig. The

source of -rays, such as radium-B, is kept in a small thinwalled tube S wrapped round with a foil of lead, platinum or
tungsten and placed in vacuum. The foil is thick enough to
stop all the primary electrons (-rays) from the radioactive
source itself but not the -rays. The -rays passing out through
the wall of the tube eject (secondary) electrons of different
energies from the metallic foil due to photoelectric absorption.
These electrons pass through a slit O and are bent by means
of a magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of paper so
that they reach a photographic plate P. An electron (mass m,
charge e) which comes out from the foil with a velocity v
describes in the magnetic field a circular path of radius r such
that the magnetic force on the electron, evB, supplies the
necessary centripetal force mv 2/r. Thus

evB = mv2/r.
The momentum of the electron is therefore given by

p = mv = eBr.

... (i)

Thus those electrons which have the same momentum

have circular paths of the same radii and come to a linefocus at the photographic plate. Hence upon developing
the plate, a number of focal lines F1 F2, ... are obtained

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

87

which correspond to various electron momenta (or energies).

The various momenta p. can be determined by knowing the
magnetic field B and the radii r of the various electron paths.
For example, the radius of the path corresponding to F1 is
given by

r =

1
1
2
2
(SF1) = OS OF1
2
2

The momenta p as determined from eq. (i), can be converted

into corresponding kinetic energies K from the relativistic
formula

K = m02 c4 p2 c2 m0 c2
The electrons ejected from the atoms of the metallic foil
must come from one or other of the shells K, L, M,....... Suppose,
for example, that an electron is ejected from a K-shell. For this,
an amount of energy Wk is required which is supplied by the
-ray incident upon the foil. If hv is the energy of the incident
-rays, we have

hv = Wk + K ;
where K is the kinetic energy of the ejected electron. The value
of Wk for the given atom is known from X-ray studies, whereas
K has been obtained from the magnetic spectrograph. Hence
hv, and so v (or A), the frequency (or wavelength) of the -rays
can be determined.

Nuclear Energy LevelsOrigin of -rays : The discovery

of the fine structure of -rays, and also the experimental
fact that -rays form a line spectrum, gave rise to the idea
of nuclear energy levels. It is supposed that there are a
number of discrete energy levels in the nucleus, and that a
nucleus is normally in its lowest energy state, but it may also
exist for short times in an excited state. The transition of the
nucleus from an excited state to the lower states gives rise to
-ray lines.

Quantum Physics

88

An important question which arises is how does the nucleus

come in an excited state from which it can undergo transitions
to lower levels ? An answer is furnished by the fact that in
natural radioactivity, -rays are emitted only by nuclei which
also emit - or -rays. Measurements of the - or -ray energies
and the -ray energies show that the -rays are emitted by the
daughter nucleus produced by the emission of an - or
-particle from the parent nucleus.
Thus it can be supposed that the emission of an - or
-particle sometimes leaves the daughter nucleus, not in the
normal state, but in an excited state of higher energy. The
excited daughter nucleus then passes to the normal state with
the emission of -rays. If it returns to the normal state in a
single transition, a single -photon is emitted. If it returns by
a series of transitions, a series of -ray photons is emitted.
Measurements of these -ray energies help in locating the
energy levels of the nucleus.
As an example, radium emits -particle to become radon
in accordance with the transformation
88Ra

226

86Rn

222

+ 2He4

(-particle)
The emitted -particles fall into two sharp energy groups,
one having an energy of 4.80 MeV and the other 4.61 MeV.
Accompanying them -rays of 0.19 MeV energy are also detected
(Fig.), The explanation is that, when radium emits an -particle
of 4.80 MeV energy, the daughter nucleus of radon is formed
in its ground state. On the other hand, when radium emits an
-particle of 4.61 MeV energy, then the radon nucleus is left
in an excited state, from which it passes to the ground state
by emitting a -ray of energy 4.80 4.61 = 0.19 MeV. Similarly,
when thorium C decays to thorium Cn, five groups of -particles
are emitted, and the existence of four nuclear excited states of
thorium C above the ground state is established.

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

89

Like -emission, -emission also gives information about

the energy levels of the daughter nuclei. For example, 12Mg27
emits -particle to become 13Al27 :
27
12Mg

27
13Al

0
1e

(-particle)
The emitted -particles fall into two energy groups, one
having an end-point (maximum) energy of 1.78 MeV and the
other 1.59 MeV. (In each group the energies are distributed
from zero to a maximum). Accompanying them -rays of
energies 0.834 MeV, 1.015 MeV and 0.181 MeV are also detected.
The decay scheme consistent with all of these data is shown
in Fig.
The 12Mg27 nucleus, after emitting the -particle, leaves
the daughter 13Al 27 nucleus in either of its two excited
states from which it proceeds to the ground state by -ray
emission.

Quantum Physics

90

PROBLEMS
1. Find the kinetic energy of the -particle emitted in the
decay of 92U232, assuming this atom to be at rest. The kinetic
masses of U232, Th228 and He4 are 232.037168, 228.028750
and 4.002603 u respectively. Given : 1 u = l.66 l027 kg and
1 u c2 = 931.5 MeV.
Solution : The decay equation is
92U

232

90Th

228

+ 2He4

The Q-value (energy) for this decay is given by

Q = [m (U232)-m (Th228)m (He4)] c2

= (232.037168 u228.028750 u-4.002603 u) c2
= 0.005815 u c2.
Now,
1 u c2 = 931.5 MeV.

Q = 0.005815 931.5 = 5.42 MeV.

Since Q-value is positive, the energy is liberated and so the

decay occurs.
The liberated energy of 5.42 MeV is distributed between the
-particle and recoiling daughter nucleus of 90Th228, that is,
1
1
m (Th228) vR2 +
m (He4) va2 = 5.42 MeV,
2
2

... (i)

where vR and va are the velocities of the recoiling nucleus and

the -particle respectively.
The actual distribution can be calculated by linear
momentum conservation, which gives
0 = m (Th228) vR-m (He4) va .
The nucleus of U232 is initially at rest, and the Th228 and
He4 nuclei must move in opposite directions. Assuming the

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

91

ratio of Masses approximately equal to the ratio of mass

numbers, we can write from the last equation.
4
vR =
v .
228
Substituting this value of vR in eq. (i), and writing it in SI
units, we have
2
1
1
4

v +
(228 l.66 l027 kg)

228
2
2

(4 1.66 1027 kg) v2

= 5.42 1.6 l013 joule.
Solving, we get

v = 1.60 107 m/s.

K =
=

1
m (He4) v2
2
1
(4 l.66 l027 kg) (l.60 l07 m/s)2
2

= 8.50 1013 joule.

=

8.50 10 13
1.6 10 13

= 5.31 MeV.

2. 10Ne23 decays to 11Na23 by beta emission. What is the

maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons ? The atomic
masses of Ne23 and Na23 are 22.994466 u and 22.989770 u
respectively.

Solution: The decay equation is

23
10Ne

23
11Na

+ v.

The Q -value of this decay is given by (ignoring

electron mass)

Q = [m(Ne23)m(Na23)] c2
= (22.994466 u 22.989770 u) c2

Quantum Physics

92
= 0.004696 u c2

= 0.004696 931.5 = 4.37 MeV.

Except for a small correction for the kinetic energy of the
recoiling Na23 nucleus, the maximum kinetic energy of the
electrons is just equal to this.

3. Compute the minimum energy of a -ray photon which

may produce an electron-positron pair. The rest mass of electron
is 91 1031 kg and the speed of light is 30 108 m/s.
Or
Why does a photon of wavelength 1 cannot produce an
electron-positron pair ?
Solution: When an energetic -rays photon falls on a heavy
substance, it is absorbed by some nucleus of the substance and
an electron and a positron are produced. This phenomenon is
called pair-production, and may be represented by the
following equation :
+1

hv
=
(-photon)

(positron)

(electron)

According to Einsteins mass-energy relation, every body

in the state of rest has some energy, called its rest-mass energy.
If the rest-mass of the body be m0, then its rest-mass energy is

E0 = m0c2.
The rest-mass of each of the electron and the positron is
9.1 1031 kg. So, rest-mass energy of each of them is

E0 = m0c2
= (9.1 1031 kg) (3.0 108 m/s)2
= 8.2 l014 joule
8.2 10 14

= 1.6 10 13 = 0.51 MeV.

[because 1 MeV = l.6 1013 joule]

Decay of Radioactive Nucleus

93

Hence, for pair-production, it is essential that the energy

of -photon must be at least 2 0.51 = 1.02 MeV.
The wavelength corresponding to this minimum photonenergy is

6.62 1034 joule-sec 3.0 108 meter/sec

hc
=
=
1.02 1.6 1013 joule
E
= l.2 1012 meter = 0.012
This is the maximum wavelength of the photon to produce
electron-positron pair. Hence a 1. photon cannot produce the
pair.

5
Atomic Mode

-particle Scattering
In 1906, Rutherford observed that when a sharp beam of
-particles falls upon a photographic plate in vacuum, a sharp
image is obtained. If, however, a thin foil of metal is placed
in the path of the beam, the image becomes diffuse. This is due
to the scattering of -particles by the atoms of the foil.
In 1909, Geiger and Marsden made a series of measurements
on the scattering of -particles. They placed a thin metal gold
foil in the path of a ray of -particles from a radioactive
substance (Fig. below). A fluorescent screen S, backed by a
microscope M, was placed behind the foil. The particles, while
passing through the foil deflected (scattered) through a wide
range of angles.
The number of particles scattered in various scattered in
various directions were obtained by counting the scintillations
they made on the screen S. The screen was always maintained
perpendicular to the incident ray. It was found that although

96

Quantum Physics

most of the particles scattered through angles of the order of 1 or

less, out a small number, say about 1 in every 10,000, scattered
through 90 or even 180. This large-angle scattering of -particles
could not be at all explained from the-then prevalent ideas
about atom.

In 1911, Rutherford explained, successfully the large-angle

scattering by proposing a structure of the atom. He made the
following assumptions :
(i) The positive charge of the atom is concentrated in an
extremely small volume, known as nucleus, in the
atom negative charges (electrons) revolve around
the nucleus in planetary orbits. Thus most of the
atom consists of empty space. This is why a great
majority of -particles pass the metal foil almost
undeviated.
(ii) The whole mass of the atom (excluding the electrons)
is contained in the nucleus along with the positive
charge.
(iii) The scattering of -particles by atoms takes place due
to an encounter between the a-particle and the nucleus
of the atom. The electrons outside the nucleus, owing
to their little mass, cannot appreciably deflect the far
more massive -particles.
(iv) Both the -particle and the nucleus are small enough

Atomic Mode

97

to be considered as point mass and point (positive)

charge; and the electrostatic repulsive force between
them is governed by Coulombs inverse-square law,
(v) The nucleus of the atom (of the metal foil used) is so
massive compared with the -particle that it remains
at rest during the encounter.
When an -particle strikes the metal foil, it can penetrate the
outer electron-cloud of an atom and approach closely the
nucleus. It then moves under the action of a coulombian force of
repulsion, and its path is a hyperbola with the nucleus as the
external focus.

Rutherfords Scattering Formula

The Rutherfords assumptions regarding -scattering have
been given in the last question.
Let us consider an -particle moving in a direction PO
(Fig.), where P is far from a stationary nucleus N. As the
particle approaches the nucleus, it begins to be repelled more
and more and assumes the hyperbolic path PAP. OP and OP
make equal angles, 6, with the line NA where A is the apex
of the hyperbola. Let p be the perpendicular distance from the

Quantum Physics

98

nucleus N to the original direction of the -particle. v is called

the impact parameter. It is the minimum distance to
which the -particle would approach the nucleus if there
were no force between them. The angle between the
direction of approach and the direction of recede of the -particle
is the scattering angle . Let us first find a relation between p
and .
Let m. be the mass of the -particle, v its velocity at P, and
v the velocity at A. By conservation law, the initial angular
momentum* of the -particle about the nucleus will be equal
to its angular momentum when at A. Therefore

mx v P = m v a,
where

a = NA.

Thus

v=

vp
a

... (i)

We know that the (positive) charge on the nucleus is Ze,

where Z is the atomic number, and that on the -particle is
2e, where e is the electronic charge. Therefore, the electrostatic
1
potential energy of the -particle when at A will be
4 0
Ze 2 e
. Now, from the conservation of energy, the initial
a
kinetic energy of the -particle is equal to the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies at A, so that
1
m v2 =
2

1
m v2 +
2
1
4 0

1
4 0

2Ze2

4 Ze

or

v2 = v2

or

1 4Ze2
v2 = v2 1 4 m c2 a
0

m a

Atomic Mode

99

1
m v2), the initial kinetic energy
2
of the -particle, instead of its mass mz and velocity v. Then
we have

Let us introduce Ek (=

1 4Ze2
v2 = v2 1 4 E a
0
k

or
where

v2 = v2 1 ,

a
1 2Ze2
.

4 0 Ek

b =

Now, putting the value of v from eq. (i), we get

v2 p2

= v2 1
2

a
or

b
,
a

p2 = a2 ba.

N is the external focus and A the apex of the hyperbola.

It can be shown from the coordinate geometry that
a = NA = p cot (/2),
where is the angle shown. Therefore the above expression
becomes

p2 = p2 cot2 (/2) bp cot (/2).

b=

cot 2 / 2 1
cot / 2

= p {cot (/2) tan (/2)}

cos / 2 sin / 2

= p

sin / 2 cos / 2
2
2
cos / 2 sin / 2
= p

sin / 2 cos / 2

Quantum Physics

100

cos
= 2 p sin = 2p cot .

b
.
cot =
2p

...(ii)

From the fig., the scattering angle is equal to 2, so

that

=
2

or

cot

= cot = tan .
2
2

But tan
cot

=
2

2p

from eq. (ii).

b
2p

... (iii)

This shows that the scattering angle decreases rapidly as

the impact parameter p increases. It means that only an particle passing extremely close to the nucleus suffers large-angle
scattering.
Eq. (iii) cannot be verified experimentally because we cannot
measure the impact parameter p for an observed angle . We
therefore calculate the number of -particles scattered through
an angle . We see from eq. (iii) that all -particles, such as
1, 2, 3 in the belowgiven figure , which approach the nucleus
with an impact parameter less than p will be scattered through
an angle greater than . This means that an -particle that is
initially directed anywhere within the area p2 around the
nucleus will be scattered through an angle greater than . Let
t be the thickness of the scattering foil and n the number of
atoms per unit volume. Then, it can be shown from the theory
of probability that the fraction f of incident -particles scattered
through angle greater than is

f = p2nt.

Atomic Mode

101

We assume that the foil is sufficiently thin so that an

-particle receives the entire deflection from a single encounter
with a nucleus. Then we can substitute the value of p

b
cot from eq. (iii). Thus
2
2

f=

b2nt cot2 .
4
2

Therefore, the fraction of incident -particles scattered

between and + d is

df =

1


b2nt cot cosec2 d. ... (iv)
2
2
4

The minus sign indicates that f decreases with increasing .

In the experiment, a fluorescent screen was placed at a
distance r from the foil, and the scattered -particles were
counted by means of the scintillations they produced on the
screen. Those particles which scattered between and + d
reach a spherical zone of radius r sin and width r d (Fig.).
Thus the area dS of the screen struck by these particles is

DS = (2 r sin ) (r d)
= 2 r2 sin d
= 4 r2 sin (/2) cos (/2) d.

... (v)

Quantum Physics

102

If N0 be the total number of -particles striking the foil

during the experiment, the number scattered between and
+ d is N0 df. Therefore, the number N () counted per unit
area on the screen placed at angle , which is the quantity
actually measured, is given by

N0 df
.
dS
Putting the values of df and dS from eq. (iv) and (v), we get

N () =

N () =

N0 1 / 4 b2 nt cot / 2 cos ec 2 / 2 d
4 r 2 sin / 2 cos / 2 d
N0 b2 nt
1
2
4
16r
sin / 2

Substituting the value of b

1 2Ze2
, we obtain
4 0 Ek

N0 ntZ 2 e4
4r 2

2
4 0

1
.
Ek2 sin / 2
4

...(vi)

This is Rutherfords scattering formula for the number of

-particles scattered at a particular angle ().

Atomic Mode

103

Significance of Rutherfords Formula

The formula shows that the number of scattered particles
arriving per unit area at the screen should be directly
proportional to the thickness t of the foil and to the square of
the atomic number Z of the foil atoms ; and it should be
inversely proportional to the square of the kinetic energy Ek
of the -particles and to sin4 (/2), where is the scattering
angle. All these predictions agreed with the measurements of
Geiger and Marsden who performed the experiment by using
scattering foils of different thicknesses and of different materials,
and the -particles of different energies. In 1920, Chadwick
used the formula to measure correctly the charge Ze on the
nucleus for a number of elements, thus giving a further
verification of the formula. Hence we conclude that Rutherfords
assumption of the existence of a tiny, massive, positive nucleus
in the atom is correct. Rutherford is therefore credited with the
discovery of the nucleus.

Scattering Angle
The angle of scattering of an -particle is related to the
impact parameter p by
cot
where b =
particle.

=
2

2p

1 2Ze2
, Ek being the initial kinetic energy of the
4 0 Ek

Now, b is same for the two -particles, because Ek is same.

Larger the scattering angle , smaller will be the impact
parameter p. Clearly, the particle scattered through a larger
angle comes closer to the nucleus.
It is found that the number of -particles scattered through
very small angles is somewhat different from the number

Quantum Physics

104

predicted by Rutherfords formula. The reason for the same is

as follows.
Rutherfords formula fails to agree with the experimental
data at very small scattering angles. This is because small
implies a large impact parameter, in which case the full nuclear
charge of the target atom in partially screened by its electrons.

Distance of Closest Approach : When -particles falls upon

a thin metal foil, the particles are scattered in various directions
by the nuclei of the atoms of the foil. The angle of scattering
of a particular particle depends upon the particles impact
parameter (the perpendicular distance from the nucleus to the
initial direction of motion of the particle). Rutherford showed
that if the nucleus be assumed to be a point mass and a point
charge and the electrostatic force between the nucleus and the
-particle be assumed to be governed by Coulombs inversesquare law, then the angle of scattering is related to the impact
parameter p by the equation
2p
cot
,
2
b

where b

1 2Ze2
depends upon the charge of the given
4 0 Ek

nucleus and the kinetic energy of the smaller the incident

particle. This smaller the impact parameter p, greater the
scattering angle . When p = 0, then assumes the maximum
value of 180. This means that when the -particle moves
directly (head-on) toward the nucleus, it is scattered through
180, i.e., reflected back along its initial path (Fig.). Clearly, it is
under this condition that the particle will have its closest
approach to the nucleus.
Let r0 be the distance of closest approach of the -particle
to the nucleus. The (positive) charge on the nucleus is Ze, and
that on the -particle is 2e, where e is the electronic charge.

Atomic Mode

105

Therefore, the electrostatic potential energy of the particle at

1 2Ze2
1 Ze 2 e
the instant of closest approach is
=
.
4 0 r0
r0
4 0
At this instant the -particle is momentarily at rest, and the
initial kinetic energy Ek is entirely converted into electrostatic
potential energy. Hence at this instant

Ek =

1 2Ze2
4 0 r0

r0

1 2Ze2
.
4 0 EK

This is the expression for the distance of closest approach

r0 of the -particle. It shows that for a given nucleus, r0
depends upon the initial kinetic energy Ek of the -particle.
When the kinetic energy Ek exceeds a certain value, the
distance of closest approach r0 becomes so small that the nucleus
no longer appears as a point charge to the -particle. Then the
Coulombs inverse-square law and hence the Rutherford
formula breaks down. Besides this, some short-range attractive
nuclear forces also begin to operate. Hence under this condition
the incident particle is not reflected back by the nucleus ;
instead the particle penetrates the nucleus. Thus, there is an
upper limit for the energy of the incident particle beyond which the
particle cannot be reflected back by a given nucleus.

Estimation of Nuclear SizeUpper Limit of Nuclear

Radius : The Rutherford scattering formula holds so long the
nucleus appears as a point to the scattering -particle i.e. so
long the size of the nucleus is insignificant compared with the

Quantum Physics

106

closest distance r0 to which the -particle approaches the

nucleus. The more energetic the incident a-particle; the smaller
is r0. Hence the distance of the closest approach, r0, of a particle
which has a maximum energy (upto which the Rutherford
formula agrees with experiment) is the upper limit for the
nuclear radius.
The experimental observations on -particle scattering are
found to agree with formula upto a maximum energy of 7-8
MeV. For -particles of this energy the distance of closest
approach is about 3 1014 meter for a gold nucleus and 2 1014
meter for a silver nucleus. Hence we conclude that the radius
of the gold nucleus is less than 3 1014 meter, and that of the
silver nucleus is less than 2 1014 meter. In general, the
nucleus is well under 1/10,000 the radius of the atom as a
whole.
The actual nuclear radii have been estimated by performing
scattering experiments using highly energetic electrons and
neutrons and studying the deviation of the results from the
Rutherford formula. It has been found that the nuclear radius
R is given by

R = R0 A1/3
where A is the mass number of the nucleus and

R0 1.3 1015 meter.

Atomic Structure
Matter, despite its appearance of being continuous,
possesses a definite particle structure of a microscopic level.
The ultimate particles of matter are known as atoms. Today
we know that an atom has its own ultimate particles, electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
The first information about the structure of atom came
from the discovery of the electron in 1897, when it became

Atomic Mode

107

known that all atoms contain the negatively-charged electrons.

Since matter is electrically-neutral, it was inferred that atoms
must also contain positively-charged material. Furthermore,
an electron was found thousands of times lighter than the
entire atom. This suggested that the positive charge of the
atom carries nearly the entire mass. The radius of the atom was
estimated to be of the order of 1010 meter from kinetic theory
considerations. The distribution of electron and positive charge
in the atom was not known however.

Thomsons Model of Atom: Thomson, in 1904, suggested

that an atom is a uniform sphere of positively-charged material,
in which electrons are embedded in number such as to balance
the positive charge (Fig.). The model was however, soon
discarded as it was in complete disagreement with experiments
on the large-angle scattering of -particles by matter.

Rutherfords Nuclear Model of Atom: In 1909, Geiger and

Marsden made a series of experiments on the scattering of particles. They found that -particles falling on a thin metal
foil scattered in various directions. Although most of the
particles scattered through angles of the order of 1 or less, but
a small number scattered through 90 or even 180. This led
Rutherford to conclude that while most of the (positivelycharged) -particles, while traversing matter, experienced little

108

Quantum Physics

force, but a few of them experienced strong repulsive force as

could be exerted by extremely dense concentrations of positive
charge. Hence the positive charge of the atom could not be
uniformly distributed as pictured by Thomson.
Rutherford suggested that in an atom the entire positive
charge and nearly all of its mass are concentrated at the centre
of the atom in a small volume, known as the nucleus of the
atom (Fig.). The electrons revolve around the nucleus in
planetary orbits at distances large compared with the size of
the nucleus. The orbital motion was assumed because without
it the electrons would fall into the nucleus under the
electrostatic attraction and the atom would collapse.
The radius of the nucleus was estimated to be of the order
of 1015 meter which is only 1/10,000 of the radius of the atom
as a whole. Thus Rutherfords atom is largely hollow.
The model can explain the results of the -scattering
experiment. Most of the -particles falling upon the metal foil
go through the atoms practically undeviated because the atoms
are largely hollow and the electrons, due to their little mass,
do not appreciably affect the motion of incident -particles.
Those particles which pass close to the (positively-charged)
nucleus, however, experience strong electrostatic repulsion
and are scattered through a large angle.

Atomic Mode

109

The Rutherfords model was supported by the periodic

table of elements also. The -scattering experiments enabled
direct determination of the nuclear charge of the atom involved.
It was found that all atoms of any one element had the same
unique nuclear charge, and this charge increased regularly
from element to element in the periodic table. The nuclear
charge for an element was always found to be +Ze, where Z
determined the position of the element in the periodic table.
Z is now known as the atomic number of the element, and
gives the number of unit positive charges in a nucleus of that
element.

Difficulties in Rutherfords Model (Failure of Classical

Physics): The Rutherfords model, in spite of strong
experimental support, faced certain difficulties. The revolving
electrons are constantly accelerated (centripetal) towards the
nucleus. Such electrons, according to electromagnetic theory,
would constantly radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. Hence they would rapidly spiral in and fall into the
nucleus, and the atom would collapse. (Calculations show that
only about l010 sec would be required for a stable hydrogen
atom to collapse). In practice, atom do not collapse.
Furthermore, in Rutherfords model the electrons can
revolve in orbits of all possible radii and so they should emit
continuous radiation of all frequencies. But the experimental
fact is that atoms like hydrogen emit line spectra of radiation
of only certain fixed frequencies.
From these difficulties we can only conclude that the
classical laws of Physics which are true in macroscopic world
do not hold in the microscopic world of the atom.

Bohrs Quantum Model

In 1913, Bohr gave a new and rather bold idea of atomic
structure in order to explain the stability of the atom and the
emission of sharp spectral lines. He proposed the following

Quantum Physics

110

two modifications in Rutherfords model which are contrary

to the classical theory :
1. The elections can revolve around the nucleus only in
certain discrete orbits, and they do not radiate energy
while in these permitted orbits. Hence the atom is
stable. The permitted orbits are those in which the
angular momentum mvr* of the electron is an integral
h
; h being the Plancks constant,
multiple of
2
nh
i.e.
mvr =
2
where

n = l, 2, 3,......

2. The emission (or absorption) of radiation by the atom

takes place when an electron jumps from one permitted
orbit to another (Fig.). The radiation is emitted (or
absorbed) as a single quantum (photon) whose energy
hv is equal to the difference in energy E of the electron
in the two orbits involved. Thus

hv = E,
where v is the frequency of emitted (or absorbed) radiation.
Hence the spectrum of the atom will have certain fixed
frequencies.
The main objection against the Bohrs model was that its
assumptions were entirely arbitrary, and could only be justified
by the experimental results.
The Bohrs model as it is, was found lacking in explaining
intensity of spectral lines, fine structure of spectral lines, spectra
of complex atoms, etc.

Wave Mechanical Model: de Broglie gave the physical

interpretation of Bohrs postulate that only certain orbits are
permitted for the electron. He treated the electron (mass m,
velocity v) as a wave of wavelength

Atomic Mode

111
=

h
,
mv

which forms a stationary wave-pattern along the atomic orbits.

He deduced that an electron can revolve around the nucleus
indefinitely without radiating energy provided that its orbit
contains an integral number of electron wavelengths (Fig.) i.e.
2r = h.
But

h
mv

2r =

or

mvr = n

h
mv
h
2

which is same as the Bohrs postulate.

Later on, the application of quantum mechanics to the

atom automatically yielded all the results of the Bohr theory
and solved many problems which could not be handled by the
Bohr theory. The fine structure of spectral lines was explained
by considering the relativist variation of electron mass.

PROBLEMS
1. A 5-MeV -particle approaches a gold (Z= 79) nucleus
with an impact parameter of 2.6 1015 meter. The angle
through which it will be scattered is as follows (e = l.6 10-19
coulomb and 1 eV = l.6 1019 joule).

Quantum Physics

112

Solution : The angle of scattering of -particle is related

to the impact parameter p by
cot (/2) =

where b =

2p

1 2 Ze2
, Ek being the initial kinetic energy of the
4 0 Ek

-particle. Thus
cot (/2) =

2p

4 pEk

Ze2

Here p = 2.6 1013 meter, Z = 79; e = 1.6 1019 coulomb

and Ek = 5 MeV = 5 l06 eV = 5 106 (l.6 1019) joule.
1
Also = 9 109 nt-m2/joul2.
4 0

2.6 10 5 10
13

cot (/2) =

1.6 10 19

9 10 79 1.6 10
9

19 2

= 11.42
/2 = cot1 (11.42) = 5

or

= 10

2. A gold foil of density 19.3 gm/cm3 and atomic weight

197 gm/gm-atom has a thickness of 2.0 104 cm. It is used
to scatter -particles of kinetic energy 80 MeV. The fraction
of the -particles is scattered at angles greater than 90 is
given below For gold Z = 79. (1 MeV=l.6 l013 J.) Avogadros
number is 6.02 l023 atoms/gm-atom.
Solution : Let us first calculate the impact parameter p for
scattering at 90. We have
cot

2p
=
,
2
b

Atomic Mode
where

113

b=

1 2Ze2
. From this,
4 0 E k

1 Ze2

p = 4 E cot
2
0
k
9

= (9 10 N-m /C )

79 1.6 10 19 C

8.0 1.6 10 13 J

cot 45

= 1.4 1014 m.
The cross-section is
p2/ = 3.14 (l.4 l014)2
= 6.2 l028 m2/atom.
The number of atoms per unit volume of the foil

n=

mass/volume
atoms
=
mass/atoms
volume

density
= atomic wt/ Avogadro's number

19.3 mg / cm 3

197 gm / gm - atom / 6.02 10 23 atom / gm - atom

= 5.9 1022 atoms/cm3

= 5.9 l028 atoms/m3.
Now, the fraction of the incident particles scattered through
an angle greater than is given by

f> = p2 nt,
where p is impact parameter for scattering angle and t is
thickness of the foil. Thus

> 90

= (6.2 1028 m2/atom)

(5.9 1028 atoms/m3) (2.0 l06 m)

= 7.3 l05.

Quantum Physics

114

3. A beam of -particles of energy 5.5 MeV is incident

normally on a gold (Z=79) foil at a rate of 104 particles/sec.
An -particle counter with an aperture 4 cm2 is placed at a
distance 0.25 in from the foil. The counts at an angle of 60
is calculated, if the thickness of the foil is 105 cm. The atomic
weight (mass of 1 gm-atom) of gold is 197 and its density is
193 gm/cm3. The Avogadros number is 6.023 1023.
Solution : The number of -particles entering the counter
per unit area at an angle of is given by
N () =

N0 nt Z 2 e4

2
4r 2 4 0

1
Ek2 sin / 2
4

Here, N0 (particles striking the foil) = 104/sec,

n (number of atoms in the foil per unit volume)

=

mass/ volume
mass/ no. of atoms

density
atomic wt / Avogadro' s number

19.3 gm / cm 3
197 gm / 6.023 10 23

= 5.9 5 l022/cm3 = 5.9 l028/m3,

t (thickness of foil) = 105 cm = 107 m,

r (distance of counter from the foil) = 0.25 m,
Z = 79, e = l.6 l019 coul,

Ek = 5.5 MeV=5.5 l.6 1013

joule and = 60 so that sin /2 = sin 30 =

1
. Thus
2

10 4 5.9 1028 10 7 79 1.6 10 19

2

() =

1
2
2
5.5 1.6 10 13
4 0.25
9
9 10

1
2
1

2

Atomic Mode

115
5.9 79 1.6 9 2
2

4 0.25 5.5
2

10

= 1.6.

The area of the aperture of the counter is 4 cm2 = 4 10-4

m2. Therefore the number of particles entering the counter
= 1.6 (4 104) = 6.4 104/sec.

4. In Rutherford scattering experiment the number of

particles observed at an angle of 10 is one million/rain, the
number of particles per minute will be observed at 90 and at
180 is explained below.
Solution : By Rutherford formula, the number of particles
of a given energy scattered at angle from a given foil is
1
1
N ()
= K
4
4
sin
/ 2
sin / 2
where K is constant. Now N (10) = 106/min.
Thus

so that

105 = K

1
10
sin 4
2

0.0872 4

K = (0.0872)4 106.

Hence the particles observed at 90 are

N (90) = K

1
90
sin 4
2

= (0.0872)4 106

1/ 2

= 232.
Similarly, N (180) = 58.
5. The distance of closest approach of -particles to the
copper nucleus, when -particles of 5 MeV energy are scattered
back by a thin sheet of copper (Z = 29) is calculated as follows.

Quantum Physics

116

Solution : An -particle will have its closest approach

when its impact parameter is zero, i.e., when it moves directly
(head-on) toward the nucleus and is reflected back (180
scattering).
Let r0 be the distance of the -particle from the nucleus at
the closest approach. The (positive) charge on the nucleus is
Ze, and that on the -particle is 2e, where e is the electronic
charge. Therefore, the electrostatic potential energy of the
1 Ze 2 e
r0
4 0

particle at the instant of closest approach is

At this instant the -particle is momentarily at rest, and

its initial kinetic energy Ek is entirely converted into electrostatic
potential energy. Hence at this instant ; we have

Ek =

1 2Ze2
.
4 0 r0

r0 =

1 2Ze2
4 0 Ek

Here Ek = 5 MeV = 5 106 eV = (5 106) (l.6 l019 joule);

Z = 29 and e = l.6 1019' coul. Also

r0 =

1
= 9 109 nt-m2/coul2.

4 0

9 l0

2 29 1.6 10 19

5 10 6 1.6 10 19

= 1.67 1014 meter.

(b) The (positive) charge on the proton is e (i.e. half of that
on -particle). Therefore the electrostatic potential energy at
the instant of closest approach is

Ek =

1 Ze 2 e
. Thus, as above
r0
4 0

1 Ze2
4 0 r0

Atomic Mode

117

r0 =

1 Ze2
4 0 E k

which is half of that of an -particle of the same energy.

Hence for the proton, we have
1.67 10 14
= 0.835 1014 meter.
2
When an energetic -particle moves directly (head-on)
towards a nucleus, it experiences an increasing electrostatic
force of repulsion in accordance to the inverse-square law.
Hence its velocity goes on decreasing and on reaching a certain
minimum distance from the nucleus the particle comes
momentarily to rest. It is then accelerated backwards, reverses
its motion and is said to be scattered through 180. The
minimum distance r 0 to which the incident -particle
approaches the nucleus is called the distance of closest
approach, and is related to the initial kinetic energy Ek of the
-particle by

r0 =

r0 =

1 2Ze2
.
4 0 Ek

The greater the initial kinetic energy Ek of the particle, the

smaller the distance of closest approach r0 . If, however, the
energy Ek exceeds a certain maximum value E, the -particle
approaches the nucleus so much closely that the nuclear size
becomes comparable with the distance of the particle from it
and the inverse-square law breaks down. Besides this, some
short-range attractive nuclear forces also begin to operate. Hence
under this condition the -particle is not scattered back. The
distance of closest approach of a particle of maximum kinetic
energy E gives the upper limit of the radius of the nucleus.
Thus if the maximum nuclear radius be R, we have

or

R=

1 2Ze2
4 0 E

E=

1 2Ze2 .
4 0 R

Quantum Physics

118
Here

Z = 79 ; e = l.6 1019 coul

and

R = 0.5 = 0.5 1010 meter.

E = (9 10-9)

2 79 1.6 10 19

0.5 10 10

= 7.3 1016 joule.

Speed of Fastest aa
-particle suffering 180-Scattering: Let
Ek be the kinetic energy of the fastest -particles. The distance
of the closest approach of the most energetic (fastest) a-particles
suffering 180-scattering from a nucleus is the maximum
possible radius of that nucleus. If the maximum radius of the
nucleus (charge + Ze) is R, then the electrostatic potential
energy of the -particle (charge +2e) at the instant of closest
approach will be

1 2Ze2 . Since at this instant the entire

4 0 R

kinetic energy Ek has been converted into the potential energy;

we have
1
2 Ze2
Ek = 4 ,
0
R

1
m v2, where m is the mass and v the speed of
2
the fastest particle. Also, given that m = 4my, where mp is the
mass of a proton. Thus
2
1
Ek =
(4mp) v2 = 1 2Ze
2
4 R

But Ek=

or

v =

v=

1 Ze2
4 0 mp R

Ze2

4 m R
p
0

An -particle is scattered back (180) at its closest approach

to the nucleus. The distance of closest approach is the upper
limit of the nuclear radius. If it is R, then we have

Atomic Mode
R=

119
1 2Ze2
4 0 E k

19

N m2 2 79 1.6 10 C
9 10 9

4 1.6 10 13 J
C2

5.7 1014 m.

maximum volume in which the positive charge may

be concentrated
=

4
R 3
3

4
(3.14) (5.7 1014 m)3 = 7.75 1040 m3.
3

6. A beam of protons and -particles, each of energy 15

MeV is incident on a thin foil of tin (Z = 50). It is observed
that the -particles are scattered backward but not the protons.
This observation explained and the maximum possible value
of the nuclear radius is found. As to why electrons are not
effective in scattering -particles and protons are also
explained.
Solution : The distance of closest approach of -particle
(charge + 2e) to a nucleus (charge +Ze) is given by
r0 =

1 2Ze2
,
4 0 Ek

where Ek is the initial kinetic energy of the incident -particle.

The particle on reaching at this distance from the nucleus is
reflected back (scattered 180).
Here Ek= 15 MeV = 15x 106 eV = 15x 106 1.6 1019 joule.

r0 = (9 10 )

2 50 1.6 10 19

15 10 6 1.6 10 19

= 9.6 1015 meter.

Quantum Physics

120

If 15 MeV is the maximum energy of the -particles for

which they are scattered backwards, then 9.6 l015 meter is
also the maximum possible value of the radius of the tin nucleus.
The charge on a proton is + e, i.e. half of that on an particle. Hence a proton of 15 MeV energy will have its distance
of closest approach half of that of -particle i.e. 4.8 1015
meter. This means that the proton of this energy will penetrate
the nucleus, and not be scattered backward.
The electrons, because of their little mass, are unable to
deviate the -particles and protons appreciably.
7. With gold foil (Z=79), 180-scattering is observed with
-particles of velocity upto 16 l07 m/sec. The upper limit for
radius of the nucleus is deduced. The mass of an -particle is
4mp where mp is the mass of proton (1.67 1027 kg).

Solution : The distance of closest approach of an -particle

suffering 180 scattering from a nucleus of atomic number Z;
given by
1 2Ze2
r0 =
4 0 Ek
where Ek is the initial kinetic energy of the particle. If m be the
1
mass and v the velocity of the particle, then Ek = m v2, so that
2
2
1 4Ze
r0 = 4 m v2 .
0

If v be the velocity of the fastest particle that can suffer 180

scattering, then r0 is also the upper limit for the radius of the
nucleus.
Putting the given values; the upper limit of gold nucleus is

9 10 4 79 1.6 10
4 1.67 10 1.6 10

19 2

r0 =

27

4.26 1014 meter.

7 2

The Spectrum

121

6
The Spectrum

Series Relationship
Spectrum: When a beam of white light is passed through
a prism (or grating) it breaks up into the beams of constituent
colours. The different coloured beams, when focussed on a
screen by a converging lens, form an array of colours on the
screen, This is called the spectrum of light.
There are two main types of spectra : (i) emission spectra
and (ii) absorption spectra.
When light coming directly from a source is allowed to
enter a prism or grating spectroscope, an emission spectrum
of the source is observed in the spectroscope. On the other
hand, when light from a source showing a continuous emission
spectrum is passed through an absorbing material and then
into the spectroscope, an absorption spectrum of the material
is observed.
Emission and absorption spectra are further classified
according to their appearance. There are three classes :

122

Quantum Physics

Continuous Spectra : When the emitting source is an

incandescent solid, or liquid, such as a lamp filament or a gas
at high pressure, the spectrum is continuous containing all
colours (wavelengths) from red to violet. Its appearance is like
an unbroken luminous band of light in which the colour changes
gradually from point to point but without any sharp boundary.
In this spectrum the intensity is maximum at a certain point
and decreases on both sides of it. The point of maximum
intensity shifts towards the violet end of the spectrum as the
temperature of the source increases.
Line Spectra : If the light source is a low-pressure gas (as
in a discharge tube), flame, arc or spark, the spectrum is
discontinuous, showing a number of sharp bright-coloured
lines. These lines are the images of the slit of the spectroscope
formed by lights of different colours. The entire series of images
is called a line spectrum. The different lines differ in intensity
and nature. Some are sharp, some are sharp on one side and
diffused on the other, and others are diffused on both sides.
The line spectrum is the characteristic of the atom or the
ion. It means that a particular atom or ion always gives the
characteristic set of spectral lines, and no two atoms or ions
can give the Atomic and Nuclear same spectral line. For
example, sodium atom gives two intense yellow lines called
D1 and D2 lines.

Band Spectra : Such spectra are obtained by the radiation

from gas molecules such as oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), cyanogen
(CN), etc. They consist of illuminated regions, called bands,
separated by dark spaces. With a high-resolving instrument
each band is seen to consist of very fine lines which become
closer and closer on one side of the band until they coincide.
This side thus has a sharp and bright edge called the head
of the band.
Absorption Spectra : The absorption spectra are obtained
when the absorbing substance is placed between a source

The Spectrum

123

emitting a continuous spectrum and the slit of the spectroscope.

In such cases certain colours (wavelengths) are absorbed by
the substance. Hence the spectrum is found to consist of dark
lines or bands against a bright background. An example of
such spectra is suns spectrum. It is a line absorption spectrum.
It was studied in detail by Fraunhoffer who named the
absorption lines as A,B,C,D...... These lines inform us about
the elements which are present around the sun.
Similarly, when an intense beam of continuous white light
is passed through sodium vapour and then sent into a
spectroscope, we obtain two dark lines on a continuous
background in the same positions as the yellow D1 and D2 lines
in the sodium emission spectrum. If the sodium vapour is
replaced by Iodine vapour (l2), an absorption band spectrum
of I2 molecule is obtained.
Series Relationship in Atomic SpectraThe atomic spectra
consist of a large number of lines. A quantitative experimental
study of these spectral lines was made in the second half of
the 19th century when several regularities were observed in
the pacings of the lines. For example, in 1870, Liveing and
Dewar noticed that the spectral lines of various elements could
be grouped into distinct series. In each series the spacing and
intensity of lines decrease regularly towards shorter wavelengths,
until it becomes impossible to distinguish the individual lines.
The point at which the lines of the series finally converge is
called the series limit. The various series in complicated spectra
overlap.
The simplest atomic spectrum is that of hydrogen. Its visible
part consists of a single series which was first observed by
Balmer in 1885. This is called the Balmer series of hydrogen.
Its first line having longest wavelength of 6563 A is named
H a, the next H , and so on, the series limit reaching at 3646
A. Besides this, there is a series of lines in the ultraviolet part
of the hydrogen spectrum which is known as Lyman series;

Quantum Physics

124

and three series in the infrared part which are known as

Paschen series, Brackett series and Pfund series.

Balmer discovered a formula for the wavelengths of all the

lines of the Balmer series. His formula is
n2
= 3646 n2 4 ; n = 3, 4, 5, ... ...

n = 3 gives the wavelength of H line, n = 4 gives H line, ...

and n = gives the series limit.
Subsequently, Rydberg found that Balmers formula was
a special case of a more general formula which is as follows:

v =

1
1
1
= RH 2 2 ,
m
n

where v is wave number (reciprocal of wavelength), m and n

are positive integers (n > m) and RH is the Rydberg constant
for hydrogen. Its value is l.097 107 meter1. To obtain formula
for Lyman series we set m = l and n = 2, 3, 4, . ... ; for Balmer
series m = 2 and n 3, 4, 5,......; and so on. Thus
1

v = RH 12 n2 ; n = 2, 3, 4, ... ...

1
1
2 ; n = 3, 4, 5, ... ...
2
n
2

(Balmer)

1
1
2 ; n = 4, 5, 6, ... ...
2
n
3

(Paschen)

v = RH

(Lyman)

v = RH

The Spectrum

125
1
1
; n = 5, 6, 7, ... ...
4 2 n2

(Brackett)

1
1
2 ; n = 6, 7, 8, ... ...
2
n
5

(Pfund)

v = RH

v = RH

We see that the wave numbers of hydrogen lines can be

R
expressed as differences of two terms of the form H
.
n2
The next simplest spectra are of the monovalent
atoms of alkali metals Li, Na, K, etc. The lines in the spectrum
of an alkali atom can be grouped into four distinct series ; a
principal series of intense lines, a sharp series of fine lines,
a diffuse series of comparatively broader lines and a
fundamental series which lies in the infrared region. The
sharp and diffuse series lie in the visible part and converge to
a common limit. Rydberg represented the lines of a particular
series by the formula

v = Z2RA

m 1 2

.
n 2 2
1

where RA is the Rydberg constant for a particular element A,

Z is the atomic number, m and n are positive integers, and 1
and 2 are constants for the particular series. Actually each line
of an alkali spectrum is a close doublet. Again we find that the
wave numbers of the lines can be expressed as differences of
two terms like

Z 2 RA

m 2

After alkali spectra, next in complexity are the spectra of

divalent atoms of alkalineearths Be, Mg, Ca. In a typical
alkaline-earth spectrum we can distinguish two distinct systems
of lines : a system of singlets and a system of triplets. Each
system has a principal series, a sharp series, a diffuse series
and a fundamental series.

Quantum Physics

126

As we proceed to atoms having several valence electrons,

the spectra become more complex and the groupings of lines
into series become less pronounced. Still regularities can be
observed in complex spectra, and it is possible to express the
wave number of any spectral line as the difference of two
terms.

Rydberg-Ritz Combination Principle

This principle states that the wave numbers of spectral lines
can be expressed by the difference of spectroscopic terms in such a
way that other differences of those terms give also the wave numbers
of lines in the same spectrum.
Suppose in a spectrum the wave numbers of two lines are
given as

v a = T2 T3 and v d = T1 T4,

then lines of the following wave numbers are also expected in

the same spectrum;

vb =

T2 T4 and v 0 = T1 T3 .

This means that constant differences exist between the

wave numbers:

vb va =

vd vc

vc va =

vd vb

Displacement Law: According to this law the spectrum of

any neutral atom of atomic number Z closely resembles the
spectrum of the singly ionised atom of atomic number Z + 1.
For example, the spectrum of He + (Z = 2) closely resembles
the spectrum of H (Z = l) and can be represented by a similar
formula,
1

v = 4 RHe 2 2 .
n
m

The Spectrum

127

Other elements deprived of all but one electron, also

produce hydrogen-like spectra which can be represented by
the general formula
1
1
v = Z2 RA 2 2 .
n
m
In a similar way, the spectrum of a singly-ionised alkalineearth atom resembles the spectrum of an alkali atom. From this
we conclude that it is the number of valence electrons in an
atom which determines the qualitative character of the spectrum
of that atom.

PROBLEMS
1. The wavelength of a yellow line of sodium is 5896 .
Its wave number and frequency are calculated as follows.
Solution : The wave number v is the reciprocal of wavelength
, that is,
v =
Here

1
.

= 5896 = 5896 108 cm.

1
v = 5896 108 cm
= 16960 per cm.

The frequency v is related to the wavelength A by

c = v,
where c is the speed of light. Thus
v=

3 10 8 cm / sec
5896 10 8 cm

= 5.1 1012 sec-1

7
The Crystalline

Amorphous Solids
A solid consists of atoms, or ions, or molecules packed
closely together. In most of the solids the atoms, ions, or
molecules are arranged into regular, orderly and periodic threedimensional patterns. Such solids are called crystals. Thus a
crystal is characterised by having a long-range order in its
structure. This gives a symmetry to the external shape of the
crystals.
Solids which lack regularity in the arrangement of their
constituent particles are known as amorphous solids. Such
solids may, however, show short-range order in their structures.
Glass, concrete, paper, pitch and plastic are amorphous solids.

Classification of Crystals
The constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) in a
crystal are bound together by electrostatic forces, but the
distribution of charges in different crystals are qualitatively

Quantum Physics

130

different. Therefore, the nature of binding varies from crystal

to crystal. The difference in bindings is closely connected with
the difference in the mechanical, electric and magnetic
properties of the crystals.
The binding is characterised by the cohesive energy of the
crystal. It is the binding energy per atom or molecule, that is,
the energy per atom or molecule that would be liberated in the
formation of the crystal from individual neutral atoms or
molecules.
The crystals have been classified into five categories
according to the binding in them :
1. Ionic Crystals bound by strong electrostatic attraction
between ions of opposite kinds.

Examples: NaCl, CsCl, KBr, etc.

2. Covalent Crystals bound by sharing of electrons
between atoms.

Examples : C (diamond), Ge, Si, etc.

3. Metallic Crystals bound by electrostatic attraction
between the lattice of ion cores and the free electron
gas.

Examples : Na, Al, Cu, etc.

4. Inert-gas (or molecular) Crystals bound by weak Van
der Waals forces.

Examples : Solid A, solid CH4, etc.

5. Hydrogen-bonded Crystals bound by hydrogen bonds.

Examples : H2O (ice), HF, etc.

Ionic Crystals
In ionic crystals, electrons are transferred from one type
of atoms (which lose electrons readily) to the other type (which

The Crystalline

131

have high affinity for electrons). Thus the atoms become positive
and negative ions. These ions arrange themselves in a
configuration in which Coulomb attraction between ions of
opposite signs is stronger than the Coulomb repulsion between
ions of the same sign.
Thus the ionic bond results from the electrostatic
interaction of oppositely charged ions. The configuration
remains stable in spite of the net electrostatic attraction between
the ions because electron shells of different ions cannot mesh
together due to the forces present by the action of the exclusion
principle.

Examples : The examples of ionic crystals are sodium

chloride (NaCl), cesium chloride (CsCl), lithium fluoride (LiF),
potassium bromide (KBr), etc.
In the NaCl crystal the outermost (3s) electron of the sodium
atom (1s22s22p63s) is transferred to the 3p subshell of the chlorine
atom (1s22s22p63s23p5). The Na+ and Cl~ ions so formed are
arranged in a pattern shown in Fig. below. The ions of either
kind are located at the corners and at the centres of the faces
of an assembly of cubes. Such a crystal structure is called facecentered cubic.

Quantum Physics

132

Cohesive Energy
The cohesive energy of an ionic crystal is the energy that
would be liberated in the formation of the crystal from
individual neutral atoms, or the energy needed to break the
crystal into individual atoms. Let us calculate it:
The Coulomb energy of attraction between two ions
separated by a distance r is

Uatt =

e2
4 0 r

In the crystal each ion interacts with all its neighbouring

ions of same as well as of opposite signs. To take this
into account, the net energy of attraction per ion-pair may be
written as

Uatt =

e2
4 0 r

where is called the Madelung constant of the crystal. For

crystal structures, lies between 1.6 and 1.8.
As mentioned above, two ions cannot continuously
approach each other under Coulomb attraction on account of
the exclusion principle. When they are at a certain small distance
apart, they begin to repel each other with a force which rises
very rapidly with the decrease in distance. The energy of this
(non-electrostatic) repulsion can be expressed as
B
Urep =
rn
where B is a constant and n is a number (n 9). The total
potential energy per ion-pair due to their interactions with all
the other ions is therefore

U = Uatt + Urep =

e2
4 0r

B
.
rn

At the equilibrium separation r0 of the ions U must be a

minimum.

The Crystalline

133

This means that at r = r0, dU/dr = 0.

Hence
dU

dr

r = r0

B=

or

e2
nB

4 0 r02 r0n 1 = 0
e2 n 1
r0 .
4 0 n

The potential energy at r = r0 is thus

U=
U=

or

e2
4 0 r0

e2
4 0 nr0

1
e2
1 .
n
4 0 r0

This is the total potential energy per ion-pair in the crystal.

In NaCI crystal, the equilibrium distance between ions is
r0 = 2.81, and = 1.748. Taking n = 9, the potential energy
per ion-pair is

U=

e2
1
4 0 r0

9 10

newton-m2 /coul 2 1.748 1.6 10 19 coul 2

1
1
10
9
2.81 10 m

1.27 1018 joule

7.97 eV.

Hence the contribution per ion to the cohesive energy of the

crystal is half of this, i.e., 3.99 eV. This is called the lattice
energy per ion in the NaCI crystal.
In fact, some energy is needed to transfer an electron from
a Na atom to a CI atom to form Na+ CIion pair. This is equal
to the difference between the + 5.14 eV ionisation energy of
Na and the 3.61 eV electron affinity of Cl, i.e., +1.53 eV. Each

134

Quantum Physics

atom thus contributes + 0.77 eV to the cohesive energy. The

total cohesive energy per atom in the NaCl crystal is therefore

Ucotesive = 3.99 + 0.77 = 3.22 eV/atom.

This is greater than the binding energy per atom (2.1 eV/
atom) in an actual NaCl molecule.

Properties : An ionic bond is a strong bond because

the binding forces are of electrostatic origin. In view of the
cohesive energies of ionic solids, which are of the order of
several electron-volts, we expect the following properties of
these solids:
(i) Most ionic solids are hard cubic crystals, owing to the
strength of the bonds between their constituent ions.
(ii) They are usually brittle, since the slipping of atoms
past one another (which accounts for the ductility of
metals) is prevented by the ordering of positive and
negative ions.
(iii) They have high melting and vaporizing points because
of their cohesive energies of the order of several electron
volts. In order to vaporise an ionic solid we must heat
it to a temperature T such that kT 1 eV. Obviously,
T must be quite high.
(iv) They are transparent to visible radiation. A photon of
visible light will interact with a material only which it
can excite an electron from its ground state to an excited
state. Since the ionic solids all have filled shells, an
electron must be excited from one shell to the next. The
energy required for this is much larger the visiblephoton energy. So the visible photons pass right through
ionic solids.
(v) They absorb strongly in the infrared. This is because
an ion in a solid is capable of oscillation with infrared
frequencies

The Crystalline

135

(vi) They are poor conductors of electricity, because they

do not have free electrons. However, in contrast to
metals, the conductivity of ionic solids increases with
rise in temperature.
(vii) Ionic solids are usually soluble in polar liquids
like water. The water molecule has an electric
dipole moment, which exerts an attractive force on the
charged ions, breaking the ionic bonds and dissolving
the solid.
(viii) Ionic solids do not distinguish one direction in space
from another. This is because the filled shells of the ions
are spherically symmetric and so the ionic bonds are
not directional.

Covalent Crystals
In covalent crystals, one or more electrons are detached
from two adjacent atoms and are shared equally by both of
them. The simplest example of electron sharing is the H2
molecule in which two electrons are shared by the two atoms
(Fig.). As these electrons circulate, they spend more time
between the atoms (in fact between the protons) than elsewhere
and this produces an attractive force.
The two electrons are said to form a covalent bond. The
spin of the electrons in the bond are antiparallel, i.e., the electrons
form a pair.

Examples : Diamond (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), gray

tin (Sn), silicon carbide (SiC) and zinc sulphide (ZnS) are the
examples of covalent crystals.

136

Quantum Physics

The below given figure shows how the solid structure of

diamond is constructed. A central carbon atom is bound to
four close neighbours at tetrahedral angles, with each of which
it shares electrons in covalent bonds. This happens with each
carbon atom in the extended structure. Silicon and germanium
also have a diamond like structure. In SiC each atom is
surrounded by four atoms of the other kind in the same
tetrahedral structure as diamond. (Fig.).

Properties : A covalent bond is a strong bond. Cohesive

energies of 6 to 12 eV/atom are typical of covalent crystals.
As an example, the bond between two carbon atoms in diamond
has a cohesive energy of 7.3 eV with respect to separated
neutral atoms. This is comparable with the cohesive energies
(bond strengths) in many ionic crystals. As such there is no
sharp distinction between ionic and covalent crystals. In fact
there is a continuous range of crystals between the ionic and
covalent limits.
The actual properties of a given covalent crystal depends
on its bond energy. In general, covalent crystals with large
bond energies are very hard, have high melting points, and are
transparent to visible light. Those with small bond energies
may have very different properties. For example, germanium
and tin are soft (compared to diamond), melt at much lower
temperatures and are reflective to visible light.
The conductivity of covalent crystals varies over a wide
range, and increases with increasing temperature.

The Crystalline

137

In contrast to ionic crystals, the covalent crystals have

strong directional properties.

Metallic Crystals
Metallic crystals, commonly known as metals, are made up
of atoms whose valence electrons are weakly coupled to the
nucleus: In the solid state, the atoms are so close that they give
up their valence electrons which wander throughout the interior
of the metal. Thus a metal consists of Positive ion cores immersed
in a gas of free electrons. The (metallic) binding results from the
attraction between the positive metal ions and the electron gas,
which exceeds the mutual repulsion of the electrons in the gas
and of the positive ions.

Examples : Most of the elements in the first four groups

of the periodic table and the transition elements are metals. Li,
Na, Cu, Ag, Zn, Fe are some examples.
Some elements are on the borderline between metallio and
covalent crystals. Tin is an example. Above 13.2 C the metal
white tin exists, while below 13.2 C the covalent solid gray
tin exists.
Metallic crystals exist in bcc, fcc and hcp structures.

Properties : The characteristic properties of metals are their

high electrical and thermal conductivities, surface luster,
ductility and opacity.
(i) The high conductivity follows from the ability of the
free electrons to move throughout the metal, (In
contrast, the electrons in ionic and covalent crystals are
bound to particular atoms or pairs of atoms).
(ii) When light shines on a metal, the free electrons oscillate
under the electromagnetic field of the incident light and
become sources of light. This gives the metal its surface
luster.

138

Quantum Physics

(iii) Since the metallic bonds are not localised between

adjacent atoms, the atoms of a metal can be re-arranged
in position without rupturing the crystal. This explains
ductility of metals
(iv) Metallic bonds are weaker than ionic and covalent
bonds. For example, cohesive energy in sodium is 1.13
eV/atom and that in zinc 1.35 eV/atom. As a result,
metals interact strongly with photons of visible light,
and so metals are not transparent. In fact, they are
highly reflective.
(v) Because of the lower cohesive energies, metals have
relatively lower melting points. Transition metals,
however, fall in the upper limit of cohesive energy and
so they have higher melting points.
(vi) Since metallic bonds do not depend on any sharing or
exchange of electrons between specific atoms, the exact
nature of the atoms of the metal is not as important as
it is in case of ionic or covalent solids. Hence we can
make various metallic alloys by mixing different metals
in varying proportions.

Molecular or Inert-gas Crystals : Many solids, or crystals,

are composed of neutral atoms or molecules, without any
transferring, sharing or free movement of electrons which
could form ionic, covalent or metallic bonds. These solids
remain bound by much weaker, short-range attractive
forces, known as Van der Waals forces. These forces arise
as a result of fluctuations in the charge distributions of nearby
molecules.
Inert-gas solids like solid argon and many organic
symmetric-molecule solids like solid methane (CH4) are the
examples of molecular solids.
To investigate the origin of Van der Waals forces, let us
consider two identical inert-gas atoms at a separation r. The

The Crystalline

139

electronic charge distribution in each atom is spherically

symmetric on the average*. However, the electrons are in constant
motion around the nucleus. Therefore, at any instant one part
or other of the atom may have an excess of them, that is, the
atom may have an instantaneous electric dipole moment. As
shown in below given figure for two instants, an instantaneous
dipole moment of magnitude p1 on one atom produces an
electric field E of magnitude 2p1/r3 at the centre of the second
atom. This field will induce an instantaneous dipole moment
p2 = E = 2p1/r3 on the second atom, where is the polarizability
of the potential energy of the dipole moments is

U (r ) =
or

2 p1 p2

r3
C
U (r ) = 6
r

4p12

r6

where C is a constant. The mutual energy of the two atoms

arising from their (Van der Waals) interaction is thus negative,
signifying that the force between them is attractive. The force
itself is equal to dU/dr and so is proportional to r7, which
means that it drops rapidly with increasing separation. It is
this force which bonds the crystals of inert gases and also the
crystals of many organic molecules. Ordinary gases like O2, N2,
H2 form molecular solids in the solid state.

140

Quantum Physics

Properties : Van der Waals forces are much weaker than

those found in ionic and covalent bonds. This means that little
energy is required to break the bonds. Hence the molecular
crystals have low melting and boiling points and little
mechanical strength. It is easy to deform and compress them.
The absence of free electrons makes them very poor conductors
of heat and electricity.
Cohesive energies are low, only 0.08 eV/atom in solid
argon (melting point 189C) and 0.1 eV/molecule in solid
methane (melting point 183C).

Hydrogen-bonded Crystals
In certain crystals an atom of hydrogen attracts two
extremely electronegative atoms, particularly F, O and N, thus
forming a hydrogen bond between them. In the extreme
case, the hydrogen atom loses its electron to another atom in
the molecular the bare proton forms the hydrogen bond. These
bonds are stronger than Van der Waals bonds, but weaker than
ionic and covalent bonds.

H2O (ice), NH3 and HF are examples of hydrogen-bonded

crystals. Such crystals show a tendency to polymerise.

The Crystalline

141

In H2O molecule, the oxygen atom attracts all the electrons

of the molecule and becomes the negative end. The two
fibre protons form the positive ends, and each attracts the
negative oxygen of two adjacent molecules (Fig.). The
hexagonal pattern of an ice crystal arises from the tetrahedral
arrangement of the four hydrogen bonds each H2O molecule
can participate in.
The following crystals are classified according to their
bondings
Na, NaCl, diamond, KBr, Cu, Zn, Si.
Ionic : NaCl, KBr.
Covalent : Diamond, Si.
Metallic ; Na, Cu, Zn.

PROBLEM
1. The ionic cohesive energy and the atomic cohesive energy
of CsCl are found out as here. The Madelung constant for CsCl
is 1.763 and the separation between adjacent ions is 3.56 .
The non-electrostatic repulsive energy varies as rn, where
n = 10.5. The ionisation energy of Cs is 3.89 eV and the electron
affinity of Cl is 3.61 eV.
Solution: The ionic cohesive energy of CsCl is given by
U=

e2
1
4 0 r0

1
,
n

1
where 4 = 9 109 N-m2/C2.
0

Substituting the given data for CsCl,

U=

9 10

N m 2 / C 2 1.763 1.6 10 19 C
3.56 10

10

10.5

Quantum Physics

142
= 10.3 1019 J
=

10.3 10 19 J
1.6 10 19 j/ eV

= 6.45 eV.
This represents the energy needed to remove Cs+ and
Cl ions from the crystal. To form Cs+ from Cs atom requires
3.89 eV, and to form Cl from neutral Cl atom releases 3.61 eV.
Thus, given Cs+ and Cl, we supply 3.61 eV to form Cl, and
get back 3.89 eV when we form Cs. The energy needed to form
the neutral atoms from the crystal is

6.45 eV 3.61 eV + 3.89 eV = 6.17 eV.

This is the atomic cohesive energy.

Crystal Structure

143

8
Crystal Structure
Crystal structure is explored through the diffraction of
waves having a Wavelength comparable with the interatomic
spacing (1010 m) in crystals. Radiation of longer wavelength
cannot resolve the details of structure, while radiation of much
shorter wavelength is diffracted through inconveniently small
angles. Usually, diffractions of X-rays, neutrons and, less often,
electrons is employed in the study of crystal structure.
W. L. Bragg presented an explanation of the observed
diffracted beams from a crystal. He supposed that the incident
waves undergo specular (mirror-like) reflection at the various
parallel planes of atoms in the crystal, with each plane reflecting
only a small fraction of the radiation. The diffracted beams are
found only when the reflections from the various planes of atoms
interfere constructively.
In the below given figure is shown a particular set of
atomic planes in a crystal, d being the inter-planar spacing.
Suppose an X-ray beam is incident at a glancing angle . It is
scattered by the atoms like A and B in random directions.
Constructive interference takes place only between those

Quantum Physics

144

scattered waves which are reflected specularly and have a path

difference of n, where is the X-ray wavelength and n is an
integer. The path difference for the waves reflected from
adjacent planes is

CB + BD = d sin + d sin = 2d sin .

For constructive interference, we must have
2d sin = n.

n = 1, 2, 3, ......

This is Braggs law. It shows that for given values of and

d, only for certain values of (corresponding to n = l, 2, 3,......),
the reflected waves add up in phase to give a strong reflected
(diffracted) beam. The images obtained in these directions are
the first, second, third.......order diffraction images.
The Bragg law is a consequence of the periodicity of the
space lattice. The arrangement of atoms (composition of the
basis) associated with each lattice point determines the relative
intensity of the various orders n of diffraction from a given set
of parallel planes.
The maximum value of sin is 1. Therefore, Bragg reflection
can occur only for wavelengths < 2d, and d is of the order
of 1 . This is why we cannot use visible light.
The Bragg law requires that and should be so related
as to satisfy the equation 2d sin = n. X-rays of wavelength
A striking a three-dimensional crystal at any angle of incidence

Crystal Structure

145

will, in general, not be reflected. To satisfy the Bragg law in

experiment, either or is varied.
There are four experimental methods of diffraction used
in crystal structure analysis : (i) Bragg method, (ii) Laue method,
(iii) rotating crystal method and (iv) Powder method.

Investigation of Crystal Structure by Braggs Method

The Braggs method of studying the crystal structure
consists in finding out the interplanar spacings, dhkl, of the
various sets of planes rich in atoms. From a knowledge of dhkl,
and from the relative intensities of reflection for different orders,
the crystal structure can be deduced.
The experimental arrangement required is a Braggs X-ray
spectrometer (Fig.). The crystal C under investigation is
mounted on the spectrometer table so that its (100) face is on
the axis of rotation. The position of the table can be read on
a circular scale provided with a vernier V 1 . A strong,
monochromatic X-ray beam is first passed through two fine slits
S1 and S2 and then made to fall on the crystal face. The reflected
beam after passing through the silt S3 enters an ionisation
chamber D mounted on an arm which can be rotated about
the same axis as the crystal. Its position can be read by a second
vernier V2. The gas in the chamber is ionised by the X-rays.
The resulting ionising current, measured by the electrometer E,
is a measure of the intensity of X-rays reflected by the crystal.

146

Quantum Physics

The crystal is rotated through small angles (while the arm

carrying the ionisation chamber is rotated through double the
angles) and the ionisation current is measured each time. The
current is plotted against the glancing angle . The curve so
obtained shows a number of peaks which correspond to those
glancing angles which satisfy the Braggs equation 2d100 sin
= n (Fig.). The different peaks correspond to different orders
(n = 1, 2, 3,...). Hence the corresponding glancing angles can
be directly read from the curve. Now, the (110) face and the
(111) face of the crystal are presented turn by turn to the
incident beam of X-rays and the same procedure is gone
through. Since today the absolute wavelength of a given
X-radiation is known from measurements with ruled gradings,
the interplanar spacings d100, d110 and d111 can be determined
from the Braggs equation. If, however, the X-ray wavelength
is not known, the ratios of the interplanar spacings can be
determined.

Crystal Structure

147

Suppose for a particular crystal used on a Braggs

spectrometer, strong reflections from the sets of planes (100);
(110); (111) are obtained for angles 1, 2, 3 respectively in the
first (n = 1) order. Then, from Braggs equation, we have
2 d100 sin 1 = ,
2d110 sin 2 = ,
and
Hence

2d110 sin 3 = .

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1/sin 1 : 1/sin 2 : 1/sin 3.

Bragg found that for a KCl crystal ; 1 = 523' ; 2 = 737'

and 3 = 925'. Hence for KCl

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1/sin 523' : 1/sin 737' : 1/sin 925'

= 1/0.0938 : 1/0.1326 : 1/0.1636
= 1/1 : 1/1.414 : 1/1.744
= 1 : 1/ 2 : 1/ 3 .
Theoretically, this ratio is found to hold for a simple cubic
lattice structure. Hence it is concluded that the KCl crystal has a
simple cubic structure. However, from these data we cannot know
the constituents are the lattice corners, whether they are molecules of KCl or atoms (or ions) of K and Cl alternately. This can
be decided from a study of other similar crystals such as NaCl.
When the first order reflections from the three faces (100),
(110) and (111) of NaCl are compared, the ratios between the
interplanar spacings are found as :

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 : 1/ 2 : 2/ 3 .

which agree with the theoretical values for a faced-centered
cubic lattice. From this we conclude that the NaCl crystal has
fee lattice (whereas KCl had shown a simple cubic structure).
There is no reason why should there be a difference in the
lattice structures of KCl and NaCI. The observed dissimilarity
can be explained if we compare the curves of the two crystals.
The curves for the (100) and (110) planes of the two crystals

148

Quantum Physics

are similar in the sense that the intensity falls off continuously
as we go to higher orders of reflection. However, the curves for
the (111) planes of the two crystals differ. In case of NaCI (111)
the second order is stronger than the first order and similarly,
as Bragg found, the fourth order is stronger than the third. Such
an alternation of intensity in the reflection from the (111) planes
is observed in all alkali halides with the exception of KCl.
Bragg showed that the only way of explaining the intensity
alternation is to assume that the lattice points of the cubic structure
are occupied by single ions and not by molecules, and the ions of
the two kinds (Na+ and Cl or K+ and Cl) occur alternately,
as shown in the figure below. Now it can be seen that the (100)
and (110) planes contain equal number of ions of both the
kinds. But the (111) planes contain, alternately, all Na+ (or K+)
ions and all Cl ions. That is, the Na+ (or K+) planes occur
exactly half-way between Cl planes. When the glancing angle
is correct for the first order reflection from the Na+ (or K+)
planes and also from the Cl planes, the rays reflected from
a Na+ (or K+) plane are exactly out of phase with those reflected
from the adjacent Cl plane thus causing destructive
interference. Therefore, the first order reflection is weakened.
For the second order reflection there will be reinforcement
between all the reflected rays as seen by substituting in Braggs
equation. In general, for reflection at the (111) face the odd
orders will be weaker compared with the even orders i.e. there
will be an intensity alternation.

Crystal Structure

149

The fact that the intensity alternation is observed in case

of NaCl (and other alkali halides) but not in KCl is readily
explained when we realise that the reflecting (or scattering)
powers of different ionic planes in a crystal are different. In
fact, the reflecting power of an atom or ion is proportional to
the number of electrons in it i.e. to the atomic number Z.
Therefore, the Na+ ions (Z = 10) and Cl ions (Z = 18) have quite
different reflecting powers so that the rays reflected from the
Na+ and Cl planes appreciably differ in intensity and hence
the destruction of the odd orders is not complete. That is, in
NaCl the odd orders become only weaker but are still present. On
the other hand, the K+ ions (Z = 18) and Cl ions (Z = 18) have
equal reflecting powers so that the rays reflected from the K+
and Cl planes have equal intensities and the destruction of the
odd orders is complete. That is, in case of KCl crystal, the odd
orders are entirely missing and the intensity alternation is not
observed. Thus in KCl (111) the first observed peak (Fig.), in
fact, corresponds to the second order reflection (and not to the
first order). When this correction is made, we get the same
interplanar spacing ratios for KCl as for NaCl i.e.

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 : 1/ 2 : 2/ 3 .

which correspond to an fcc lattice. The Na+ (or K+) ions alone
form an fcc lattice, and so do the Cl ions. If the reflecting
powers of the two kinds of ions are the same, the distinction
between them disappears and the structure reduces to a simple
cubic lattice as was first found in case of KCl.
Once the arrangement of atoms (or ions) in the, cubic
crystal has been decided, we can calculate the absolute value
of interplanar spacing.

Laue Method
In Laues method, a single crystal is held stationary in a
continuous X-ray beam. The crystal diffracts the discrete values

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Quantum Physics

of for which the crystal planes of spacing d and the incidence

angle satisfy the Braggs law.
The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. (a). A
continuous ( 0.2 to 2 ) X-ray beam, well-collimated by a
pinhole arrangement, is allowed to fall on the crystal. The
crystal holder is adjusted to obtain proper orientation of the
crystal. A flat film A is placed to receive the transmitteddiffracted beams (or a flat film B to receive the reflecteddiffracted beams). The diffraction pattern is a regular one,
consisting of a series of spots and is characteristic of crystal
structure. It is called the Laue pattern (Fig b).

Each spot in the Laue pattern corresponds to an interference

maximum for a set of crystal planes satisfying the Bragg
equation 2d sin = n for a particular wavelength selected
from the (continuous) incident beam. The atomic arrangement
in the crystal can, therefore, be deduced from a study of the
positions and intensities of the Laue spots.
The distribution of spots in the Laue pattern depends on
the symmetry of the crystal and its orientation with respect to
the X-ray beam. For example, if a crystal with four-fold axial
symmetry is oriented with the axis parallel to the beam,
then, the Laue pattern will show the four-fold symmetry,
as in Fig. b. The Laue method is convenient for the rapid
determination of crystal orientation and symmetry which is
needed for solid state experiments. It is also used to study
crystalline imperfections under mechanical and thermal

Crystal Structure

151

treatment. The method is, however, not used for actual crystal
structure determination. This is because it is possible for several
wavelengths to reflect in different orders from the same plane,
so that different orders may superpose on a single spot. This
would make the analysis difficult.

Rotating Crystal Method

In this method, a single crystal is rotated about a fixed axis
in a monochromatic beam of X-rays (or neutrons). The variation
in the angle presents different atomic planes of the crystal
to the X-ray beam for reflection.
A simple experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. below.
The crystal under investigation is mounted on a rotating spindle,
and the film is wrapped on a cylindrical surface coaxial with
the spindle. The incident X-ray beam, made monochromatic by
a filter or by reflection from an earlier crystal, is diffracted from
a given crystal plane whenever in the course of rotation the
value of 6 satisfies the Bragg equation. The beams reflected
from all planes parallel to the (vertical) axis of rotation lie in
the horizontal plane, while those from planes with other
orientations lie above and below the horizontal plane.

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Quantum Physics

Modern rotating-crystal diffractometers use scintillation

counters or proportional counters to detect the diffraction
radiation. They automatically collect all the data regarding
crystal structure.

Crystal Analysis by Powder Method

It is a more straight forward method for the analysis of
crystal structure, developed independently by Debye and
Scherrer in Germany and by Hull in America in 1916. In this
method, the specimen, instead of being a single crystal, is a
finely-powdered crystal.
The minute crystals, called crystallites, of this powder are
all randomly (almost continuously) oriented so that they make
all possible angles with the incident radiation. Thus all orders
of reflection from all possible atomic planes are recorded at the
same time.
The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. below. A
fine beam of monochromatic X-rays is allowed to fall on a thinwalled capillary tube P containing the powdered crystal.
Diffracted rays go out from individual crystallites which
happens to be oriented so that a particular family of atomic
planes in them make such an angle with the incident beam
that the Bragg relation 2d sin = n is satisfied. All such
diffracted rays will lie on a conical surface having its apex at
P and semi-vertical angle 2. If a photographic film be kept in
the form of a cylinder with its axis perpendicular to the incident
beam, one obtains arcs of circles (Fig.).
These arcs are the intersections of cones with the cylinder
(film). The central spot is due to the direct beam. Different arcs
on one side of the central spot correspond to different atomic
planes. From these arcs one can calculate the Bragg angles
for the various atomic planes. If the wavelength X is known,
one can obtain the interplanar spacings d which lead to the
crystal structure.

Crystal Structure

153

Reciprocal Lattice
In a crystal lattice there exist many sets of planes, with
different orientations and spacings, which can cause diffraction.
If we draw, from a common origin, normals to all sets of
planes, the length of each normal being proportional to the
reciprocal of the interplanar spacing of the corresponding set,
then the end-points of the normals form a lattice which is
called the reciprocal lattice.
Each point in the reciprocal lattice preserves the
characteristics of the set of planes which it represents. Its
direction with respect to the origin represents the orientation,
of the planes, and its distance from the origin represents the
interplanar spacing of the planes.

Reciprocal Lattice Vectors : If a, b, c are the translation
vectors of a (direct) crystal lattice, then the translation vectors

A, B, C of the reciprocal lattice are defined by

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154
r

bc
A 2 r r r
a.b c
r r
r
c a
B 2 r r r
a.b c
r

... (i)

r
r
a b
C 2 r r r
a.b c
r

The common denominator* in each case, a. b c , is the

volume of the direct crystal lattice. Thus a, b, c have the

dimensions of length, and A, B, C those of [length]1. From the

defining eq. (i), A, B, C the axes vectors of the reciprocal lattice,
have the following properties :



A . a 2 B . a 0,
C . a 0,

A . b 0, B . b 2 , C . b 0,
... (ii)



A . c 0, B . c 0,
C . c 2 .

Any arbitrary set of vectors a, b, c of a given crystal lattice
leads to the same set of reciprocal lattice points

... (iii)
G = hA kB lC ,

where h, k, l are integers. Any vector G of this form is called

a reciprocal lattice vector. It connects any two points of the
reciprocal lattice.

The (direct), crystal lattice is a lattice in real or ordinary

space ; the reciprocal lattice is a lattice in the so-called Fourier
space.

The reciprocal lattice vector G and the (direct) crystal

lattice vector T ua vb wc have the following relationship:

G.T =

hA kB lC . ua vb wc

= 2 (hu + kv + lw)
= 2N,

[from eq. (ii)]

Crystal Structure

155

where N is an integer. The quantity hu + kv + lw, being the sum

of products of integers, is an integer. It follows that

eiG . T = 1

ei 2N = 1

because

Properties of Reciprocal Lattice : Every crystal structure

has two lattices associated with it, the (direct) crystal lattice
and the reciprocal lattice. The reciprocal lattice have the
following properties with respect to the crystal lattice :
(i) Every vector of the reciprocal lattice is normal to a set of
lattice planes of the crystal lattice.
Proof. A vector
r
G hkl =

hA kB lC

will be normal to a plane through the three points ua, vb, wc

of the crystal lattice if G is normal to any vector lying in that

plane. The vectors ua vb, ua wc and vb wc lie in the plane,

and so we must have

or

hA kB lC . ua vb = 2 (hu kv) = 0
hu = kv.

or
Similarly, we must have

hu = lw,
kv = lw,

and
These are satisfied, if

u=

,v=

,w=

But the Miller indices of the crystal; plane through the

points ua, vb, wc are the (h k l) of the last expression. Hence

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Quantum Physics

the vector G (hkl) of the reciprocal lattice is normal to the plane

(hkl) of the crystal lattice.
(ii) The magnitude of every reciprocal lattice vector is inversely
proportional to the interplanar spacing of the corresponding
set of lattice planes.

Proof : Let r be any vector from the origin of the crystal

lattice to a plane (hkl). Then the equation of the plane is*

r . G hkl = d(h k l)
where G (hkl) is the unit vector normal to the plane (hkl).

Let us consider one particular r , say r = a /h. Then

a

. hA kB lC
=
r . G hkl
h
1
2h = 2
=
h

G GG
or
.
r . G hkl =
G hkl

Comparing it with the top expression, we get

2

G hkl

= d(hkl)

G (hkl)

.
d hkl
(iii) The volume of a unit cell of the reciprocal lattice is inversely
proportional to the volume of a unit cell of the crystal lattice.

The reciprocal lattice cell is described by A, B and C . Its
volume would be
or

A.B C =

2 3

b c . a c . a b

a . b c

b c c a a b
.
2
a.b c
a.b c

Crystal Structure

157

b c . a a . b c

a . b c

2

a.b c

where a . b c is the volume of the unit cell of the crystal

lattice.

Importance : A diffraction pattern of a crystal is a map of

the reciprocal lattice of the crystal. The Braggs diffraction law
can be expressed in a simple way in terms of the reciprocal

lattice vector G as

2k . G G2 = 0

where k is the wave vector of the incident wave. This equation

is very important in wave propagation and elastic scattering
in crystal lattices. A similar result arises in the theory of the
electron energy band structure of crystals. Thus the conception
of reciprocal lattice is very important in the study of lattice
dynamics of solids.

Brillouin Zones : A Brillouin zone is defined as a Wigner-Seitz

cell in the reciprocal lattice. The sets of planes which are the
perpendicular bisectors of the reciprocal lattice. Vectors are
important in crystals, because a wave whose wave-vector drawn
from the origin terminates on any of these planes satisfies
Braggs diffraction condition. These planes divide the Fourier
space of the crystal into pieces. The central cell formed in this
way in the reciprocal lattice is called the first Brillouin zone,
and is of special importance in the theory of solids. The first
Brillouin zone is thus the smallest volume entirely enclosed by planes
which are the perpendicular bisectors of the reciprocal lattice vectors
drawn from the origin.

Quantum Physics

158

The first Brillouin zone of an oblique lattice in two dimensions is constructed in Fig. below. We first draw an adequate
number of vectors from O to nearby points in the reciprocal
lattice. Next we draw lines perpendicular to these vectors at
their midpoints. The smallest enclosed area is the first Brillouin
zone. Any wave whose wave vector drawn from the origin
terminates on the boundary of the zone will be diffracted by
the crystal.

Brillouin zones are an essential part of the analysis of the

electronic energy-band structure of crystals.

Reciprocal Lattice to Simple Cubic (sc) Lattice : The

translation vectors of a simple cubic lattice (a = b = c) may be
written as

a = ai, b = aj, c = ak.

The volume of the unit cell is a . b c = a3.
The translation vectors of the reciprocal lattice are found
from the defining relations :

$j k$ $i

$j k$ $i

k$ $i $j

k$ $i $j

$i $j k$

$i $j k$

Crystal Structure

159

Thus the reciprocal lattice is itself a simple cubic lattice,

now of lattice constant 2/a.
The boundaries of the first Brillouin zone are the planes

normal to the six reciprocal lattice vectors A , B and C

at their mid-points.
1
A
2
1
B
2
1
C
2

i
a

j
a

k.
a

The six planes represented by these equations bound a

cube of edge 2/a and of volume (2/a)3. This cube is the
first Brillouin zone of the simple cubic crystal lattice.

PROBLEMS
1. The glancing angle of the (110) plane of a simple cubic
crystal (a = 2.814 ) corresponding to second-order diffraction
maximum for the X-rays of wavelength 0.710 is calculated
as follows.
Solution : The distance between successive lattice planes
defined by Miller indices h, k, l in a simple cubic lattice is given
by
dhkl =

k2 l 2

Here a = 2.814 , h = 1, k = l, l = 0.

d110 =

2.814 A
2

= 1.990

The Braggs equation for X-ray diffraction is

2 d110 sin = n.

Quantum Physics

160
This gives
sin =

n
2d110

Here n (order) = 2, = 0.710

d110 =

and

sin =

1.990 .
2 0.710
= 0.357
2 1.990

= sin1 (0.357) = 21

or

2. The K line from the anticathode of an X-ray tube ...

reflected in first order at an angle of 6 by a crystal of NaCl
mounted on a Bragg spectrometer. In X. U. the wavelength of
K radiation is calculated. Density of NaCl = 2170 kg/m3,
molecular weight of NaCl = 58.46 and Avogadro number
N = 6.02 l026/kg-molecule.
Solution : The interplanar spacing d of the crystal, in terms
of molecular weight M and density , is given by
1

d=

M 3

2 N

(See prob. 7 last chapter)

Putting the given values :

1

d=

3
58.46 kg / kg - molecule

2 6.02 10 26 / kg - molecule 2170 kg / m3

= [22.37 1030 m3]1/3

= 2.818 l010m.
The Braggs equation for specular reflection is
2d sin = n.
Here = 6 and n (order) = l.

Crystal Structure

161

= 2d sin = 2 (2.818 1010 m) sin 6

= 2 (2.818 1010 m) 0.1045
= 0.5890 l010m
= 589.0 1013 m
= 589.0 X.U.

(1 X.U. = 1013 m)

3. Electrons are accelerated to 344 volts and are reflected

from a crystal. The first reflection maximum occurs when
glancing angle is 60. The interplanar spacing of the crystal
is determined. Given: h = 6.62 1034 joule-sec, e = l.6 10-19
coulomb and electron mass m = 9.l 1031 kg.
Solution : The wavelength associated with an electron
of mass m moving with (non-relativistic) velocity v is given by
=

h
.
mv

If K be the kinetic energy of the electron, then

K = mv2 = eV,
where V is the accelerating voltage. From this

v =
and so

2 eV

2meV

Substituting the given values :

=

2 9.1 10

6.62 10 34 joule - sec

-31

kg 1.6 10 19 coulomb 344 volt

= 0.66 1010 meter = 0.66 .

Now, Braggs equation for reflection is
2d sin = n.

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162

For the first reflection, n = l and = 60.

2d sin 60 = = 0.66 .

0.66 A
2 sin 60

d=

or

0.66 A
= 0.38
2 0.866

4. The angle of first order diffraction maximum when

thermal neutrons (kinetic energy = 0.02 eV) undergo diffraction
from a crystal plane (100) is calculated. The Braggs spacing
of the crystal is 2.0 .
The mass of neutron is 1.00898 amu and h = 6.62 1034
joule-sec. Given : 1 eV = 1.6 1019 joule and 1 amu = l.66
1027 kg.
Solution : The de Broglie wavelength of neutron, in usual
notations, is
=

h
mv

If K be the kinetic energy, then

K=
and so =

1
mv2
2

2mK

Substituting the given values :

=

6.62 10 34 joule - sec

2 1.00898 1.66 10

= 20 1010m = 2.0 .

-27

kg 0.02 1.6 10 19 joule

Crystal Structure

163

The Braggs equation for crystal diffraction is

2d sin = n.

d = 2.0 ,

Here

n(order) = l
= 2.0 .

and

sin =
=

n
2d

1 2.0 A

= 0.5

2 2.0 A

= sin1 (0.5) = 30.

or

5. A two-dimensional lattice has the basis vectors a = 2 i ,

r

b = i + 2 j . The basis vectors of the reciprocal lattice is found

as follows.

Solution : Suppose the third vector c is parallel to the

z-axis. Let c = k .

The vectors of the reciprocal lattice are

bc
A = 2
a.b c

ca
B = 2 .
a.b c
Now,

j k
b c = i 2

= i k 2
j k (vector product is distributive)
=

ca =

j 2i,

k 2i = 2
j,

(rule of vector product)

Quantum Physics

164

and

a.b c =

ax
bx
cx

ay az
by bz
cy cz

2 0 0
= 1 2 0 = 4.
0 0 1
Making these substitutions, we get

1
j ; B =
j
2

The crystal lattice vectors a, b ; and the reciprocal lattice

vectors A, B have been sketched in the Fig. A and B are

perpendicular to sets ofplanes in the crystal lattice, namely,

to the lines parallel to b and a respectively.

A = i

Space Lattice

165

9
Space Lattice
Space Lattice in Crystal Structure : A crystal (such as rocksalt, quartz, calcite, diamond, mica, etc.) is a solid composed
of geometrically-regular arrangement of atoms (or ions or
molecules) in space. When struck into pieces, all pieces have
the same shape with same angles between corresponding faces.
These angles are characteristic of the given crystal.
Bravais assumed that a crystal is made up of a threedimensional array of points such that each point is surrounded
by the neighbouring points in an identical way. Such an array
of points is known as Bravais lattice or space lattice. Thus,
a lattice is a regular arrangement of points extended repeatedly in
space.

Translation Vectors
Mathematically, a lattice is expressed in terms of three

translation vectors a, b, c such that the atomic arrangement

looks exactly identical when viewed from points r and r

(Fig.), where
r

r = rr uar vb wcr .

Quantum Physics

166

u, v, w are arbitrary integers.

Basis : In the simplest crystals (such as copper, silver,

sodium, etc) there is a single atom (or ion) at each lattice point.
More often, however, there is a group of several atoms (or
ions) attach lattice point. This group is called the basis. Each
basis is identical in composition, arrangement and orientation
with any other basis.
The crystal structure is formed when a basis of atoms is
attached identically to each lattice point, as shown in Fig.

Obviously, the logical relation is

lattice + basis = crystal structure.
There is consequently a distinction between the structure
of a crystal, which is the actual ordering in space of its
constituent atoms, and the corresponding crystal lattice, which
is a geometrical abstraction useful for classifying the crystal.

The translation vectors a, b, c of the lattice define the crystal
axes.

Space Lattice

167

A lattice translation operation is defined as the

displacement of a crystal parallel to itself by a crystal translation
vector
r

r
r
T = ua vb wc

where the vector T connects any two lattice points (Fig.).

Unit Cell : The parallelepiped formed by the translation

vectors a, b, c as edges is called a unit cell of the space lattice.

The angles between b, c , c , a and a, b are denoted by ,

and respectively (Fig.).

Fig. shows part of a space lattice. It is possible to isolate

a unit cell, and the space lattice can be constructed by repeatedly
translating the unit cell along its edges.

Seven Crystal Systems

There are seven types of crystals depending upon their
axial ratios (a : b : c) and angles between them (, , ). Bravais
showed that they can give rise to 14 types of space lattices.
These crystals and the corresponding Bravais lattices with
their characteristic features are as below :

Cubic Crystals : In cubic crystals, the crystal axes are

perpendicular to one another ( = = = 90) and the repetitive
interval is the same along the three axes (a = b = c). Cubic

168

Quantum Physics

lattices may be simple, body-centered or face-centered as shown

in below Fig.

In the simple cubic lattice, the lattice points are situated

only at the corners of the unit cell (Fig a). In the body-centered
lattice the lattice points are situated at the corners and also at
the intersection of the body diagonals of the unit cell (Fig. b).
In the face-centered lattice, the lattice points lie at the corners
as well as at the centers of all the six faces of the unit cell
(Fig. c). CsCl and NaCl are examples of body-centered and
face-centered cubic lattices respectively.

Tetragonal Crystals : The crystal axes are perpendicular

Solid State Physics and Devices to one another ( = = =90).
The repetitive intervals along two axes are the same, but the
interval along the third axis is different (a = b c). Tetragonal
lattices may be simple or body-centered.
Orthorhombic Crystals : The crystal axes are perpendicular
to one another ( = = = 90), but the repetitive intervals
are different along all three axes (a b c). Orthorhombic
crystals may be simple, base-centered, body-centered, or facecentered.

Space Lattice

169

Monoclinic Crystals:Two of the crystal axes are not

perpendicular to each other, but the third is perpendicular to
both of them ( = = 90 ). The repetitive intervals are
different along all three axes (a b c). Monoclinic lattices may
be simple or base-centered (Fig.).

Triclinic Crystals : None of the crystal axes is perpendicular

to any of the others ( ), and the repetitive intervals are
different along all three axes (a b c). The triclinic lattice is
only simple.
Trigonal (or Rhombohedral) Crystals : The angles between
each pair of crystal axes are the same but different from 90
( = = 90). The repetitive interval is the same along all
three axes (a = b = c). The trigonal lattice is only simple (Fig.).
Hexagonal Crystals : Two of the crystal axes are 60 apart
while the third is perpendicular to both of them ( = = 90,
=120). The repetitive intervals are the same along the two
60-apart axes, but the interval along the third is different
(a = b c). The hexagonal lattice is only simple (Fig.).

Quantum Physics

170

The above description can be tabulated as below :

Crystal class Intercepts

Angles between
on Axes

Types of Bravias
Axes space lattices

Cubic

a=b=c

= = = 90

simple, body-centered, facecentered

Tetragonal

a=bc

= = = 90

simple, body-centered

Orthorhombic a b c

= = = 90

simple, base-centered, bodycentered, face centered

Monoclinic

abc

= = 90

simple, base-centered

Triclinic

abc

simple

Trigonal

a = b =c

= = 90

simple

Hexagonal

a=bc

= = 90, = 120

simple

Cubic Crystal Lattices : The type of crystal lattice that is

equivalent in all directions in space is the cubic lattice
(a = b = c; = = = 90). There are three types of cubic lattices
; simple, body-centered and face-centered. Let us consider
them in detail:
Simple Cubic (sc) Lattice : In this space lattice, the lattice
points are situated only at the corners of the unit cells
constituting the three-dimensional structure (Fig.). Each cell
has eight corners, and eight cells meet at each corner. Thus
only one-eight of a lattice point belongs to each cell. That is,
there is only 1 lattice point (or 1 atom) per unit cell. A unit cell
containing only 1 lattice point is called a primitive cell. Since
the simple cubic lattice is built of primitive cells, it is also
known as cubic P lattice.

Space Lattice

171

Coordination Number : The coordination number is defined as

the number of nearest neighbours around any lattice point (or atom)
in the crystal lattice. Let us compute it for the simple cubic lattice
(Fig. ).
Taking any one of the lattice points as origin, and the three
edges passing through that point as x, y and z axes, the positions
of the nearest neighbours of the origin are
ai, aj, ak

where i , $j , k are unit vectors along the x, y, z axis respectively.

The coordinates of these points (or atoms) nearest the origin
are
( a, 0, 0) ; (0, a, 0) ; (0, 0, a).
Their number is obviously 6. Hence the coordination number
of a simple cubic lattice is 6. The distance between two nearest
neighbours is a, which is the lattice constant (length of each
edge of the unit cell).

Body-centered Cubic (bcc) Lattice : In this lattice, the lattice

points (or atoms) are situated at each corner of the unit cell
and also at the Intersection of the body diagonals of the cell
(Fig.). This lattice is also known as cubic I lattice.

Quantum Physics

172

Each cell has 8 corners and 8 cells meet at each corner. Thus
only 1/8th of a lattice point (or atom) at a corner belongs to
any one cell. Also there is a lattice point (or atom) at the body
centre of each cell. Thus the total number of lattice points in
1
any one cell is 8 + 1=2, that is, a bcc lattice has 2 lattice
8

points (or atoms) per unit cell.

To compute the coordination number, let us take the lattice

point at the body centre as the origin; the x, y, z axes being
parallel to the edges of the unit cell. The positions of the nearest
neighbours of the origin are
a a a
i , j , k
2
2
2

The coordinates of these points (or atoms) nearest the

origin are
a a a a a
, , ; , ,
2 2 2 2 2
a a
, ,
2 2

a a

a a
; , , ;
2 2
2 2

a a

a a
; , , ;

2
2
2 2

a a
a
a
a a
, , ; , , ;
2 2
2 2
2
2
a
a
, ,
2
2

.
2

Their number is obviously 8. Hence the coordination number

of a bcc lattice is 8.
The distance between any two nearest neighbours is
a 2 a 2 a 2
=
2
2
2

3
a
2

Space Lattice

173

A typical bcc structure is CsCl, and so the bcc lattice is

often known as the CsCl structure. In this structure each ion
is surrounded by 8 neighbours of the opposite charge (Fig.).

Face-centered Cubic (fcc) Lattice : In this lattice, the lattice

points (or atoms) are situated at all the eight corners of the unit
cell and also at the centers of all the six faces of the cell. This
lattice is also known as cubic F lattice.
Each unit cell has 8 corners and 8 cells meet at each corner.
Thus only 1/8th of a lattice point (or atom) at a corner belongs
to any one cell. Similarly, a lattice point at the center of a face
of the cell is shared by 2 cells, that is, only of lattice point
belongs to any one cell. Since a cell has 8 corners and 6 faces,
the total number of lattice points belonging to any one cell is
1
1

8 6 = 4, that is, an fcc lattice has 4 lattice points (or

8
2

atoms) per unit cell.

Quantum Physics

174

To compute the coordination number, let us take any of

the lattice points as the origin ; the x, y, z axes being parallel
to the edges of the unit cell. The positions of the nearest
neighbours of the origin are
a a a a a a
i j , j k, k i
2
2
2
2
2
2
The coordinates of these points (or atoms) are

a
a a a a a
, , 0 ; , , 0 ; , , 0 ;
2 2 2 2 2
2
a a a
a a
a
, , 0 ; 0, , ; 0, , ;
2
2
2 2
2 2
a
a
a a
a
a
0, , ; 0 , , ; , 0 , ;
2
2
2
2 2
2
a
, 0,
2

a a

a a
; , 0, ; , 0,

2
2
2 2

.
2

There number is obviously 12. Hence the coordination number

of an fcc lattice is 12.
The distance between two nearest neighbours is
a 2 a 2
2
0 =
2

1
2

a.

This lattice gives a very efficient packing (more atoms per

unit volume) and so it is usually the most stable structure. The
most familiar fcc lattice is NaCl, and so the fcc lattice is often
called NaCl structure.
The characteristics of the three cubic lattices may be
tabulated as below :
Simple Body-centered Face-centered
Volume of unit cell
Lattice points per cell
Number of nearest neighbours

a3
1
6

a3
2
8

Nearest-neighbour distance

3
a
2

a3
4
12

1
2

Space Lattice

175

NaCl Structure : The NaCl crystal is a system of Na+ and

Cl ions arranged alternately in a cubic pattern in space so
that the electrostatic attraction between the nearest neighbours
is maximum. Each ion lies on three rows of equally-spaced ions
at right angles to one another.
In Fig. is shown a unit cell of NaCl lattice. The Na+ ions
are situated at the corners as well as at the centres of the faces
of the cube, that is, Na+ ions lie on a fcc lattice. So do the Cl
ions, their lattice being relatively displaced half the edge of the
unit cell along each axis. Thus NaCl crystal can be thought of
as composed of interleaved fcc Na+ and Cl sublattices.
Each cell has 8 corners and 8 cells meet at each corner. Thus
1
an ion at a corner of the cell is shared by 8 cells, i.e., only
8
ion belongs to any one cell. Similarly, an ion at the centre of
a face of the cell is shared by 2 cells, i.e. only ion belongs
to any one cell. Since a cell has 8 corners and 6 faces, it has
1
1

8 6 = 4 ions of one kind, and similarly 4 ions of

8
2

the other kind. Thus there are 4 Na+ Cl ion pairs per unit cell.
Each Na+ ion has 6 Cl ions as nearest neighbours, and
similarly each Cl ion has 6 Na+ ions. Hence the coordination
number of NaCl is 6, the same as that for simple cubic lattice.
Since a given Na+ ion is attracted by 6 nearest Cl
neighbours, and does not belong to any single Cl ion, the
NaCl crystal cannot be thought of as being composed of
molecules.

Unit Cell and Lattice Constant of a Space Lattice : A unit

cell is a parallelopiped isolated from a space lattice, having its
edges along the translation vectors. The space lattice can be
constructed by repeatedly translating the unit cell along its
edges.

Quantum Physics

176

The lattice constant of a cubic lattice is the dimension of

its unit cell. In the figure above, the lattice constant is a.
Let us consider a cubic crystal lattice of lattice constant a.
The volume of the unit cell is a3. If be the density of the cell,
then
m
...(i)
=
a3
where m is the mass per unit cell.
Let n be the number of molecules per unit cell. The mass
of one molecule is M/N, where M is the molecular weight of
the crystal and N is Avogadros number. Then, the mass per
unit cell is
M
m= n
N
Substituting this value of m in eq. (i), we get
=

nM
Na3

a=

nM 3

.
N

or

From this relation the value of the lattice constant can be

calculated.

Space Lattice

177

Lattice Planes of a Crystal : A crystal lattice may be

considered as an aggregate of a set of parallel, equally-spaced
planes passing through the lattice points. The planes are called
lattice planes, and the perpendicular distance between adjacent
planes is called interplanar spacing.
A given space lattice may have an infinite sets of lattice
planes, each having its characteristic interplanar spacing. In
below given figure are shown three sets of lattice planes with
interplanar spacings d1, d2 and d3. Each set accommodates all
the lattice points. Out of these, only those which have high
density of lattice points are significant and show diffraction of
X-rays. They are known as Bragg planes or Cleavage planes.
When a crystal is struck, it breaks most easily across its
cleanvage planes.

Position and Orientation of Lattice Planes in a Crystal

Miller Indices : The position and orientation of a lattice plane in
a crystal are determined by three smallest whole numbers which have
same ratios with one another as the reciprocals of the intercepts of
the plane on the three crystal axes. These numbers, denoted by
h, k, l, are known as the Miller indices of that plane or of any
plane parallel to it); and the plane is specified as (hkl).
Let OX, OY, OZ be three axes parallel to the crystal axes
the planes XOY, XOZ and ZOY are parallel to the faces of the
crystal. Besides these, other possible cleavage planes also exist.

Quantum Physics

178

Let ABC be a standard plane cutting all the three axes at A,

B and C with intercepts OA, OB and OC = a, b and c respectively,

where a, b and c are the translation vectors of the crystal
lattice.
The directions of the other faces of the crystal are governed
by the law of rational indices. This law states that a face which
is parallel to a plane whose intercepts on the three axes are m1a, m2b
and m3c where m1, m2 and m3 are small whole numbers, is a possible
face of the crystal. Thus, if ABC be a possible crystal face, then

OA : OB : OC = m1a : m2b : m3c

a
b
c
= mm :mm :mm
2 3
1 3
1 2
a b c
: :
=
h k l
where h (= m2 m3), k ( = m1m3) and l(= m1m2) are again small
whole numbers. The numbers h, k, l are the Miller indices of
the plane ABC with respect to the standard plane. The Miller
indices of the standard plane are always (111). If a plane cuts
an axis on the negative side of the origin, the corresponding
index is negative, indicated by placing a minus sign above the
index, as (h, k , l).

Space Lattice

179

As an example, suppose a plane cuts the X-axis at 2a, the

Y-axis at 3b and the Z-axis at 4c. Then, from the law of rational
indices, we have
2a : 3b : 4c =

a b c
: :
h k l

h:k:l=

1 1 1
: :
2 3 4

or

The smallest whole numbers which have same ratios as the

reciprocals

1 1
1
,
and
are 6 : 4 : 3. Hence the miller indices
2 3
4

of the plane are h = 6, k = 4 and l= 3; or the plane is (643).

Directional Indices : The indices of a direction in a crystal

are the set of the smallest integers which have the same ratios
as the components of a vector in the desired direction, referred
to the axes. The directional indices (integers) are written as
[uvw]. Thus the X-axis is the [100] direction, the Y-axis is the

010

direction, and so on.

In cubic crystals, the normal to a plane (hkl) is the direction

[hkl].

Sketching of Lattice Planes in a Cubic Crystal : Let us

consider a simple cubic lattice plane ( = = = 90 and
a = b = c) The axes OX, OY, OZ form a right-angled set . The
face ABFE in Fig (a), or any plane parallel to it, has an intercept
on X-axis, but it is parallel to the Y and Z-axis i.e. the intercepts
on the Y and Z-axis are each infinity.
If the intercept on the X-axis is taken as 1, then the miller
indices are the reciprocals of 1, , , i.e., 1, 0, 0; and the plane
is (100). The plane parallel to ABFE but intercepting the X-axis

on the negative side of the origin is 100 .

Quantum Physics

180

Similarly a plane parallel to BCGF is a (010) plane (Fig. b)

and the one parallel to DEFG is a (001) plane (Fig. c).
The diagonal plane ACGE (Fig. d) has equal intercepts of
1 on X and Y axes and is parallel to the Z-axis. It is therefore
a (110) plane.
The plane ACD (Fig. e) makes equal intercepts on the three
axes and so its miller indices are 1, 1, 1 and so it is a (111) plane.

Interplanar Spacing : The separation between successive

lattice planes of cubic, tetragonal and orthorhombic crystals,
for which = = = 90, can be deduced as follows.
Let OX, OY and OZ be three axes parallel to the crystal
axes (Fig.). Let ABC be one of a series of parallel lattice planes
in the crystal. Let the plane ABC have intercepts OA = a/h,
OB = b/k and OC = c/l. Let us suppose that the origin O lies
in the plane adjacent to ABC. Then, ON, the length of the
normal from the origin to the plane ABC, is equal to the
interplanar distanced. Let a, b and c be the angles which ON
makes with the three crystallographic axes respectively. Then
the direction-cosines of ON are
cos a =

ON
ON
ON
, cos b =
and cos c =
.
OA
OB
OC

Space Lattice

181

We know that the sum of the squares of the directioncosines of a line is equal to unity (cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 c = 1).
Therefore
2

ON
ON
ON

OA
OB
OC
2

or
or

or

d
d
d

a / h
b/ k
c/l
h2

d2

d=

= 1
2

= 1

k2 l 2
= 1
b2 c 2
1

h2 k2 l 2
2 2 2
b
c
a

For a cubic crystal, the lengths of the sides of a unit cell

are equal i.e. a = b = c.

a
k2 l 2

Let us calculate the values of d for some of the series of

lattice planes in a simple cubic crystal. For the (100) planes, we
have h = l, k = 0, and l = 0

Quantum Physics

182

d100 = a.

For the (110) planes, we have h = l, k = 1, and l = 0

d110 =

a 2.

For the (111) planes, we have h = l, k = l, and l = 1.

d111 =

a 3.

Thusd100 : d110 : d111 = 1 :

1
2

1
3

= 1 : 0.71 : 0.58.

Spacing between Lattice Planes in BCC and FCC Crystals:

Fig. (a) and (b) show bcc lattices. Comparing with simple cubic
lattice, it is seen that in bcc lattice there exist additional planes
half-way between the (100) planes and also between the (111)
planes.

Therefore, in the light of spacings in the simple cubic

lattice (d100 = a, d110 = a / 2 , d111 = a/ 3 ), the spacings between
(100), (110) and (111) planes in the bcc lattice are given by

d100 =

2
a
d110 =
2

Space Lattice
and
Thus

183

d111 =

2 3

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 : 2 :

1
3

Fig. (a) and (b) show fcc lattices. Again comparing with
simple cubic lattice, in fee lattice there exist additional planes
halfway between the (100) planes and also between the (110)
planes.

Therefore, in the light of the spacings in the simple cubic

lattice, the spacings between (100), (110) and (111) planes in
the fee lattice are given by

d100 =
d110 =
and
Thus,

d111 =

a
2

a
2 2

a
3

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 :

1
2

2
3

Density of Lattice Points in a Lattice Plane : Let us consider

N parallel lattice planes in a crystal lattice. Let A be the crosssectional area of each lattice plane and d the spacing between
successive planes. The volume of the lattice space under

184

Quantum Physics

consideration is then NAd. If V be the volume of a unit cell,

then the number of unit cells in the lattice space is

NAd
.
V

If n be the number of lattice points per unit cell, then the

nNAd
.
total number of lattice points in the lattice space is
V
Now, let be the density of lattice points in a lattice plane,
i.e., the number of lattice points per unit area of the plane. Then
the total number of lattice points in the same lattice space is
NAP. Thus,
nNAd
NA =
V
nd
or
=
V
In the case of cubic, tetragonal and orthorhombic lattices
( = = = 90), the volume of a unit cell is V = abc. Thus
nd
=
.
abc
For primitive lattice in each of these systems, there is one
lattice point per unit cell, i.e., n = 1. In such cases
d
=
abc

Structure(HCP
HCP)) : A crystal
Hexagonal Close-packed Structure(
HCP
whose constituents atoms are so arranged as to occupy the
least possible volume is said to have a close-packed structure.
Such structures occur when the bonding forces are spherically
symmetric (as in inert gases) or very nearly so (as in metals).

Space Lattice

185

To understand the close-packed structure, let us consider

identical spheres. The spheres can be arranged in a single
closest-packed layer by placing each sphere in contact with six
others (Fig.). The layer then assumes hexagonal shape. A second
identical layer can be formed over this by placing spheres on
the hollows B, each formed by three spheres in the bottom
layer. Now, a third layer can be added in two different ways.
In one, the spheres in the third layer are placed over the
hollows C ; the resulting three-dimensional structure is then
face-centered cubic (or cubic close-packed) structure. Thus
the packing in the fcc structure is ABC ABC ABC.........
Alternatively, the spheres in the third layer can be placed
over AS, that is, directly over the spheres in the first layer ;
the resulting three-dimensional structure is then hexagonal
closed-packed (hcp). Thus the packing in the hcp structure is
AB AB AB.........
In the hcp structure, the spheres in alternate layers are
directly above one another (Fig.). The atom positions in this
structure do not constitute a space lattice. The space lattice is
simple hexagonal with a basis of two identical atoms associated
with each lattice point.

The coordination number in a closed-packed crystal (either

fcc or hep) is 12. In both cases each sphere in a particular layer
fits into the hollow formed by three spheres in the layer below
it; hence each sphere is in contact with three spheres in the

186

Quantum Physics

layer below it, and with three in the layer above it as well.
Adding these six spheres to the six it touches in its own layer,
each sphere in a close-packed structure has 12 nearest
neighbours,,; that is, the coordination number is 12.
Beryllium, magnesium, cobalt and zinc are among the
elements with hcp structures.
In a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure, also called as cubic
close-packed, the sequence repeats itself every three layers,
instead of every two layers. Copper, lead, gold and argon are
examples of close-packed fcc structures.

Diamond Structure
The space lattice of diamond is face-centered cubic (fcc)
with a basis of two carbon atoms associated with each lattice
point. The figure below shows the positions of atoms in the
cubic cell of the diamond structure projected on a cubic face.
The fractions denote height above the base in units of a cube
edge. The points at 0 and are on the fcc lattice, those at
and are on a similar lattice displaced along the body diagonal
by one-fourth of its length. Thus the diamond lattice is
composed of two inter-leaved fcc sublattices, one of which is
shifted relative to the other by one-fourth of a body diagonal.

Space Lattice

187

In a diamond crystal the carbon atoms are linked by

directional covalent bonds. Each carbon atom forms covalent
bonds with four other carbon atoms that occupy four corners
of a cube in a tetrahedral structure (Fig. a). The length of each
bond is 1.54 and the angle between the bonds is 109.5.
The entire diamond lattice is constructed of such tetrahedral
units (Fig. b).
In the diamond lattice, each atom has four nearest
neighbours with which it forms covalent bonds. Thus the
coordination number of diamond crystal is 4. The number of
atoms per unit cell is 8.
Silicon, germanium and gray tin crystallise in the diamond
structure.

PROBLEMS
1. The lattice constant of NaCl crystal is calculated. The
density of NaCl is 2189 kg/m3 and Avogadros number N is
6.02 1026/kg-molecule.

Solution : NaCl is a cubic crystal having an fcc lattice. The

lattice constant of a cubic lattice is given by
1

a=

nM 3

,
N

Quantum Physics

188

where M is molecular weight and is the density of the crystal.

n is number of molecules per unit cell.
The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.5 kg/kg-molecule (or
58.5 gm/gm-molecule). Since it belongs to fcc lattice, the number
of molecules (in fact, Na+ Cl ion pairs) per unit cell is 4.
Substituting the values of n, M, N, in the above relation,
we have
1

3
4 58.5 kg / kg - molecule

a =
26
3
6.02 10 / kg - molecule 2189 kg / m

= (177 1030 m3)1/3

= 5.61 l010 m = 5.61 .
2. The lattice constant of KBr from the following data is
calculated as follows: density = 2.7 gm/cm3, molecular weight
= 119, Avogadros number = 6.02 1023/gm-molecule. KBr is
fcc lattice.

Solution : The lattice constant for a cubic lattice is given

by
1

a=

nM 3

where n is number of lattice points (atoms or molecules) per

unit cell. For fcc lattice, n = 4.
1

3
4 119 gm / gm - molecule

a =
23
3
6.02 10 / gm - molecule 2.7 gm / cm

= [293 1024 cm3]1/8

= 6.64 108 cm = 6.64 .
3. Copper has a density of 8.96 gm/cm3 and an atomic
weight of 63.5. The distance between two nearest copper atoms

Space Lattice

189

in the fcc structure is calculated. The Avogadro number is

6.02 1023.
Solution : The lattice constant a for a cubic lattice is given
by
1

a=

nM 3

,
N

where n is number of atoms per unit cell, M is atomic weight

and is density. For fcc structure, n = 4.
1

3
4 63.5 gm / gm - atom

a =
23
3
6.02 10 / gm - atom 8.96 gm / cm

= [47.l 1024 cm3]1/3

= 3.61 108 cm = 3.61 .
The nearest-neighbour distance in fcc lattice is a / 2 .
Therefore, the distance between two nearest copper atoms
o

3.61 A
=
= 2.55 .
2
4. The density of -iron is 7870 kg/m3 and its atomic
weight is 55.8. Given that -iron crystallises in bcc space
lattice, its lattice constant is deduced as follows. Avogadros
number N = 6.02 l026 per kg-atom.
Solution : The lattice constant for a cubic crystal of atomic
weight M and density is given by
1

a=

nM 3

,
N

where n is the number of atoms per unit cell. For bcc lattice,
n = 2.

Quantum Physics

190

3
2 55.8 kg/ kg-atom
a =
26
3
6.02 10 / kg-atom 7870 kg/cm

= [23.5 1030 m3]1/3

= 2.86 1010 m = 2.86 .
5. Calculate the lattice constant for CSCI (bcc lattice).
Given: density = 8000 kg/m3, molecular weight t = 168.4 and
N=6.02 1024 per kg-molecule.
[Ans.
Ans. 4.11 ]
6. The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.5 and its density is
2.17 gm/cm3. The distance between the adjacent atoms in NaCl
crystal is calculated. The Avogadro number is N = 6.02 1022
per gm-molecule.

Solution : In the rock-salt (NaCl) crystal, the Na and Cl

atoms (strictly ions) occupy alternately the corners of an
elementary cube. Let d cm be the distance between adjacent
atoms. Then the number of atoms in 1 cm length of an edge
of the cube is 1/d. The total number of atoms in 1 cm8 (unit
volume) is (1/d)3.

Now, 1 gm-molecule of NaCl contains N molecules and

has a mass of M gm, where N is Avogadros number and M

Space Lattice

191

is the molecular weight of NaCl. Thus N molecules of NaCl

have a mass M gm and occupy a volume given by

V=

where is the density of NaCl. Thus the number of molecules

per unit volume is N/V. Since there are two atoms in each
molecule, the total number of atoms per unit volume is 2N/V.
Hence
1

d

2N

2 N

M
1

d=

or

M 3

cm.
2 N

Substituting the given values :

1

3
58.5 gm / gm - molecule

d=
2 6.02 10 23 / gm - molecle 2.17 gm / cm 3

= (22.4 1024 cm3)1/3

= 2.82 108 cm = 2.82 .
7. In a crystal, a lattice plane cuts intercepts of a, 2b and
3c along the three axes where a, b, c are primitive vectors of
the unit cell. The Miller indices of the given plane is determined
as follows.

Solution : From the law of rational indices, we have

a : 2b : 3c =

a b c
: : ,
h k l

where h, k, l are the Miller indices. Thus

1 1 1
: : = 1:2:3

h k l

Quantum Physics

192

h : k : l = 1:

1 1
: .
2 3

Converting to smallest whole numbers having the same

ratios, we get

h:k:l=

6 3 2
: : =6:3:2
6 6 6

Thus h = 6, k = 3 and l = 2, Hence the Miller indices of the

plane are 6, 3 and 2; or the plane is (632).
8. The Miller indices of a plane which cuts off intercepts
in the ratio 1a : 3b : 2c along the three axes where a b c are
primitives is deduced as follows.

Solution : From the law of rational indices, we have

la : 3b : 2 c =

a b c
: :
h k l

where h, k, l are the Miller indices. Then

1 1 1
: : = 1:3:2

h k l

or

h : k : l = 1:
=

1
1
:
3
2

6 : 2 : 3.

Thus h = 6, k = 2, l = 3. Hence the plane is (623).

9. The Miller indices of a set of parallel planes which make
intercepts in the ratio 3a : 4b on the X and Y axes and are
parallel to the Z axis. a, b, c are the primitive vectors of the
lattice is found as follows.

Solution : The parallel planes are parallel to the Z-axis.

This means that their intercepts on the Z-axis are infinite.
From the law of rational indices, we have
3 a : 4b : c =

a b c
: :
h k l

Space Lattice
or

193
1 1 1
: : = 3:4:

h k l

h:k:l=

1 1 1
: :
= 4 : 3 : 0.
3 4

The Miller indices are 4, 3, 0.

10. In a crystal whose primitives are 1.2 , 1.8 and 2.0 ,
a plane (231) cuts an intercept 1.2 on the X-axis. The
corresponding intercepts on the Y- and Z-axis are found as
follows.

Solution : Let p, q and r be the intercepts on the X, Y,

and Z-axis respectively. Then, from the law of rational indices,
we write
p:q:r=

a b c
: :
h k l

where a, b, c are the primitives and h, k, l are the Miller indices.

Here a = l.2 , b =1.8 and c = 2.0 , and h =2, k = 3 and
l = l. Thus

p:q:r=

1.2 1.8 2.0

:
:
2 3 1

= 0.6 : 0.6 : 2.0

But p = 1.2 .

1.2 : q = 0.6 : 0.6

q = 1.2

Similarly 1.2 : r = 0.6 : 2.0

r=

1.2 2.0
= 4.0
0.6

Thus the intercepts on Y and Z axes are 1.2 and 4.0

respectively.
11. The ratio of intercepts on the three axes by (132) planes
in a simple cubic lattice is found as follows.

Quantum Physics

194

Solution : Let p, q, r be the intercepts on the X, Y and

Z. axis respectively. Then,
p:q:r=

a b c
: :
h k l

where a, b, c are the primitives and h, k, l are the Miller indices.

Here h = 1, k = 3 and l = 2; also a = b = c for the cubic lattice.
p:q:r=

1 3 2

=6:2:3

12. The lattice constant for a cubic lattice is a. The spacings

between (011), (101) and (112; planes are deduced as follows.

Solution : For a cubic lattice, the interplanar spacing d is

given by
d=

k2 l 2

where h, k, l are the Miller indices.

For (011) plane, h = 0, k = 1, l = 1.

d011 =

a
2

1 1
2

Similarly, for (101) plane,

d101 =
and for (112) plane,

d112 =

a
2

0 1
2

a
2

1 2
2

a
2

a
2

a
6

13. The interplanar spacing for a (321) plane in a simple

cubic lattice whose lattice constant is 4.2 x 108 cm is calculated
as follows.

Space Lattice

195

Solution : In a simple cubic lattice the interplanar spacing

d is given by
d=

a
k l2
2

1/2

where h, k, l are the Miller indices. For a (321) plane, we have

h = 3, k = 2 and l = 1. Also, here a = 4.2 108 cm.

d=

4.2 10 8 cm

2 2 12

4.2 10 8 cm
14

1/2

4.2 10 8 cm
3.74

= 1.12 108 cm = l.12 .

14. In a tetragonal lattice a = b = 2.5 , c = l.8 . The lattice
spacing between (111) planes is deduced as follows.

Solution : The general expression for the interplanar spacing

d is
dhkl =

1
h2 k2 l 2
2 2 2
b
c
a

where h, k, l are the Miller indices and a, b, c are the primitives.

Here h = 1, k = l, l =1, a = b = 2.5 , c = l.8 .

d111 =

1
1
1

2
2

2.5 A
2.5 A
1.8 A

1
1
1
6.25 6.25 3.24

1
2

1
2

Quantum Physics

196

= [0.16 + 0.16 + 0.31]1/2

100

1/2

= (0.63)1/2 =
63

= 1.26

15. For a simple cubic crystal find (i) the ratio of intercepts
on the three axes by (123) plane, (ii) the ratio of the spacings
of (110) and (111) planes and (iii) the ratio of the nearest
neighbour distance to the next nearest neighbour distance.

Solution : (i) Let p, q, r be the intercepts on the X-, Y- and

Z- axis respectively. Then, from the law of rational indices, we
have
a b c
: : ,
p:q:r=
h k l
where a, b, c are primitives and h, k, l are Miller indices.
Here h = l, k = 2, l = 3 ; also a = b = c for a cubic lattice.

p:q:r=

a a a

: : =6:3:2
1 2 3

(ii) The spacing between (hkl) planes in a cubic lattice is

given by

dhkl =

k2 l 2

Thus

d110 =

1 0

and

d111 =

1 1

d110
=
d111

a
2

a
2

a/ 2
=
a/ 3

1/2

2 1/2

2 1/2

a
2

a
3

3: 2.

(iii) In a simple cubic lattice the distance between nearest

neighbours is a, and that between next nearest
neighbours is 2 a (see Fig.). Their ratio
=

a/ 2 a = 1 / 2 .

Space Lattice

197

16. The densities of lattice points in (111) and (110) planes

in a simple cubic lattice is compared.

Solution : For a simple cubic (primitive) lattice, the (surface)

density of lattice points is given by
d
d
= 3,
abc
a
where d is interplanar spacing. Thus
=

111
=
110

[... a = b = c]

d111
d110

For a simple cubic lattice, d111 = a/ 3 and d110 = a / 2 .

111
=
110

or

P111 : P110 =

a/ 3
=
a/ 2

3
2

2: 3

17. The density of (100) plane in a simple cubic (P) lattice;

given a = 2.5 .

Solution : For a cubic P lattice, we have

=

d
.
a3

a
1
3 =
a
a2

Now d100 = a.

2.5 10

10

= 1.6 1019

m
lattice point/m2.

10
Phase Space
In classical mechanics, the dynamical state of a particle at
a particular instant is completely specified if its three position
coordinates x, y, z and three velocity, or preferably momentum
components px, py, pz, at that instant are known. This conception
is generalised by imagining a six-dimensional space in which
a point has six coordinates (x, y, z, pn, py, pz). Such a space is
called phase space. The instantaneous state (position and
momentum) of a particle is represented by a point in the phase
space.
For a system containing a large number of particles, there
would be a large number of representative points in the phase
space corresponding to the instantaneous distribution of
particles. Thus the state of a system of particles corresponds
to a certain distribution of points in phase space.
Let us divide the phase space into tiny six-dimensional
cells whose sides are dx, dy, dz, dpx, dpy, dpz. The volume of each
cell is

d = dx dy dz dpx dpv dpz.

Quantum Physics

200

d is termed as an element of volume in the phase space. dx

dy dz is an element of volume in coordinate space and dpx dpy
dpz is an element of volume in momentum space.
Now, according to the uncertainty principle, we have

dx dpx >

h
4

; dy dpy >

h
4

; dz dpz >

h
4

so that

h
d > .
4

A more detailed analysis shows that

d = h3.
Thus, due to uncertainty principle, a point in phase
space is actually a cell of volume h3. A point (x, y, z, px, py, Pz)
in the phase space representing the position and momentum
of a particle specifies that the particle lies somewhere in a cell
of volume A8 centered at the point.
The notion of phase space is important in describing the
behaviour of a system of particles. The equilibrium state of the
system corresponds to the most probable distribution of
particles in the phase space.

Methods of Statistical Mechanics

Every solid, liquid or gas is a system (or an assembly)
consisting of an enormous number of microscopic particles.
Likewise, radiation is an assembly of photons. Obviously, the
actual motions or interactions of individual particles cannot be
investigated. However, the macroscopic properties of such
systems can be explained in terms of the most probable
behaviour of the individuals. By employing statistical methods
we can determine how the individuals of a given assembly are
distributed among different possible states and what is their
most probable behaviour.

Phase Space

201

Let us consider statistically how a fixed amount of energy

is distributed among the various individuals of an assembly
of identical particles. There are three kinds of identical particles:
(i) Identical particles of any spin which are so much
separated in the assembly that they can be distinguished
from one another. The molecules of a gas are particles
of this kind. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution holds
for these particles.
(ii) Identical particles of 0 or integral spin which cannot be
distinguished from one another. These are called Bose
particles (or Bosons) and do not obey Paulis exclusion
principle. Photons, phonons and -particles are of this
kind. The Bose Einstein distribution holds for them.
(iii) Identical particles of odd half-integral spin which can
not be distinguished from one another. These are called
Fermi particles (or Fermions) and do obey Paulis
exclusion principle. Electrons, protons and neutrons
are particles of this kind. The Fermi-Dirac distribution
holds for them.
The energy distribution law for particles of kind (i) can be
derived by methods of classical statistics as well as of quantum
statistics, but that for particles of kinds (ii) and (iii) can be
derived by methods of quantum statistics only.

Maxwell-Boltzmann (Classical) Distribution : Let us

consider a system composed of a very large number N of
distinguishable identical particles. Suppose the energies of the
particles are limited to the values 1, 2,......, r which represent
either discrete energy states or average energies within a
sequence of energy intervals. Let us divide the whole volume
of the phase space into r cells and distribute the N molecules
among these cells. Let us consider a distribution of the molecules
with respect to their energy such that n1, molecules (each
having energy 1) are in cell 1, ng molecules (each having

Quantum Physics

202

energy 2) are in cell 2, and so on. The probability W for the

distribution is given by

N!

W=

(g1)n1 (g2)n2 ... ... (gr)n

n1 ! n2 !....... nr !
N!
ni,
=
ni ! (gt) [ just as stands for

sum stands for product]

where gi is the a priori probability for a particle to have the
energy 1.
There are two limitations. The total number of particles is
fixed at N. This means that
r

nt

i
1

= n1 + n2 + ... ... + nr = N.

At a constant temperature, the total energy content is fixed

at E (say). Thus
r

nt i =

i
1

n1 1 + n2 2 + ... ... + nr r = E.

The next step is to determine the most probable distribution

of the particles which would correspond to the state of
thermodynamic equilibrium. This distribution would yield
maximum value of W. Thus, for the equilibrium state, we have
W= 0
subject to the limitations
ni = 0
and

i ni = 0

This leads to the result

gi
ni = e e i

/ kT

Phase Space

203

where e is a constant, k is Boltzmanns constant and T is Kelvin

temperature. This result is known as Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution law.

Bose-Einstein (Quantum) Distribution : The MaxwellBoltzmann distribution governs identical particles which can
be distinguished from one another in some way (as molecules
in a gas) and as such they can be given names or numbers. On
the other hand, Bose-Einstein distribution governs identical
particles which can never be distinguished from one another
(as radiation photons in an enclosure). As such there is no way
to number them or give them names.
The basic assumption of the B-E distribution is that any
number of particles can be in any quantum state and that all
quantum states are equally probable. Suppose each quantum
state corresponds to an elementary cell in the phase space. The
number of different ways in which ni indistinguishable particles
can be distributed in gi phase-cells is

ni gi 1!
!
ni ! gi 1

When the number of cells is sufficiently large, this is same as

ni gi!
ni ! gi

The probability W of the entire distribution of N particles

is the product of the numbers of different arrangements of
particles among the states having each energy. Thus

W=

ni gi!
ni ! gi

For the equilibrium (most probable) condition, we must

have
W = 0
subject to the limitations
ni = 0

Quantum Physics

204
i ni = 0.

and

This leads to the result

ni =

gi

i/ kT

e e

where e is a constant, k is Boltzmanns constant and T is Kelvin

temperature. This is Bose-Einstein distribution law.

Fermi-Dirac (Quantum) Distribution : Fermi-Dirac

distribution applies to indistinguishable particles , like electrons,
which are governed by Paulis exclusion principle. The general
method of deriving the Fermi-Dirac distribution law is similar
to that for the Bose-Einstein statistics except that now each
phase-cell (that is, each quantum state) cannot be occupied by
more than one particle. This leads to the following distribution
function :
ni =

gi

i/ kT

e e

Again, ni is the number of particles whose energy is i, and

gi is the number of states that have the same energy i.

Comparison of the Three Distribution Laws : For this

purpose, let us define a quantity
ni
f ( i ) .
gl
f(i) is called the occupation index of a state of energy i. It
represents the average number of particles in each of the states
of that energy. Thus
fMB (i) =
fME (i) =
and

fFD (i) =

e ei/kT
1

i/ kT

i/ kT

e e

e e

Phase Space

205

In the following diagrams we plot each occupation index

f(i) against energy i for two different values of T and .

In the M-B distribution (Fig.) the occupation index f(i) falls

purely {exponentially with increase in energy i. In fact , it falls
1
for each increase of kT in the energy i.
by a factor of
e
The B-E occupation index against energy is plotted in the
figure below for temperatures of 1000 K and 10,000 K, in each
case for = 0 (corresponding to a gas of photons). For
i >> kT, the B-E distribution approaches the exponential form
characteristic of the M-B distribution. In this region the average
number of particles per quantum state is much less than one.
However, for i << kT, the 1 term in the denominator causes
the occupation index much greater compared to that of the
M-B distribution. This means that for energies small compared
to kT, the number of particles per quantum state is greater for
the B-E distribution than for the M-B distribution.

Quantum Physics

206

The F-D distribution is plotted in Fig. below for three

different values of T and . In this distribution the occupation
index never goes above 1. This signifies that we cannot have
more than one particle per quantum state as required by Paulis
exclusion principle which applies in this case. Further, in this
distribution, the parameter is strongly dependent on
temperature T, and we write

kT

so that the F-D occupation index becomes

1

fFD ( i) = e i F /kT 1 ,
where F is called the Fermi-energy.
Let us consider the situation at the absolute zero of
temperature. At T = 0, ( i F)/kT = (for i < F) and
+ (for i > F), so that

and

for i <

F, fFD ( i) =

for i >

F, fFD ( i) =

= 1,

( e = 0)

= 0.

( e+ = )

Phase Space

207

Thus, at T = 0, all energy states from i = 0 to i = eF are

occupied because fFD ( i) = 1; while all above F are vacant.
As the temperature rises, some of the states just below F
become vacant while some just above F are occupied. The
higher the temperature, the more is the spreading in fFD ( i).
At i = F, we have

fFD ( i)

1
= , at all temperatures, that is, the average
e 1
0

number of particles per quantum state is exactly . In other

words, the probability of finding an electron with energy equal to
the Fermi energy in a metal is at any temperature.

11
Monatomic Linear Crystal

Vibrations of Monatomic Linear Lattices

A monatomic linear crystal lattice is an array of identical,
equidistant atoms (or ions), each of mass M (say). When an
elastic wave propagates through the crystal, the atoms are set
in vibration either parallel or perpendicular to the direction
of the wave vector. We shall consider longitudinal
elastic vibrations of the atoms. We assume that interaction
exists only between nearest neighbours and that Hookes law
is obeyed.
Below given figure shows a linear chain of identical atoms.
Let it be infinitely long. The open circles represent the
equilibrium positions and the black dots the displaced atoms.
Let a be the equilibrium interatomic spacing, and x0, x1, x2, ..
xn1 . xn, xn + 1, ... the displacements from the equilibrium
positions. According to Hookes law, the force on an atom due
to the displacement of its (nearest) neighbour is proportional
to the difference of their displacements. So the net force on the
nth atom is

Quantum Physics

210

Fn = f (xn + 1 xn) f(xn xn1)

= f (xn + 1 + xn 1 2xn)
where f is the force constant for the nearest-neighbour
interaction. The equation of motion of the nth atom is then

M xn = f (xn + 1 + xn1 2xn)

...(i)

Let a solution to this equation be of the form of a travelling

waver

xn = eiw (t na/v),
where na is the equilibrium position (x-coordinate) of the nth
particle relative to the origin, and v the velocity of wave
propagation.
Let us introduce the wave vector K, where
2

=
.

[ = 2v and v = v]

xn = ei(wt Kna).

... (ii)

K=
Then we have

Accordingly,

xn+1 = e i{wt K (n + 1) a} = eiKaxn

and

xn-1 = e i{wt K (n 1) a} = eiKaxn.

Differentiating eq. (ii) twice with respect to t, we get

&n =
x&

d2 x n
= ( iw)2 ei (wt Kna) = w2 xn.
dt 2

n , x n1 , x n1 and x in eq. (i), and dividing

Substituting for x
n
by xn, we get

Monatomic Linear Crystal

211

M2 = f (e

iKa

+ eiKa 2)

= f (e iKa/2 eiKa/2)2.

Ka

Now, sin

and so, sin2

or
or

Ka
2

eiKa/2 e iKa/2
,
2i

1
(e iKa/2 eiKa/2)2.
4

M2 = 4f sin2
2 =

4f

= 2

sin 2

Ka
2

Ka
2

f
Ka
sin
.
2
M

... (iii)

We take the sign of the square-root so that the angular

frequency is always positive.
We have thus obtained an expression for the frequency
of the elastic waves in a monatomic linear lattice in terms of
K (that is, in terms of A). The -K relationship is shown in Fig.
below. It shows that frequency is a periodic function of K, with
period 2n/a. The dashed lines correspond to a continuous string
for which K.

Results : We draw the following results from the above

discussion:

Quantum Physics

212

(1) For values of K much smaller than interatomic spacing

a, that is, for wavelengths large compared with a, we
have
sin

Ka
2

Ka

[ Ka < 1]

f Ka
=
M 2

= 2

f
K .
M

The result that the frequency is directly proportional to the

wave vector is a statement that the velocity of propagation of
waves is independent of wavelength. That is, dispersion effects
are negligible. This is what happens in a continuous string.
Thus, for long wavelengths, the periodicity of the lattice is of
little importance.
As K increases (wavelength decreases), however, the
dispersion effects become important and is no longer directly
proportional to K.
(2) Another important result is obtained by comparing the
solution (it) with another in which K is replaced by Km
where

Km = K +

2m

with m = 1, 2, ... ...

We have for the displacement of the nth atom

xn = e(t Kmna)
= e

{t (K + 2m/a) na}

= e

i (t Kna)

and from eq. (iii), we have

=

4f

M
4f

sin

1
Km a
2

sin

1
2m
a K

2
a

[ e2im = 1]

Monatomic Linear Crystal

=

213
4f

sin

1
Ka
2

Thus the solutions (ii) and the frequencies (iii) corresponding

to K and Km are identical. It means that the state of vibration
of the lattice corresponding to a wave vector K is the same as
that for any of the wave vectors K + 2m/a. Therefore, to find
a unique relation between the state of vibration and the
wave vector, the wave vector K must be restricted to a range
of values 2/a. We specify the range of independent values of
K by

K .
a
a
We have taken both positive and negative values of K
because waves can propagate to the right or to the left. This
range of K values is referred to as the first Brillouin zone of
the linear lattice. The extreme values of K in this zone are

Kmax = ,
a
where Kmax may be of the order of 108 cm1. (In an elastic
continuum a 0 and Kmax ).
At the boundaries Kmax =
solution

of the Brillouin zone the

xn = ei (t Kna) becomes
xn = eit ein = eit (1)n

which represents a standing wave (rather than a travelling

wave) in which alternate atoms vibrate in opposite phases.
This situation is equivalent to Bragg reflection of X-rays. When
the Bragg condition is satisfied, a wave cannot propagate in
a lattice, but through successive reflections back and forth , a

standing wave is set up. Here the critical value Kmax =

a
satisfies the Bragg condition 2d sin = n. Here we have

=
(linear lattice), d = a,n = 1, so that
2

Quantum Physics

214
= min = 2a
which corresponds to Kmax = /a.

3. The frequency corresponding to zone boundaries

(K = Kmax = /a) is, according to eq. (iii),

f
M

max = 2
or

Vmax =

f
.
M

[ = 2v]

Thus there exists a maximum frequency vmax which can be

propagated through the chain. Hence a monatomic linear lattice
acts as a low-pass filter which transmits only in the frequency
range between zero and vmax.

v
.
min
2a
Now a ; 108 cm and the velocity of sound in solids is
~ 105 106 cm/sec, so that

vmax =

vmax ~ 1013 sec1.

Hence the cut-off frequency lies in the infrared region.
In contrast with this, the continuous string has no frequency
limit.

Vibrational Modes of a Finite Monatomic Linear Lattice :

Let us consider an array of (N + 1) identical atoms , numbered
from 0 to N. Suppose that the two end atoms are fixed, so that
(N 1) atoms are mobile. Let a be the equilibrium interatomic
spacing , and x0, x1, x2,......xN the instantaneous displacements
from the equilibrium positions. Assuming Hookes law to be
obeyed and considering only nearest-neighbour interaction,
the equation of motion of the nth atom is
n = f (xn+1 xn) f (xn xn1)
M x

= f (xn+1 + xn-1 2xn)

... (i)

Monatomic Linear Crystal

215

where M is the mass of an atom and f is the force constant for

the nearest-neighbour interaction.
The general solution of eq. (i) can be written as a sum of
two travelling waves, one propagating to the right and the
other to the left :

xn = [A1 ei(Kna + 1) + A2 e

i(Kna + 2)

] e it,

... (ii)

where A1 and A2 are amplitudes, 1 and 2 are phase angles

and K is wave vector (K = 2/). The boundary conditions are

x0 = 0
xN = 0 for all t.
The first condition, when substituted in (it), requires

A1 = A2
and

1 = 2.

Since the phase angles are equal, we can take B1 = B2 = 0.

The remaining solution in (ii) is

xn = A1 (eiKna e ikna) e it.

Taking the real part only, we have

xn = 2A1 sin Kna sin t.

... (iii)

This represents a standing wave. It leads to the same

dispersion relation (-K relationship)
2 =

4f

sin 2

Ka
2

as the travelling wave solution, with the difference that K is

limited to positive values ranging from 0 to /a.
The second boundary condition imposed on (iii) gives
0 = 2A1 sin KNa sin t
or
or

sin KNa = 0

K=

Na

j,

... (iv)

Quantum Physics

216

where j is an integer. However, j = 0 must be excluded because

it corresponds to K = 0 which means that all atoms are at rest.
The maximum value of K is

which gives jmax = N. This value

a
must also be excluded because it yields in (iii) xn = 0 for all
t, that is, again all atoms are at rest. We therefore conclude that

j = 1, 2, 3, ........., (N 1).

... (v)

Thus the boundary conditions select a discrete set of K

values given by (iv) and (v). We see that, there are just as many
modes of vibration (K-values) as there are mobile atoms.
To each value of K there corresponds a frequency K.
Hence the frequency spectrum consists of (N 1) discrete lines.

Vibrational Modes of a Diatomic Linear Lattice:For crystals

with more than one atom per primitive cell, the vibrational
spectrum shows new features. For each polarisation mode in
a given direction of propagation, the dispersion relation
K gives rise to two branches, known as acoustical branch
and optical branch.
Let us consider a linear diatomic lattice, with atoms of two
kinds arranged alternately (Fig.). Let the atoms of mass M1 be
even-numbered, and those of mass M2, odd-numbered, and
Let a be the distance between nearest neighbours, so that 2a
is the repeat distance.

We assume that each atom interacts only with its nearest

neighbour and that the force constants are identical between
all nearest-neighbour pairs. The equations of motion are
2 n = f (x2n+1 + x2n1 2x2n)
M1 x

Monatomic Linear Crystal

217

2n 1 = f (x
and M2 x
2n+2 + x2n 2x2n+1).

... (i)

where f is the force constant and x2n is the displacement of the

2nth particle from the equilibrium position.
Let the solutions to these equations be of the form of a
travelling wave :
and

x2n = A ei (t 2nKa)
x2n+1 = B ei {t (2n+1)Ka}

... (ii)

where K is the wave vector of a particular mode of vibration,

and A and B are the amplitudes corresponding to the atoms
M1 and M1 respectively. Substituting (ii) in (i), we get
(M1 2 2f)A + 2 Bfcos Ka = 0 )
(M2 2 2f) B + 2Af cos Ka = 0.... (iii)

and

These equations have non-vanishing solutions for A and

B only if the determinant of the coefficients of A and B vanishes,
that is,

2 2 f

2 f cos Ka

2 f cos Ka

2 2 f

=0

or

(M12 2f) (M22 2f) 4f2 cos2 Ka = 0

or

M1 M2 4 2f2) (M1 + M2) + 4f2 (1 cos2 Ka = 0

giving finally
1
1
= f M M f
1
2
2

2
1
4 sin 2 Ka
1

M1 M 2
M1 2

... (iv)

This is the dispersion relation for the linear diatomic lattice.

The form of the relation shows that, as in the monatomic case,
the frequency is a periodic function of the wave vector K.
Since should be positive, each value of 2 leads to a
single value for at. Thus, in contrast to the monatomic lattice,

Quantum Physics

218

there are now two angular frequencies + and _ corresponding

to a single value of K. In a K plot (Fig.) this leads to two
branches, the one corresponding to + is called the optical
branch and that corresponding to is called the acoustical
branch.

Let us discuss the two branches. For K = 0, two roots of

(iv) are
1
1

2 f
M1 M2

+=
and

... (v)

= 0.

The range of the first Brillouin zone is

K
,
2a
2a

where la is the repeat distance of the lattice. At

K = Kmax =
, the angular frequencies are
2a
+=

2f

, =
M1

2f

.
M2

Monatomic Linear Crystal

219

The larger the mass ratio M1/M2, the wider the frequency
gap between the two branches. The existence of a frequency
(or energy) gap is a characteristic feature of elastic waves in
diatomic lattices.
Let us now investigate the physical difference between the
optical and acoustical branches. The particle displacements for
the optical and acoustical modes of vibration of (transverse)
waves in diatomic linear lattice are shown in Fig. below.

Let us calculate the ratio of the amplitudes A and B in the

two cases. Let us see the situation for K = 0.
From eq. (iii) and (v), for K = 0, it follows that

M2
A
= M
B
1
and

A = B.

(for optical branch)

(for acoustical branch)

In the optical mode, the two types of atoms vibrate against

each other with amplitudes in inverse ratio of their masses so
that their centre of mass remains fixed. If the two atoms carry
opposite charges, as in ionic crystals, then a vibration of this
type can be excited by the electric field of a light wave. Hence
the name optical branch.
In the acoustical mode, the two types of atoms (and their
centre of mass) move together as happens in long-wavelength
acoustical waves. Hence the name acoustical branch.

Quantum Physics

220

Quantisation of Lattice VibrationsPhonons : The energy

of a lattice vibration is quantised. The quantum of energy is
called a phonon (in analogy with the photon of the
electromagnetic wave). Thus, elastic waves in crystals are made
up of phonons. Thermal vibrations in crystals are thermallyexcited phonons (like the thermally-excited photons of blackbody electromagnetic radiation).
The energy of each mode of vibration in an elastic wave
of frequency v (or angular frequency = 2V) is
= (n + ) hv = (n + )h,

and n is the number of phonons in the mode,

2
h is the quantum of elastic energy, that is, energy of a phonon
and h is the zero-point energy of the mode.
where h =

The quantisation of lattice vibration energy has an important

consequence when a lattice vibration is involved in an
interaction. Since the energy of a mode of vibration has to be
(n+ ) h with n any positive integer, and since to a first-order
approximation the energy changes only to adjacent allowed
values, we must have
= h
and correspondingly,
n = 1.
This means that the energy change corresponds to a gain
or loss of a single phonon at a time.

Experimental Evidence for Phonons : There is no direct

experimental evidence that the energy of an elastic wave is
quantised. (On the other hand, photoelectric effect is the direct
experimental evidence that the energy of the electromagnetic
wave is quantised). However, the following facts provide
evidence for the existence of phonons :

Monatomic Linear Crystal

221

(i) The lattice contribution to the heat capacity of solids

approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero.
This can be explained only if the lattice vibrations are
quantised.
(ii) X-rays and neutrons are scattered inelastically by
crystals. The change of energy and momentum in this
process corresponds to the creation or absorption of
one or more phonons. By measuring the energy and
momentum of the scattered X-rays or neutrons we can
determine the properties of phonons. Such experiments
provide the strongest evidence for phonons.

Phonon Momentum

A phonon of wave vector K interacts with other particles

such as photons, neutrons and electrons as if it has a momentum

h
h K . This is in accordance with de Broglie relation p =
=

h/ 2

= h K ). Sometimes h K is called the crystal momentum.

/ 2

A phonon on a lattice, however, does not carry physical

momentum, except for K = 0 which corresponds to a uniform

translation of the crystal as a whole. But for most practical
purposes a phonon acts as if its momentum were hK.
In crystals there exist momentum conservation laws (wave
vector selection rules) for allowed transitions between quantum
states. The elastic scattering (Bragg diffraction) of an X-ray
photon by a crystal is governed by the wave vector selection
rule

k = kG

where G is a vector in the reciprocal lattice, k is the wave

vector of the incident photon and k is the wave vector of the

scattered photon.

Quantum Physics

222

If the scattering of the photon is inelastic, with the creation

of a phonon of wave vector k , then the wave vector conservation

law (selection rule) becomes


k' K = k G .

If a phonon k is absorbed in the process, then the relation

would be

k' = k K G .

Specific Heat of Crystalline Solids : The heat capacity of

a solid at constant volume is defined as
Cv =

DE
,
dr

where E is the internal energy and T the Kelvin temperature.

The experimental facts about the heat capacity of solids in
general are the following.
(i) At ordinary and high temperatures the value of the
heat capacity of nearly all solids is close to 3Nk, where
N is Avogadros number and k is Boltzmanns constant.
For 1 mole of atoms it is 6 cal/mole-K (Dulong and
Petit law).
Dulong and Petit regarded each atom of the solid as
executing simple harmonic vibrations about its lattice site in
three dimensions. Thus one mole of the solid, having N atoms,
has 3N degrees of freedom. According to the classical law of
equipartition of energy, each degree of freedom is assigned an
average total (kinetic + potential) energy kT. Therefore, the
total energy of one mole of the solid is

E = 3NkT = 3 RT
where R is the universal gas constant. Thus, the heat capacity
at constant Volume is
dE
Cv =
= 3R = 6 cal/mole-K.
dT

Monatomic Linear Crystal

223

(ii) At lower temperatures the heat capacity drops

markedly and approaches zero. Near the absolute zero,
the heat capacity varies as T3 in insulators and as T in
metals. If the metal becomes a superconductor, the
drop is faster than T.
(iii) In magnetic solids there is a large contribution to the
heat capacity near the temperature at which the
magnetic moments become ordered. Below 0.1 K the
ordering of nuclear moments may give very large heat
capacities.
The first and second points are illustrated in the figure
below for silicon and germanium.

Einsteins Quantum Theory

Einstein, in 1907, applied quantum theory to the specific
heat of solids. We know that the energy of a lattice vibration
is quantised, the quanta of energy being phonons which obey
Bose-Einstein statistics. The energy of a phonon is h .
Einstein assumed that all atoms of a solid lattice vibrate
independently of each other with the same frequency in each of the
three degrees of freedom. Thus the energy of a lattice vibration
depends only on its frequency (or phonon energy h ) and
phonon occupancy <n>, say. Now, one mole of the solid contains
N atoms with 3N phonons of vibration, each with energy h h .
Therefore, the energy per mole of the solid will be

Quantum Physics

224
E = 3N <n> h .

In thermal equilibrium at temperature T the occupancy is

given by Bose-Einstein distribution
<n> =

e(F)/kT

and thus

E=

3N

1
h eh / kT 1

The specific heat is given by

Cv =

dE
= 3N h
dT

h
= 3Nk kT

h
eh/ kT 2
kT
2
eh/ kT 1

eh

/ kT

h / kT

But Nk = R (the universal gas constant).

h
Cv = 3R kT

eh

/ kT

h / kT

= E, where E is known as Einstein

k
characteristic temperature. Then we have
Let us put

Cv 3 R

eE/T

e E T 1
/

This is Einsteins specific heat formula.

(i) At high temperatures (T >> E) we have
that eE/T 1 +

and we have

<< 1, so

Monatomic Linear Crystal

E
Cv 3R T

225
2

3R

T
= 6 cal/mole-K.
This is Dulong and Petit law which agrees with experiment;
at high temperatures.
(ii) At low temperatures (T< < E) we have
that eE/T

>> 1, so
T
> > 1, and the Einsteins formula gives
E

Cv 3R
T

eE/Tand we have

This shows that as T 0; the specific heat Cv also approaches

zero, a conclusion in general agreement with experiment.
The figure below compares the experimental values of C,
(shown by dots) for diamond with the behaviour predicted
by Einsteins theory (solid curve), using the characteristic
temperature E = h/k = 1320 K. The agreement is reasonably
good. (E or is an adjustable parameter and will have different
values for different materials to match the experimental results.).

226

Quantum Physics

Limitation : There is no quantitative agreement at very

low temperature. Near absolute zero, according to Einstein,
Cv eE/T whereas according to experiment, Cv T3. The
reason is that Einstein oversimplified matters by assuming all
of the phonons to have the same frequency.
In fact the phonon frequencies have a distribution like that
in electromagnetic radiation in a cavity. This, in turn, is a result
of the fact that the atomic vibrations in a lattice are strongly
coupled and cannot be considered independent. The problem
was taken up by Debye.

The Diodes

227

12
The Diodes

p-n Junction
Semiconductors, pure or doped (p-type or n-type), are
bilateral; current flows in either direction with equal ease. If,
however, in a semiconductor there exists a p-type region on
one side and an n-type region on the other, then the
semiconductor becomes unilateral; current flows easily in one
direction only. The specific location in the semiconductor where
the region changes from p-type to n-type (the lattice structure
remaining continuous) is called the p-n junction. The
semiconductor containing a p-n junction is called
semiconductor diode.

Fabrication of p-n Junction : A p-n junction is not the

interface between two pieces of semiconductor of opposite
types pressed together. It is a single piece of semiconductor
crystal having an excess of donor impurities into one side and
of acceptor impurities into the other. There are four important
methods of making p-n junctions. These are growing, alloying,
diffusing and ion implantation.

228

Quantum Physics

Growing Method : In order to grow a pure crystal of

germanium (say), a seed crystal of germanium is touched to
the surface of molten germanium and then slowly raised (Fig.).
The molten germanium crystallises onto the seed and grows
in the same crystalline structure as the seed. If the melt contains
a donor impurity such as arsenic, an n-type semiconductor is
obtained. When the n-type crystal has attained a reasonable
size, an excess of an acceptor impurity, such as indium, is
added to the melt. The remainder portion of the crystal is
p-type. The boundary between the two materials is called a
grown junction. After the crystal is formed, it is cut into the
desired shape. The grown junction has a rather gradual
transition from the n to the p type.

Alloying Method : In this method, a small pellet of an

acceptor impurity, such as indium, is placed on an n-type
semiconductor (say, germanium) wafer, as shown in figure
below. The wafer is then put into a furnace in an inert
atmosphere and the temperature is raised to the eutectic point.
A thin film of In-Ge melt is formed on the interface. Upon
cooling, the melt solidifies into p-type Ge, in continuation with
the underlying n-type Ge. An alloy p-n junction is thus formed
between the re-crystallised region and the original wafer. In
alloy junction the transition from p-type to n-type occurs in a
small distance corresponding to a few atomic layers.

The Diodes

229

Diffusing Method : This is the most common way of making

junctions today. In this method, first of all a thin layer of an
inert oxide, such as silicon dioxide, is formed on the surface
of an n-type semiconductor wafer by heating in oxygen. Then
the oxide layer is removed from a selected area by etching and
the wafer is put into a diffusion furnace at a temperature
around 1000 C. Now, a p-type impurity in the gaseous form,
such as boron gas, is introduced into the furnace. The acceptor
atoms slowly diffuse into the n-type wafer through the selected
area and a p-n junction is formed. (The untouched oxide layer
is impervious). The concentration of impurity is maximum at
the surface, gradually falling off towards the inside. By strict
control of time and temperature, precise junction depth, usually
a few microns, can be achieved. By selecting different areas on
the surface of the wafer, one can make many junctions of small
area on the same wafer.

Ion Implantation Method : This is a new method in which

impurity ions, accelerated to high energies, are shot at the
semiconductor wafer. The ions penetrate the lattice to a depth

230

Quantum Physics

of a fraction of a micron. The wafer is finally annealed at an

elevated temperature.

Junction Diode : A junction diode is a semiconductor crystal

having acceptor impurities (p-type) in one region and donor
impurities (n-type) in another region. The boundary between
the two regions is called p-n junction. The characteristic
property of a p-n junction is that electric current can pass
through it much more easily in one direction than in the other.
Potential Barrier at the JunctionFormation of Depletion
Region : A p-n junction is shown in Fig. below. The p-type
region has (positive) holes as majority charge-carriers, and an
equal number of fixed negatively-charged acceptor ions. (The
material as a whole is thus neutral). Similarly, the n-type region
has (negative) electrons as majority charge carriers, and an
equal number of fixed positively-charged donor ions.

In addition to these majority charge-carriers, there are a

few minority charge-carriers in each region. The p-region
contains a few electrons while the n-region contains a few
holes.

The Diodes

231

Thus, when the junction is formed, there is a charge-density

gradient. This causes diffusion of charge-carriers across the
junction. Holes diffuse from the p-region into the n-region, and
electrons from the n-region into the p-egion. The diffused
charge-carriers combine with their counterparts in the vicinity
of the junction and neutralise each other.
The diffusion of holes leaves uncovered (negative) acceptor
ions on the left of the junction and the diffusion of electrons
leaves uncovered (positive) donor ions on the right. Thus, there
is net negative charge on the p-side of the junction and net
positive charge on the n-side. This sets up a potential difference
across the junction, and hence an internal electric field Ei directed
from the (positive) B-side to the (negative) p-side. Equilibrium
is established when the field becomes large enough to stop
further diffusion of the majority charge-carriers.
The field Ei however, helps the minority carriers (electrons
in the p-region and holes in the n-region) to move across the
junction.
The region on either side of the junction which becomes
depleted (free) of the mobile charge-carriers is called the
depletion region (or transition region). The thickness of this
region is of the order of 106 m. The potential difference across
the depletion region is called the potential barrier. It is of the
order of 0.1 to 0.5 volt depending on the temperature.
The general shapes of the charge distribution, the internal
electric field and the potential barrier in the depletion-region
are shown in the lower part of Fig. above.

Current Flow in Junction Diode (Rectifying Action) : In the

absence of any external voltage applied across the p-n junction,
there is no current in the diode. Under this condition, a few
majority charge-carriers (holes in p-region and electrons in nregion) have sufficient energy to move across the junction in
spite of the opposing internal field Ei and form a forward

232

Quantum Physics

current. This current is, however, exactly balanced by the reverse

current formed by the flow of minority carriers (electrons in
p-region and boles in n-region) across the junction which is
helped by the internal field. The net current is thus zero.

Forward Bias : When a battery is connected with its + pole

joined to the p-region and pole joined to the n-region, an
external electric field E is set up directed from p towards n ,
in opposition to the small internal field Ei. As a result of the
applied field E, holes in large number move from the p-region
into the n-region and the electrons from the n-region into the
p-region. These moving majority carriers form a relatively large
forward current which increases with increase in the externally
applied p.d. The small reverse current due to the flow of
minority carriers remains unaffected. Thus, there is a net
forward current. In this situation, the junction is said to be
under forward bias.

Reverse Bias : If, however, the battery is connected with

its positive pole joined to the n-region and the negative pole
joined to the p-region, the external field E is directed from
n toward p, and thus aids the internal field Ei. The holes in the
p-region and the electrons in the n-region are now pushed
away from the junction and their motion stops. Hence,
nominally, zero current results. In this situation the junction
is said to be in the reverse bias. The small reverse current due
to the motion of minority carriers, however, exists. This current
increases with increasing temperature.

The Diodes

233

Thus we see that the junction diode offers a low resistance

for the current to flow in one direction (under forward bias)
but a very high resistance in the opposite direction (under
reverse bias). It thus acts as a rectifier.

Characteristic (V-i) Curve of a Junction Diode : The V-i

characteristic of a junction diode is shown in fig. below. With
increasing forward bias the current increases rapidly,
approximately exponentially. With reverse bias the (reverse)
current remains very small over a long range, increasing very
slightly with increasing bias.
Avalanche Breakdown : If the reverse bias is made very
high ( 20 volts), the covalent bonds near the junction break
down and a large number of electron-hole pairs are liberated.
The reverse current then increases abruptly to a relatively
large value. This is known as avalanche breakdown, and may
damage the junction by the excessive heat generated unless the
current is limited by external circuit.

234

Quantum Physics

Energy Level Diagram for a p-n Junction : A p-n junction

is the boundary between the p-type region (having acceptor
impurities) and the n-type region (having donor impurities) of
a doped semiconductor. The energy level diagram of the p-n
junction may be visualised most easily by considering the
p-type and n-type semiconductors as being initially separated.
The Fermi energy F is closer to the top of the valence band
in the p-type material, and closer to the bottom of the conduction
band in the n-type. When the junction between the two types
of material is formed, holes flow from the p-type region into
the n-type region via the valence band ; while electrons flow
in the opposite direction via the conduction band. As a result
of this flow, equilibrium is established when the Fermi levels in the
two regions are along the same line.

The resulting energy level diagram of an unbiased p-n

junction at room temperature is shown in Fig. below. The
conduction bands of the p and n regions, and similarly the
valence bands, have moved relatively so that the Fermi-levels
F (p) and F (n) line up. The region in the vicinity and on
either side of the junction is free of mobile holes and electrons
and is the depletion region. It has uncovered (negative)
acceptor ions on the p-side and uncovered (positive) donor
ions on the n-side. Hence an internal electric field Ei is produced
in the depletion region directed from the n-side to the p-side.

The Diodes

235

Even after equilibrium is established, there is still a flow

of holes and electrons across the junction. A few of the majority,
carriers (holes in p-region and electrons in n-region) are able
to overcome the internal field E4 (which opposes them) and
form a toward current. At the same time, the minority carriers
(electrons in p-region and holes in n-region), which are aided
by the field Ei, move across the junction and form a reverse
current. These two small currents neutralise each other so that
the net current is zero. The movements of holes and electrons
are shown by arrows in Fig. above.

Forward Biased Junction : The junction is given a forward

bias by connecting across it an external voltage source such
that positive voltage is applied to the p-region and negative
voltage to the n-region. This creates an external field E opposite
to internal field Ei, and raises the electron energy levels of the
n -type semiconductor- relative to those of the p -type

236

Quantum Physics

semiconductor. The Fermi level in the n-region is raised relative

to that in the p-region by eV where V is the applied voltage.
The electrons in the n-region now easily cross over to the
p-region; and on a similar argument, the holes in the p-region
easily cross over to the n-region. The majority carriers in each
of the two regions thus produce a large forward current. The
reverse current due to minority carriers remains unaffected by
the applied voltage. The equilibrium of currents flowing in
opposite directions is therefore upset, and the contribution of
majority carriers to the net current dominates.

Reverse Biased Junction : When the positive voltage is

applied to the n-region and negative voltage to p-region, the
junction is said to be reverse biased. The external field E is now
in the same direction as the internal field Et ; the Fermi level
in the n-region moves down with respect to that in the p-region.
The majority carriers in the two regions now hardly produce

The Diodes

237

any current. The equilibrium of currents is again upset, and

the small current due to minority carriers, which is not much
affected, dominates.

Zener Diode
In an ordinary semiconductor diode under reverse bias, the
(reverse) current remains almost constant over quite a long
voltage-range, until avalanche breakdown occurs when the
(reverse) voltage becomes 20 volts . The current then increases
abruptly due to a sudden increase in the number of electronhole pairs. If, however, both the p- and n-type regions of the
diode are heavily doped, the reverse current may increase
abruptly at a (reverse) voltage lower than that required for the
avalanche breakdown.
The breakdown in this case is known as Zener breakdown
and arises from the quantum mechanical potential barrier
penetration (tunneling) across the depletion region. Such a
semiconductor device is called a Zener diode.

238

Quantum Physics

The energy band structure of an unbiased heavily-doped

p-n junction diode is shown in Fig. below. As a result of an
increased number of donors and acceptors, the depletion region
is narrower. Moreover, the Fermi level F in the p-type region
is closer to the valence band and that in the n-type region is
closer to the conduction band, compared to a light-doped
junction. However, under equilibrium condition, the Fermi
levels in the two regions line up.

When a reverse-biased voltage is applied to the diode, the

energy levels in the n-type semiconductor moves down relative
to those in the p-type semiconductor. At a certain (reverse)
voltage, called the Zener voltage, the bottom of the conduction
band in the n-region becomes lower than the top of the valence
band in the p-region (Fig. above). Electrons now tunnel
directly across the potential barrier from the valence band in
the p-region into the conduction band in the n-region.
Since the barrier (depletion region) is narrow, the tunneling
probability is high and a large (reverse) current results. Zener
breakdown can occur in heavily doped diodes at 6 volts or less.
The resulting reverse characteristic of a Zener diode is
shown in Fig. below. Because of the voltage limiting
characteristic of a reverse-biased Zener diode it is possible to
use these diodes as voltage stabilisers.

The Diodes

239

Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is a semiconductor device which makes use
of the quantum mechanical phenomenon of potential barrier
penetration. It is a p - n junction made from quite heavily doped
semiconductors. The energy band structure of such a junction,
when unbiased, is shown in Fig. below. It differs from the band
structure of an ordinary p-n junction in two respects :

240

Quantum Physics
(i) The depletion region is much narrower 108 m,

(ii) The donor and acceptor levels, in the n-type and p-type
semiconductors, are no longer sharp but become broad
bands which merge into the bottom of the n-conduction
band and into the top of the p-valence band respectively.
The Fermi energy level F, therefore, moves up into the
conduction band on the n-side and down into the valence band
on the p-side. When the junction is formed, however, the two
Fermi levels match under the equilibrium condition.
Because the depletion region is narrow ( a few electron
wavelength), electrons can tunnel directly through the
forbidden band there, from the conduction band of the n-side
into the valence band of the p-side, and vice-versa. When no
external voltage is applied across the junction, the rate of
electron tunneling is same in both directions and the net current
is zero.
When a small forward-biased voltage is applied to the
diode, the energy levels in the n-type semiconductor move up
relative to those in the p-type semiconductor (Fig.). Now, the
number of electrons tunneling from the n-side to the p-side is
increased because these electrons find directly before them
empty energy states in the p-side valence band ; whereas the
number tunneling in the opposite direction is decreased. Hence,
there is a net electron flow to the left, which corresponds to
a conventional current to the right.
As the applied voltage continues to be increased, the net
current begins to decrease because the number of empty states
in the p-side valence band available for the electrons in the
n-side conduction band decreases. In Fig. above, the net current
is reduced almost to zero because electrons in the n-side
conduction band find no empty states into which they could
tunnel directly.

The Diodes

241

With still higher applied voltage, the current becomes that

characteristic of an ordinary p-n junction diode. The net current
is now due to the diffusion of majority charge-carriers
(electrons in the conduction band on the n-side and holes in
the valence band on the p-side) across the junction.
Fig. below shows the voltage-current characteristic curve
of a tunnel diode. The points a, b and c correspond to the parts
a, b and c of the previous figure. (The dashed curve indicates
the behaviour of an ordinary junction diode). In the region
between points b and c the tunnel diode has a negative resistance,
the current decreasing with increasing voltage. This feature
makes it specially useful in the switching circuits of computers.

Applications : The greatest advantage of the tunnel diode

is its very fast response (change in current) to the voltagechange in the region a to c. In ordinary diodes and transistors,
the response time depends on the diffusion speed of the chargecarriers which is low. Hence these devices cannot be used at
high frequencies. Tunnel diodes, on the other hand, can be
used as oscillators at frequencies above 1011 Hz, and in switching
circuits operating in time-intervals l09 sec.

13
The Semiconductors
The semiconductors are the solids whose electrical
conductivity lies between the very high conductivity of metals
and the very low conductivity of insulators. They are
characterised by a narrow energy gap g (~ 1 eV) between the
valence band and the conduction band (Fig.). The most
commonly known semiconductors are germanium and silicon
which have energy gaps of about 07 and 11 eV respectively.
At absolute zero (T = 0), all states (energy level) in the
valence band are full and all states in the conduction band are
empty. An applied electric field cannot give so much energy
to the valence electrons that they could cross the gap g and
enter the conduction band. Hence pure semiconductors are
insulators at low temperatures.

244

Quantum Physics

At room temperature, however, some of the valence

electrons acquire thermal energy greater than g and cross
over into the conduction band (Fig.). These free electrons, and
the (positive) holes created in the valence band, can move
about even under a small applied field. The solid is therefore
slightly conducting, that is, it is a semiconductor. (The
conductivity further increases with increasing temperature).
Solids having a partially-filled upper band, or overlapping
valence and conduction bands, are conductors, because
electrons in this band can easily acquire additional energy
from an applied electric field and move to the higher energy
levels in the same band. On the other hand, solids having a
wide energy gap (g 10 eV) between a filled valence band
and an empty conduction band are insulators, because valence
electrons cannot acquire so much energy from an applied field
that they could cross the gap and enter the conduction band.
Hence conduction in them is impossible.

Types of Semiconductors
Pure germanium and silicon are intrinsic semiconductors,
and their conductivity (which arise from thermal excitation) is
intrinsic, conductivity. If a small amount of some impurity be
introduced into a pure semiconductor, its conductivity increases
appreciably. Such impure semiconductors are called extrinsic
or impurity semiconductors, and the resulting conductivity is
called extrinsic conductivity,
The process of introducing the impurity is known as doping.
Hence the impurity semiconductors are also known as doped
semiconductors. The n-type and p-type semiconductors are
doped (extrinsic) semiconductors.

Mechanism of Conduction in an Intrinsic Semiconductor :

Let us consider an intrinsic semiconductor like Ge (Is2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 3d10 4S2 4P2) or Si (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2) which are both
tetravalent.

The Semiconductors

245

An atom of Ge (or Si) has four valence electrons surrounding

an inert core (nucleus + tightly-bound inner electrons) having
a charge of + 4e. The crystal structure of these materials consists
of a three-dimensional tetrahedral pattern with an atom at
each vertex. This is illustrated in two dimensions in figure
above. Each of the four valence electrons of an atom is shared
by one of its four nearest neighbouring atoms. The covalent
bonds so formed, which are shown by dashed lines, provide
the binding forces between the neighbouring atoms.

At temperatures close to absolute zero, all valence electrons

are tightly bound to the core (all are said to be in the valence

246

Quantum Physics

band), and so no free electrons are available to conduct electricity

through the crystal. However, at room temperature, a few of
the valence electrons are thermally excited into the conduction
band (that is, a few of the covalent bonds are broken) and
become free to move about (Fig.). The excited electrons leave
vacancies at their original positions in the valence band
which serve as positive holes.
When an electric field is applied to the crystal, the free
electrons in the conduction band move in a direction opposite
to the field, and the holes in the valence band move in the
direction of the field, both giving rise to electric currents. The
motion of the holes is however apparent. It is in fact the motion
of the otherwise bound electrons from one vacancy to the next
within the valence band in a direction opposite to the applied
field.
Thus, in a semiconductor electrons and holes both constitute
current. The total current is the sum of the two currents.
Although the number of free electrons in the conduction band
is equal to the number of holes in the valence band, the electron
contribution to the current is larger. This is because the (free)
electrons in the conduction band move more easily than the
(bound) electrons in the valence band which cause the motion
of the holes.
Thus in a semiconductor and holes both constitute current.
The total current is the sum of the two currents. Although the
number of free electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band, the electron electrons
in the conduction band move more easily than the (bound)
electrons in the valence band which cause the motion of the
holes.

Concentrations of Free Electrons and Holes in an Intrinsic

Semiconductor : The electrons in the conduction, band, and the
holes in the valence band, of an intrinsic semiconductor are

The Semiconductors

247

governed by Fermi-Dirac distribution law. We may, therefore,

write for the number of electrons per unit volume, having
energies between and + d, in the conduction band

n () d = g() f (),

... (i)

where g () d is the number of quantum states (energy levels)

available to these electrons in the conduction band and f ()
is the probability of an electron occupying a given energy level
. The function f() is known as the Fermi function and is
given by

f ( ) =

1
/ kT
e F
1

... (ii)

F is the Fermi energy measured upwards from the top of

the valence band as shown in Fig. Since there are no levels in
the band gap 0<<g, we have
g() = 0

(0<<g),

where = 0 denotes the top of the valence band and g, is

the energy gap.

If the conduction band is considered extended from Eg to

, then the density of electrons in the conduction band is

ne =

g d f

Quantum Physics

248

g d

F / kT

In the conduction band, F > kT, so that the exponential

term is very much greater than 1. Therefore, the last equation
reduces to

ne =
=

g e F /kT d

g e F /kT kT

= g (g) kT e (g F)/kT
= Kx e (g F)/kT

... (iii)

where Ke is a temperature-dependent term and can be taken

as the effective number of energy levels per unit volume in the
conduction band.
We can analyse the holes in the valence band in the same
manner as electrons in the conduction band. The positive holes
may be considered as being excited from the conduction band
into the valence band, and so the Fermi energy for them must
be measured downwards from the conduction band towards
the valence band (Fig.).
Thus, parallel to eq. (iii), the density of (positive) holes in
the valence band is
nh = Kh e (g F)/kT,
... (iv)
where Kh is the effective number of energy levels per unit
volume in the valence band, and F is the Fermi energy for
holes.
Since, in the intrinsic semiconductor, the conduction
electrons and positive holes are produced in pairs, we have
ne = nh
and so eq. (iii) and (iv) require that

The Semiconductors
Ke e

249

(g F)/kT

= Kh e

(g F)/kT

If the energy level distributions are approximated to be the

same for the conduction and valence bands, then

Ke = Kh,
and we must have
g F = g F
or

F = F .

This means that, the Fermi level lies in the centre of the energy
gap, and
F = F = g .
The equations (iii) and (iv) can now be written as

ne ~
K,e-g/2kT

and

nh ~
Kh eg/2kT

for the intrinsic semiconductor. Although the terms Ke and Kh

are temperature-dependent, each being proportional to T 3/2,
but the variation in ne and nh is mostly dependent on the
exponential term involving g/2kT.

Change in Conductivity with Temperature

In an intrinsic semiconductor, both the electrons and the
holes contribute to the conductivity. Hence the total
conductivity can be written in terms of the densities of both
charge-carriers and their mobilities, as
= ne e e + nh e h ,
where e and h, are the mobilities of electrons and holes
respectively and e is electronic charge. For the pure (intrinsic)
semiconductor, n e = n h = ni, where n t is the intrinsic
concentration.

= ni e (e + h)

Quantum Physics

250

Since the mobility varies relatively slightly with

temperature, the dependence of conductivity on temperature
is almost the same as that of ni . We know that

ni eg/2kT
where g is the energy gap. Therefore, we can write
= Keg/2kT,
where K is some constant. This shows that as the temperature
increases, the conductivity of the semiconductor increases
exponentially. (This is because the density of electron-hole pairs
increases). If . be the (extrapolated) conductivity for
T = , then
= K
and we write
= eg/2kT
or loge

= loge

g
2 kT

A plot between log, and 1/T gives a straight line whose

slope is g/2k (fig.). This is one of the methods, of determining
the value of the semiconductor energy gap.

The substantial increase in the conductivity of

semiconductors with increase in temperature is utilised in
thermistors which find extensive application in thermometry,
in the measurement of microwave-frequency power, as a

The Semiconductors

251

thermal relay, and in controlling devices based on temperaturechanges.

In contrast, the conductivity of a metal decreases
almost linearly with increasing temperature. This is because
the increase in temperature results in greater lattice-ion
vibrations and hence decrease in mean free path of the free
electrons. The result is a decrease in the mobility, and hence

ne e2
e
In a
ne e e , where e
in conductivity
2 mv F
2 mv F

semiconductor also, the mobility decreases, but the increase in

the number of electron-hole pairs (charge-carriers) with increase
in temperature overwhelms the mobility effect.

In a metal, on the other band, there is no significant increase

in the number of charge-carriers with increase in temperature.

Extrinsic (or Impurity) Semiconductor : If a small amount

of a pentavalent or trivalent impurity is introduced into a pure
germanium (or silicon) crystal, the conductivity of the crystal
increases appreciably, and the crystal becomes an extrinsic
semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types : n-type and
p-type n-type Semiconductors : When a pentavalent (antimony,
phosphorus or arsenic) atom replaces a Ge (or Si) atom in the
crystal lattice (Fig.), four of its five valence electrons form
covalent bonds with the neighbouring Ge (or Si) atoms. The
fifth electron requires lattice energy to be detached from the
impurity atom (only 0.01 eV for Ge and 005 eV for Si).
It therefore becomes free at room temperature (kT ~ 0025
eV) to move about in the crystal and acts as a charge-carrier.
The crystal is now called an n-type semiconductor because
it has an excess of negative charge-carriers (electrons). The
impurity is called a donor because it donates the conducting
electrons.

252

Quantum Physics

On an energy-level diagram, the impurity atoms introduce

discrete energy levels for the electrons just below the conduction
band (Fig.). These are called donor impurity levels. They are
only 0.01 eV below the conduction band in case of Ge (0.05 eV
in case of Si). Therefore, at room temperature, the fifth
electrons of almost all the donor atoms are thermally excited
from the donor levels into the conduction band where they
move as charge-carriers when an external field is applied.

At ordinary temperature, almost all the electrons in the

conduction band come from the donor levels, only a few come
from the valence band. Therefore, the main charge-carriers
responsible for conduction are the electrons contributed by the
donors. Since the excitation from the valence band is small,
there are very few holes in this band. The current contribution

The Semiconductors

253

of the holes is therefore small. Thus, in an n-type semiconductor

the electrons are the majority carriers, and the holes are the
minority carriers.

p-Type Semiconductors : We can alternatively introduce a

trivalent impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor. When a
trivalent (boron, aluminium, gallium or indium) atom replaces
a Ge (or Si) atom in the crystal lattice (Fig.), only three valence
electrons are available to form covalent bonds with the
neighbouring Ge (or Si) atoms. This results into an empty
space or a positive hole around the impurity atom. An electron
bound to a neighbouring Ge (or Si) atom drops into this hole,
when an external field is applied, thereby creating a new
hole. This phenomenon continues and the hole moves in the
crystal lattice, acting as a positive charge-carrier. The crystal
is called a p-type semiconductor because it has an excess of
positive charge-carriers (holes). The impurity is called an
acceptor because the impurity atoms create holes which accept
electrons. (Fig.)

In the energy-level diagram, the trivalent impurity atoms

introduce vacant discrete levels just above the top of the valence
band (Fig.). These are called acceptor impurity levels. At
room temperature, electrons are easily excited from the valence
band into the acceptor levels. The corresponding holes created
in the valence band are the main charge-carriers in the crystal

254

Quantum Physics

when an electric field is applied. Thus, in a p-type semiconductor

the holes are the majority carriers ; and the few electrons,
thermally excited from the valence band into the conduction
band, are minority carriers.

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is very poor

unless the temperature is very high. At room temperature only
one atom in 109 contributes to the conduction. The intrinsic
semiconductor is thus of no practical use. In an extrinsic
semiconductor, however, any desired conductivity can be
precisely achieved by controlling the impurity concentration.
If one impurity atom is added for every 108 germanium atoms,
the conductivity increases 16 times.
Germanium and silicon are not the only semiconducting
materials with practical applications. Another important class
of semiconductors has compounds of trivalent and pentavalent
elements, such as Ga As (gallium arsenide) and In Sb (indium
antimonide).

Fermi Level in Impurity Semiconductors : In an intrinsic

(pure) semiconductor, the Fermi level F lies in the middle of
the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band, indicating equal concentrations of free electrons and
holes.
The situation is different for impurity semiconductors. In
an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies above the middle

The Semiconductors

255

of the energy gap because there are more electrons in the

conduction band than there are holes in the valence band. On
the other hand, in a p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies
below the middle of the energy gap because there are fewer
electrons in the conduction band than there are holes in the
valence band. The position of the Fermi level, however, changes
with impurity concentration as well as with temperature.

In an n-type semiconductor, at T = 0, the donor levels are

all occupied but there are no electrons in the conduction band.
Therefore, the Fermi level F lies between the donor levels and
the bottom of the conduction band (all states below F are full
and all above F are empty), as indicated in Fig. (a). Now, as
the temperature is increased above absolute zero, electrons are
raised from donor levels to the conduction band, and the Fermi
level moves down.
At the temperature at which half of the donor states have
become empty, the Fermi level coincides with the donor levels.
With further increase in temperature, the thermal excitation of
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band starts
(as in an intrinsic semiconductor) and the Fermi level drops
more toward the centre of the energy gap. When the number
of these thermally-generated electrons (from the valence band)
in the conduction band becomes much larger than the donor

Quantum Physics

256

electrons there, the Fermi level drops to nearly the centre of

the energy gap (Fig. a). Under these conditions (low donor
concentration and high temperature) the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band and that of holes in the
valence band become almost equal and the crystal behaves like
an intrinsic semiconductor
The same type of argument for the p-type semiconductor
leads to the conclusion that, as the temperature is increased,
the Fermi level moves from between the top of the valence
band and the acceptor levels, at T = 0, to the centre of the
energy gap at high temperatures (Fig. b).
At low temperatures, where kT < g, conduction is due
mostly to the impurities because there is little thermal excitation
of valence electrons. At high temperatures the impurity levels
have been used up (i.e. they have either donated or accepted
electrons), and the semiconductor conducts as though it were
intrinsic.

Various Concentrations in Semiconductors

A semiconductor contains free electrons and holes which
are generated in pairs due to thermal excitation. The rate of
thermal generation (electron-hole pairs/m3-sec) depends upon
the properties of the material of the semiconductor and is a
function of temperature. Along with their generation, the
electrons and holes continue to recombine and disappear. The
rate of recombination depends upon the numbers of electrons
and holes present. If they are few in number, the rate of
recombination is low ; if they are many, the rate is high. In
general, the rate of recombination is given by

R = r ne nh ,
where ne and nh are electron and hole concentrations (number
of electrons or holes/m3) respectively and r is a proportionality
constant for the material.

The Semiconductors

257

Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of generation, g

(say), is just equal to the rate of recombination, that is,

g = R = r ne nh .
In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor the concentrations of
electrons and holes are equal, that is,

ne = nh = ni,
where ni is called the intrinsic concentration. Then, we have

g = R = r ne nh = r ni2.
Even in a doped (impurity mixed) semiconductor, the bulk
of the atoms are still germanium (or silicon) and the thermal
generation rate is unchanged from the intrinsic value. Therefore,
the last equation is a general relation at a given temperature.
It gives

ne nh = ni,2 ,
for doped semiconductors as well. This relation is called massaction law.
The electron and hole densities are further inter-related
because of the fact that the semiconductor as a whole is
electrically neutral.
Let Nd be the concentration of donor atoms in an n-type
semiconductor. These are practically all ionised (activated),
giving Nd positive ions per m3 which are fixed in the lattice.
The free positive-charge (hole) density in the semiconductor
is nh. Hence the total positive-charge density is Nd + nh. In
n-type semiconductor, the total negative-charge density is just
the electron density ne. For electrical neutrality of the
semiconductor, we must have

ne = Nd + nh.
In practice, in an n -type semiconductor the hole
concentration is very small compared to electron concentration.
ne ~ Nd .

Quantum Physics

258

Thus, in an n-type semiconductor the free-electron concentration

is approximately equal to the density of donor atoms. The
concentration of holes in the n-type semiconductor is

nh =

ni2 ni2
~
nd
ne

The corresponding equations for a p-type semiconductor

are

nh ~ Na
and

ne ~

ni2
,
na

where Na is the density of acceptor atoms.

PROBLEMS
1. Compare the number of conduction electrons is a
semiconductor, a conductor and an insulator.
Ans. Assuming the Fermi energy to lie in the middle of the
energy gap, the occupation probability of conduction band at
temperature T is

e -g/2kT
where g is the energy gap.
At room temperature (T = 300K), we have

kT = (1.38 1023 joule/K) (300 K)

=

4.14 1 21 joule
1.60 10 19 joule/eV

1
eV.
40

For a semiconductor, g ~ 1 eV, therefore

occupation probability ~ e20 109,
that is, 1 atom in 109 contributes an electron to the electrical
conductivity.

The Semiconductors

259

In a metal essentially every atom contributes an electron

to the conductivity, that is
occupation probability 1.
An insulator has a band structure very similar to that of
a semiconductor, except that the energy gap is, say, 5 eV
instead of 1 eV. This small difference in the width of the energy
gap has an enormous effect on the occupation probability of
the conduction band at room temperature, which is

~ eg/2kT
~ e100 10-44
that is, 1 atom in 1044 contributes an electron to the electrical
conductivity.
Thus in a sample containing an order of 1020 atoms, there
may be 1011 conduction electrons in a semiconductor, 1020 in
a conductor (metal), and none in an insulator.
2. Find the temperature at which the number of electrons
in the conduction band of a semiconductor increases by a
factor of 10 over the number of electrons in it at room
temperature. The band gap for the semiconductor is 0.67 eV.
1
eV).
40

(At room temperature, kT ~

Solution : The density of electrons in the conduction band

at temperature T is given by
ne = Ke e-g/2kT,
where Ke is a constant and g is the energy gap for the
semiconductor.
At room temperature kT ~

1
eV = 0.025 eV; and g = 067
40

eV (given). Thus, at room temperature, we have

ne = Ke e

0.67 eV/2 0.025 eV

... (i)

Quantum Physics

260

Let T be the temperature at which the density becomes 10 ne.

Then
10 ne = Ke e 0.67 eV/2kT (eV)
Dividing eq. (ii) by (i), we get
10 =
or

loge 10 =

e 0.67 eV/2kT eV
e 6 eV/0.05 eV
0.67 eV
0.67 eV

0.05 eV 2 kT eV

0.67
2 kT

or

2.30 = 13.4

or

0.67
= 13.4 2.30= 11.1
2 kT

or
Now

kT =

... (ii)

0.67
= 0.030 eV.
2 11.1

k = 1.38 10-23 joule/K =

1.38 10 23
1.60 10 19

= 0.86 104 eV/K.

T=

0.030 eV
0.86 10 4 eV/ K

= 350 K.

3. Find the concentration of germanium atoms in a pure

Ge crystal from the following data : atomic weight of
Ge = 72.6, density = 5.32 103 kg/m3 and Avogadro number
NA = 6.02 l023.

Find also the concentration of Ge atoms relative to electronhole pairs if the intrinsic carrier density at room temperature
is 2.4 10l9/m3.
Solution : By Avogadros law, the number of Ge atoms
per meter3 of the crystal is given by
N A
nA =
,
M
where is the density and M is atomic weight. Thus

The Semiconductors
nA =

261

6.02 10 23 atoms/ gm atom 5.32 gm / cm 2

72.6 gm / gm - atom

= 4.4 1022 atoms/cm3

= 4.4 1028 atoms/m3.
The intrinsic concentration of electron-hole pairs at room
temperature is ni = 2.4 l0l9/m3.
4.4 10
nA
= 2.4 1019 = 2 109 germanium atoms per electron
ni
28

hole pair.
4. The mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample
of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are 0.36 and
0.17 m2/V-s respectively. If the electron and hole densities are
each equal to 2.5 1019/m3, calculate the electrical conductivity
and resistivity of germanium.

Solution : With two charge-carriers, the expression for the

electrical conductivity is
= ne e e + n h e h ,
where ne and nh are the densities of electrons and holes and
e and h are the corresponding mobilities.
In an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor, the number of electrons
is just equal to the number of holes, that is,

ne = nh = ni (say),
called intrinsic carrier density.
Therefore, the (intrinsic) conductivity is
= ni e (e + h)
= (2.5 1019/m3) (1.6 l019 C) (0.36 +
0.17) m2/V-s

Quantum Physics

262
= 2.12

coul / meter
volt - sec

= 2.12/ohm-meter.
[... volt-sec = ohm-coul]
The resistivity is
=

1
1
=
= 0.47 -m.

2.12

5. Calculate the intrinsic conductivity and resistivity of

pure silicon at 300 K, assuming intrinsic carrier (electron-hole
pair) density at this temperature to be 15 X 1016/m3. The electron
and hole mobilities in silicon are 0.135 and 0.048 m2/volt-sec
respectively.
[Ans.
Ans. 4:4 104/-m, 2.27 103 -m.]
6. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm
X 1 mm x 1 mm at 300 K. For Ge : ni = 2.5 1013/cm3, e = 3900
cm2/volt-sec and uh = 1900 cm2/volt-sec at 300 K.

Solution : For an intrinsic semiconductor, the expression

for the conductivity is
= ni e(e + h) ,
where ni is the intrinsic carrier density and e and h are
electron and hole mobilities.
Given ni = 2.5 1013/cm3 = 2.5 1019/m3 ; e = 3900 cm2/
volt-sec = 0.39m/volt-sec, h = 0.19 m2/volt-sec and e = 1.6
1019 coulomb.
= (2.5 l0l9/m3) (1.6 1019 coul) (0.39 + 0.19)m2/volt-sec
= 2.32/ohm-meter.
The resistivity is
=

1
1
=
= 0.43 ohm-meter.

2.32

The Semiconductors

263

The length of the rod is l = 1 cm = 102 meter, and area

of cross-section is A 1 (mm)2 = 106m6. Its resistance is

R=

= (0.43 ohm-m)

10 2 m
10 6 m 2

= 4.3 103 ohm.

7. A semiconductor has 6 x 1019 electrons and 7 x 1020 holes
per meter3. If the mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.10 m2/
V-s and 0.06 m2/V-s respectively, calculate the conductivity of
semiconductor.Ans.
the semiconductor.
Ans. 7.68 mho/m.
8. Estimate the binding energy and the orbital radius of the
donor (fifth) electron of arsenic in a germanium crystal. The
dielectric constant of germanium is 16 and the effective mass
of the electron is m = 0.2 m.

Solution : When a pentavalent As atom replaces a Ge atom

in the crystal lattice, four of the five valence electrons of the
As atom form covalent bonds with the neighbouring Ge atoms
while the fifth electron orbits around the positive core of the
As+ ion, behaving like the electron in the ground state of a
hydrogen-like atom (Fig.). The chief difference is that this fifth
electron moves in a lattice (not in vacuum), and so the dielectric
constant K of Ge should be taken into account, and the mass
of the electron m should be replaced by its effective mass m.
Using hydrogen-like formula (taking n = 1) the binding energy
of the electron is given by

Quantum Physics

264
1 m* e4

E=

K 2 8 0 2 h2
Substituting the values :

0.2 9.1 1031 kg 1.6 1019 coul

1
2
2
E = 16 8 8.85 10 12 coul 6.63 10 34 joule-sec 2

nt-m2
4

= 1.7 1021 joule

=

1.7 10 21
1.6 10 19

~ 0.01 eV.

The energy required for the fifth electron to leave the

donor As atom and enter the conduction band is very small,
only 0.01 eV. This is because of the high dielectric constant of
Ge and a small effective mass of the electron in the crystal
lattice.
The radius of the orbit is given by

r= K
= K
where a 0

h2 0
m* e2

m
a ,
m* 0

h2 0

0.53 A is the Bohr smallest radius.
2
m e

Thus

r = 16

1
0.53 = 42.4 .
0.2

So the fifth electron moves in a large orbit that contains

a large number of Ge atoms.
9. Phosphorus is present in a Ge sample. Assume that one
of its five valence electrons revolves in a Bohr orbit around

The Semiconductors

265

each P+ ion in the Ge lattice. If the effective mass of the

electron is 0.17 m and the dielectric constant of Ge is 16, find
the energy and the radius of the Bohr orbit of the electron. The
energy gap between the valence and conduction bands in Ge
is 0.67 eV. How does the ionisation energy of the above electron
compare with this energy and with kT at room temperature?
Ans
Ans. ~ 0.01 eV, 50 . The ionisation energy is much smaller
than the energy gap of 0.67 eV, but not very far from the 0025
eV value of kTat 27C.
10. An intrinsic semiconductor has a carrier density of J020
per m3 at room temperature. It is doped with arsenic atoms
so that there are 1021 arsenic atoms per in3. Calculate the
density of Conduction in hole carriers at room temperature,
assuming that all the donor atoms[are|ionised.

Solution : Arsenic is a donor impurity whose concentration

is Nd = 1021/m3. The intrinsic carrier density is ni = 1020/m3.
In the n-type semiconductor, the hole concentration is given
by

10 20
ni2
nh ~
~
10 21
Nd

~ 1019/m3.

11. An intrinsic sample of germanium has a hole density

of 1019/cm3 at room temperature. When doped with antimony,
the hole density decreased to 1011/cm3 at the same temperature.
Calculate the density of the majority charge carriers.

Solution : The intrinsic electron and hole densities are

same:
ni = 1013/cm3.
Let ne and nh be the electron and hole densities in doped
germanium. (Antimony is donor which reduces the hole
density). Then by mass-action law, we have

ne nh = ni2

Quantum Physics

266
or

10 13
Ni2
ne =
=
nh
10 11

= 1015/cm3.

In n-type semiconductor electrons are the majority carriers.

12. The resistivity of pure silicon is 2300 -m and the
mobilities of electrons and holes in it are 0.135 and 0.048
m2/V-s respectively. Find the electron and hole concentrations,
and the resistivity of a specimen of silicon doped with 1019
atoms of phosphorus per meter3.

Solution : The intrinsic conductivity of a (pure)

semiconductor is given by
i = ni e (e + h),
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, and e, and h are
electron and hole mobilities. The corresponding resistivity is
i =

ni =

1
1
=
.
ni e e h
i

i e e h
1

2300 ohm m 1.6 10 19 coul 0.135 0.048 m2 / volt - sec

= l.48 l016/m3.
The phosphorus is a donor with concentration,
Nd = 1019/m3. In the doped n-type semiconductor, the free
electron concentration is given by (assuming that all the donor
atoms have been ionised)

ne ~ Nd ~ 1019/m3,
and the hole concentration is

ni2
1.48 1016 / m 3
nh ~
~
Nd
10 19 / m 3

The Semiconductors

267
~ 2.2 1013/m3.

The conductivity of a doped semiconductor is given by

= (ne e + nh h) e.
In n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers
(ne >> nh) so that we can write
si ne e e ~ Nd e e

~ 1019/m3 0.135 m 2/volt-sec (1.6

l0-19 coul)
~ 0.216/ohm-m.
The corresponding resistivity is

P=

1
1
=
~ 4.63 ohm-m.
0
.
216
/
ohm
-m

The resistivity of the doped silicon is vastly different from

the intrinsic resistivity.
13. A silicon wafer is doped with phosphorus of
concentration 1013 atoms/cm3. If all the donor atoms are active,
what is the resistivity at room temperature? The electron
mobility is 1350 cm2/volt-sec. The charge on the electron is
1.6 10-19 coul.

Hint : Convert in S.I. units.

[Ans.
Ans. 4.63 -m.]
14. Find the conductivity of p-type Ge crystal which is
doped with acceptor atoms of concentration 2 X 1017 atoms/
cm3 and all acceptor atoms are active. Given h=1900 cm2/
volt-sec and e =1.6 l019 coul.

Solution : In a p-type semiconductor, the hole concentration

nh is roughly equal to the acceptor concentration, that is
nh~ Na ~ 2 1017/cm3 ~ l023/m3.

Quantum Physics

268
The conductivity is given by
= (ne e + nh h) e.

In p-type semiconductor (nh >>ne) the holes are the majority

carriers and so we can write,
~ nh h e
~ (2 )0 23 /m 3) (0.19 m 2/volt-sec) (l.6
10-19 coul)
~ 6100/ohm-m.
15. A Ge crystal is doped with 10" donor atoms/cm3.
Assuming that all donors are ionised, determine the resistivity
of the doped sample. The electron mobility in Ge is 0.39 m2/voltsec and e = l.6 1019 C.
[Ans.
Ans. 0.16 ohm-m.]
16. A germanium rod 10 mm long by 1 mm square in crosssection has been doped with a total of 5 1013 donor atoms
at room temperature. Calculate the electron and hole densities
and the conductivity. Also calculate the resistance between
the square ends of the rod. The intrinsic carrier density in Ge
is 2.4 1019/m3 and electron mobility is 0.39 m2/V-sec.

Solution : The length of the rod is l = 10 mm = 102 m, area

of cross-section is A = 1 mm2 = 106 m2 and the volume is
V = 102 m l06 m2 = 108 m3.
The donor concentration is
Nd =

5 10 13 atom
10 8 m 3

= 5 1021 atoms/m3

and the intrinsic concentration is given to be

ni = 2.4 1019 atoms/m3.

In the n-type semiconductor, the electron density is given
by

The Semiconductors

269

ne ~ Nd ~ 5 l021/m3,
and the hole density is given by
The conductivity of the doped specimen is
~ ne e e + nh e h

~ ne e e

[ ne >> nh]

~ (5 1021/m3) (l.6 10 19 coul) (0.39

m2/V-sec)
~ 312/ohm-m.
The resistivity is

P=

1
1
=
= 3.2 102 ohm-m.

312

The resistance is

R=

= (3.2 103 ohm-m)

10 2 m
10 6 m 2

32 ohm.

14
Distribution of Energy

Fermi-Dirac Energy Distribution

In a metallic solid, the valence electrons are loosely bound
to the individual atoms, and consequently travel freely
throughout the volume of the metal. These are the conduction
electrons. We can treat these electrons as an ideal electron
gas because their mutual repulsion is, on the average,
cancelled by the attractions of the positive ions of the metal.
The positive ions, however, create a potential which is same
everywhere within the metal and zero outside. Therefore, the
conduction electrons may be regarded to live within a potential
well with the metal boundaries acting as high potential walls,
as shown in Fig. below.

Quantum Physics

272

We have to find the distribution of electron energies in a

metal. Since electrons are Fermi particles, they obey Paulis
exclusion principle and Fermi-Dirac distribution law.
According to this law, the number of electrons ni with the
energy i is given by

ni =

gi

i/ kT

e e

where gi is the number of quantum states having the same

energy
In a solid, there are 1022 to 1023 atoms/cm3 and the same
number of valence electrons (if the atoms are monovalent). As
such, there is an enormous number of quantum states which
the electrons can occupy, that is, there is almost a continuous
distribution of electron energies in the solid. In this situation
the F-D distribution law becomes

n ( ) d =

g d
e ei/kT 1

(i)

where n( ) d is the number of electrons having energies

between and + d , and g ( ) d is the number of
quantum states available to these electrons.
Since the electrons are confined inside the metal, their
wave properties will limit the energy values they may have.
It can be shown that the number of allowed energy values
between and + d is
4

2 V m3/2
h3

1/2 d ,

where m is the mass of electron and V is the volume of the

electron gas. Since there are two possible spin states (ms = +
and ms = ) for an electron, each energy value can be had
by two electrons, in accordance with exclusion principle.

Distribution of Energy

273

Therefore, the number of energy states available to the electrons

having energies between and + d is given by %

g ( ) d =

2 V m3/2
h3

1/2 d

... (ii)

Substituting this value of g( ) d in eq. (i), we get

n ( ) d =

2 V m3/2
h3

1/2 d
/ kT

e e

In F-D distribution, the parameter a is strongly dependent

on temperature T, and we write
F

kT

... (iii)

where F is called the Fermi energy. The last expression now

becomes

n d

2 V m3/2
h3

1/2 d
... (iv)
e F /kT 1

This is the formula for the number of electrons having

energies between and + d in a metal of volume V at
Kelvin temperature T.
At the absolute zero (T = 0) there are two situations :
(i)

For <

so that n ( ) d =

F, e(F)/kT = e = 0,

2 V m3/2
h3

1/2

d ,

which represents a parabolic curve.

(ii)

For >

F, e(F)/kT = e = , so that

n ( ) d = 0.
This means that no electrons have energy greater than F
at the absolute zero. In other words, the Fermi energy F is the

274

Quantum Physics

maximum energy that a free electron in the metal can have at absolute
zero.
The plot of n( ) against at T = 0 is shown in Fig. below.
After rising along a parabola from the origin, it drops abruptly
to zero at = F. This distribution of the electron energies at
T = 0 is understandable. The electrons occupy the lowest
available energy states, but due to exclusion principle, each
energy level can take only two electrons, so the electrons go
to higher and higher energy levels until all are accommodated.
The highest energy occupied is F.

A typical plot of n() against at a much higher

temperature T = 1200 K is also shown in Fig. Since at any
temperature the area under the corresponding curve gives the
total number of electrons in the metal, the two shaded areas
must be equal. It is seen that even a considerable rise in temperature
changes the energy state of only a very small fraction of the electrons.

Calculation of Fermi Energy

Suppose a given metal contains N free electrons. We can
calculate its Fermi energy F by filling up its energy states. At
T = 0, starting from = 0, all quantum states upto = F are
filled while all higher than F are vacant. The total number of
free electrons is equal to the total number of quantum states
upto the energy F, because each state is limited to one electron
(exclusion principle). That is,

Distribution of Energy

275

N =

g d

Substituting the value of g () d from eq. (ii), we have

N=

Thus

2 Vm3/2
3

3 h3
2 m
2
h

162 Vm3/2

8 V
3

3/2

1/2 d

F 3/2

F 3/2

h2 3N

2m 8V

2/3

This is the expression for the Fermi energy of a metal

(strictly speaking at T = 0, but holding quite excellently upto
T F/k). The quantity N/V is the density of free electrons.
Thus the Fermi energy is independent of the size of the metal.
The Fermi energy ranges from 1.53 eV for cesium to 11.8
eV for aluminium.
The Fermi energy can be written in terms of Fermi
temperature TF which is defined by the relation
F = k TF,
where k is Boltzmanns constant.

Electronic Specific Heat : Experimentally, the molar specific

heat of metals at ordinary, and also at quite high, temperatures
does not exceed a value of 3R (Dulong-Petit value). This specific
heat is attributed to the vibration of the atoms in the metallic
crystal lattice.
Now, in a typical metal, each atom contributes one electron
to the common electron gas, so that in one mole of the metal

Quantum Physics

276

there are N free electrons, where N is Avogadro number. If

these conduction electrons behave like the molecules of an
ideal gas, each would have an average kinetic energy of (3/2)
kT. Thus the (internal) electron energy per mole of the metal
would be

Ee =

3
3
N kT =
RT.
2
2

k N

The molar specific heat of the electrons should therefore

be
E e
3
Cve = T =
R,
2
v

and the total specific heat of the metal should be

Cv = 3R +

3
9
R=
R,
2
2

and not merely 3R, as shown by experiments. It means that

the free (conduction) electrons do not contribute to the specific
heat at ordinary and high temperatures.
The failure of the free electrons in a metal to contribute to
its specific heat follows directly from the Fermi Dirac energy
distribution among the electrons. It is seen from the distribution
curve (Fig.) that when a metal is heated, only those electrons
which are occupying the top energy levels (near F) absorb
additional energy and go to higher levels. The vast majority
of the electrons in the lower levels cannot absorb more energy
because the levels above them are already filled. The number
of top electrons is, however, only a fraction kT/F of the total.
At room temperature (T = 300 K), kT 0025 eV and F ranges
from 1.5 to 12 eV for different metals. Thus less than 1% of the
electrons absorb energy. Their contribution to the specific heat,
2 kT
which is 2 R, is of the order of 102 R. This is negligible
F
compared with the atomic (lattice) contribution of 3R.

Distribution of Energy

277

It is only at temperatures of the order of 104 K (beyond the

melting point of metals) that the electronic contribution is
comparable with the lattice contribution.
At very low temperatures, however, the electronic
contribution exceeds the lattice contribution because the
electronic specific heat remains proportional to T, whereas the
atomic specific heat becomes proportional to T3 (Debye law).
At temperatures near the absolute zero, the specific heat of
metals is actually observed proportional to T, thus verifying
the electronic contribution and hence Fermi-Dirac distribution.

Average Free-electron Energy at Absolute Zero :The number

of electrons in an electron-gas having energies between and
+ d is given by
n () D =

2 2 V m3/2

h3

1/2 d
,
e F /kT 1

... (i)

where m is the mass of electron and is the volume of the

electron-gas.
If N is the total number of electrons, then the Fermi energy
F is given by
F =

or

(F)3/2 =

or

h2 3 N

2m 8 V

h3
2 2m3/2

2/3

3N
8 V

8 2 V m3/2

3N
3/2
F

Making this substitution in eq. (i), we get

n () d =

1/2 d
3N
3/2
F

2
e F /kT 1

Quantum Physics

278

At T = 0 all of the electrons have energies less than or equal

to F (i.e. < F), so that at T = 0, we have

e(F)/kT = e

= 0.

Therefore, at absolute zero

n () d =

3N
3/2
F

1/2 de.
2

Now, let us first find the total energy E0 at absolute zero,

which is
F

E0 =

n d
0

=
=
=

3N
F 3/2
2

3/2

3N
2
F 3/2 5 F 5/2
2
3
N F.
5

The average energy 0 is this total energy divided by the

total number N of electrons. Thus.
0 =

E0
3
= F .
N
5

PROBLEMS
1. Compute the Fermi energy for sodium, assuming that
each sodium atom contributes one free electron to the electron
gas. The density of sodium is 0971 gm/cm3 and its atomic
weight is 23. (h = 6.63 10-34 joule-sec, m = 9.ll l031kg and
Avogadro number is 6.02 1023 atoms/mole).

Solution: Let V be the volume of a piece of sodium and

N the number of free electrons in it. The free electron density,
N/V, in sodium is equal to the number of sodium atoms per

Distribution of Energy

279

unit volume, because each sodium atom contributes one free

electron to the gas. This can, in turn, be found from the density
and atomic weight of sodium.
The mass of 1 mole (or gm-atom) of an element is M, where
M is the molecular (or atomic) weight of the element. Its volume
is M/p, where is the density of the element. It contains
NA molecules (or atoms), where NA is Avogadros number.
Therefore, the number of molecules (or atoms) per unit
volume is

NA
M = NA/M.
The electron density in sodium is thus

N A
M

N
=
V

6.02 10

23

atoms/ mole 0.971 gm / cm 3

23gm / mole

= 2.54 1022 atoms/cm3

= 2.54 l028atoms/m3
= 2.54 1028 electrons/m3.
The Fermi energy for sodium is

h2 3 N

F =
2m 8 V

2/3

6.63 10 joule - sec

2 9.11 10 kg
34

31

= 5.0 l0-19 joule

=

5.0 10 19
1.6 10 19

= 3.1 eV.

3 2.54 10 28 / m3

8 3.14

2/2

Quantum Physics

280

2. There are 2 54 1022 free electrons per cm3 in sodium.

Calculate its Fermi energy, Fermi Texocity and Fermi
temperature. (h = 6.63 l0-34 joule-sec, m = 911 l031 kg,
k =1.38 l023 joule/K, 1 eV=1.6 1019 joule).

Solution : The Fermi energy of a metal is given by

F =

h2 3 N

2m 8 V

2/3

where m is the mass of electron and N is the number of free

electrons in a volume V of the metal. Here

N
= 2.54 l022 cm3 = 2.54 1028/meter3.
V
Substituting this and the values of m and h, we get

6.63 10 joule - sec

2 9.11 10
kg
34

F =

31

3 2.54 10 28 / m 3

8 3.14

2/ 3

= 5.0 l019 joule = 3.1 eV.

This is the (maximum) kinetic energy of the free electron
at absolute zero. If vF be the Fermi velocity, then
1
m vF2 =
2

vF =

F = 5.0 1019 joule

2 5.0 10 19 joule

31
9.11 10 kg

= 1.05 l06 m/sec.

The Fermi temperature TF is defined by
TF =

5.0 10 19 joule
1.38 10 23 joule / K

= 3.6 104 K.

Distribution of Energy

281

3. Consider silver in the metallic state, with one free

(conduction) electron per atom. Calculate its Fermi energy. The
density of silver is 10-5 gm/cm3 and its atomic weight is 108.
The Avogadros number Is 6.02 1023 atoms/mole. Take values
of h and m from the last problem.
[Ans.
Ans. 5.5 eV.]
2

4. The density of zinc (Is 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d10 4s2) is 713

gm/cm3 and its atomic weight is 654. Calculate its Fermi energy.
The effective mass of a free electron in zinc crystal is 77 10-81
kg and the Avogadros number is 6.02 l023 atoms/ gm-atom.

Solution : The electron configuration of the ground state

of Zn shows that each atom has 2 valence electrons which it
contributes to the electron gas.
The mass of 1 gm-atom of Zn is 65.4 gm, so that the volume

V=

65.4
mass
=
= 9.17 cm3.
7.13
density

The number of Zn atoms in this volume is 6.02 1023.

Therefore, the number of atoms per unit volume
=

6.02 10 23
= 6.56 1022/cm3.
9.17

Since each atom contributes 2 valence electrons, the number

of free electrons per unit volume is

N
= 2 6.56 l022
V
= 13.1 1022/cm3 = 13.1 1028/meter3.
Now, the Fermi energy of the metal Zn is
F =

h2 3 N

2m 8 V

2/3

where m is the (effective) mass of the electron in zinc.

Substituting the values, we get

Quantum Physics

282

6.62 10 joule - sec 3 13.1 10 / m

F =

8 3.14

2 7.7 10
kg
6.62 10 (6.25 1018)
=
2

34

28

2/3

31

34 2

2 7.7 10 31

= 17.78 1019 joule

=

17.78 10 19
1.6 10 19

= 11 eV.

5. The Fermi energy in silver is 5.51 eV.(a) What is the

average energy of the free electrons in silver at 0 K ? (b) At
what temperature a classical free particle (such as ideal gas
molecule) will have this kinetic energy ?(k = 1.38 10-23 joule/K
and 1 eV= 1.6 l019 joule).

Solution: (a) The average energy of an electron in electrongas at 0 K is

3
F ,
0 =
5
where F is the Fermi energy. Now, F = 5.51 eV. Therefore
3
5.51 = 3.306 eV.
5
(b) The kinetic energy of a classical particle at Kelvin
3
temperature T is kT. Then, if the particle has an energy 3.306
2
eV, then we have
3
kT = 3.306 eV = 3.306 (1.6 1019) joule,
2
0 =

where

k = 1. 38 1023 joule/K. Therefore

T=

2 3.306 1.6 10 19 joule

3
1.38 10 -23 joule / K

= 2.55 104 K.

Distribution of Energy

283

6. The Fermi energy for lithium is 4.72 eV at absolute zero.

Calculate the number of conduction electrons per unit volume
in lithium. (h = 6.63 1034 J-s, m = 9.11 1031 kg).
Solution: The Fermi energy is
F =

h2 3 N

2m 8 V

2/3

where N is the number of conduction electrons in a volume

V of the lithium metal. The number of conduction electrons per
unit volume is therefore

N
2m
= 2
V
h

3/2

F3/2

8
.
3

Then, with F = 4.72 eV = 4.72 1.6 1019 joule, we have

N
=
V
=

2 9.11 10 19

6.63 10 34 joule - sec

4.72 1.6 10

19

joule

3/2

3/2

8 3.14

3
28

= 4.64 10 /m .
7. For lithium, the Fermi energy is 4.70 eV and the density
of electrons is 4.6 1028/m3. Find the electron density for a
metal with Fermi energy 2.35 eV.

Solution: The electron density for a metal with Fermi energy

F is given by
N
2m
= 2
V
h

3/2

F3/2

8
3

N
3F/2
V
The electron density for the metal is
3/2
2.35
N

28
3

V metal = 4.6 l0 /m 4.70
or

= 1.6 1028/m3.

15
Energy Band Structure

Solids Band Theory

A solid contains an enormous number of atoms packed
closely together. Each atom, when isolated, has a discrete set
of electron energy levels 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p,...... If we imagine all
the N (say) atoms of the solid to be isolated from one another,
then they would have completely coinciding sets of energy
levels. That is, each of the energy levels of this N-atom system
would have an N-fold degeneracy. The electrons fill the energy
levels in each atom independently. As the atoms approach one
another to form the solid, a continuously increasing interaction
occurs between them which causes each of the levels to -split
into N distinct levels. In practice, however, N is very large
( 1023/cm3). Therefore, the splitted energy levels become so
numerous and so close together that they form an almost
continuous energy band.
The amount of splitting is different for different energy
levels. In general, the lower levels are splitted less than the
higher levels, the lowest levels remaining almost unsplitted.

286

Quantum Physics

The reason is that the electrons in lower levels are the inner
electrons of the atoms, which are not significantly influenced
by the presence of nearby atoms. On the other hand, the
electrons in higher levels are the valence electrons whose
wave functions overlap appreciably.
Figure below shows the formation of energy levels for
some of the higher energy levels of isolated sodium atoms
(whose ground-state configuration is Is2 2s2 2p6 3s1) as their
interatomic distance decreases. (The dashed line indicates the
observed interatomic separation in solid sodium). The 3s level
is the first occupied level to be splitted into a band ; the 2p
level does not begin to split until the interatomic distance
becomes smaller than actually found in the solid sodium. (The
levels Is and 2s do not split at all).

Energy Band Structure

287

Now, the energy bands in a solid correspond to the energy

levels in an atom. An electron in a solid can have only energies
that fall within these energy bands. The various energy bands
in a solid may or may not overlap depending upon the structure
of the solid. If they do not overlap (Fig. a) then the intervals
between them represent energies which the electrons in the
solid cannot have. These intervals are called forbidden bands
or energy gaps. If, however, the adjacent energy bands in
a solid overlap (Fig. b), the electrons have a continuous
distribution of allowed energies.

Solids Classification ON the Basis of Band Structure : The

electrical properties of a solid depend upon its energy-band
structure and the way in which the energy-bands are occupied
by the electrons. In general, each energy band has a total of
N individual levels, and each level can hold 2 (2l+1) electrons
so that the capacity of each band is 2(214- l) N electrons. Thus
the \s, 2s, 2p, 3s.......bands can hold 2N, 2N, 6N, 2N, ..... .electrons
respectively. Depending on the nature of band occupation by
electrons and on the width of forbidden bands, all solids can
be classified as conductors, insulators and semiconductors
Conductors : In some solids there is a partially-fitted band
above the completely-filled lower bands. Such a band is formed
from partially-filled atomic levels as in case of alkali metals like
sodium (Fig. a). A sodium atom has a single valence electron
in its outer 3s level. Therefore, of the N atoms in a solid piece
of sodium, each contributes only one 3s electron to the solid,
and so there are only N (valence) electrons in the 3s band. The
valence band 3s is thus only half full.

288

Quantum Physics

A partially-filled band may also be the result of overlapping

of a completely-filled band and an empty band, as in case of
alkaline-earth metals. In Fig. b are shown the energy bands of
beryllium in which there is an overlap of the lower energy
levels of the empty 2p band with the upper energy levels of
the completed 2s band. Those electrons which would occupy
the highest energy levels in the 2s band will actually go into
the lowest levels of the overlapping 2p band. Thus levels at the
top of the 2s band become unoccupied and the band is only
partially-filled.
Now, suppose an electric field is applied across a piece of
solid sodium (or beryllium). Then electrons in the partiallyfilled valence band easily acquire additional energy to move
to the higher unoccupied energy levels within the same band,
without crossing any energy gap. The additional energy is in
the form of kinetic energy, and the moving electrons constitute
an electric current. Sodium (or beryllium) metal is therefore a
good conductor of electricity. Thus, a partially-filled valence
energy-band is a feature of conductors.
An empty band into which electrons can pass is termed as
conduction band. In conductors, the valence band itself is the
conduction band.

Energy Band Structure

289

Insulators : In some solids, the valence band (containing

the outer electrons of the atoms) is completely filled, while the
next higher band separated by an energy gap of a few electronvolts is completely empty. Such a solid is an insulator.
Diamond and sodium chloride are typical examples of
insulators.
Figure below shows the energy bands of diamond. There
is an energy band completely filled with electrons (the valence
band), and above it is an empty band (the conduction band)
separated by a gap of 7eV. (The bands below the valence band
are also completely filled).
At least 7 eV of energy must be provided to an electron
in the diamond crystal in order to enter the conduction band
where it can move freely. With kT = 0.025 eV at room
temperature, valence electrons do not have enough thermal
energy to cross the 7-eV gap.

Now, if an electric field be applied, the electrons in the

valence band would not accept energy to move within the
band because there are no unoccupied levels in this band. They
can, however, move to the higher empty band provided they
get energy of about 7 eV to cross the gap. Since the electric field
cannot give this amount of energy, the electrons do not acquire
a directional motion. Diamond is, therefore, an insulator.

290

Quantum Physics

Semiconductors
Certain solids have the basic crystal structure of an insulator,
but with a much smaller energy gap (of the order of an electronvolt) between the valence band and the conduction band. Such
solids are known as semiconductors. Silicon and germanium,
having energy gaps of l.l eV and 0.7 eV respectively, are typical
examples of semiconductors.
The below given figure shows the energy bands of silicon.
At room temperature, a few of its electrons in the valence
band have sufficient kinetic energy of thermal motion to cross
the narrow energy gap (forbidden band) and enter the
conduction band above it. Hence, when an electric field is
applied, the few electrons present in the conduction band
acquire additional energy to move to the unoccupied levels
within the same band. Similarly, a few of the many electrons
present in the valence band move to the few available
unoccupied levels in the same band. Hence there is a limited
flow of current across the crystal. Thus, silicon has an electrical
conductivity intermediate between those of conductors and
insulators, and is therefore a semiconductor.

Relative Conductivities of Ge, Si and Diamond : At absolute

zero, the semiconductors (Ge and Si) have the same energyband structure as the insulators (diamond), that is, a filled
valence band and above it an empty conduction band with an
energy gap in between. Hence, at temperature near absolute
zero, all the three Ge, Si and diamond are insulators.

Energy Band Structure

291

As the temperature increases, some of the valence electrons

gain enough thermal energy to jump over the energy gap and
enter the conduction band. Thus electrons become available in
the conduction band, and vacancies (or holes) in the valence
band. They both cause conduction when electric field is applied.
The probability of this happening increases with temperature,
and it depends strongly on the width of the energy gap
(forbidden band). In Ge and Si, the energy gaps are narrower,
07 and 1.1 eV, and so they become reasonably conducting at
room temperature ; Ge being a little better than Si as conductor.
On the other hand, the gap between the filled and the empty
band in diamond is quite large, 7 eV. Hence diamond remains
an insulator even at high temperatures.

Optical Properties of Solids : The optical properties of

solids are closely connected with their energy-band structures.
For example; conductors, semiconductors and insulators behave
differently to light. This is because of the basic difference in
their energy-band structures.
(a) All Metals are Opaque to Light of all Wavelengths : In
metals (conductors), the valence energy band is either
partially filled or (if completely filled) overlapped by
an empty conduction band. Therefore, the valence
electrons can acquire additional energy, however small,
to move to the unoccupied energy levels of the same
band. Hence, when light of any wavelength falls on a
metal, the electrons absorb the light photons (energy)
and are excited to the higher (unoccupied) energy levels.
Thus light is absorbed, not transmitted through the
metal. That is, the metal is opaque to light of all
wavelengths. The characteristic luster of metals is
due to there-radiation of light absorbed by their valence
(free) electrons. If the metal surface is smooth the
re-radiated light appears as a reflection of the incident
light.

292

Quantum Physics

(b) Semiconductors are Opaque to Visible Light but Transparent

to Infrared Light : In a semiconductor the valence band
is full above which there is an empty conduction band
with a small energy gap, of the order of 1 eV in between.
Photons of visible light have energies roughly between
1 and eV, and so they are absorbed by the valence
electrons which are excited to the conduction band.
Hence the semiconductor is opaque to visible light.
The photons of infrared light are, however, of much
smaller energies and fail to excite the electrons in the
valence band. Hence the infrared light passes through
the semiconductor i.e. the semiconductor is transparent
to infrared light.
(c) Insulators are Transparent to Visible Light : The electrons
in the valence band of an insulator need more than 3
eV of energy to jump across the forbidden band to the
conduction band. Diamond, for example, requires 7 eV
of energy. Insulators therefore cannot absorb photons
of visible light (having 1-3 eV energies) which passes
through them. Many insulators are, however, opaque
to ultraviolet light whose high-energy photons make
electrons to cross the forbidden band.

Electrical Conductivity of Metals

The mechanism how a metal conducts electricity can be
understood by the free-electron model. The crystal lattice of
a metal consists of positive ions at the lattice points, and the
valence electrons are free to move inside the crystal. In the
absence of an applied electric field, the free electrons move in
random directions. This is because the electrons frequently
collide with the imperfections in the crystal lattice, which arise
from the thermal vibrations of the ions about their equilibrium
positions in the lattice and also from the presence of impurity
ions. After each collision, the electrons are scattered in new

Energy Band Structure

293

directions with new speeds and this makes their motion random.
If be the average time between the collisions of an electron,
then

= v ,
F
where is the average distance between collisions (mean free
path), and vF is the speed of those electrons whose kinetic
energy is equal to the Fermi energy. (Only electrons near the
Fermi level contribute to the conductivity).
When an electric field is applied to a metal, the electrons
modify their random motion in such a way that, on the average,
they drift slowly in the direction opposite to that of the field
(because their charge is negative) with a small speed vd. Let
us calculate it.
The electric field E applied to an electron in the metal
exerts on it a force eE which gives it an acceleration a, given
by
eE
a=
,
m
where e is the charge and m is the mass of electron. Let us
consider an electron that has just collided with a lattice
imperfection. Its drift speed has momentarily become zero and
it would now move in a purely random direction, gaining a
drift speed a just before its next collision. Its average drift
speed during the interval is, therefore
a
aE
vd =
=
.
2
2m
Substituting the value of from above, we get
eE
vd = 2mv
F
If n be the number of electrons per unit volume in the
conduction band of the metal, then the current density./ (flow
of charge per unit time across unit area) is

Quantum Physics

294
j = nevd =

ne2 E
2mvF

The resistivity of a metal is defined as

=

E
j

Therefore, we have

2mvF

ne2

... (i)

This equation can be taken as a statement of Ohms law,

because the quantities vF and , which determine , do not
depend on the applied field. Hence the resistivity is a constant
for a given metal at a given temperature.
If be the conductivity of the metal, then

ne2
1

2mvF

... (ii)

Let us define a measurable quantity mobility . It is the

drift velocity per unit electric field, that is,
=

e
vd
= 2mv .
E
F

... (iii)

Making this substitution in eq. (ii), we get

ne .

... (iv)

In divalent metals as beryllium, zinc and cadmium; electrical

conduction occurs by positive charge carriers as well. This
arises due to transition of electrons from the filled valence
band to the conduction band leaving vacancies, called holes, in
the valence band. Each of these holes corresponds to the absence
of an electron and behaves like a positive charge. As these
vacancies are filled up by electrons moving under the influence
of an electric field, new holes are created. That is, the holes

Energy Band Structure

295

move in a direction opposite to the electrons as if positive

charge carriers were moving in the direction of the field. In
fact, in these metals the mobility of holes (positive carriers) in
the valence band is much greater than the mobility of electrons
(negative carriers) in the conduction band; that is, the
contribution to electrical conduction by positive carriers exceeds
that by negative carriers.
If conduction occurs by electrons as well as by holes, then
the conductivity is given by
= nc ec + nh e h,
where e and h are the mobilities of electrons and holes
respectively, and ne and nh are their numbers per unit volume.

Conductivity Variations in Metals

When the temperature of a metal is raised above the room
temperature, its conductivity decreases or the resistivity
increases. This can be explained in the following way :
Metals have electrical resistivity due to the scattering of
free electrons by the imperfections in the metallic lattice.
Imperfections are of two kinds : (i) those arising from the
thermal vibrations of the positive ions about their equilibrium
positions in the lattice and (ii) those arising from structural
defects such as presence of impurity ions. Therefore, the
resistivity of a metal can be written as
= t + i
where t, is the resistivity caused by thermal imperfections
and i that caused by impurity or structural imperfections. Of
these, pi depends upon the temperature. As the temperature
rises, the amplitude of ion vibrations increases, with the result
that the scattering cross-section of the ions increases. Therefore,
the resistivity t increases. The variation of i with temperature
is of the form , T5 at low temperatures and t T at high
temperatures. t dominates except at very low temperatures.

Quantum Physics

296

The increase of metallic resistivity with temperature can

be seen from the resistivity expression also, according to which

vF

As temperature rises, the electron speed vF increases and

the mean free path A decreases (because the increased
amplitude of vibration of the positive ions further obstruct the
path of free electrons). Hence the resistivity increases.
The resistivity i, on the other hand, is independent of
temperature. It, however, dominates only in the temperature
range about 0 - 6 K, because , vanishes as T 0.

The variation of resistivity with temperature T is shown

in figure above.

Superconductivity
In 1911, Kammerlingh Onnes found that the electrical
resistance of some metals, alloys and compounds drops
suddenly to zero when the specimen is cooled below a certain
temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity
and the cooled specimen is said to be a superconductor,
The critical temperature Tc below which a material
undergoes a transition from a state of normal conductivity to
a superconducting state, is different for different materials. It
varies from 23.kg for the alloy Nb3 Ge to 0.01K for some semi-

Energy Band Structure

297

conductors. Not all materials, however, superconduct. The

normally good conductors like Cu, Ag, Au, Li, Na K, etc. do
not show superconductivity even at temperature as low as a
small fraction of 1K. (They are known as normal metals) below
given the figure shows the resistivity at very low temperatures
for a superconductor, tin (Tc = 3.7K); and a normal metal,
silver. (Normal metals have a residual resistivity even near the
absolute zero due to the structural imperfections in the crystal
lattice.)

Electrical and Magnetic Behaviour of Superconductors :

The superconducting state of a material is characterised by
zero electrical resistance. Hence a superconductor can
conduct electric current even in the absence of an applied
voltage, and the current can persist for years without any
detectable decay.
The magnetic properties of superconductors are equally
dramatic. A bulk superconductor in a weak magnetic field acts
as a perfect diamante, with zero magnetic induction in the
interior. If a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic
field (Fig. a) and is then cooled to below its critical temperature,
it expels all the originally present magnetic flux from its interior
(Fig. b). This is called Meissner effect.

298

Quantum Physics

Further, it is found that if the external field is increased

beyond a certain value, called the critical field, the material
ceases to be superconducting and becomes normal. The value
of this critical field for a given material depends on the
temperature.

Quantum Theory of Superconductivity : In 1957, Bardeen,

Cooper and Schrieffer proposed a theory of superconductivity
in which they included the electron-phonon and electronelectron interactions. We consider only a qualitative picture of
this so-called BCS theory.
An electron in a solid passing by adjacent (positive) ions
in the lattice exerts upon them Coulomb attractions which give
them momentum and cause them to move slightly together.
This region of increased positive-charge density propagates
through the lattice as an elastic wave (phonon) carrying
momentum supplied by the electron. If a second electron is
passing by the moving region of increased positive-charge
density, it will experience an attractive Coulomb interaction
and absorb all the momentum carried by the moving region.
The net effect is that the two electrons have exchanged
some momentum with each other. That is, they have interacted
with each other through the lattice deformation (or phonon).
This electron-electron interaction is attractive, because both
the electrons participated in Coulomb attraction with the lattice.
If the temperature is low enough and the two electrons have
anti-parallel spins, the attraction between the electrons
exceeds slightly the direct Coulomb repulsion between them.

Energy Band Structure

299

Then the electrons are weakly bound together and form a socalled Cooper pair. A large number of such pairs are formed
at low temperature if there are enough conduction electrons
lying just below the Fermi energy level.
When an external electric field is applied, the Cooper pairs
move through the lattice, maintaining their order, as if the
motion of each pair is locked into the motion of all the rest.
Thus electrons move in highly correlated pairs, without involving
in the random scatterings from lattice imperfections that cause
electrical resistance. Hence the solid is a superconductor.
Ordinary metals can be good conductors when their
conduction electrons have a weak interaction with the lattice.
Superconductors, on the other hand, have a relatively strong
electron-lattice-electron interaction. This is why the metals
which are normally good conductors do not become
superconductors even at extremely low temperatures.

Explanation of the Characteristics of Superconductors :

The behaviour of a superconductor as a perfect diamagnet in
an external magnetic field can now be explained. According
to Lenzs law, when the magnetic flux through a circuit is
changing, an induced current is established in such a direction
as to oppose the change in flux. The external magnetic field
does not penetrate the interior of the superconductor because
in it the conduction electrons, moving in Copper pairs without
any resistance adjust their motion to produce a counteracting
magnetic field. Obviously, it is necessary for a superconductor
to have a persisting (resistance less) current to keep the magnetic
flux out when there is an external magnetic field. Thus, the two
main characteristics of superconductors, namely the exclusion
of magnetic flux and the absence of resistance to current flow,
are related to each other.
Again, when the external magnetic field is increased beyond
a certain critical value, the superconductor becomes normal
(although it is at a temperature below T c). This is also

300

Quantum Physics

understandable. When the magnetic field is turned on, the

superconductor acts to exclude this field from its interior. The
energy decrease of the magnetic field appears as increased
energy of the electrons in Cooper pairs. As the magnetic field
is increased; the energy acquired by the superconductor also
increases. Beyond the critical value of the field, the energy of
the superconducting state becomes higher than the energy of
the normal state, and the material becomes normal.

Applications : There are many applications of

superconductivity.
(i) One is in the construction of superconducting
electromagnets that carry large resistance less currents
and therefore produce large magnetic fields ( 5 : 10
Tesla). If we use superconducting wire for magnet
windings, currents of the order of 100 amperes can be
carried by very fine wires. Thus small-size magnets can
be constructed. The principle is illustrated in Fig. below,
in which a superconducting coil is immersed in liquid
helium (4 K). Starting from zero, the current is increased
until the magnetic field B reaches the desired value. At
that point the switch S is closed. The current now flows
through the switch. The power supply is then turned
off. The current will continue to flow through the coil
indefinitely without resistive losses.
(ii) Superconducting cables can be used to transmit electric
power over long distances without resistive losses. This
would be economical, however, if the cost of keeping
the cable below its critical temperature Tc is less than
the value of the power that would be lost using ordinary
cables. Materials are now available having Tc 20 K.
(iii) Because superconductors are diamagnetic, they can be
used to shield out unwanted magnetic flux, as in
shaping the magnetic lens system of an electron
microscope.

Energy Band Structure

301

Motion of Electrons in a Periodic LatticeOrigin of Energy

Bands and Forbidden Bands : The free-electron model of metals
assumes the conduction electrons to move freely in a region
of constant potential without interacting with the crystal Lattics.
Although this model explains certain properties of metals,
such a conductivity, specific heat, para-magnetism, etc., but it
fails explain satisfactorily the properties of solids in general.
Hence it needs to be modified.
In general, an electron in a solid moves in a region of
periodically-varying potential (with the periodicity of the lattice)
caused by the ion-cores situated at the lattice points, plus the
average effect of all the other free electrons. This results in the
diffraction of electrons by the lattice. When the de Broglie
wavelength of the electron ( = h/p) corresponds to a periodicity
in the spacing of the ions, the electron interacts strongly with
the lattice and goes Bragg reflection. This limits the electron
to certain ranges of momenta and, correspondingly, to certain
ranges of energy (energy bands).
In order to find the allowed energies of electrons in solids
we must solve the Schroedinger equation for an electron in
a crystal lattice. The upper part of the below given figure

Quantum Physics

302

shows the actual potential as seen by an electron in the crystal

lattice in one dimension. Kronig and Penney suggested a
simplified mode potential consisting of an infinite row of
rectangular potential wells separated by barriers of width b,
with space periodicity a which is the periodicity of lattice. Each
well represents an approximation to the potential produced by
one ion. This model potential, shown in the lower part of the
figure, has all the characteristics of the actual potential.

The solution to the Schroedinger equation for an electron

in a periodic lattice can be found by Blochs theorem. According
to this theorem, the eigenfunction of the free-electron traveling
wave, = eikx where k ( = 2/) is propagation constant, is
modified by the periodic potential to be of the form
(x) = uk (x) eikx
where the modulating factor uk (x)is periodic with the same
periodicity a as of the potential, that is,

uk(x) = uk (x + a) = uk (x + na),
n being an integer. Hence, the effect of the periodicity is to
modulate periodically the free-electron wave amplitude. The
wave-function is

Energy Band Structure

303

(x, t) = uk(x) ei(kxt)

where the second (exponential) factor describes a wave of
wave length = 2/k which travels toward +x if k is positive,
and toward x if k is negative. The exact form of the modulating
factor depends upon the particular potential and the value
of k.
On solving the Schroedinger equation of the electron for
the Kronig-Penney potential under the condition that and
d/dx must be continuous at the boundaries of the well, a
complicated expression for the allowed energies in terms of k
of the electron is obtained which shows that gaps in energy
occur at values given by
2
3

,
, ... ...
k = ,
a
a
a
in which a is the space periodicity of the lattice. The figure
below shows a relationship between energy and wave number
k for a one dimensional lattice. The dashed curve is the freeelectron parabola. At the above values of k we get energy gaps,
whereas for values of k not near these values the energies are
much like that of a free electron. The origin of the allowed
energy bands and forbidden gaps is apparent from the figure.

The occurrence of gaps can be understood in terms of

Bragg reflection of the de Broglie waves associated with the
electron moving through the lattice. The Braggs condition for
the reflection of waves is

Quantum Physics

304

2a sin = n,

n = 1, 2, 3,......

where a is the spacing between the ions of the lattice. Since we

are considering the lattice in one dimension (along the x-axis)
only, the above equation becomes

2a = n.
But

.
k
2

2a = n
k

2
3
or
k= n = ,
, ... ...
,
a
a
a
a
where we have inserted signs because the incident wave can
move along + x as well as along x. These are just the values
of k at which the gaps in the -k curve occur. The waves
corresponding to values of k not satisfying the above condition
travel almost freely. Those satisfying the condition however,
are reflected resulting in standing waves. Let us consider an

. The
incident wave of unit amplitude corresponding to k =
a
eigenfunctions describing the incident and the corresponding
reflected waves are e ikx or e i( /a)x and e (/a) x The two
eigenfunctions can combine in two ways to give total
eigenfunction, namely,

1 = ei(/a)x + ei(/a)x
and

2 = ei(/a)x ei(/a)x

cos
sin

x
x.

Thus we get two different possible standing waves. The

2

probability densities 1 and 2 for these waves are plotted

in figure below, in which the origin (x = 0) has been taken at
one of the ions. Evidently, 1

is maximum at the positive

ions (x = 0, a, 2a,......) and minimum in between. Reverse

Energy Band Structure

305

is for 2 . The potential energy of an electron in a lattice of

positive ions is greatest midway between the ions and least at

the ions. So an electron for k =

can have two different
a
energies E1 and E2 a associated with the standing waves 1 and

2. No other solutions are possible when k = , and accordingly

a
no electron can have an energy between E1 and E2. The
difference E1~E2 is the energy gap. This is the origin of all the
energy gaps.

Looking again at the -k curve, the range of k values

between /a and + /a defines the first Brillouin zone, those
of k values between 2/a and / and between +/
and +2/a define the second Brillouin zone, etc. The first and
second Brillouin zones of a two-dimensional square lattice are
shown in figure below.

Quantum Physics

306

Effective Mass of Electron

An electron in a crystal interacts with the crystal lattice.
Therefore, its behaviour towards external forces is different
from that of a free electron. The deviation of the electron
behaviour in the crystal lattice from the free-electron behaviour
can be taken into account simply by considering the electron
to have an effective mass m, rather than its free-space mass
m. The effective mass m depends on the nature of the crystal
lattice and varies with the direction of motion of the electron
in the lattice, m may be much larger or much smaller than m,
and it may even be negative.
Let us consider an electron moving along the x-axis in a
crystal lattice to which an external electric field E has been
applied. The external force acting on the electron is eE. Suppose
that the electron gains velocity v over a distance dx in time dt.
The resulting change in its energy (work done by the force)
is given by

d = eE dx - eE v dt.

( v = dx/dt)

We know that the velocity v of a particle is the same as

the group velocity vg(= d/dk) of the de Broglie waves
associated with the particle (v = vg). Thus

d = eE vg dt.

... (i)

Now, the Einstein-de Broglie relation is

= hv =

h
2

v 2

where is the angular frequency associated with c.

Differentiating it, we have

d =
But

h
2

d =

h d
dk.
2 dk

... (ii)

d
= vg (definition of group velocity).
dk

Energy Band Structure

d =

307

h
2

vg dk.

Comparing it with eq. (i), we get

eE dt =
or

dk
=
dt

h
2

dk
eE.

... (iii)

Let us write the group velocity vg in terms of energy .

Differentiating with respect to time, we get
dvg
dt

or

dvg
dt

2 d2

h dt dk
4 2 d2

h2 dk2

2 d2 dk

h dk2 dt

eE.

[by e q. (iii)].

Employing vg = ,v again, this can be written

dv
=
dt

4 2 d2
2
eE.
h dk2

This equation connects the force eE on the electron with

the acceleration dv/dt through the proportionality factor
4 2 d2

h2 dk2

. It is same as Newtons second law (acceleration

= force/mass), if we set
1

4 2 d2

h2 dk2

The quantity 1/m is the reciprocal of the effective mass of

the electron in the crystal lattice. In other words, an election
in a lattice responds to an external force precisely as a free
electron would if its mass were m.

Quantum Physics

308
1

is determined by the properties of the lattice on which

m
depends the form of the energy function . The first Brillouin

zone from to and the part of the second Brillouin

a
a

zone beyond and , and the corresponding energy

a
a
bands and gaps, of a one-dimensional lattice have already been
mentioned.
The solid curve is for the electron in crystal lattice. The
dashed parabola is for the free electron (moving in a uniform
potential) having
=

h2 k2
8 2 m

which amounts to
1

(for all values of k)

Thus, near the centre of the first zone, where the two
curves coincide (m = m), the lattice has little effect on the
electron which responds to the applied electric field as if it
were free. This is true for the electrons at the bottom of the
first energy band. The applied field-force will increase the
electrons energy and momentum.
As we move in either direction from the center of the first
d2
deviates significantly from the
zone, the curvature
dk2
1
parabola. It goes through zero and then becomes negative .
m
does the same. Thus in the upper part of the first energy band
electron in the lattice responds to the applied field very
1
differently from that a free electron would do. Where
is
m
zero (or m is finite), the applied force eE causes no acceleration

Energy Band Structure

309

of the electron. The momentum gained by the electron due to

eE is neutralised by the momentum lost to the lattice through
1
is negative, the
reflection. Near the top of the band, where
m
applied force causes an acceleration in a direction opposite to
that would be experienced by a free electron. Here the Bragg
reflection is more perfect and so the momentum transferred
to the lattice from the electron is larger than the momentum
transferred from the applied force to the electron. That is, there
is a net decrease in the forward momentum of the electron. Thus
a negative effective mass of the electron in the lattice physically
means that the electron responds to an applied force with a decrease
in momentum.
In fact the current carriers near the top of an almost-filled
band are the holes (vacant electron states) which behave as
if they have positive effective mass.
At the bottom of the next energy band (for the second
1
1
Brillouin zone)
is positive but larger than
, so the
m
m
applied force produces a relatively large acceleration of the
electron in the lattice.

Significance : The significance of the effective mass is that

all results of the free-electron theory of metals can be taken in
the more realistic band theory merely by replacing the electron
mass m by the average effective mass m at the Fermi surface.
Thus the Fermi energy in a metal is given by
F =

h2 3 N

2m* 8 V

2/3

where N/V is the density of valence electrons.

For example, the electronic specific heat is inversely
proportional to F and therefore directly proportional to m.
Metals such as Co, Ni and Pt which have high m/m ratios
( l0) have high electronic specific heats.

Quantum Physics

310
PROBLEMS

1. In germanium the energy gap is about 0.75 eV. Show that

the crystal behaves as a transparent medium only for light of
wavelength above 16533A. (h = 6.6 1034 joule-sec, c = 3.0
108 meter/sec).

Solution : The energy of 16533- photons is

E=

hc

6.6 10

34

joule - sec 3.0 10 8 meter / sec

16533 10

10

meter

= 1.2 1019 joule

=

1.2 10 19 joule
1.6 10 19 joule / eV

= 0.75 eV.

The photon energy for light of wavelength above 16533A

will be less than 0.75 eV which is the energy gap in germanium.
Hence these photons will not be absorbed and the light will
be transmitted through the crystal.
All photons for light below 16533 will have an energy
more than the energy gap of 0.75 eV and so they will be
absorbed in exciting the electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. Hence the crystal is opaque for light below
16533 .
2. Calculate the energy gap of a crystal which is transparent
only for light of wavelength greater than 12345 .
[Ans.
Ans. 1.0 eV.]
3. An insulator has an optical absorption only for
wavelengths shorter than 1800 . Find the width of the
forbidden band for the insulator. What is the order of magnitude
of the forbidden gap in a semiconductor ?

Energy Band Structure

311

Solution : The energy of 1800- photons is

E=

hc

= 6.9 eV. (Calculate as in prob.1)

Light of wavelength longer than 1800 has photons of

energy less than 6.9 eV. These photons are not absorbed by the
electrons, which are therefore unable to cross the forbidden
band. Hence the energy width of the forbidden band is 6.9 eV.
The forbidden gap of a semiconductor is of the order of
leV.
4. The energy gap in silicon is 1.1 eV and in diamond it
is 6 eV. State the transparency of these substances to visible
light.

Solution : Let us calculate the wavelength of light

corresponding to photon energies of 1.1 and 6 eV.
(l.1 eV) =
=

hc
E

6.6 10

34

joule sec 3.0 10 8 meter / sec

1.1 1.6 10

11 10

11000 .

19

joule

meter

Similarly,
(6 eV) = 2100.
Thus, silicon is transparent only to radiation of > 11000
; since it absorbs photons of shorter wavelength, and so it
is opaque to visible light. Diamond is transparent to radiation
of > 2100 A, so it is transparent to visible light.
5. The energy gaps for Si, Ge and Ag are 1.1, 0.7 and 0 eV
respectively. Find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
to which these solids are opaque. (h = 6.6 1034 joule-sec.
(c = 3.0 108 meter/sec).
[Ans.
Ans. Si : = 0 11000 , Ge : = 0.18000 ,
Ag : = 0 .]

Quantum Physics

312

6. A metallic conductor carries a current of 10 amp. Its area

of cross-section is 1.0 cm2. The specific resistance of the
conductor is 1.7 108 ohm-cm. Calculate the electric field
inside the conductor.

Solution : The current density j is given by

j=

1.0 amp
i
= 1.0 cm 2 = 1.0 amp/cm2.
A

The resistivity (specific resistance) of a metal is defined

as
=

E
.
j

Therefore, the electric field inside the metal is

E = j
= (1.7 106 ohm-cm) (1.0 amp/cm2)
= 1.7 106 volt/cm
= 1.7 104 volt/meter.
7. Find the average drift velocity of electrons in a copper
conductor with a cross-sectional area of 106 m2 carrying
a current, of 4 A. The atomic weight of copper is 63.6 and
the density is 8.9 gm/cm3. Take Avogadros number NA = 6.02
10 23.

Solution : The number of copper atoms per meter3 of the

conductor is
N A
6.02 10 23 atoms/ gm atom 8.9 gm / cm 3
=
M
63.6 gm / gm atom
= 8.42 1023 atoms/cm3
= 8.42 1028 atoms/m3.
Assuming that there is one free electron per atom, the
electron density is

Energy Band Structure

313

n = 8.42 1028 electrons/m3.

If j be the current density and vd the drift velocity, then
we have

j = ne vd

vd =

8.42 10

4 amp / 10 6 m 2
28

= 3.0 10

j
i/A
=
ne
ne

electrons / m 3 1.6 10 19 coul / electron

m/sec.

8. What would be the mobility of electrons in copper if

there are 9 1028 valence electrons per m3 and the conductivity
of copper is 6 107 mho/m ?

Solution : The metallic conductivity is given by

= ne ,
where n is the free-electron density in the metal and is the
mobility of electrons. Thus
=

ne

Here = 6 10 mho/m = 6 107/ohm-m.

7

9 10

6 10 7 / ohm m
23

/ m 3 1.6 10 19 coul

= 4.16 10

m /ohm-coul

m2/volt-sec.

= 4.16 10

9. The Fermi energy of copper is 7 eV. Calculate the average

distance (mean free path) travelled by the conduction electrons
between collisions. Take the conductivity of copper as
6 107/ohm-m and the concentration of the valence electrons
as 8.5 1028/m3. (m = 91 1031 kg, e = 1.6 1019 coul and
1 eV = 1.6 1019 joule).

Quantum Physics

314

Solution : The electrons which effectively contribute to the

electrical conductivity are those with energies near the Fermi
energy F. The velocity of these electrons is given by
e F

vF =

2 7 1.6 10 31 joule

9.1 10 31 kg

= 1.6 106 m/s.

Now, the metallic conductivity is, in terms of mean free
path , given by
ne2
2mvF

=
so that

2mvF

ne2

Substituting the given values, we get

=

2 9.1 10 31 kg 1.6 10 5 m / s 6 10 7 / ohm m

8.5 10

28

m 1.6 10
3

19

coul

= 8 108 m = 800.
Since the ions that make up the lattice of solid copper are
2.6 apart, a free electron travels past about 300 of them, on
the average, before a collision occurs.

Photoconductive Device

315

16
Photoconductive Device

Photoconductor
When radiation falls upon a semiconductor, its conductivity
increases. This is photo conductive effect and is the basis of
a photoconductor.
A photoconductor is a device that detects optical signals.
In its simplest form, it consists of a large-surface slab of intrinsic
or almost intrinsic semiconductor, in bulk or thin-film form,

316

Quantum Physics

with ohmic contacts affixed to opposite ends. A commercial

photo conductor, known as photo conductive cell, has a layer
of cadmium sulphide (Cd S) containing a small amount of SB
or In impurity on its sensitive surface. When light falls the
surface of the photo conductor, the current in the circuit
increases depending on the intensity of the incident light.

Working Principle : The conductivity of a material is

proportional to the concentration of charge-carriers in it. In a
semiconductor there are thermally-generated electron-hole
pairs. When radiation falls on it, bivalent bonds are broken and
additional pairs are created. These increased charge-carriers
increase the conductivity, or decrease the resistance of the
semiconductor. Hence the photo conductor is also known as
photoresistor.
The photo-generation of electron-hole pairs is shown in
Fig. below by means of the energy band diagram of a
semiconductor having both donor and acceptor impurities.
When photons of sufficient energies fall on the semiconductor,
there are two possibilities :
(i) A photon of energy greater than the energy gap g
may excite a valence-band electron into the conduction
band, thus creating an electron in the conduction band
and a hole in the valence band. This is called intrinsic
excitation,

(ii) A smaller-energy photon may excite a donor electron

into the conduction band, or a valence electron may go

Photoconductive Device

317

into acceptor level. These transitions which also

generate electron-hole pairs are known as impurity or
extrinsic excitations. Since the density of states in the
conduction and valence bands is larger than the density
of impurity states, the photoconductivity is due mainly
to intrinsic excitations.
The minimum energy of a photon required for intrinsic
excitation is the forbidden-gap energy g of the semiconductor.
The long-wavelength threshold of the semiconductor
corresponding to g is given by
max =

hc
g

1.24

g eV

(micron)

(For Si, g = l.l eV and max = 1.13 ; for Ge, g = 0.7 and
max = l.77 at room temperature). For wavelengths shorter
than max , the incident radiation is absorbed by the
semiconductor, and electron-hole pairs are created. (In fact, the
long-wavelength limit is slightly greater than the value of max
calculated above, because of the impurity excitation). At longer
A, the semiconductor becomes transparent.
The carriers generated by photoexcitation move under the
applied p.d. across the photoconductor, reach the ohmic
contacts at the ends of the semiconductor and constitute the
photo conductive current which is added to the small circuit
current (i.e. current when no radiation is falling).

Uses : Photo-conductive devices, or cells, are used in

industry, photography and light-intensity measurements. The
most commonly used cell is the cadmium sulphide (Cd S)
photo-conductive cell which is excellently sensitive in the visible
range and gives a maximum response at about 5800 A. It can
handle power levels of several watts and so directly operate
a relay (without requiring an intermediate amplifier) or control
the opening of a camera lens.

318

Quantum Physics

Other photo-conductive cells are available for specific

purposes. A lead sulphide (Pb S) or indium-antimony (In Sb)
cell is used for infrared-detection or infrared absorption
measurements. A selenium cell is particularly sensitive in the
blue region.
Photo conductors are relatively simple to construct, can be
made in poly-crystalline material and so are also cheap. They
are, however, relatively slow and require an external voltage
source.

p-n Photodiode : It is a junction-type photoconductor having

several advantages over an ordinary bulk-type photoconductive
cell. It consists of a reverse-biased p-n junction embedded in
plastic. The upper surface across the junction is open to
radiation, while the remaining sides of the plastic are either
painted black or enclosed in a metallic case. The entire unit is
extremely small, of the order of a 0.1 inch size. The mechanism
of current flow due to radiation can be explained by means of
energy band diagram of the p-n junction. In the absence of
radiation, an almost constant current (independent of reverse
bias which is of the order of a few tenths of a volt) is obtained
This is the reverse saturation current due to the thermallygenerated minority carriers (electrons in the p-type region and
holes in the n-type region).

Photoconductive Device

319

When radiation falls upon the surface, additional electronhole pairs are formed. The photo- excited electrons in the
conduction band of the p-type move across the junction (along
with the thermally-generated minority electrons) to the n-side
and add to the current. Similarly, the holes produced in the
valence band of the n-type (due to electrons being photoexcited into the conduction band) move across the junction to
the p-side and add to the current. The photo-conductive current
so produced varies almost linearly with the radiation flux.
The p-n photo diode can operate at frequencies of the order
of 1 MHz, in contrast to the slow bulk-type photo conductor
which is limited to a frequency range from 100 to 5000 Hz.
Hence the photodiodes are extensively used in high-speed
reading of computer punched cards, light-detection systems,
light-operated switches, counting of objects interrupting a lightbeam, etc.

Solar Cell
A solar cell is a semiconductor device (p-n junction) which
converts solar energy directly into electrical energy. It is based
on the phenomenon of photovoltaic effect.

Construction : A schematic representation of a silicon solar

cell is shown in Fig. below. It consists of a shallow p-n junction
formed at a short distance below the surface of a silicon crystal.
There is an ohmic contact at the top in the form of a comblike structure which covers above 7% of Si area, and an ohmic
contact at the bottom which covers the entire bottom area. The
top carries an anti-reflection coating. When sunlight falls on
the top surface, it is absorbed mostly near the surface where
the junction is located. This results in an electrical p.d. generated
between the top and the bottom of the cell which can deliver
power to an external circuit. The metallic comb-like structure
prevents undue increase of internal resistance of the cell because
of the thinness of the n-type Si layer.

320

Quantum Physics

Principle : When a beam of photons is incident on the

depletion region of an unbiased p-n junction, each absorbed
photon creates an electron and a hole. As shown in the energyband diagram of the junction in Fig. (a) below, the absorption
of photon causes an electron in the valence band to move to
the conduction band, and a hole is left in the valence band. The
built-in (internal) electric field E4 in the depletion region forces
the hole towards the p-type region and the electron towards
the n-type region. The two sides of the junction thus become
oppositely charged so that a forward voltage is generated
across the junction. This voltage drives a current around an
external circuit, and the junction acts as a cell. The equivalent
circuit of the solar cell is shown in Fig. (b) below, in which RL
is the external load.

Photoconductive Device

321

Uses : The commercial cells are made from single Si crystals

having efficiencies around 15%, open-circuit voltages of nearly
0.6 volt and areas of up to 40 cm2. They are arranged in largearea arrays and connected in series and parallel to obtain
useful load voltages and currents. This makes solar cells a
comparatively expensive energy source. Hence their use is
limited to special purposes; such as in space vehicles where
the small mass of the solar batteries is very important, or
inaccessible places on earth where automatic equipment must
keep operating unattended.
Efforts are being made to reduce the cost of solar cell by
shifting from single Si crystal to cheaper polycrystalline Si or
amorphous Si, or by using cheap plastic lenses to concentrate
sunlight on a small-area (and hence cheaper) high-quality cell.

Semiconductor Injection Laser

A laser, meaning Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation, is a device that converts electrical energy
into optical radiation in the form of an intense, monochromatic,
directional and highly coherent beam. Like ruby crystal and
He-Ne gases, semiconductor junction diodes can also be used
as laser. The first semiconductor laser was made from gallium
arsenide, Ga As.

Principle : A semiconductor has a small energy gap g

( l eV) between its valence band having energy states occupied
by electrons and the empty conduction band. At room
temperature, however, some of the valence electrons acquire
thermal energy greater than g and cross over into the
conduction band, leaving behind holes in the valence band. If
a light photon of energy greater than g happens to interact
with the electrons, one of the two processes may occur : (i) the
photon may be absorbed by a valence-band electron which
would be excited to the conduction band leaving behind a hole
in the valence band (Fig. a) ; (ii) the photon may stimulate an

322

Quantum Physics

already excited conduction-band electron which would drop

to the valence band, emitting a fresh photon in coherence with
the stimulating photon (Fig. b). Which of the two processes is
more probable depends upon whether most of the electrons
are in the valence band or in the conduction band.

Under ordinary conditions of thermal equilibrium the

number of electrons in higher-energy states (conduction band)
is much smaller than in lower-energy states (valence band), so
that there is little stimulated emission compared with
absorption. If, however, by some means a large number of electrons
are made available in high-energy states, stimulated emission is
promoted. This situation is called population inversion. Once
population inversion is achieved, the photons go on multiplying
by repeated stimulated emissions and a strong coherent beam
of light emerges from the semiconductor.

Achievement of Population Inversion : Population inversion

can be achieved near a p-n junction having high doping densities
and forward currents. The large number of injected carriers
creates a region near the junction where there is a very large
number of electrons in the conduction band together with a
very large number of holes in the valence band, i.e., a population
inversion.

Photoconductive Device

323

Basic Structure : The basic structure of a gallium arsenide

p-n junction, used as an injection laser, is shown in Fig. below.
The pair of parallel planes perpendicular to the plane of the
junction is polished, while the two remaining sides of the
diode are roughened. When a forward bias is applied to the
laser diode, a current flows. The injected electrons move from
the n-side to the p-side and the holes from the p-side to the
n-side. As the electrons and holes re-combine, photons are
emitted. These photons are re-absorbed or radiated away. This
is the spontaneous emission which occurs in all directions at
low current. As the current is increased, eventually a threshold
current is reached at which the emitted photons stimulate the
emission of more photons. These photons are internally reflected
several times at the polished walls, stimulating more and more
photons, all coherent with them. When the photon beam
becomes sufficiently intense, it emerges out from the junction.

The main difficulty with this Ga As laser is the high

threshold current density ( 105 A/cm2) at room temperature.
Hence this laser could be operated only at low temperatures
at which the required current density is lower. Heterostructure
lasers have now been built which operate at room temperature
at moderate current densities.

Comparison with Other Lasers : Semiconductor lasers are

similar to other lasers in that the emitted radiation is intense,

Quantum Physics

324

monochromatic, directional and highly coherent, both spatially

and temporally. However, in some respects, semiconductor
lasers differ from other lasers :
(i)

In semiconductor lasers, the electron transitions are

associated with the band structure of the materials,
whereas in other lasers the transitions take place
between discrete energy levels. Therefore, the radiation
from a semiconductor laser is less monochromatic (has
a wavelength range of few angstroms) than that from
other lasers (which have a range of only a fraction of
an angstrom).

(ii) Because the active region in a semiconductor laser is

very narrow ( l m thickness), the divergence of the
laser beam is considerably larger than in case of other
lasers.
(iii) A semiconductor laser is very compact in size, less
than 1 mm.
(iv) The spectral characteristics of a semiconductor laser
are strongly influenced by the properties of the junction
medium, such as the band gap and refractive index
variations.
(v) In the p-n junction laser, the laser action is produced
by passing a forward current through the junction.
Hence the emitted laser light can be modulated into
light pulses simply by modulating the current.
(vi) Semiconductor lasers have very short photon life times.
Therefore, modulation at high frequencies can be
achieved.

Applications : Lasers have found a wide use in many

fields, such as precision measurements of long distances and
three-dimensional lensless photography (holography). The
distance to the moon, for example, has been determined to an
accuracy of 15 cm.

Photoconductive Device

325

In medicine, laser beams are used as finest surgery tools

which seal the blood vessels as they cut. They are also used
in the treatment of tumors and retinal detachment.
In industry, laser beams are used as machine tools for
drilling extremely fine holes in diamonds, teeth, paper clips
and even in human hairs. They are used also for cutting
materials, from fabrics to ceramics and metals. Welding on a
microscopic scale, such as in integrated circuits, is taken up by
means of laser beams.
The semiconductor laser, because of its compact size and
capability for high-frequency modulation, is the best light source
for optical-fiber communication.

17
Microelectronic Circuits

Integrated Circuits
We are familiar with the discrete circuits consisting of
separately manufactured active and passive circuit components,
externally inter-connected by wires. The circuits are called
discrete, because each component of the circuit is discrete
from the others. These circuits occupy large space, and have
a number of joints which make them somewhat unreliable.
To meet the military requirement of miniature (mini)
electronic equipment, a new branch of electronics called
microelectronics originated in the late 1950s. It deals with
microelectronic circuits called as integrated circuits,
abbreviated as ICs. In an IC all components like resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc. are fabricated on a monolithic
(single) semiconductor chip. Thus an integrated circuit is a
packaged electronic circuit which has the advantages of high
reliability, small physical size, low cost, and low power
consumption.

Quantum Physics

328

The individual components of an IC can, however, neither

be removed nor be replaced because each one of them is an
integral part of the same semiconductor chip. A typical size
of a semiconductor chip is 50 mils 50 mils 5 mils (1 mil
= 0.001 inch).

Types of Integrated Circuits

Monolithic ICs : A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit
components and their interconnections are formed on a single
semiconductor chip. Monolithic circuit components include
resistors, capacitors, transistors (BJTs and FETs).
Film ICs : A film IC is one in which the circuit components
are formed on a substrate. The components include resistors,
capacitors and thin-film transistors.
Hybrid ICs : A hybrid IC is a combination of two or more
ICs or one IC and several discrete components.
Multi-chip ICs : In a multi-chip IC, the circuit components
are fabricated on separate chips which are attached to a substrate
and interconnected as if they were discrete components. These
circuits have limited use.
Integrated Circuits (ICs) : A (monolithic) integrated circuit
consists of a single silicon chip in which both active and passive
components have been diffused, and interconnected by
aluminium metallization.
Fabrication of a Monolithic IC : With the exception of
inductance, all the electronic circuit components (resistors,
capacitors, diodes, junction and field-effect transistors) can be
formed in semiconductor form. Therefore, the fabrication of all
ICs involves the same chain of processes, which are as follows:
1. Wafer Preparation,
2. Epitaxial Growth.
3. Isolation Diffusion.

Microelectronic Circuits

329

4. Base Diffusion.
5. Emitter Diffusion.
6. Pre-ohmic Etching and Metallization.
7. Checking and Dicing.
8.

Mounting and Packaging.

Wafer Preparation : First of all, a single and pure p-type

silicon crystal is grown and cut into wafers (thin slices) which
are cleaned and polished to a mirror finish. The typical thickness
of a finished wafer is 5 mils and its resistivity is 10 -cm. This
lightly-doped p-type wafer provides the base or substrate on
which the circuit components (resistor, transistor; etc.) are to
be built.

A silicon wafer, about 1.5 inches in diameter, contains

several hundreds of chips. In the processes which will follow,
exactly identical circuits are produced simultaneously on all
the chips. After the final process, the individual chips are
separated by cutting.

Epitaxial Growth : The active and passive components are

built within a thin n-typs epitaxial layer on top. Therefore,
an n-type layer of silicon, typically 1 mil thick, is grown on the
p type substrate by placing the wafer in a furnace at 1200C
and introducing as gas containing phosphorus (donor
impurity), as shown in Fig. below. The resistivity of this n-type
layer ranges from. 0 1 to 0 5 .-cm.

330

Quantum Physics

Types of Diffusion
Isolation Diffusion : The n-type epitaxial layer is isolated
into islands, so that each component may be formed on a
separate island. This is done by diffusing p-type impurity
(boron) through the n-type epitaxial layer to the p-type substrate
by a series of steps common in all diffusion processes :
A thin layer (~ 1 micron thick) of silicon dioxide (SiO2) is
formed on the n-type epitaxial layer by exposing it to oxygen
and heating to about 1000C (Fig. a). SiO2 has the property of
preventing the diffusion of impurities through it.
Now, in order to form selective openings in SiO2 through
which impurities may be diffused, a photoetching method is
used. For this, a thin uniform coating of a photosensitive
emulsion, called photoresist is laid on the SiO2 layer (Fig. b).
Then a large black-and-white layout of the desired pattern
of openings is made and reduced photographically. This
negative is placed as a mask over the photoresist which is
then exposed to ultraviolet light (Fig. c).
The photoresist under the transparent regions of the mask
becomes polymerized. The mask is now removed, and the
wafer is developed by a chemical (like trichloroethylene)
which dissolves the unexposed (unpolymerized) portions of
the photoresist coating and leaves the surface pattern as in
Fig. (d).
The wafer is immersed in an etching solution (hydrofluoric
acid) which removes SiO2 from the areas not protected by the
photoresist (Fig. e).

Microelectronic Circuits

331

The photoresist is removed completely by scrubbing with

heated solvents (Fig. f). The wafer is now ready for the isolation
diffusion. The remaining SiO2 serves as a mask for the diffusion
of p-type impurity (boron).
The wafer is placed in a boat and passed through a
furnace containing boron gas. The p-type impurity diffuses
into the wafer through the openings in SiO2, turning the n-type
material into a p+type channel down to a depth extending to
the p-type substrate.
Thus the n-type epitaxial layer is isolated into islands called
isolation islands or isolated regions resting on the p-type
substrate under the SiO2 layer (Fig. g). Their purpose is to
provide electrical isolation between different circuit components
The p-type substrate is always held at a negative potential with
respect to the isolation islands so that the p-n junctions are
reverse-biased, otherwise the isolation will be lost.
The concentration of the p-type impurity atoms in the
regions between isolated islands i.e. in p+-type channels, is
much higher (and hence indicated as p+) than that in the p-type
substrate to prevent any connection between two isolated
islands.
The individual circuit components are now built within
these isolated islands. Let us consider the fabrication of an
n-p-n transistor and a resistor in two adjoining islands.

Base Diffusion : A part of the n-type island itself provides

the collector for the n-p-n transistor. The p-type base of the
transistor is diffused into the collector. At the same time,
diffusion of the resistor takes place in the adjoining island. For
this a complete new layer of SiO2 is formed over the wafer and
all the above processes are repeated using a different mask so
as to create a pattern of openings shown in

332

Quantum Physics

Fig. below. The p-type impurity (boron) is diffused through

these openings. In this way are formed the transistor base
region and the resistor. The depth of this diffusion is kept
controlled (by controlling the time of diffusion) so that is does
not penetrate to the substrate. The resistivity of the base layer
is generally much higher than that of the isolation regions.

Microelectronic Circuits

333

Emitter Diffusion : A layer of SiO2 is again formed over

the entire surface and the masking and etching processes are
repeated to create an opening in the p-type base region, as
shown in Fig. below. Now, n-type impurity (phosphorus) of
heavy concentration (called n+) is diffused through this opening
for the formation of the transistor emitter. No diffusion takes
place in the adjoining island, since the resistor is complete.

Pre-ohmic Etching and Metallization : In order to make

ohmic contacts with the diffused areas, a set of openings is
made into a newly formed SiO2 layer (again doing masking
and etching processes) at the points required by the desired
circuit. Inter connections between the various components of
the integrated circuit are then made by aluminium metallization.
For this a thin coating of aluminium is deposited over the
entire wafer by a vacuum evaporation of aluminium, and the
undesired aluminium areas are then etched away. This leaves
the desired pattern OF ohmic contacts and interconnection, as

334

Quantum Physics

shown Fig. below in which an n-p-n transistor and a resistor

have been fabricated on chip. The circuit symbol is also shown.

Checking and Dicing : During processing, a large number

(several hundred) of ICs are manufactured on a single wafer.
After the metallization process has been completed, each IC
on the wafer is checked electrically for proper functioning, and
the faulty circuits are marked. The wafer is then scribed with
a diamond point and separated into individual chips (or dice)
containing the integrating circuits. The faulty chips are
discarded.
Mounting and Packaging : Individual chips are very small
and brittle. Hence each chip is mounted on the gold-plated
leads and the chip is provided with bonding pads. Connections
between the IC and the package leads are done by aluminium
wires from the bonding pads on the chip to the leads on the
header. Finally, a cap is placed over the header and the IC is
seeded in an inert atmosphere.

Microelectronic Circuits

335

Applications of ICs : Integrated circuits have the advantages

of small size, light weight, low cost (because thousands of
complex units are fabricated simultaneously), low power
consumption, and high reliability. Therefore, they are frequently
used in space vehicles, hearing aids and all types of computers.
ICs are of Two Types : linear and non-linear. The linear ICs
are used in power amplifiers, high-frequency amplifiers,
differential operational amplifiers, voltage regulators and in
analog computer circuits.
The non-linear ICs are used in great quantities in digital
computers to perform switching functions in logic gates and
memory units. The small size of MOS components has led to
large scale integration (LSI) in which thousands of
components are created on a single chip. Such ICs are used,
for example, in pocket calculators.