Hangar A, Norwich Airport, Norwich NR6 6EG, United Kingdom Tel : +44 [0] 1603 426165, Fax: +44(0] 1603 424019 ‘email: AerospaceNDT@[Link] Aerospace Inspection Training Ltd. Web site : [Link] NOT and Technical Training. qualification Seruces ana Consulting ULTRASONIC TESTING BS EN ISO 9001 : 2000 Training & Examination Centre BOEING Approved Vendor (563926! , Examination Centee for Employer Based sams to NAS 410, EN4179 and SNE-TC-14 5 AS 410, EN4179 and SNF-TC-1A, treaty Training Establishment PCN Test CentreAerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 1: Gereration and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy 1. Generat 1.1 Itis well known that, when an object vibrates, sound is emitted and, conversely, when a sound is produced by an object that the object will be ina state of vibration. The vibration of the object causes the particles of the carrying medium to vibrate and, by this means, the energy is propagated, The amplitude and the character of the sound energy in the carrying medium may be detected by physical, mechanical or electronic means. 2 ‘The Nature of Sound 2.1 Sound travels through a medium in the Simple Harmonic Motion, sometimes referred to as sinusoidal. Simple Harmonic Motion obeys the formula: Amplitude Figure 1, Sinusoidal Wave Where Velocity of sound in the medium - Frequency of sound in the medium a Q ran) 7 ~ _Pesiodicty ime for one eyle) ar le code ASPENS ey ie ae The science dealing with sound is known as Acoustics. The figure 2 shows the frequency band covered by acoustics, Issue 3 a‘ Page T Dated: September 2003Aerospace inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy ° AUDIBLE OR SONIC RANGE —~1-—— ULTRASONIC RANGE ——— er Limit f newring Si upper Lin oe ultra Sonik 7 HUMAN VOICE 74 Sonte D2ok -— TEST RANGE acoustit Fre MUSICAL SCALE —-! there Sonic te, Ca C2 C1(©) Cr C2 Cal Cs | seat |. = |olouble LE Ltn Pee f | 2kcra | | (20 kHz | 20mHz | 10° 10 10 10° 10° 10" 10° tel? ‘e Figure 2, Acoustic Frequency Band 3.2 The upper limit of hearing is at 20 kHz. This is the audible or sonic range. Frequencies above 20 kHz are termed Ultrasonic. This term should be understood io mean acoustic frequencies above the sonic level. It mist not be confused with the term Supersonic which can be defined as a velocity greatdr than the speed of sourd ina given material. 3.3. The speed of sound in any materials is fixed, and depends on the ela ty of the material, The nario Tre been, 4.1 We know that sound travels in all directions from its source. This is true at low frequencies, but a change takes ney ina ly becoming Qeamed) The higher the frequency the ngrtower the beam for a given source. When using ultrasonics for the detection of defects in materials we make) use of this effect. - eee 4. Transmission of Sound The higher ‘ne fe ‘f 5. Basic Application to the Detection of Defects 5.1 Several methods exist which use ultrasonics for the detection of flaws within materials. Such methods as ‘orough Transmision and the Resonance method will be explained during the course but, for the description of the basic principles of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection, we shall concentrate on the most commonly use method referred to as the Pulse-Echo method Pulse-Echo Method 5.2 Using this method a pulse of sound is introduced into the material under test by means of an ultrasonic transducer (the probe). When the pulse arrives at an interface some of the sound will be reflected back to the probe. The time interval for the pulse to travel to ‘an aterface and return is represented by the position of a peak on the timehase of the flaw detector screen, The height of the: peak ‘indicates the amount of sound reflected back to the probe. ised Page 2 Dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy Sound Beam 5.3 Sound pulses are transmitted into the material at high frequency (up to 3000 Hz), so the sound ‘may, for most purposes, be considered as a continuous beam similar to the beam of light from an electric torch (flashlight). Later we shall see that the sound beam is subject to some of the laws of physics, which also govern the behaviour of light Screen Presentations: 54 ical that for all ultrasonic inspections the instrument is calibrated for range and amplitude so the operator is aware of the screen time base dimensions and rgfative size of a Teflector. 7 5.5 Figure 3 shows the screen presentation for a specimen at three separate probe positions. The presentation is: A-Scan, and it is using the pulse echo method. 1 7 3 , SS 2, an ad ttt tt Figure 3, Sound Reflections Within a Material 5.6 Terminology used for figure 3: A Initial Pulse and Dead Zone B Back Wall Echo c Attenuated (reduced) Back Wall Echo D Discontinuity Echo AtoB ‘Time Base XtoY Range Set 5.7 As probe is in contact with surface it is called contact scanning. Pitch and Catch or Through ‘Transmission Testing is also used to locate discontinuities flaws with an A-Scan presentation (See figure 4), Issue 3 Dated: September 2003 Page 3Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC VESCLNG CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy ‘ fp ' LF Pulse Echo Through Transmission = Pitch and Catch Figure 4, Contact Scanning Methods 5.8 Figure 5 shows a block diagram of an ultrasonic flaw detection system. The pulse generator sends an @lectrical pulse)simultaneously to the probe (transducer) and the timebase of the soreen. The probe converts the electrical pulse into sound, which is transmitted into the ‘material, The timebase sweep generator generat een, When the sound pulse is reflected back to the probe it is converted back into an electrical pulse and is amplified before being fed to the screen CRT. This pulse deflects the timebase vertically, producing a peak. PULSE GEN, poise Rept fin (2h Pusey! TIME BASE : i: CONTROL S80 eps? Range XeTIMEBASE elcaty | -ASTMEBASE | Ded. a ECENVER AMP f= aweuruoE PROCESSOR y change elec sree : ere ( COMPUTOR Signs’ % Sound nergy eee | mareniat Figure 5, Block Diagram of an Ultrasoni tion System 5.9 Some of the sound returning to the probe will be reflected back into the snaterial at the material/probe interface. It will then undergo another journey through the material, This issues Page # ated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER L: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy process may be repeated several times and will produce multiple echoes (repeat echoes) on the screen, each successive peak reducing in amplitude along the timebase. | WE 6423 fp et eee KX Figure 6, Multiple (repeat) Echoes = hase i 6. Transducers 6.1 A device which will convert one form of energy into another is called a Transducer. Ultrasonic inspections utilize ‘ransducers}which convert electrical impulses into. vice-versa. 7. Blectro-Acoustie Transducers. (/V€o8E) 7.1 There are four main types of electro-acoustic transducers: oO Electromagnetic This is the moving, [Link] moving iron type. Because of the inertia of the moving pats the eficiency drops offabove 20 kHz. < 20 KH? ee Electrostatic The only moving part in this transducer is an extremely jiaphragm. Whilst this permits high frequencies to be obtained it is much too fragile for ultrasonic flaw detection except under laboratory conditions, D . ss This method makes use of the change of dimensions caused by an It alternating magnetic field surrounding such materials as iron, nigkel, ogbalt and certain / ferro-magnetic alloys. The material will change its dimensions at the same frequency as / the alternating magnetic field. This type of transducer is used mainly where high power is needed, such as Ultrasonic Cleaning Equipmen raso1 S, where frequencies up to 50 KHz ate required, aera f f a Change eloctnt Pree IJ fe mechamed ners \ \ AdSed far Clee: equ issue 3 Page 5 Dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy lected chomye fC NY / : \ x gp mechiM}® erxep PLATE TuTRASOMG, ener 4g BEAM 2 7 cnergys . use oe Pars oe thinoee ch ae is cae Longer Seana Duvig magn ton, 0) al ing magn “ OSCILLATOR DRIVEN TYPICALLY 50KHz Pressure Figure 1, Magnetostrictive Type ®- yelectric Certain materials develop an electrical potential across them when subjected to mechanical strain conversely they will change dimension when an electrical potential is applied. When struck by a short, sharp electrical pulse they will vibrate at their natural frequency and, when vibrated, will produce an alternating electrical potential. Very high frequencies in the order of 25 MHz ‘been achieved with this type of transducer. The next figure illustrates the Me ectric effect. STATIC CONTRACTED EXPANCED | | ie v v static ; 7 peaeeeteteeeeeee Sentrac 000000000000 ‘STTGOTGOOOOS Figure 2, Piezoelectric Effect 8 Natural Piezo-Electric Crystals 8.1 Some naturally occurring crystals, such as fare) exhibit the piezoelectric effect. These types of crystals are obsolete. 9. Synthetically Grown Crystals 9.1 Asan alternative to using naturally occurring crystals it is possible to "grow" them synthetically. Lithium sulphate is one such crystal used in NDT. When the crystal has grown it has inherent piezo-electric characteristics a \els \ Page 6 ae Ise 3 Bomewe 1 haunt 2Aerospace Inspection traning | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of | Ultrasonic Energy 10.1 12, 12 13. 13.1 Artificially Produced Piezo-Electric Materials Certain ceramic materials can be made to exhibit the piezoelectric effect when put through a special process called "polarizing". These ceramics which are not naturally piezoelectric, consist of randomly ontatdopbuins which, when aligned, impart the piezoelectric effect. They are aligned by heating the ceramic disc to a temperature above its curie temperature, passing across it 2000 Volts DC per millimeter of thickness and allowing it to cool slowly with the voltage continuously applied. After the polarizing process the piezoelectric effect is permanent, unless the ceramic disc is heated above its curie temperature, Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) are examples of this type of ceramic material which are the z -eramic most commonly used in NDT. y Polarized PVDF Film ‘A (plastic type’ material, polarized PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride) film, has also’been used as the piezoclectric clement in transduceis for ultrasonic flaw detection in metals and non-metals in a number of successful applications and is artificially produced in the same manner as the artificial ceramic materials. Curie Temperature Curie temperature is the temperature at which a piezoelectric material will lose its piezoelecteic properties. It is essential that the curie temperature is not exceeded in use (see table below). = ‘Quartz jum Barium Lead a Suiphate Titanate Zirconium Titanate Curie 350°C TC 115°C 340°C ‘Temperature Transducer Qualities It should be noted that transducers, even though they be produced by the same manufacturer of similar materials, sizes and operate at the same frequencies, may not present identical indications on a given CRT screen. Nevertheless, the following general comparisons may be iffecent nO eye made between the different typés of transducers: > fs io 1 | Quarto, Used exclusively in earlier times having good chemical, electrical, and thermal stability, very hard and wear-resistant, but itis the least efficient generator of acoustic energy. Now ‘Obsolete. — a © Lithium Sulphate Most efficient-receivers. Do not suffer from mode conversion -norage-harden, but very fragile and soluble in water _— Tssue 3 Page 7 Dated: Seprember 2003,Aerospace inspection Training ULTRASONIC TE: NG CHAPTER 1: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy 143 » Ceramics \ caf” Most efficient generators, Operate well on low voltafes, unaffected by moisture and high temperatures, though do have a tendency to age harden and suffer from some mode conversion interference. Ceramic type transducer are a more robust compromise and they are the transducers in most common use. : sim (folg vnwicin Plov'de’ © Polarized PVDF Film (*-2 ! ‘A drawback to the use of PVDF transducers has been the relatively low efficiency of this material in the transmit mode resulting in signal levels that in some cases have been lower than desirable. However, PDF transducers are, used in immersion testing because of the short puise characteristics compared to ceramic transducers.” Piezoelectro Transducer Dimensions ‘The piezoelectric transducer thickness controls the transducer frequency and the transducer diameter controls the amplitude (strength) for a given ceramic material. The frequency will increase as the thickness of a ceramic disc-decreases and the amplitude will decrease as the area of the ceramicdiscisreduged. ff Po» T (cerns vi Pimp fted piAl (Cora discard ‘To understand how the thickness ofa ceramic Mise controls the frequency we must understand the fact that all. constructions, assemblies or objects have what is known as a resonant frequency (also called natural frequency and fundamental frequency). This resonant frequency \ cours when half of a wavelength exists as a standing ‘wave in the material. 7 ge thie Standing Waves bo v Standing waves in a material occur when the returning wave matches the phase (timing) of the outgoing wave. The traveling outgoing and returning acoustic waves supérimpose and create a standing (stationary) acoustic wave. Other resonant frequencies (known as hassaanjcs) occur when a whole, or any multiple of half a wave, occur as standing waves in the thickness of a material Issue 3 Dated: Septemiber 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULIERASONIC TESTING CHAPTER I: Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Energy ‘Nodes and Antinodes 14.4 Anodeis a position of zeso vibration (movement) and an antinode is position of maximum vibration Resonant Frequency 14.5 To operate at the required resonant frequency the ceramic disc has to be cut to a thickness determined by the formula: - acet ve t= 2) ast = 4% atresonant frequency and 2 = e) ap AR @ where ¢ = piezoelectric material thickness Ve = piezoelectric material compressional velocity J = frequency required 2% = wavelength 14.6 Worked example of transducer thickness: PZT Material of 4mm thick with V¢ of PZT = 2800mv/sec yeu a = 2,800,000 nfin/sec : 2x4mm 350,000 Hz, Dees Issue 3 Page 9 Dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 1 1. The indication on the flaw detector sereen wihich represents the far boundary of the material being tested is called: ee . a Hash (Noise) GraSD b. The "main bang" ( 1.2) ~ c. The initial pulse (LP) £2) The back reflection or back echo} 2. [Link] method employing two separate search units (probes) on opposite surfaces of the material being tested is called = = a. Contact testing (©) Toreughetransmission testing ce. Surface wave testing Lamb wave testing 3. Ultrasonic testing of material where the probe isin direct contact with the material being tested is called: a. Straight beam contact testing b. Angle beam testing ¢, Surface wave testing @_ Maybea,b, ore. 7 a cm 4, "The number of complete waves which pass a given point in a given period of time (usually a second) oe referred to as tbe * ey aaa a (446 2 ve Lengh %) ee a. Amplitude ofa wave motion © Frequency ofa wave motion RPT Tp Pulse length of a wave motion ‘d.— Wavelength of a wave motion Bee ee ‘The number of 5 million cycles per second is usually stated as: 500g 0 alo, ae | a. Skilohertz BL Smegahentz 5 ¢. $00 kilohertz, dS microhertz, 5 eA 6. The moving of a probe along a test surface cither manually or automatically is referred to: b.—Angulating 4. Resonating 7. Most commercial ultrasonic testing is accomplished using frequencies between: 20k¥? a. 1-25 kilohertz b. 1 - 1,000 kilohertz : ax 25 MHE = 12 a $@) 05-25 megahertz d. 15-100 megahertz 8. Sound waves of a frequency beyond the bearag uae ofthe human cr ae referred to as ultrasonic ~~ waves. The,term embrages all vibrational waves of a frequency greater than approx: a. 2,000 Hz. O 2.0 Ecole ©. 200,000 Hz, 4. 37960,000 9. In contact testing the entry surface indication is usually referred to as: = mew fe Oy _afa) Initial pulse 2b. Mainbang TP. tf both a and b, d. ‘None of the other answers. “Tssue 2 Page dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 1 10. Primarily, the velocity of sound waves is dependent on: a. The pulse length. fea p60) The material in which the sound is being transmitted, - ‘%¢. —_The frequency d. ‘None of the above 11, Wavelength is determined by: ' ‘The Velocity and Frequency of the sound wave b. The Velocity and Periodicity of the sound wave. c. The Frequency and Peroidicity of the sound wave. .s The Velocity, Frequency and Periodicity of the sound wave 12, Pulse echo testing is where; 7 a, Two probes are placed on opposite sides of the material, one transmitter and one a receiver. One probe is used to send and receive short pulses of mechanical energy. . © One probe is used to send and receive a comtinuous sound wae 5-2 <—Seme Tunes 4. Two probes are placed on the same side of the material, one transmitter and one a receiver. 13. In Pulse echo testing the horizontal position of the signal on the display screen indicates: ‘The time interval for the pulse to travel to the interface and return, Time ba ‘The speed of sound in the material. ©. The thickness of the material. 4. The strength (Amplitude) of the signal returning to the probe 14, In Pulse echo testing the Vertical deflection of the signal on the display screen indicates: a. ‘The time interval for the pulse to travel to the interface and return. b. _ Thespeed of sound in the material. ‘S The thickness of the material fie ‘The strenath (Amplitude) of the signal retuming to the probe pi" * 15, The number of individual pulses of sound se by an ultrasonic probe within a given“ time is — eS a Signal Gain b. Signal Amplitude ¢. Probe Frequency 7 4 Pulse Repetition Frequency. < 16. In Pulse echo testing the horizontal position of the signal on the display screen is adjusted by: ® ‘The Range or Velocity controls. The Gain Control : ¢. The Frequency control. d The strength (Amplitude) of the signal returning to the probe Issue 2 Page 2 dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 1 17. ln Palse echo testing the Vertical deflection of the signal on the display screen is adjusted by: a ‘The Range or Velocity controls. (B)._ The Gain Control. ‘c. The Frequency control d. ‘The strength (Amplitude) of the signal returning to the probe 18, Which of the following transducers do not use a varying magnetic field to generate ultrasonic vibrations? @) _Piezo-elvetxic, b. Electrostatic ‘. Magnetostrictive d. Electromagnetic ‘The piezoelectric material in a search unit or probe which vibrates to produce ultrasonic waves is called: a. A backing material Q@ Aransducer c. A lucite wedge @— Acouplant sips ed 20." Which of the fallowing robes would contain the hippest piemlesis uansuser a. megahertz probe 15 megahertz probe cc. S megahertz probe 25 megahertz. probe 21. ‘The piezoelectric material in the search unit: 1 ¢ - es Soe a, Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. b, Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, © Bahaandd tenet tlectise enerey te Sound <) yrs versa —_ da. Eitheraorb : cae mn 22. An advantage of using ceramic as a transducer material is:~ ® itis one of the most efficient generators of ultrasonic energy. \ < B. _Ithas very low mechanical impedance ea ©. Iti one of the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy. Iecan operate at temperatures as high as 700° C__ Cc 23. Poste sei arsine Cec ewer It is one of the most efficient generators of ultrasonic energy. It is one of the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy. It is insoluble It can operate at temperatures as high as 700° C 2 °@e 25. Which of the following do pitch-catch techniques (tandem scanning techniques) use? a. A single compressional probe pa] b. Two probes on either side of the test piece, a transmitter and a receiver — © __ Two probes on the same side of the test piece, a transmitter and a receiver d. Pulse-echo Tesue? Page 3 dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING Ll 21 31 Non dine Vor 590 en quit elastic = x F CHAPTER 2: Propagation of Ultrasonic Waves in Materials General Ultrasonic energy propagates through materials in several different "modes". The mode of the sound wave depends upon the manner in which the patticles within the carrying medium move relative to the direction of wave propagation. ‘Modes of Propagation There are foyr main terms to consider when referring t0 ultrasonic wave propag: through materials Compressional, also known as Longitysial Shear, also known as Transverse Surface, also known as Rayleigh Plate, also known as Lamb . a Compressionas ( Longfudma!) ( Ye ) a ee The term Compressional is used to describe the wave propagation where the particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation. The pacticles compress together, then rar i. This motion passes the sound energy along the material in the form of a wave, In this case there a change in volume of the material, as particle motion takes place, Within the elastic limit. Trove! Three ae we solid ean : io { Propogation ye Laci! Lay denerly 4 — Web. The mates = : E selastst / Particle motion vee vy I oe Particle morentn’ * Pagal’ 6h Elas. 4 Figure 1, Compressional (Longitudinal) Wave vec (al Ao pate® 32 The velocity of compressional waves depends on certain properties of the medium in which they are travelling. These properties are the density and elasticity of the medium. In the case of compressional waves the elastic properties involved aré: a Elast sto * Youngs Modulus "B" where E = longitudinal stress « f= longitudinal strain 3 + Poisson Ratio "S" where S_ = transverse strain longitudinal strain Issue 2 Dated: December 2001 Page 1Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 2: Propagation of Ultrasonic Waves in Materials, eS ‘e 3.3. Most ultrasonic inspections are carried out in comparatively bliky materials where there is an all round transverse constraint, therefore the velocity of sound in these materials is as follows: Ve metres/se¢ @) Where Vo = — Compressional Velocity of Sound E | = Youngs Modulus S . = Poissons Ratio p = Density 3.4 Incases suchas thin rods, bars and thin plates, where the transverse constraint is either small or non-existent, due to the wavelengtlvthickness ratio being high, other velocities apply (due to different values of "S") 4. Shear Waves. (Trans verSe) a) ae 4.1 The term shear is used to indicate that the particle motion is at right angles to the direction of propagation, In this case distortion is caused by particle movement, with no change in volume. {2 oft? ea in t fe See ° ~ only Trave icles nt 418 . Payhicles mevemel Ae HS Seltd i Ng Densihyefrel ireclion of "== ut ty fon | | Propogation Reet! J Particle motion ui 1 ‘inbens ae Figure 2, Shear Wave, sensr“ine Tan (ong). Wee ree AY 313.0 é 4.2 Inconsidering the shear velocity, the Modulus of Rigidity, "G" must be taken into account Gy = transverse stress es transverse strain 43. This can be related to Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio to give the formula for shear velocity in similar terms to that for compressional velocity. _ medi las So that Ve = Issue 2 Page 2 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 2: Propagation of Ultrasonic Waves in Materials Becomes Vs = Ee misee p20 +8) Where Vs = Shear Velocity of Sound E = Youngs Modulus G = Modulus of Rigidity S = Poissons Ratio p = Density 4.4 Since gases and liquids have no Modulus of Rigidity they are not capable of supporting shear waves. Values for the shear velocity in common materials are given in Appendix C. 5. Surface Waves Yop! D Rag hin wave] 5.1 Under certain conditions, shear waves only penetrate the surface of a material to a depth of ne wavelength. This mode is called the Surface or Rayleigh wave. eo Trave! 10 Particle ~ medi fred Shear ware of ) Dep Dosa a ee Valuers FR 95% Wo a Direction of motion tL Figure 3, Surface (Rayleigh) Wave (Modified Shear) 5.2 Under these conditions they change in character, the particle motion becoming elliptical and decreasing rapidly in amplitude so that, at a depth of approximately one wavelength, the particles are practically attest. The velocity of surface waves is calculated as follows by multiplying the velocity of Shear waves for the material by € constait) Vsurf = constant [Ex msec “Vp 24+8) Vsurt = Velocity of surface wave sound E Youngs Medulus s Poissons Ratio ° Density Constant = 95 depending on material Steel . Tssue 2 Page 3 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HAPTER 2: Propagation of Ultrasonic Waves in Materials 5.3 Surface waves travel at 88% to 95% the velocity of shear waves due mainly to the fact that as they are travelling along the surface they do not obey the shear wave formula which is for BULK materials with no side or edges. 6. Plate (Lamb) Waves 6.1 When plate thickness is approximately one wavelength, surface waves, as such, cannot exist, and various Plate or Lamb waves are found to exist (see figure 4). In this case the plate acts as a wave-guide, through which symmetrical and asymmetrical modes can simultaneously pass. The results obtained by the use of plate waves are extremely complex, due to the vary- ‘HB and unpredictable velocities of the waves, which may exist within the material under test Their application in flaw detection is limited to examination of plate for laminations, also known as resonance testing, where the présénce of a lamination will cause a change in the complex screeit splay, or phase and amplitude of signals. os she Material x oe SYMMETRICAL PLATE WAVES. ies 2 Naves aa a Heel: fed Shear waye Exists In Thin Vela rns 7. Creeping Waves > Ve rab le Figure 4, Symmetrical Plate Waves 7.1 In the same way that Shear waves can be converted to surface waves at the 2™ critical angie, Compressional waves can also be made to travel along a surface or an interface Tavesed a tangent to the surface. These waves have been named Creeping waves. Creeping waves are not effected by surface features and can be transmitted along interfaces between materials, i.e. along a countersink with the fastener fitted. However, as they are not true waveforms they are short-lived and will only travel a few centimetres before mode converting to other wave-forms. = a , a oe eB pepe dele ae 1 , if Roe mda ok ed Te? fat Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 2 1. [Link] name for a Compression wave is a. Lamb wave. 45 Longitudinal wave. ©. ‘Shear wave d. Surface wave 2. A second name for Rayleigh waves is: a. Shear waves Transverse wave c. Longitudinal waves [AO Surface waves 3, ‘When the motion of the particles of a medium are parallel to the direction of a wave motion, the wave being tcansmitted is called a Longitudinal wave. b. Surface wave c. Shear wave, dé. Lamb wave. 4. All other factors being equal, which of the following modes of vibration has th¢highe hes velo) a. shear wave b. surface wave ©. transverse wave LAT longitudinal wave 5. What material properties determine the velocity of the sound wave? a acoustic impedance oe sensity and elasticity /- ©. attenuation resistance ne Gaon € @© Poisson's ratio b. The modulus of rigidity ee Young's modulus d.— Rayleigh’s cycle 7. When testing by the surface wave method, patches of giLor dirt on the surface will: a. Block the progress of all sound. b. Attenuate the sound but cause no indications on the screen. a Have no effect on the test. 1% 4. Can cause both an attenuation of sound and indications on the screen 8. What is a wave which propagates in a material with a symmetrical or assymetrical wave motion (mode) cated? b. Longitudinal wave d. Mexican wave 9. In which of the following is sound unable to travel? Oxygen b. | Water @ 2 4. Plastic 2 “Tssue 2 Page 1 dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC rING HOMEWORK: Chapter 2 10. Which of the following modes of sound will produce the snoriest wavelength? a Shear b. Longitudinal “= GC Surlasy p) 8 iy a. Transverse Wesive 11, Which of the following modes of sound will in theory be the most sensitive for defect detection? a. Shear b. Longitudinal AE) Surface 4. Transverse 12. Which of the following, modes of sound can be generated in(Water? ea 7 We = a Shear (2 Longitudinal —~ c. Surface Plate 13, Which of the following modes of sound is mainly used for the detection of laminations in thin plates? a. Shear b._ Longitudinal e Surface La Plate 14. Which of the following modes of sound would have the least depth of penetration in an aluminium block? ~ z a Shear b. Longitudinal © — Surface d. Transverse - f ea vs 15. What is the approximate ratio of longitudinal to transVerse wave Velocities in aluminium and steel? a 1:2, c 3:2 Issue 2 Page 2 dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Iraining | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution 1 General 1.1 The pulse of sound, emitted by a transducer, travels into the material and forms a path similar to the beam of light from a flashlight. As it travels it spreads and diminishes, and will be reflected at an interface. This chapter explains how this occurs. 2, Huygens Principle 2.1 According to Huygens Principle each point along the face of a transducer can be considered a finite source, radiating sound in a spherical manner (first figure below). With each expansion and contraction of the ceramic disc, waves of positive and negative pressure, respectively, are radiated from each point source. As the waves radiate away from the transducer they will overlap and create areas of interference. When twapasitixe (or negative) pressure areas overlap it is referred to as coy ive interference, When a positive and negative overlap they will cancel cas hon out, and are referred to as destructive iaterference, figure 2. Transducer p) Wave front Figure 1, Sound Radiating from Point Sources Transducer Constr Inde my Ferav'ce Figure 2, Constructive and Destructive Interference 3. Near Field (Fresnel Region) 3.1 Constructive and destructive interference create an area, close to the transducer, known as the near field. The near field is parallel and contains areas of maximum and minimum effects: This can be demonstrated if @ series of small reflectors of the same area, but varying, Uepths, are scanned and a graph of signal amplitude against distance is plotted (see figures 3 & 4). The end of the near field is the point where the amplitude is greatest. Issue 3 Page | Dated: January 2006Aerospace inspection training — | ULAKASUNIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution Amplitude % 1.5mm holes 50 driled 20mm deop Figure 4, Measurement of Near Field Issue 3 Page 2 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection Iraining | ULIRASUNIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution Far Field (Fraunhéfer Region) Beyond the near field is the far field. Here the beam diverges, and is referred to as beam \. spread. Thrgugh the far field the sound behaves similar to a beam of light, in that the sound pressure disperses according to the inverse square law (i.e. the intensity is inversely Proportional to the square of the distance), and travels in straight lines Greet Yi) semen Fresnel region Fraunhoterfegion i SE inlet Foes 4 fer | hs Fre ie te A | ‘e parte ‘! i: eR Ce 4 On* a Beam Axis . wie 5.1 Beam axis may be defiped as the locus of points of maxism intensity in the far field, in a beam of ultrasonic waves, and its geometrical prolongation into the near field. lees 6. Sound Attenuation in the Far Field 61 Theamplitude of sound decreases in the far field. This is called sound attenuation and is due to several factors: ( Less enegy in Far Field.) ae + Absprptign - Sound energy is absorbed by the braking effect on the particle motion. Lost energy is converted to eat. as Heed . sca ery > Gain 512 zef . Séatter - Grain boundaries ofthe material will cause the s sound to scatter. wp fevered ¥ + Beam spread - As th pulse gets wider, due to beam spread the sound intensity at the beam axis is reduced. ~ | Zs (63) The amount of ound attenuation within a material is governed by the densify, elasticity, sound attenuatio ‘ : ain size and grain structure of the material. These factors will be affected by alloying, heat Co) L-ARGRnn workingete. 6.3 Due to attenuation, sensitivity will be reduced exponentially with an increase in distancg, & Note: Flaw signals where defects are smalier than the beam, obey the inyerse square law. Flaws larger than the beam (or back wall echoes) will effet the retoming echo inversely to their distance from the probe. Issue > Page 3 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution Amplitude year a Fig. 7, Faults Larger than beam diameter. 64 With the falts larger than the beam diameter, the, signal ampligude from the Gaui} will lecrease in Consequently the reduction in the signal amplitude will be proportional to the increase it the far field. t—— 6.5 With the faults smaller than the beam diameter the reduction in signal amplitude will be due to two factors: - * e Reduction in sound amplitude with distance. + Reduction in area of reflector as a percentage of the beam area. Consequently the reduction in signi, amplitude will be to the square of the distance. Issue 3 Page 4 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection training | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution Figure 9, Scatter at Grain Boundaries 7. Calculation of Near Field and Beam Spread 7.1 Itis important that the length of the near field and the beam spread in the far fi particular probe be known. These can be calculated using the following formul: ofa ‘Therefore N 2 av. ee a VE falf beam angle Sina? = —~ ) g \ KV’ C ) Therefore Sng = =, a Df Where D = ctystal diameter f = crystal frequency Vv velocity of sound in material k constant defining beam edge 1.08: beam intensity is 10% of that at beam axis (- 20 dB) 1.22: beam intensity is zero (theoretical only) wave length » i Issue 3 Page Dated: January 2005Aerospace Inspection (raining — | ULIKADUNIC TESTING CHAPTER 3; Sound Distribution Near field N i x 7 Transducer ta0% Beam Steers 18 te ae 22-00%) Figure 10, Near Field ad Beam Spread 8. Calculation of Beam Diameter 8.1 Itis occasionally necessary to know the beam diameter at a certain depth. This can be calculated as shown below: Beam diameter = 2E+D Where: E ~ = TanaxR R L-N a Half beam angle N Near field D Crystal diameter Depth at which beam diameter is required L eae : Figure 11, Beam Tssue 3 Page 6 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection training — | ULEKADUNIC TESTING CHAPTER 3: Sound Distribution 9. Beam Profile 9.1 Figure 12 shows a plot of the beam spread of a 4 MHz probe, 10 mm in diameter, produced in water. The figure is not to scale, the beam width being enlarged by a factor of 4. ‘The black shading represents areas of high pressure. c Figure 12, Beam Plot 9.2 Figure 12, cross-section A shows an area of low pressure with maximum constructive and destructive interference. 9.3 Cross-section B shows an area of high pressure and energy, but the beam is still not regular in shape. Note the side lobe. These side lobes can cause further inaccuracies when defect sizing. 9.4 Cross-section C shows an area of high pressure and energy, and the beam could be considered to be regular in shape. issue 3 Page 7 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapier 3 1. At which position along the sound beam path does the beam start to diverge? ee a, Atthe end of the dead zone b. At the stari of the near field c. Attheend of the near field d._—_ tthe surface of the transducer 2 When calculating the extreme edge of an ultrasonic beam K. @ 122 b. 1.08 0.55 aod 3. When calculating the edge of an ultrasonic beam where energy is 10% of the centre line maximum, &=} : ia oo B 1.08 + 055 ee @ 4, What effect does constructive and destructive interference in the-Freshel zone create? y 7 a. Sound refraction b. Beam divergence 4d) Aconstic enesgy fluctuations +d. Frequency 5. ‘The reduction in the amplitude of a sound wave wavelling through water is called? ye \ hye a. Scatter Absorption ee c. Beam Spread @ Attenuation > ee ep ; Olas 6 The peneteation ofa sound wave into an aluminium block is reduced by? oe os ee < ort ged . Jncreased grain size 27 Zea" b. Decreased grain size © Decreased amplification 4. Reduction in probe frequency 7. What law dictates th : a. sound intensity is proportional to the distance sae b, sound intefsity is inversely proportional to the distance Ase LG sound intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance — y~ “\W¥" ee _© °F sound intensity is proportional to the square of the distance 4 Scat el} “Issue 2 . : Page 1 ated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 3 NEAR FIELD AND BEAM SPREAD EXERCISE, Find the near field and the.% beam angle in aluminium for the probes listed below: Ve Aluminium = 6300 meters/sec. Probe | Probe | Probe Nearfield | %beam | EValue | Beam Diameter | Angle. | Frequency | length angle Diameter at _—_75mm_| Smm oe 5 MHz fe. gs 16 es |e | ANE 10mm | 0° SMHz oes 5 mm of joMez |e), 72 |e l2287, 3 Seese tomm | 0% Mm |), 3.5} oe Uae ‘Use graph paper draw a fall scale diagram to indicate near field, beam spread and beam diameter 75mm from the scan surface » Complete the following statements. ey Np f devee” pea 1. By increasing the frequengy of the probe the beam angle is. cand the ar Baldi fe afc” MN : : 2. By increasing the diaméter of the probe the vane "and the near field is £42.01 £7 - 3. When using shear wave probes fé the beam angle is -and the near field is decrea ineréaSec ky: Bee? tee Sate Sepembe 2003Aerospace inspection Training ULIRASONIC TES sING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 1 General 1.1 Athigh frequencies, sound becomes "beamed" and may be considered to behave in a similar ‘manner to the beam from a small, powerful light source when meeting material interfaces of a smooth, mirror-like (specular) nature oe 2. Reflection 2.1 When sound is incident at an angle normal to an imerface of two media, some of the sound will be reflected and some of it transmitted. The amounts of sound reflected or transmitted will depend upon the characteristic geoustic impedance of the [Link] concerned. Characteristic Acoustic Impedance . 2.2 Characteristic Acoustic Impedance (Z) material is the product of the velocity of sound through a material (V), and the density (p) of the material Cave) 2.3 The amount of sound reflected at an interface may be calculated by the formula: : % Sound reflected = (4) x 100 ZitZs Where Z, and Zz are the characteristic impedance’s of the two media 2.4 Applying the formula to a water/stee! interface it can be seen that 88% of the sound is reflected whilst 12% is transmitted. At a metaVair interface there is virtually 100% refles bYee i ~ HB gals 2 ean £ y ee key \ Z, Source’ Ke + F ame tre Vc i 55 ‘, ae J Figure 1, Reflection, Transmission at an Interface “sss 2 ‘Page 1 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 2.5 The formula holds good only when the two media are in intimate molecular contact, In practice even two apparently smooth metal surfaces, in close contact, will have an air gap anit gap caused by minute surface irregularities poe Significance of Character ic Impedance Variations 3.1 The whole basis of ultrasonic flaw detection is that there will be a difference in characteristic impedance between the parent material and any flaw, whether the (law)is a fatigue crack, ‘Stress corrosion crack, or a metallic inclusion etc, IFthere is no change in characterisuc impedance there will be no reflection of the sound wave 4. Couplant 4.1 Ifan air gap exist between the face of the probe and the material under test, there will be no transmission of sound into the material, as the impedance mismatch is very great. Therefore, it is obviously negessary to exclude any air. This is effected by the use of a coupling medium ‘or couplant 42 is normally used as a couplant although today there are several water based inert coupling media, produced by the manufacturers of ultrasonic equipment. Any couplant must be compatible with the component under test and the impedance should ideally be as, high as the manufacturer of the couplant can produce ui 5. Reflection and Refrgstion of Ultrasonic Energy ‘When an advancing sound wave is incident, at an angle other than normal, upon an interface of two materials of different characteristic impedance’s, reflections and refraction will take place. The angles of reftection and refraction depend on fhe ingident angles and the vglocities of sound in the two materials, as stated by an adaptation of Snell’s Law, namely. {Snell's Law, eek Sinal _ Sina2 _ Sina3 vi Vi Vs ete, Where 011, 02, and 03 are the angles relative to the velocities of sound V;, V2 and Vs within the respective materials. 6. Reflection of Incident Compressional Wave 6.1 Figure 2 shows a compressional wave arriving at an interface between two media, A and B, at an angle (q11). The amount of sound energy reflected will be approximately the same as that described in paragraph 2 6.2 The reflected compressional wave (2) will be equal to the incident angle (011), since Sina _ Sina? yen vce Issuc 2 ae Page 2 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 63 Similarly, because of the difference between the velocities of the compressional wave and shear wave, the angle of the reflected shear wave (851) can be calculated thus 6.4 _Asthe compressional wave velocity (Ve) is greater than the shear wave velocity (Vs) a2 will be proportionally greater than B1 Reflects 5 Cia ‘8 Shoo woe ae Coit interface ~ Rte 7. Reflection of Incident Shear Wave 7.1 Figure 3 shows a shear wave arriving at an interface between two media, A and B, at an angle (B2). Applying Snell's Law the incident shear angle (B2) equals the reflected shear angle-(B3). SinB2 _ SinB3 Vs Vs B2 = §3 7.2 Asthe compressional wave velocity (Vc) is greater than the shear wave velocity (Vs) the reflected compressional wave angle «3 will be proportionally greater than 83 SinB3. = Sino3 Vs Ve \ Issue? Page 3 Dated: December 2001Aerospace inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Matesial Interfaces (Reflection) No Campresin Medium A Medium 8 XN Figure 3, Incident Shear Wave at an Interface 8. Main Application in Ultrasonics 8.1 With regard to reflection, the main application is in the stady of the behaviour of the ultrasonic beam within the specimen under examination, 8.2 Depending upon the geometry of the specimen being examined, various intesnal reflections, _with or without mode changes, can occur. - This may sometimes be useful, but in many instances, ‘fnisinterpretation is possible. It is therefore essential to be awarg of thé possible spurious indications “0” in order that they are not interpreted as defects in what is nightly non-defective material Issue 2 Page 4 Dated: December 2001Aerospace inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 9. Compressionat Mode 9.1 Figure 4 shows a compressional sound wave being propagated into the specimen. Mode conversion to shear wave takes place at cylinder walls, with part of the incident compressional continuing in the same mode, Many conversions take place, but briefly, when the beam path includes one excursion across the bar m shear, the result is the signal at TI after the bottom echo. Two excurSions in shear result in the signal at T2 and so on. Ti T2 Figure 4, Mode Conversion 9.2. When the specimen is a plain cylinder, no confusion should arise as these signals will arrive back atthe probe afer the boundary echo. However, ia spesimens of more complicate shape, care must be taken in interpretation of signals (see fgute 8), Figure 5, Spurious Indication Issue 2 ‘Dated: December 2001ce Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 9.3 When a compressional wave is incident upon the sloping surface AD at angle ot for the ‘medium, a strong shear wave is reflected at tight angles to the compressional wave(figure 6) A boundary BC at right angles to the scan surface will reflect the wave back to the probe from E, giving a Boundary Echo on the screen at a greater path length than BC. The path length from the probe to E via P is equivalent in time, to the shear time along AB, No matter ‘where the reflecting point P is along AD, this time will be the same. ae co P Figure 6, Reflections at Angles “Tssue 2 oe Page 6 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) 9.4 Figure 7 shows a typical spar boom where the positions of the indication A, B and C on the screen will be determined by the geometric dimensions of the specimen and the modes propagated. The height of the reflected spurious signals A and B will depend on the beam characteristics of the probe used, and the radius of the curve, The larger the radius the bighes the spurious echo. If bad radius finish results in a flat at one of the reflecting points, {his will cause an increase in signal echo height Figure 7, Reflections at Radii ‘Borom ee Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING 0 10.1 102 10.3 Paral Bear issue 2 Dated: December 2001 CHAPTER 4: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Reflection) Effect of Beam Spread Figure 7 shows a typical undercarriage Jeg-to-axle housing, which contains rwo bores at right angles to each other. The side view (left) shows a probe in position when examination is carried out for cracks originating in the thin wall at the intersection of the bores. The side view (right) depicts some of the reflection paths possible, due to two radii at right angles being involved. Cos 6° 8.2 The beam path length associated with a full skip distance is calculated by: Full skip beam path length ~_2t Cos 0° Figure 4, Calculation of Path Length (sued Page 5 Dated: January 2006Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 5: Behaviour of Ultrasound at Material Interfaces (Refraction) 9. Worked Example of Skip Distance and Path Length 9.1 For practical calculations given that the path length is known from the position of the signal ‘om the timebase of a calibrated flaw detector (90mm). The information that is required + how far is the fault below the surface. L ‘© how faris the fault in front of the probe index point ske Br WC e 92 Given: . @ Path length to the fault = 90mm Aluminium i: , Probe angle = 60° (Aluminium). | oe 93 Path Length =t/cos probe angle Lg Therefore —_t (fault depth) = Path length x cos probe angle Freak of Probe Eons oo Oo iadix pein = 45 mm below the scan surface : 9.4 ¥ Skip Distance = tx tan probe angle Therefore % Skip distance = 77.9 mim in front of the probe index point Issue 3 Dated: January 2006 Page 6Aerospace Inspection Trainig — | ULYRASONIC TESTING | | HOMEWORK: Chapter 5 When an ultrasonic beam passes through the interface of two dissimilar materials at an angle, a new angle of sound travel takes place in the second material due 10: a atenuation b. rarefaction compression refraction Hf An ultrasonic testing technique in which the transducer (crystal) is at an angle to the test surface is called: angle beam testing b. contact testing immersion testing 4. through- Jess than the incident angle se ct ' e ah, dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 5 7. When an incident compressional wave meets a medium of lower sound velocity, the reflected angle vwill be? <8) sameas the incident angle. Sp preater than the incident angle dependent the new wave mode - 4. less than the incident angle 8, Theangle of refraction is dependent on the incident angle and the properties of the test material, and is calculated using, a Boyles law €b) —Snells law = ©. Youngs modulus d—-Poissons ratio 9. What isthe refiacted uansygise wave angle jn aluminiug using water immersion probe having an incident angle of20°7 Pan Low Ys Be Taal V andl wal a 20° bless than 20° oe © areater han 20° 4. ‘cannot create 9 transverse wave in water 10. The angle of ingidence which reftacts the beant at 90° in the tst material is called a The firsteritical angle Com) Po b. The second critical angle Shear 42 - © Thecitical angle = . Shear wave only © Longitudinal and shear wave a Longitudinal, shear and surface wave : : Age 7 15. What angle will a probe masked at 45° produce when placed on the following materials? / a ee 358 cae Sin My nts eee eb: 255° 4 Aluminium, 110 L} Y ow Snes ae 67) b Nickel, ye a Brass. 328 o Sen eat 16. Calculate the refracted compression and shear waves produced in steel from an incident sound wave 210° in wate. Sn 5900 = 43.8 Sot > “Tage Ve Steel 5900 m/sec Vs Stee! 3240 misec Vc in Water 1480 misec. Compression 4g Soe = 0-797 4-55 17. Calculate the 1% and 2" critical angles for Perspex to Aluminium, Ve Perspex 2700 nsec rhe Vs perspex 1200 aed © ae Ve Aluminium 6300 m/sec __ Vs Aluminium 3130 misec i 2 Ist Critical angle are Atzee - 154 2a Critical angle | 24oe = 59.4! 3134 Note: Probe angle is always specified for steel unless otherwise stated. “Issue 2 i a ge 3 ~~ Page 3 dated: September 2003,Aerospace inspecuon training CLE IKASUIIL EET Mu CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 21 3. General Probe designs vary in accordance with the particular task for which the probe is required. Here we discuss the general principles of probe design, operating frequency and identification, Probe Design ‘The standard design of probe is one which uses a transducer to transmit a pulse of compressional sound. If the probe transducer is in direct contact with the specimen the sound is transmitted into the specimen at right angles (norma}) to its surface. The electrical circuit 1s through the centre core of a co-axial cable to the back of the transducer. The retum from the front face of the transducer is via the Face Plate and the Body to the outer sheath of the co-axial. Damping material js used to obtain good ion by keeping the pulse length short, i-<. the shorter the pulse, the better the resolution. Probe Design Considerations ‘The design of a transducer for application in ultrasonic non-destructive testing requires a compromise among several conflicting factors and varies with each application. The basic considerations in design are: # selection of a piezoelectric element * electrode type and configuration backing material and its characteristics © frontal member, such as a lens if required Piezo Electric Elements See chapter | for the comparison of piezo electric elements. Electrodes ‘ we i ‘The purposelof using elggtzodes is,ta provide a means for applying a voltage gradient across the transduce? element. This voltage Sadiént usually takes the form of a large (100 to 2000 ‘volis) pulse Tadting for less than 10 microseconds. This voltage gradient causes acoustic energy to be developed in the transducer. Barium titanate ceramie plates have vapour- deposited electrodes or fired-on, conducting’paint electrodes. Electrodes are difficult to Aeposit upon lithium sulphate, so that they are often made of thin metallic foils cemented to the transducer element, In most applications, the front and rear electrodes are identical; in special cases, however, shaped electrodes are used, or the front electrode is eliminated for contact testing, for the part serves as the electrode. Issued Page T Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection raining | ULAKADUNIC LED TENG CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 6.1 mW 81 Probe Operating Frequency When the piezo-electric transducer’ of an ultrasonic probe is subjected to a sharp pulse of electrical energy, the transducer begins to vibyate at its resonant frequency and waves of frequency energy (sound) wy lucer. Depending upon the velocity of sound in the transducer material, a number of sound waves will exist within the transducer, anid the number of waves will also be proportional to the thickness of the transducer. Standing Waves The next figure illustrates the results of applying the pulse of electrical energy to the face of the transducer. The energy leaves the top surface, travels through the transducer in the Simple Harmonic Motion, meets the bottom surface of the transducgrfand is reflected. At certain thicknesses of transducer the returning wave train is superimposed upon the initial ‘wave traip, so that areas of minimum and maximum sound pressures coincide. These Nodes (minimum) and Anti-nodes (maximum) are referred to as Standing Waves. 1 Node L antinode Figure 1, Standing Waves in a Peizo-clectric Transducer Natural (Fundamental) Resonant Frequency The standing waves cause the transducer to ‘resonate! and the number of standing waves, in a given thickness of transducer, will dictate the ariplitude of sound generated by the particular transducer. Maximum resonance occurs at the Natural (Fundamental) Resonant Frequency, when the thickness ofthe transducer corresponds to halfa wavelength of sound. Tt can therefore, be seen that the thickness of the transducer governs the frequency at which the probe is said to operate. 2 < (mm 2 (mm) Optimum transducer thickness (t) 2 = velocity frequency Therefore oe Gam) 2f Therefore natural frequency ~ Issue 4 Page 2 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Iraining | ULAKASUMIE Hho LNG CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 9, Pulse Length 9.1 Pulse Length is controlled by the damping material built into the probe to reduce the probe ring-down time. In addition some probes have electronic circuitry built in to further reduce Fing-down time to as little as one wave-length. Probes are identified by their pulse tengih. ‘Where the requirement is to search for faults close to the inspectioi yulse’ lengthprobes areused. Alternatively where higher energy levels are required to send sound deep into the material longer pulses are utilised. However, the longer the pulse length the ess the resolution that can be obtained from the probe. A Aaltmnm 7 | snaaones TTT UY : Ke LS Ww i VV y apap cross. s 9 Y Broad Band ls Probe | Hit Figure 2, Pulse Lengths for Various Damping Levels crete mete woes 10. Backing Members _ 10.1. The backing member supporting the transducer has a great influence upon the performance of the transducer. Variations in the construction or material of the backing member can ‘make a transducer ideal for one application and useless for another. Go facial controlling transducer band width. The 10.2 The impedance of the backing mem! backing member places a load on the pi ic element and damps the ringing.: The maximum damping occurs when the impedance of the backing member is equal to the impedance of the element. : Issued Page 3 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspecuon training UL TRAD UIE EES ELNG CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 11. Definitions 11.1 _ Five terms are needed for the description of transducer operation. They are: oO @ + Qangpand width Dsensifivity +*Ghcoustical impedance oe #5 resolving power. 100% | — 70.71% ramet Figure 3, Frequency os of Transducer Element ere Q and band width A et ac aXe! ee 11.2 The number of cycles required for transducer vibration to reach full amplitude when driven by constant alternating voltage is given by its mechanical Q. 11.3 Q, also known as the quality factor, is a performance measurement of the transducer frequency selectivity defined by: aE Q= where: f central (resonance or fundamental)frequency of the element £-f, =band width of the transducer f, = frequency below f, at which the amplitude of sound falls to 0.707 (-34B) of the amplitude at f, f, = frequency above f, at which the amplitude of sound falls to 0.707 (-34B) of the amplitude at f, 11.4 Unmounted transducer elements can have Q's exceeding 20,000. Transducers for used in ultrasonic non-destructive testing usually have Q's in the range af one to tgp. 1 Pulse Length. |~ ‘* Single, dual or multiple transducer. 13.2 In addition the requirements for contouring the probe or water immersion probes have to be considered 13.3 Different probe manufacturers may use combinations of letters, numbers and colours as identification of a probe unit's effective transducer diameter, beam angle, operating frequgney ee Iti necessary fr the NDT technician © verify, with the manufacturer's catalogue, a particular probe unit's capabilities before using any probe, as a substitute for the designated probe, in an inspection, 14, Normal Angle Compressional Probe 14.1 A Normal Angle Compressional Probe is one which transmits a pulse of compressional sound into the specimen at right angles (normal) to its surface. The Sound may be focussed aa given distance into the material by the use of an accoustic Jens on the face of the probe. ‘Compressional probes may be angled to obtain up to 30° refracted angle by the use of a Refracting Pfisit’ However, as the probe is tilted an incfeasing quantity of shgazwave sound is produced. This sound travels at a lower velocity and therefore smaller angles than the compressional sound pulse. 9 tweneduces/ (BB) electrical matching HERE camping block iguire 6, Normal Angle Compressional Probe cable Tssue 4 Dated: June 2006 Page 7Aerospace Inspection [raining | ULTRASONIC He: ING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 15. Shear Wave Probes. 15.1 It is not practical to use transducers which produce shear waves. All probes therefore create initially compressional waves, Use ig made of the conversion of an ineident compressional wave into a refracted shear wave at the boundary between two materials. Itis necessary to consider beam spread when working in areas close to the first and second critical angles. 1st Critical 2nd Critical Angle Angle Vs. Bee socket = Celay / protecting face ‘transducer BB) electrical matching ro Figure 8, Shear Wave Probe cable 15.2. The ultrasonic damper of the probe shown in figure 8 is common and is specially shaped and coated with plastic to dissipate the internal unwanted reflected compressional sound. 15.3. By convention the refracted angle produced in mild steel is marked on shear wave probes Due to the difference of sound velocity the refracted angle will Gary) with éach particular material. Shear wave probes are not normally available at angles below.$59in gggl owing to ‘the vonfusion caused by spurious compressional wave signals which will also be generated. 15.4 For Aerospace applications there are shear wave probes specifically marked for the refracted angle in Aluminium (AL). ——e Tue d Page 8 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection {raining | ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 6; Probe Design Operating Frequency/dentification A= pvcur _ | — PLASTIC COATING BEAM INDEX| x PROBE INDEX Figure 9, Shear Wave Probe 15.5 Figure 9, shows the probe index and probe angle. This is required information when accurately calibrating a shear Wave probe. 15.6 The table below compares the refracted angles produced in aluminium for various angled probes. Reffacted shear angle [35° 45° 60° 70° 80° 90° in steel Refracted shearangle | 33.6° | 43° | 568° | 65.2° | 72° 75° in chuminiuen Contour (Radius) Probes 15.7 When using contoured probes on components such as hydraulic cylinders to detect faults originating from the bore of the gylinder it is important that the beam arrives at the inner surface at the optimum ans ‘degrees to the inner surface). To achieve this the correct angle of entry into the ae 1s calculated using the formula: Sin@ =2T/D) Where: the wall thickness ‘ylinder external diameter gut Side 15.8 In the examples shown in figure 10. Tube A Diameter = 100mm, Wall thickness = 10mm Sin © = 1 ~( 20/100) =1-02 =08 © =53 degrees Tube B Diameter = 100mm. Wall thickness = 30mm Sin © = 1 ~( 60/100) =1-06 =04 © =23.5 degrees Issue 4 Page 9 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection [raining — | ULV RASONIC FES TANG CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 15.9 16, 16.1 16.2 17. 171 Angle . Angle Approx. 50 Approx. 23° CYLINDER A CYLINDER B Figure 10, Shear wave angles for cylinder inspection With a shear wave of 23 degrees into the material a compression wave will also be produced which may cause spurious indications during inspection. In this situation the usual option is to use a refracted compression wave and place any spurious shear wave signals off the sereen, Surface Wave Probes “These are constructed in exactly the same way as shear wave probes. The incident angle through the ultrasonic mode changer is slightly in éXcess of the second critical angle, to allow for beam spread, thus causing a pure surface wave to be produced in the material ‘The second critical angle for perspex to steel is (5.54 and for perspex to aluminium itis 93, {tis necessary to use a perspex to aluminium surface probe on aluminium, to ensure that there is no shear wave being introduced into the aluminium. Lamb Wave Probes Although it is possible to obtain Lamb Waves with a surface wave probe, in sheet materials, they are not suitable for and the most practical application is found in resonance testing of materials. Tssue 4 Page 10 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection /raining ULE RASUNIC TESTING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification =~ 18. Stand off (Delay Line) Probes 18.1 _ In order to facilitate the complete inspection of thin plate sections itis necessary 10 eliminate the effect of the probe units dead zone and the earlier part of its near field in ‘which those areas of interfering sound pressures exist. A normal angle compressional probe is mounted on a perspex block so that the dead zone and part of the near field are within the perspex. 18.2. There will be a signal and multiple echoes from the perspex interface, which, by use of the instrument delay and velocity controls, may be expanded on the timebase so that the echoes from the material under test appear between the Ist and 2nd echoes from the perspex block. 183 These probes may be used for detecting delamination in aircraft skins and also for thickness ‘measurement techniques for thin steels and the detection of defects just below the surface of cae 2 18.4 The delay line is normally made from plastic and ordered in microseconds (j1Secs) delay dependent upon the thickness of materials to be inspected. Figure 11, Delay Probe ISPECTION RANGE | \ ex} ) [| fT ce inst SECOND b— peter Dey + Figure 12, Calibration of Time Base for Delay Line Probe Issue 4 Pagel Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Iraming ULERASONIC LES TING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 19. Twin Transducer Probes 19.1 These may be either compressional or shear wave probes. One transducer is used as the transmitter and the other as the receiver. With compressional probes the transducers are mounted on perspex 30 that the dead zone. and some of the near field-ate taken out of the ‘material undeg test similar to the stand off prabe. This gives good sensitivity to near surface defects By citing the transducers the probe can be focusséd to give inaximum sensitivity at the required range. Twin transducer probes suffer from cross-noise caused by sound interference between the two transducers as grease or couplant seeps into the separati cork material, and may give an indication similar to a near-surface defect. n Se socket => Aeelay / protecting face ‘transducer (DB) _ electrical matching BBE camping biock Figure 13, Focussed Twin Transducer Probe cable START PULSE b— peraY —J rey 7 i me ge Figure 14, Calibration of Time Base for Twin Transducer Probe We Issued Pagel? Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/identification 20. Water Immersion and Water Irrigated Probes 20.1 Water immersion probes are special waterproofed probes used in immersion testing. An advantage of immersion testing is that thinner, higher frequency transducers (typically 25 MHz) without face wear plates, can be used with less chance of damage caused by probe handling encountered during contact scanning. The higher frequency probe results in reduced beam spread and shorter wavelength and so allows for the detection of comparably smaller defects. Additionally immersion probes can be focussed very simply with lenses shaped to the required beam. Figure 15 shows a typical application for an immersion probe in a bubbler system. (agi a cascang ps wav PROBE— WATER ~ | ‘igure 15, Bubbler System _— rune 20.2 Water irrigated probes are commonly used for high speed scanning in inspecting composite susan large conventional structures or components such as wing skins and turbine This is to overcome any coupling difficulties and probe wear, which could occur ‘when examining rough surfaces. 4 i a Wp Figure 16, Water Irrigated Probes “Tsou 4 Page 13 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Iraining | ULLKADSUNIC FES TING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 20.3 Hand held probes are also used for immersion testing. However, to ensure that the water gap and probe angle are maintained correctly a collimator tube, or scrubber, is used in front of the probe as shown in figure 17. Figure 17, Collimated Probe, 21 Focussed Probes eet 21.1 Most commonly used in water immersion techniques, focussed probes are transducers having an acoustic lens fitted to the front face of the transducer. The lens creates a focal distance (focal point) in the water. This improves probe lateral resolution and sensitivity at a re-dotenmined fepth Beyond the focal point lateral resolution and sensitivity reduces ‘Significantly. 21.2 Figure 18 shows a focussed probe (transducer) where the difference in compressional sound velocity between water and the metal under test shostens the focal distance of the probe. Focused Figure 18, Focussed Probe issued Pagel4 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC LES LING CHAPYER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 22. Roller Probes 22.1 _ Roller probes are used in through-transmission inspections particularly for aircraft structure such as flying control surfaces. The probe is mounted in the centre of the roller and the sound transmission is via a liquid couplant, usually oil, in the whetl and then through the rubber tyre of the roller. Due to the high attenuation of the sound in the rubber rollers, roller probes are usually of low frequency and undamped. eat bOSS Figure 19, Roller Probe (through transmission) 23. Paintbrush Transducers 23.1 This type of transducer is a mosaic type, in that it has one or more rows of elements making up a hand held probe with a beam that ean be described as the "brisifeS on a regular paintbrush". It is found commonly in medical ultrasonics and is used for the examination of the foetus in the womb. Displays are normally of the 'B-Scan' configuration. yo Figure 20, Paintbrush transducer Tse d Page IS Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Ifaining | ULAKASUNIC LES LING CHAPTER 6: Probe Design Operating Frequency/Identification 24. Other Ultrasonic Probes 24.1 Examples of other ultrasonic probes are illustrated below. Figure 22, Focussing Contact Probe Issued Pagel6 Dated: June 2006Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING (oes Chapter 6 1. Which ofthe allowing probes would contain thetthickest crystal (transducer) et ty 7 a 2 VO MHz Probe. > -2.5MHzProbe, jf = A © 1S Miz Probe. 4. 25 Miz Probe. - 2. Approbe containing three or more separate transducers is often referred to as a: eT hole a. dual crystal b. sandwich crystal Mu ! f mosaic, 4. none of the above ras 3. Sound can be focused by means of special curved adapters located in front of the transducer. These adapters are referred t0 as a. serubbers ¢._ angle beam adapters acoustic lenses ~ 4. single plane angulators 4. Arwide or begga bandwidth ultrasonic probe: \ A ay Beth oo ele te Cand wiell @ __ isheavily damped. ‘Band well Bond wid 6. isTiant me a oc will operate at several frequencies dependant on the flaw detector PRF setting, 4 is designed so that the frequency in MH7z is equal to the crystal diameter in mm. 5 Which of the following proprties does a heavily damped probe have? ~ %@) Short pulse, with increased sensitivity to near surface discontinuities B. Short pulse, with reduced sensitivity to near surface discontinuities <— De Long pulse, with increased sensitivity to near surface discontinuities 4. Long pulse, with reduced sensitivity to near surface discontinuities 6. ‘Transducers in probes are usually damped to: . 09 a. Increase penetration when inspecting coarse grain materials ae one b. Reduce signal attenuation not old . Improve resolution ~~— wee et Increase signal attenuation © m 7. Which of the following controls the pulse-width of a transducer? ‘Amplifier gain settings . 7p. — Mechanical damping ©. Band-pass filters d. Amplifier frequency setting. > 8. What is the funetion o' ungsten powder backing member? Dow Ly, To change the probe angle To increase pulse length To remove unwanted shear waves generated in the transducer “Wssue 2 = dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 6 ich of the following does not affect the probe operating frequ width? 9. Which ofthe following does not affect the probe operating frequency and bandwidth a. transducer thickness +b) transducer diameter c. instrument electrical circuitry 4. the transducer backing member 10. Which of the following transducers would have the least beam spread? be sp 3) a large diameter transducer b. alow frequency transducer ‘D) f ee 4. ahighly damped transducer LL. Which of the following does the diameter of the transducer influence? fe a beam LD. b. penetration vt -e 9 Peasira c. pnear fila) Bh 8) Mofthe above 12. Which of the following, oe the frequency of the transducer influence? 7 D p, Food Pore’ 2. beam spreagif of een Ay ae oe created Af) allofthe above 13. Which of the following probes would give the best neat surface resolution? 2, Contact probe b. _Undamped probe AE) Stand-off probe d Low frequency contact probe 14, The inspection requires the detection of laminar defects throughout a 50 mm aluminium block, with ‘good near surface pesolutipn, Which of the following probes would satisfy all of these Fequirements? a. Contact probe ©) Diriransaucer probe c.— Stand-off probe Shear wave probe 15, The inspeetign requires tie detection of laminar defects throughout @ 150 mm aluminium castin having a €oarse grain structure. Which of the following probes would satisfy all of these requirement? a. High frequency, large diameter aed ¢e5* fad? b. High frequency, small diameter —? hat? Baw tguee,ige damctr > Soo 70°" Low frequency, small diamieter 16. The inspection requires the detection of disbonds in # composite stcucture using roller robes, What properties should the transducer have? a. Highly damped, high frequency b. _Undamped, high frequency Highly damped, low frequency A Undamped, low frequency 17, What is the formula for calculating the fundamental gesonant frequency of a transducer? ~ a fev b. fa 2vit c. 4 few issue? ee Page 2 dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles 1 General 1.1 Whilst the finished products vary, in the extemal appearance of the design features favored by one manufacturer compared to another, the basic principles of the components necessary to obtain reliable information, from the material under test, remain common to all Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors, This chapter details those basic component parts and discusses their functions, 2. Basic Component Parts of an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 2.1 To simplify the explanation of the operation of an ultrasonic flaw detector it may be considered as six main sub-components © Pulse Generator. Pulse Transmitter. ‘Simebase Control, Receiver Amplifier. Signal Processor. Display (Cathode Ray Tube/Liquid Crystal/Electro-Luminescent), 2.2 The next figure shows a block diagram of « typical ultrasonic flaw detector. Each of the components and its associated controls are dealt with in the following paragraphs. PULSE GEN, se onse meas abs “mfr cayenne a aa WPeadh. seledty (aden vhbael A ei A ‘siGnal AC Soy seo | Ghee ‘COMPUTOR INTERFACE. PROBE Figure 1, Ultrasonic Flaw Detector Block Diagram. Issue? Page Dated: August 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles Prices 3. Pulse Generator 3.1 The pulse generator produces reference pulses, or signals, which are directed to the pulse tvansmitter and the timebase control simultaneously. This ensures that the start of the timebase is matched 10 the sound being generated within the probe, The number of times per second that the pulses are produced is termed the Pulse Repstiton Frequency (PRF) The PRF is not to be confused with the probe frequency. 7 rouaft 3.2 The PRF control is contained within the pulse generator. The pulse repetition,frequency in a typical flaw detector ranges from 50 Hz to 3500 Hz. If PRF is too high hist echoes es may appear on the display screen, Ghost Echoes are caused by Sound waves created by one transducer pulse returning to the probe after the subsequent transducer pulse. They can be eliminated by reducing PRF to a level where all returning pulses have decayed prior to the next pulse being, produced. PRE on most digital flaw detectors is automatically adjusted by _Fange controls and the Selection of the type of probe in use (Single/Twin). On through ‘transmission inspection, where an echo is not returned to the probe, the PRF can be increased without the risk of ghost echoes. On automatic inspection the PRF will be a limiting factor on. sean speed : 9 maubact 4, Pulse Transmitter cord 4.1 The pulse transmitters triggered by the signal from the pulse generator. The purpose of the pulse transmitter is td provide a very narrow (short) spike of be, this is usually from 130 volts to 600 volts. The electrical spike provides sufficient energy to energize the piezo-electric transducer so that it will vibrate:at its natural frequency with suffi- cient power to generate ultrasonic waves in the material under test. As a general rule, larger diameter transducers requife a greater énergizing voltage. The pulse transmitter spike Saation can afeo be controlled to optize probe performance and has a direct effet onthe <— shape and length of the ultrasonic pulse from the probe, Probe damping can be controlled, to a limited extent, by the pulse transmitter to improve resolution, The Pulse transmitter also Contains the selector for changing from Single, Twin or Through Transmission probes, which also adjusts the voltage accordingly. 4.2. Typical control functions within the pulse transmitter are: + Pulse Voltage (150V — 600V) * Pulse Time (in nanoseconds) * Pulse Damping (in Ohms) ‘* Probe selection (Single, Twin or Through Transmission) 5. Timebase Control 5.1 Pulses from the palse generator trigger the timebase control to produce the timebase sweep on the display screen horizontal axis (X axis). The horizontal axis represents time or distance. 5.2 The length of time displayed on the screen is adjusted by use of the Range and Velocity controls. This can also be related to distance traveled by the sound pulse. If the velocity of sound within a material is known the velocity can be pre-selected 1o match the material. The ies wala Tear ry Page 2 Dated August 2003 ‘Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING. CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles range controls then can be selected to the thickness of material 10 be inspected, To a degree the use of the Range and Velocity controls are interchangeable and are interdependent. 4.3. Prior to entering the material under test the sound may have to travel through a plastic shoe on the front of the probe, or through a water gap. This part of the sound path is not usually of any interest to the ultrasonic inspection. The Delay control delays the displayed start of the timebase in relation to the transducer pulse, The Delay control enables the sound path not associated with the material under test to be delayed off the screen without affecting the range of the display. 5.4 Typical control functions within the Timebase Control are: + Range - adjusts the time base range (millimeters). * Velocity - selects the material sound propagation velocity (meters/sec). © Delay - adjusts the time base delay (millimeters), 6. Receiver Amplifier 6.1 When a sound pulse is reflected at an interface in a material and returns to the transducer it causes it 10 vibrate and give off’ an electrical signal, This signal is very small, in the order of micro-volts. To be able to use this signal to generate a display it is necessary to amplify it ‘The receiver amplifier, increases the signal by up to }00,000 times - and is referred to as aoliich gain, Frequency Selector 6.2 Ultrasonic Daw detectors usually have a number of amplifiers, each centre tuned to a frequency. They are switched to match the frequency of the probe in use. As can be seen in the néxt figure a centre frequeney tuned amplifier of 5 MHz will amplify signals over a range of frequencies, Therefore, if'a 7 MEz probe was beiig used with the amplifier set to 5 MHz signals would still be amplified but to a lesser degree 6.3 The band width of the amplifier is measured at the points where the gain has fallen to 70%, that is, a reduction of 3dB from the maximum, The 70% level is the root mean square value (RMS) where: RMS = peak value + V2. ~ 7 ~ Bdb reduc?” 75,000 Hf —_ RHS A 50,000 \ WC eel rad 7” Ee 234S6Ff 5 w 2 °C FREQUENCY Qu) Figure 3, Switched Centre Frequency Tuned Amplifier 25,000 Issue 3 Page 3 Dated: August 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles Wideband Amplifier 6.4 This selects an amplifier which has a wideband response as shown in figure 4. This can be useful for through transmission techniques in materials having high sound attenuation. It is, also used to amplify the response from wideband probes. aa oe 100,000 75,000 GAIN . ee ee as — 50,000 | 25,000 2 aes ae 10 ee Figure 4, Typical Response of Wide Band Amplifier Amplifier Linearity 6.5 One of the properties required of an amplifier is that signals:should be amplified and displayed proportionately to the amount of sound received [Link] transducer. This is termed amplifier linearity. The amount of sound received is proportional to the area of the reflector, therefore amplitude of screen signal should be proportional to reflector area as shown in figure 5. AMPLITUDE: {26 0f screen height) Figure 5, Amplifier Linearity issue 3 Dated: August 2003, Page +Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7. Flaw Detector Principles Reject (Suppression) 6.6 When working with coarse grained materials or at igh gain settings a multitude of small peaks (noise) may appear on the timebase. These are due to minute signals from the crystal boundaries of the specimen, or to minute stray signals generated in the amplifier circ ‘These signals can be suppressed by the use of the reject control wey 6.7 Figure 6, shows that the resultam effect of reject is to increase the threshold byeak the timebase. It has had the de: signals defect signals. Reject affects amplifier linearity and has a di le and the fault sizing capability of the system. Because of in exceptional circumstance effects reject should only be used 68 — With digital equipment, reject is linear so will not effect the peak amplitude of original remaining sig but le all signals that are below the threshold level selected, ‘ed effect of removing the noise but also removes smell. ral in wh) SCOOT epee re ra ° ee ees ‘owe | nce esecr SELECTED sci. ANPUTUL eo St = anol se > 4 PYeC 36 Revect Shey abr REFLECTOR: . MEA Figure 6, Effect of Reject Control on Amplifier Linearity isis Page 5 Dated: August 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPYER 7: Flaw Detector Principles 69 6.19 61 6.12 6.13 Gain Control Je This control enables the amplitude of the displayed signals to be adjusted, and is calibrated in decibels. (aB), Calibrated Gain By using pure resistors the signal current to the amplifier can be increased or decreased by a fixed amount which is unaffected by frequency changes, Instruments utilize a calibrated gain. control so that increase in dB results in a known increase in signal amplitude, It is therefore possible to compare echo amplitudes from reflectors (even though one may be producing a much bigger/smaller indication than another) by comparing the number of dB's (Gain) required to bring both signals to the same height. This difference is a function of the comparable sizes of the respective reflectors as is discussed in the chapter on defect sizing. Signal Display The signal returning to the receiver amplifier is in the full wave form (also known as RF). This signal may be displayed by the flaw detector in the un-rectified or in the rectified form as shown in figure 7. Rectification may be positive, or, negative, half wave rectified or combining the negative signal with the positive, known as full wave rectification (RF, HALF*, HALF-, or FULLWAVE) For ultrasonic applications the half wave form is normally used. The operators choice of + or =ve depends on the probe design and the signal feturning to the probe. ‘The optimum display is determined by identifying and selecting the half of the [Link] produces the first. large half wave signal 1 | fe UNRECTIFIED RECTIFIED Figure 7, Signal Rectification The controls for the Rec ceiver Amplifier include: Frequency Selector ( match to frequency of probe in MHz or select Wideband) Reject (% of fall screen height) Gain (dB) Display (Full-wave, Half-wave) Tse 3 Dated: August 2003, Page 6Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles 1 12 B 14 18 Distance Amplitude Correcti 16 17 18 Signal Processor ‘The Signal Processor provides the operator the ability to simplify or speed up the interpretation of the flaw detector information. This can either be by providing a digital output of signal position and/or amplitude for the operator, or, to link the output directly to a computer for automatic inspection systems. The Signgl Pracessar is able to access and collate information from both the Timebase Generator and Receiver Amplifier and utilize the “7% information to operate the Gates and associated systems. Gate (Marker) Most equipment manufacturers provide a control whereby a gate or mtarker is able to be superimposed upon the timebase so that a rapid indication of a particular reflector’s position can be obtained. This facility can be usefully adapted as a “go/no-go" monitoring device in some inspection techniques. =— Gates can be set for an alarm to be triggered at a pre-determined amaligide (positive) with an increasing signal or (negative) with a decreasing amplitude. Gates may be set to trigger from the signal peak, or the signal Flank, Gates are essential for some types of recording systems ‘where they also serve to provid information to the recording devices or storage systems The use of a Gate will also permit the flaw detector to be used as an ultrasonic thickness gauge, thus providing an accurate and direct readout of material thickness, In general engineering, many faults found by the inspector are repairable. ‘To:permit the repair to be carried out, the exact location of the fault in’3dimensions needs to be provided. When using shear wave probes this requies,the inspector to calculate the skip distances and the depth below the surface using trigonometry. Modern digital flaw detectors have the capability to camry out these calculations and present the information in real time use wilh She, Woves. ‘The sound wave in the far field is attenuated with distance in a predictable manner. To compare signals from similar reflectors at differing distances, the amount of sound attenuation needs to be taken into consideration (This is discussed in more detail in the chapter on defect sizing). The Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) control is a method whereby the effect of sound attenuat tronically removed. When using the DAC control the operator must be fully aware that the amplification of the signals varies with distance and the implicatigns that result from nor-linear amplification ewe The controls for the Signal Processor include Gate/Gates ( Select Position, Width, Alarm Level and Positive or Negative) Thickness Gauge (Sclect measurement to Flank or Peak of signal) Angle (Seléct Probe Angle and Material Thickness) DAC (Select Signals to compare and Gain levels) issue 3 Dated: August 2003 Page 7Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles 8 Summary 8.1 The following is a summary of the various functions within their system area. SYSTEM FUNCTION Pulse Generator Pulse Transmitter Pulse Repetition Control} Pulse Voltage Control Pulse Time Control Pulse Damping Control Probe Selection Control} Timebase Control Range Control Velocity Control Delay Control Receiver Amplifier Frequency Control Reject Control Gain Control Display Control Signal Processor Gate Controls ‘Thickness Gauge Controls Angle Controls DAC Controls Issue 3 Dated: August 2003 Page 8Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING. CHAPTER 7: Flaw Detector Principles 9 Display A-Scan Presentation 9.1 The screen presentation described in this chapter is known as A-scan, B-Scan (test material «ccoss section view) and C-scan (test material plan view) will be described in larer chapters 9.2 Modern instruments are digital and use liquid crystal or electro-luminescent displays. Hawever, an understanding of the principles of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), in its particular application in flaw detection apparatus, is still required and questioned in some qualification examinations. 9.3 Figure 8 shows that the CRT consists of an evacuated glass envelope with a luminescent screen at one end. At the other end of the tube is the Electron Gun, followed by the Defleeting System EVACUATED. Lummescent cD GLASS TUBE, ‘SCREEN Figure 8, CRT Assembly 9.4 The Electron Gun consists of a Cathode and Anode assembly. Free electrons emitted by a cathode heater filament are attracted by the positively charged anode assembly. 9.5 The Deflecting System consists of what are known as X plates and Y plates. As the name of the system implies, these are used to deflect the electron beam so controlling the screen trace. The position of the time base is controlled as follows: ‘+ Horizontal Shift - The X plates are set vertically, so that the potential across them will determine the path of the electron beam in the horizontal plane, control being achieved-by means of a variable resistance. + Vertical Shift - The Y plates are set horizontally, so that the vertical position of the electron beam can be controlled by a variable resistance. ies Tae Date: August 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC T STING HOMEWORK: Chapter 7 “The process of adjusting an instrument or device to a standard is called: a, angulation b. attenuation © calibration 4. correlation 2 A scale which can be iinposed and adjusted on the viewing screen of an ultrasonic testing instrument which permitsyrapid measurement of distances or amplitudes is referred to as: a an initial pulse -@ agate b, a time base line a sweep line 3, In an A-scan presentation, the horizontal base line represents. a amount of teflected ultrasonic sound energy returning to the probe b. distance travelled by the probe ©. thickness of material being tested © elapsed time or distance between reflecting boundaries = SSS 4. Iman A-scan presentation, the amplitade of vertical indications on the screen represents: Ca} amount of reflegted ultrasonic sound energy returning to the probe b. distance travelled by the probe ©, thickness of material being ested 4. elapsed time since ultrasonic pulse was generated 5 ‘Which of the following can excessive high pulse repetition frequency (PRE) cause? a an unstable backwall signal b, decrease in return signal attenuation ©. an increase in return signal attenuation 7G) ‘phantom’ or “ghost? echoes on the timebase 6 ‘What does the unrectified (RF) display on instrument screen represent? 4B. __signals in an alternating wave form showing positive and negative wave pressure b, signals showing positive wave pressure only ~~ c. signals showing negative wave pressure only d. the signals required for instrument calibration during servicing 1. ‘When using an instrument with a cathode ray tube (CRT), which of the following components in the CRT deflects the electrons horizontally to generate the time-base sweep line? Aa) the X plates b. the time-base control ©. the Y plates d. the pulse transmitter Issue 2 oe ane Page 7 dated: September 2008Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 7 8, When setting up an alarm or measurement fe on the instrument screen, which of the following require setting? a PRF and signal height b. _time-base range and prf © __ time-base range and defect signal amplitude threshold ~ ‘alarm threshold and minimum defect size 9. Which of the following can be controlled to, optimize probe performance? a. pulse repetition frequency b. probe operating frequency © pulse scansmitter pug, Seana a imebase control 10. To find the root mean square (RMS) value of a peak value signal a, RMS=Peak x ¥2 &) RMS = Peak +V2 c. RMS=Peak =0.707 RMS = Peak x 1.414 11. Why should reject (signal suppression) should be used with caution? “= a it affects time-base linearity © i plfects amplifier linearity, é. itreduces low amplitude signais onty 4. itremoves noise, therefore the signal to noise ratio cannot be determined 12. What units is the gain control calibrated in? a Hz & kilowatts. millimetres, @ Mathematics Revision 13. Using a 8 mm diameter, 2,5 Mhz probe compressional probe in aluminium: a, ‘What thickness of PZT is equired? (Ve = 0.28 emv/usec) e b. What is the ws ength in the aluminium? (Ve = 0.64 A iength in the aluminium? (Ve cm/sec) W925 6 "ey ) a7 14256 c. What isthe length of the nearfiels? 40°" $ n. Be 2 ! 12 d. What is the half beam angle? (K = 1.08) a =. . Dee elas 14, Using the above probe, what is the incident angle required in an Acrylic mode convertor (Ve = 0.27 exm/see) to give 50° refracted shear in aluminium (Vs=O:313 om/ysec), 4 | : 2-28 M0 ze Braga? Tesue 2 dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 8: Practical Application i: General 1.1 With the basic principles of ultrasonic flaw detection explained it is now time to look at the practical application of those principles 2 Advantages of Ultrasonics © Good penetration permits examination of extremely thick sections + Good sensitivity permits the detection of small defects. + Access is only required to one surface + Instant results, an advantage over radiography, where films have to be processed before results are known, 3. Limitations and Disadvantages of Ultrasonics ‘ Unterpretations of ultrasonic indications require a high degree of training, experience and skill. Just a few examples of CRT screen signals are shown in the following figure. Interpretation as to type orientation and size is difficult particularly when geometry is complex. + Defects must be favourably orientated to an accessible scan surface + Ofllimited value as a search tool, as an unfavourable geometry can produce defect like indications + Couplant is required = cay da cea | i | pe {it II Lit | Figure 1, Typical Reflection Patterns for Smooth Reflectors issue 2 Dated: December 2001 PagelAerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 8: Practical Application De, Figure 2, Typical Reflection Patterns for Irregular Reflectors 4 Factors Affecting the Sensitivity and Resolution of an Ultrasonic Technique al ‘The sensitivity of an ultrasonic technique is the ability to detect small flaws. Resolution is the ability to differentiate between two reflectors which are approximately the same distance ffom the probe (these could be large reflectors). This is particularly important where one of the reflectors & part of the known geometry of the specimen and the other a flaw. The following paragraphs include probe, flaw detector, specimen and flaws factors which affect the sensitivity and resolution of an ultrasonic technique. Figure 3, Resolution Issue? Page? Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 8: Practical Application 5. pia 5A 52 53 5.4 61 6.2 63 Probe Frequency wees fk Affects the neat field, beam spread, penetration and minimum detectable flaw size. Relationship between frequency, near field and beam spread is explained in Chapter.) Penetration is governed by grain size of the materials under test. Where grain size is large the frequency has to be decreased (0 achieve satisfactory penetration. Minimum (practical) detectable defect is approximately one-half wavelength (\/2), so small range minute flaws. may require higher frequencies to achieve sensitivity. Both frequéncy and velocity of sound within material are therefore factors to be considered. Diameter . Governs beam diameter, near field, beam spread, mode conversion, sensitivity and power (output). These factors may have to be considered with regard to specimen geometry and distance of defect from surface. Damping ess Affords high resolution at the expense of penetration and sensitivity. Pulse length and Q factor are directly related. = Probe Type A shear wave probe will produce a wavelength half that of a similar frequency compression. wave probe with a resultant decrease in minimum d Mk size. In addition differemt probe types and transducer materials have advantages and disadvantages. See Chapter 6. ‘Test Set Resolution ake The electronics incorporated in the test set have a bearing on the resolution of a technique. Electronic processing can increase resolution. Gain Setting Is a compromise betweer resol b fect sensitivity and ngise. It does not improve sensitivity or mand may reduce these as it is increased. Reject Level Reduces noise at the expense of defect sensitivity. Should be used sparingly. Issue 2 Pages Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING 7 12 13 14 eee 81 82 83 8.4 CHAPTER 8: Practical Application Specimen Attenuation Materials having high ultrasonic attenuation cause difficulty in penetration and therefore a rapid reduction of sensitivity as distance increases. Grain Size Large grain size will cause excessive noise, which could mask small flaws Scan Surface Rough surfaces may cause coupling problems and scatter of the beam as it enters the specimen. Geometry Adverse geometry causes spurious indications due to mode conversions. Sound Velocity Governs wavelength and therefore minimum detectable flaw size. Also affects near field and beam spread ~ Flaw Surface Finish A specular (smooth) surface will give a greater reflective signal amplitude than a diffuse (rough) surface, Angle to Beam ‘Maximum sensitivity will be achieved when the flaw is normal to the beam, Area The greater the flaw area the greater the reflection from it. Distance from Probe Due to attenuation, sensitivity will be reduced exponentially with an increase in dis Note: Flaw signals where defects are smaller than the beam, obey the inverse square law &— Flaws larger than the beam (or back wall echoes) will effect the returning echo inversely to their distance from the probe..g— Issue 2 Dated; December 2001 PagesAerospace Inspection Training UL 8S ot 92 RASONIC TE ING CHAPTER 8: Practical Application ‘Type of Flaw Fatigue crack, Stress corrosion, Delamination, Inclusion ete. all have different inspedance (2) values, which dramatically effect and even originate their reflectivity. Probe Selection Tt can be seen that probe/set selection will be a compromise. Most aircraft techniques are applied to aluminium alloys or steel and are at relatively close range so that frequencies of 2.5 to 10 MHz are common. Probe diameters usually range from $ to | Smm. Resolution being more important that penetration, most probes are highly damped giving pulses of 3 to 5 cycles, large frequency bandwidth and low Q factors. For weld inspection a reverse trend is generally true, Frequencies are more cammon | to 5 MHz and probe diameters from 10 to 25 mm, Resolution often gives way to penetration, so nosmal damping. and occasionally long pulse probes are found. Attenuation figh Low Non-metals ay O82 6 eo ig | Frequency | a. -— J ea a ~. Vy y . Crystal Size |-—-—3 4 Long Diameter mm Short Pulse Length Pulse Length High Low Penetration Performance Resolution Low High Figure 4, The Relationship between Material, Frequency, Crystal Diameter and Performance Tssue 2 Dated: Pages December 2001FIGURE 2 - PROPAGAI FR ES IN SPA\1p s aft a. Longitudinal (Radial) Cracks 7S b. Lateral (Circumferential) Cracks FIGURE 3 - CRACKING OF JACK BODIES, UNDERCARRIAGE LEGS ETC.Figure 4a shows “probe angle selection for lug type fittings FIGURY ING OF LI JACK EYE ENDSreat $4 FIGURE 5 - CRACKING OF COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE BLADES ETC. FIGURE ACKING FROM FASTENER HOLES HN SKIN!Entry 1 4 Detect | BWE Shows beam 50% over lamination FIGURE 7 LIATION Ct un knon? v4 | S| IN_IN(SKIN PARTS Loss of signal iwhen lamination occurs ompressional b. ‘Shear M itch and | RE 8 - ANSMISSI IN TECHNI UE:Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 8 The figure illustrates a contact test on an 80mm aluminium block. A discontinuity is located 60mm from the front surface. The screen presentation for this is shown to the right. 1. What does indication A represent? @ initial pulse or front surface indication b first discontinuity indication c first back reflection a none of these 2. What does indication B represent? initial pulse or front surface indication ® first discontinuity indication € first back reflection a none of these 3. What does indication C represent? a initial pulse or front surface indication b. first discontinuity indication : oO first back reflection 8 & Rwe sw 4 none of these What does indication D represent? a. first discontinuity indication (® __ second discontinuity indication c. first back reflection second back reflection 5. What does indication E represent? a first discontinuity indication second discontinuity indication c first back reflection second back reflection 6. A term used to describe the ability of ultrasonic testing equipment to detect discontinuities Elosa)to the entry surface of test materials is: a. sensitivity segregation penetration resolution , Issued Page dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 8 7, The maximum height of indication obtainable from a given size small discontinuity on an A-scan ultrasonics instrument can be used as a measure of the: a selectivity of the instrument sensitivity of the instrument +c resolution of the instrument penetration of the instrument 8. Which of the following test frequencies would generally provide the best penetration in 2 350uum thick specimen of coarse-grained steel: doen Brae” ay 1.0 megahertz b. 5.0 megahertz i ped. ©. 2.25 megahertz d 10 megahertz Hs fe fc 9. Imultrasonic testing, a liquid coupling medium between the transducer (erystal) face and the part surface is necessary because: a. __ lubricant is required to minimise wear on the transducer surface @ an air interface between the transducer face and the part surface would almost completely reflect the ultrasonic vibrations ©. the crystal will not vibrate if placed directly in contact with the surface of the part being, ‘inspected d the liquid is necessary to complete the electrical circuit in the search unit 10. Search units constructed with a plastic shoe between the crystal and the test piece are commonly used for: a. straight beam contact testing b. angle beam contact testing, ©. surface wave contac! testing @ _ alloftte above puls Echo 11, Anultrasonic test using a'straight beam contact probe is being conducted through the thickness of. flat part such gs plate. This test should detect: +_- @ laminar type flaws with major dimension [Link] the zalled surface Pm ‘ype flaws with major dimensions at right angles to the rolled surface ¢, radial flaws with major dimensions along length but radially oriented to the rolled surface d. none of the above 7 12, (25 MPT transducer would most likely be used during: a. a straight beam contact test immersion testing c. angle bear contact testing, surface wave contact testing 13. Under most circumstances, which of the following frequencies would result ip the wee ssrieyemae r( a 1 MHe bo SMe 10 MHz 25 Mie 14, Which of the following materials is most likely to produce the greatest amount of sou attenuation over a given distance: a = a a hand forging acca c grained casting 6. an extrusion d. the attenuation is equal in all materials Issue? Page 2 dated; September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 8 yaw 15. Atterm used to describe numerous small indications on the cathode ray tube screen resulting from 7? est part structure, numerous small discontinuities or both is referred to as: a a. _moktiple back reflections b. multiple front reflections £) hash or grass. 4 resonance 16. A screen pattern contains a large number of low-level indications would most likely be caused by: a acrack b, large inclusion _9 porosity 4. agaspockel — 17. The presence of a discontinuity will not produce a specific discontinuity indication on the display sereen when using the: a. straight beam testing method. b. _ surface wave testing method. +c. angle beam testing method, ©) through-transmission testing method. 18. The amplitude of the indication from a reference hole used for calibrating the controls of an ultrasonic testing instrument may be expressed in: a. Amplitude trace to peak. b. Amplitude peak to peak. Percentage of ful! screen deflection. « d.—_allof the above. pi 19. What is the maximum distance between guccessive scan paths is called? a, Half-probe diameter distance ® — scanpitch --} Leth oe path length a. skip distance - 20. Under most circumstances, which of the following frequencies would result in greater attenuation in aluminium: ety in aluminium: \ PA atly & 1 MHz b. 25MHz =.) SMH. 10 Miz, 21. When inspecting an aluminium test piece having a rough entry surface, what is the major cause of attenuation? a. beam spread = ) \seattel) ¢. mode conversion tr 22. What should the acoust impedance of an ideal couplant be? higher than the acoustic impedance of the probe contact face less than the acoustic impedance of the probe contact face a b. _@© between the acoustic impedances ofthe probe contact face and the test piece = “4 ‘as high as possible 23. Which of the following govems the maximum scanning speed? a. amplifier response time b. probe diameter c. pulse repetition frequency de _allofthe above : Issue 2 Page 3 dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING 12 21 Issue 2 Dated: December 2001 CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment General To maintain the integrity of any NDT examination itis necessary to regularly verify the performance of the equipment. This chapter describes the methods used to calibrate and check performance of ultrasonic instruments and probes. BS EN 12668-3:2000 - Characterization and Verification of Ultrasonic Equipment - Part 3, Combined Equipment, describes methods and acceptance criteria for verifying the performance of ultrasonic equipment, These methods are specifically intended for manual testing using A-scan pulse echo equipment. Calibration Blocks Figure 1 shows the BS EN 12223:2000 Calibration Block No.1 recommended by common standards/ specifications. These are normally manufactured from steel having a longitudinal wave velocity of $920 m/s 30 m/s and a transverse wave velocity of 3255 m/s # 15 mis, However, they could also be made from other materials to suit specific testing requirements Dimensions are in millimetres. Page |Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment ce 3 (optim) f— Engraved ore port Figure 1, BS EN12223:2000 Calibration Block No.1, Alternative Reflectors 2.2 — The following figures show BS 2704:1978 calibration blocks. The older British Standard (UUW) blocks are dimensional in inches but are not precisely the same as metric blocks. For each "25mm" read "1 inch” (actual 25mm = 0,98425 inches.) Make sure you know which block BS or EN you are using - they are not marked. Dimensions shown are in millimetres, y 75 a Soy pee ~ © 50 b— —+ 25 ure 3, BS 2704 Block Ad Issue 2 Page 2 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment $295 —_____— L—s0—-l Figure 4, BS 2704 Block AS —————— ee oe = os FT] apieoo i 3 ast [por i ze Figure 5, BS 2704 Block AG | ae / LL SEZ ees 1ese * Figure 6, BS 2704 Block A7 Dated: December 200)Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONI 1 CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking, of Equipment 3. Vimebase Calibration Compressional Probes 3.1 To calibrate the timebase to 100mm of steel, place the probe on 25mm thickness of the EN12223:1999 Block No.1 and position the bottom echo at 2.5 on the timebase with repeats at 5.0, 7.5, and 10. The length of the timebase now represerts 100mm of steel. Similarly the timebase can be calibrated to any suitable distance by obtaining a back echo and repeats from any of the dimensions of the calibration blocks, Shear Wave Probes 3.2 Figures 7 and 8, show methods of calibrating the timebase for shear wave probes. That part of the ultrasonic beam which is within the mode converter is delayed off to set the transmis- sion point to zero ————ae \ reste ere ew en CAL 200mm | Figures 7 & 8, Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probes using BS 2704 Block Ad Issue 2 Page Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment BD =o Figure 9, Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe using EN12223:2000 Block No.1 modified with Slots Figure 10, Time-base Calibration for Shear Wave Probe using EN12223:1999 Block No.1 modified with 25mm Radius 4. Timebase Linearity 4.1 This ultrasonic instrument check is carried out to ensure that there js a linear relationshi between the timebase position of signals and distance. The check is carried out using & ‘Compressional or shear wave angle over a range at least equal to that which is to be used in ‘subsequent testing, 4.2 It isa pre-use or weekly check and the tolerance is such that the deviation from linearity shall not exceed + 2% of full screen width, 5, Amplifier Linearity and Calibration of Gain Control 5.1 This check monitors the combined result of two characteristics that affect the linearity of the ment linearity of the amplifier and accuracy brated gain control. Any ‘Feira clbrtion GER con be used for this test, peferably in conjunction with the probe that will be used in subsequent testing. 5.2 The linearity is checked with the ultrasonic instrument controls (frequency, range, pulse energy, etc.) set to positions to be used in subsequent testing. Variable suppression (reject) and swept gain controls are to be switched off Issue 2 Page 5 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TI ING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment 5.3 Iisa pre-use or weekly check and the tolerances are specified in BS EN 12668-3:2000 6. Probe Frequency 6.1 The probe frequency check is not a requirement of BS EN 12668-3:2000, however, it has been included in the course notes for future reference. 6.2. When the flaw detector has an unrectified (RF) display facility the probe frequenty can be checked by calibrating the timebase in microseconds and counting the number of cycles in one microsecond. The timebase can be calibrated by using the EN12223:2001 Block No. and obtaining signals from the top of the 5.9-mm slot and the bottom of the black. Because the velocity of sound in steel is $920 metre per second the leading edges of the two signals wilh be separated by two microseconds. If the two signals are separated by five main-scale divisions of the timebase two and a half divisions become one microsecond. The number of complete cycles of a signal in one microsecond is the approximate frequency of the probe. Alternatively the wnrectified signal can be displayed on an oscilloscope which can be calibrated in microseconds. Figure 11, Assessing Probe Frequency 7. Pulse Shape and Duration 7.1 This check on the probe and ultrasonic instrument combination measures the effect on the displayed signal of pulse shaping, matching, amplifier bandwidth, built-in suppression and smoothing circuits 7.2 The measured pulse duration is compared with the base value established by the user (operator) for the type of ultrasonic instrument and probe. 7.3 The check should be made with the relevant ultrasonic instrument controls set to the positions used during the base measurements, Where practical the same ultrasonic settings and cable should be used for the subsequent settings. 14 This a weekly check and the tolerance is such that the pulse duration shall not be greater than 1.5 times the base measurement for the type of probe and ultrasonic instrument Tssue 2 ~ Page © Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING ‘CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment GOOD PULSE SHAPE POOR PULSE SHAPE AND SECONDARY PULSE Figure 12, Pulse Shape and Duration 8 Sensi ivity and Signal-to-Noise Ratio 8.1 This is a comparative check which will allow the operator to identify a deterioration in the performance of the probe/ultrasonic instrument combination. 8.2 The measured signal-to-noise ratio is compared with base values established by the user for the type of ultrasonic instrument and probe 83 The method for checking sensitivity is given in BS EN1668-3:2000 but it is not intended as a ‘method of defining inspection sensitivity which should be set according to the requirements of the examination and the testing standard being applied 84 It is a weekly check and the tolerance is such that the signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity shall be within 6 dB of the base measurements for the type of probe and ultrasonic instrument, 9. Dead Zone 9.1 Although not a requirement of BS EN1668-3:2000, the dead zone of a compressional probe/ultrasonic instrument combination can be checked on the EN12223:2 Block No.1 Figure 13, Dead Zone Check 9.2 With the timebase calibrated to 50mm, and the probe on position A, the extent of the dead zone can be inferred to be either less than, or greater than, Smm. With the probe at position Issue 2 Page 7 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TE! STING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment B the dead zone can be said to be either less than, or greater than, 10mm. This is done by ensuring that the peak from the Perspex insert appears beyond the start signal 9.3 Amore sensitive method is to utilise the series of cross-drilled holes in the BS 2704 Block AG, (figure 5) 93 Excessive dead zones are generally attributable to an unserviceable probe with excessive front end ringing caused by delamination in the transducer interface with the damping () material or face plate or a damaged or loose mode converter wedge. - 2) ay 10, Probe Beam Width @ 10.1 The beam width can be plotted by scanning across a suitable small reflector, ie, a cross- drilled hole, at the depth required. This is usually carried out using the BS 2704 Block 5 (igure 4). 10.2 Maximise signal from reflector and set to approximately mid-screen height (50% full screen height) increase signal amplitude by 20 dB and scan away from reflector until signal returns to pre-set amplitude. Mark surface at probe index (probe centre for compressional probes), scan in the opposite direction and mark the surface again. The distance marked is the 20dB beam width at the depth checked 10.3 Both shear wave and compressional wave probe widths can be plotted by this method, Figure 14 208 MAX 2008 c Plor 7 Si Resuur Figure 14, Probe Beam Width Tssue 2 "Page 8 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment i Resolution Compressional Probes 11.1 This check can be carried out on the resolution test block as shown below. “Sona 4 Mine Each step = 1 xd |_| 3 mm steps Each step 24 po! Yi. ol avn? ara Figure 15, Resolution Test Block (Compressional) Shear Wave Probes 11.2 This check is done by resolving the steps of the A7 block as shown in figure 16. 2 wt Figure 16, Resolution Test Block A7 (Shear) Issue 2 Page 9 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training —\ ULTRASONIC HOMEWORK: Chapter 9 ING 1 ‘What is a reference block or standard used for in ultrasonic testing? a. for probe calibdtion tw establish the correct timebase and sensitivity calibration of the equipment for timebase catibrafion 4. for probe and equipment calibration ; oe 7 re Limeoass = dis 2 Why is it important to carry out a timebase linearity check? one 4, to ensure that the height of the reflected signals on the screen are proportional tothe area of the reflector b. to ensure that there isa direct relationship between the reflected signal height and the amplifier gain setting ©) weensure that there is a linear relationship between the timebase positions of the xeflected signals and the distance travelled by the ultrasonic wave 4. ensure that there isa linear relationship between the amplitude and timebase positions of the reflected signals, Why is it important to carry out an amplifier linearity check? 0) to ensure thatthe height of the geflected signals on the seteen are proportional tothe area of the reflector isin between the reflected signal height and the b. _ toensure that there isa direct rl ©. to ensure that there is a linear relationship between the timebase positions of the reflected signals and the distance travelled by the ultrasonic wave dd. toensure that there is a linear relationship between the amplitude and timebsse positions of the reflected signals 4, ‘The fatid of the amplitude of a signal arising from a discontinuity in a material to the amplitude of the average background noise is called: a. Poissons ratio b. signal to noise ratio « ie acceptance standard d. resolution 5. Which of the following may cause an excessive dead zone? delamination between transducer and face plate damaged or loose mode copyerter oF delamination between transducer and damping material @re all of the above ee 6. What is the intersection point of the sound beam axis with the probe surface called? a the probe axis b. the probe angle ~© the probe index 4 the roof angle Mathematics Revision 7, 50° probe is being used to inspect a nickel block having a uniform thickness of [Link]. What is the skip distance and the path length? Ws nickel =0.29 m/sec Vs steel = 0.324 em/usee So: 2t lan€ issue? Fs. gone Page 1 dated: September 2003 ‘Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TES TING HOMEWORK: Chapter 10 A test method in which a part to be inspected is separated from the search un other liquid couplant is called foram by water pr some a. contact testing b. surface ware testing immersion testing 4. through-transmission testing 2. For hand held immersion testing, the water gap may be controlled by the use of a: a. collander b. acoustic lens QD scrubber d. acoustic filter In immersion testing, the position of the search unit is often varied to transmit sound into the test part at various angles to the front surface. Such a procedure is referred to as: -Q angulation b. dispersion €. reflection testing 4. refraction 4, In immersion testing, the appearence of multiple front surface indications before the first back reflection can be glimjgated by: Cdelatienss min, water Me & a. Using a different frequency. b. Decreasing the instrument gain. Increasing the water distance between the search unit and the test object. d.—_Using a contour corrected lens.“ . In immersion testing, proof that the search unit is normal to a flat entry surface is indicated by: -@ Maximum reflection from the entry surface. ( tm 9 ¥1Mi TE) ’b. Elimination of water multiples. cc. Proper wavelength. 4. Maximum amplitude of the initial pulse 6. Onmany ultrasonic testing instruments, an operator conducting an immersion test can remove that portion of the screen presentation that represents water distance by adjusting the: Oe a pulse length contro! D- — sweep delay control reject control d. sweep length control 7. When using the immersion method itis frequently necessary to angulate the probe when a discontinuity is located to . a, avoid a large number of back reflections | 45) obtain a maximum response if the discontinuity is pot perpendicular to the beam ©. obtain a similar amplitude signal as that obtained from the reference block 4. obtain the maximum amount of entry surface indications 8. Whaat is the effect on the sound beam when inspecting an aluminium spher water immersion? . a 8, a. the beam energy intensifies b. te beam is focussed in the aluminium + Gq) the beam diverges inthe aluminium d. all the sound energy is reflected Bas Issue 2 Paget dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 10 | A Une 7 e a) Figure 1 illustrates an immersion test of a 75 mm block of aluminium, The screen pattern is also shown (No Sweep Delay Used) 9. What does indication A represent? a. first front surface indication b. first discontinuity indication © initial putse 4. first back reflection 10. What does indication B represent? @) first front surface indication b. first discontinuity indication © initial pulse 4. first back reflection 11. What does indication C represent? first discontinuity indication b. second front surface indication & first back reflection 4. second discontinuity indication 12. What does indication D represent? a. first discontinuity indication b. second front surface indication © first back reflection 4. second discontinuity indication SWE 13, In Figure 1, the distance between indications A and B represent: a. the distance from the front surface of the aluminium block and the discontinuity. b. the distance from the front surface of the aluminium block and the back surface of the block. = ©) __ the water distance from the probe to the aluminium block. © ‘d= none of the above. in3 14, In Figure 1, what is the minimum water gap for defect sizing when using a 2§ MHz, 10 mri diameter probe with a 0° incident angle? oe 6c 7 Ve 4 8 ‘Ve water = 0.148 cm/sec. Ve Aluminium 0.64 cm/sec. 15. In Figure 1, what is the minimum water gap to ensure the backwall echo appears before the water gap repeat? Ve water = 0.148 emiisec. Ve Aluminium 0.64 cm/sec. Issue 2 b Z Page 2 dated: September 2003 a weAerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TE HOMEWORK: Chapter 11 ING 1. Metal blocks which contain one or more drilled holes to simulate discontinuities are called: cueenelss Pe a scrubbers b. crystal collimators c. single plane angulators, @ reference blocks - 2. ‘The primary purpose of reference blocks is to aid the operator in obtaining maximum back reflecti b to obtain the greatest sensitivity possible from an instrument _-7 10 obtain a common reproducible reference standard - none of the above . In the aregcamplitude ultrasonic standard test blocks, the flat bottomed holes in the blocks are: a, _allat different distances from the front surface but of the same diameter. oo all at the same distance from the front surface but of different diameters. — €. _allat different distances from the front surface and different diameters. d. _alllatthe same distance from the front surface and of the same diameter. 4, In the distance-amplitude ultrasonic standard test blocks, the flat bottomed holes in the blocks are: all at different distances from the front surface but of the same diameter. all at the same distance from the front surface but of different diameters. c. __allat different distances from the front surface and different diameters. 4. allt the same distance from the front surface and of the same diameter 5. Thereference holes in standard aluminium area-amplitude ultrasonic test blocks contain: +(@)__ flat-bottomed reference holes b. concave reference holes ~e, convex reference holes 4. conical shaped reference holes ‘What is the decibel? a. the absolute unit of sound an unit of ultrasonic noise ® ‘a comparison between sound intensities ? the unit of amplification (gain) cE ‘What is the unit of sound attenuation? a Bb Hz © 4Binm 4. ‘cmipsec 8 Transfer correction is the correction of the gain setting when transferring the probe from a reference block to the test piece. These changes in gain setting are due to: coupling attenuation acoustic impedance differences all of the above Issue 2 Page 1 dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 11 9. A series of curves where the signal amplitude and sound path distance of a number of differem sized dise shaped reflectors is called: a. area-amplitude plots b, DAC curves AZ) DGS diagram & maximum amplitude method 10. DGS diagrams are used to: a, determine defect distance b. set inspection sensitivity and the defect evaluation level OQ __ estimate equivalent defect size & determine the defect size 11. DAC curves are used to: determine defect distance set inspection sensitivity and the defect evaluation level estimate equivalent defect size determine the defect size 12. Compensation for loss in signal amplitude due to attenuation over the sound path length is called: area-amplitude plots Sa}. distance amplitude correction % distance gain size diagram 4. maximum amplitude method 13. Which of the following methods of defect sizing would be used on defects that are larger than the diameter of the ultrasonic beam, and normal to the beam axis? 20 dB drop, 648 drop and FBH method DGS, DAC and FBH method DGS, DAC and 64B drop 20 4B drop, 64B drop and maximum amplitude method - @r re 14. Which of the following methods of defect sizing would be used on defects that are samaller than the diameter of the ultcasonic beam, and normal to the beam axis? 20 dB drop, 64B drop and FBH method DGS, BAC and FBH method DGS, DAC and 64B drop 28 8B drop, 64B drop and maximum amplitude method \ 2 9@s 15. What method is most suited for the sizing of multi-faceted defects or mujpiple indications? a. 6 dB drop method — bd DAC curves DGS diagram ¢@ maximum amplitude method Issued Page 2 dated September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 11 16. What is a specular reflector? a spurious or ghost signal a reflector having an uneven, multi-faceted surface a reflector having a smooth, mirror-like surface. reflector with its major axis parallel to the beain axis e@re 17. What does the amount of energy reflected from a discontinuity depend on? a. orientation b. type [Link] ~ 4. allof the above 18. Which of the folowing defect sizing statements is incorsect? -@)___regardiess of their size and distance from the probe, defects obey the inverse square law b. defects smaller than the beam width obey the inverse square law 1— c. defects larger [Link] bean width affect the returning echo gaverseTp\o their distance to the p— probe d. defects smaller than the beam width gannotpe “igs using the 20 dB drop method 19. Iris generally accepted that the minimum theoretical detection threshold for whrascnic testing is half the wavelength. What would the size of the smallest detectable defect be in aluminium, when using @.$ MHz, 10 mm diameter,45° probe? aA a 2 Vs aluminium = 0.3 13em/ysec fe oT ee tie hb ¢ 20. What is the reduction in gain required to take a signal from 80% screen height to 10% sereen height? ; 19) Issue? Ta - Page 3 dated: September 2003,Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC TESTING HOMEWORK: Chapter 12 1 Resonance testing requires a probe of the following design, > e a. Awide band probe that operates at 1OMH2z. o above. atl us }ee4 b. —Anlightly damped (long pulse) probe that operates within the ultrasonic frequency band. { © —_Anundamped probe that is driven continuously at it’s natural frequency. dA dual probe design where the transmitter is heavily damped and the receiver is undarnped. 2. The principle of ultrasonic resonance is commonly used for: “ a. locating large discontinuities locating porosity 7 measuring wall thickness d. none of the above. The depth of a discontinuity cannot be determined when using the: a. straight beam method b. angle beam method. © through transmission method 4, surface wave method. « 4. Which of the following waveforms does resonant bond testing generally use? pulsed shear waves Continuous (standing) shear waves pulsed longitudinal waves continuous (standing) longitydinal waves 5. In resonance testing a change in the test material can be detected and displayed due to: @ re change in signal amplitude achange in signal phase (tyme) a change in signal phase and/or amplitude loss of signal 6 Which of the following test methods generates a cross section of the test piece? a Asean) Bssean & Cscan d. Descan 7. Which of the following test methods produces the Gata ko génetate,a plan view of the test area? @ Avan b. Bescan c C-sean 4 D-scan 8. What properties must the calibration block have for accurate thickness measurement? a, the same sound velocity as the material under test + b. aknown thickness ©. specular surface iat allof the above 6 issue? dated: September 2003Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING 12, 12.1 12.2 13, 13.1 32 CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment Probe Index To check the probe index of a shear wave probe it is placed on the BS EN12223:2000 Block ‘No.1 and aimed at the 100mm radius. When the signal is maximised the manufacturer's probe index mark should align with the centre of the scale, which is the centre of the 100mm. Fadius. This check is carried out before checking the probe beam angle. AS BIE — we eo so” or fee reeS Figure 17, Checking the Probe Index of a Shear Wave Probe The frequency of checking depends on the rate of probe wear and is at least a daily check. “The tolerance will depend on application but for plotting of defects BS EN 12668-3:2000 recommends that the probe index position is known to within + 1 mm. Beam Angle The beam angle of a shear wave probe is checked on the BS EN12223:200 Block No.1 as shown in the following figures. The angle is measured by noting the angle, which aligns with the probe index when the signal is maximised. ‘The frequency of checking depends on the rate of probe wear and is at least a daily check together with the probe index check, BS EN 12668-3:2000 recommends that the acceptance levels are normally + 2°. Issue ? Dated: December 200% Page 10Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment ey 25 ae Ni s18 . ls : Lo | Figure 18, Checking Beam Angle 35° to 65° Probes Probe aimed at perspex ingert eee Figure 19, Checking Beam Angle 60° to 75° Probes JS” —— Probe aimed at ia A on i ie 80 \ ~ . ) Figure 20, Checking Beam Angle 75° to 80° Probes issue 2 Pagel Dated: December 2001Aerospace inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 9: Calibration and Performance Checking of Equipment 14, Probe Squint 14.1 Although not a requirement of BS EN1668-3:2000, this check may be carried out in conjunction with the probe index check. When the signal from the 100mm radius is maximised the side of the probe should be parallel with the side of the block. Acceptance levels are normally + 2°. ‘Sirol Figure 21, Probe Squint 15, Periodicity and Acceptance Criteria 16.1 Periodicity and acceptance criteria of checks are dependent on application and should be laid down by the quality assurance authority within the employer's quality control manual. Issue 2 Page}? Dated: December 2001© oo Aerospace Inspection Training | ULTRASONIC T \G CHAPTER 10: Immersion Techniques 1 General 1.1 With this method of ultrasonic flaw detection the probe and specimen being tested are immersed in a liquid, usually water. The liquid acts as a continuous couplant, removing the coupling variations associated with hand scanning 2. Immersion Systems 2..1 The immersion systems usually consist of. © Immersion tank Ss © Test item manipulators “= © Scanning bridge system (for moving probes along rectilinear and/or polar co-ordinates) * Probe manipulator unit * Flaw detector and probe © C-scan or other recorder Signal processing unit (for extracting information from the ultrasonic signals) Reve in Og sa)’ om alesse Ne" nyse ON! operate * Constant Cony) sInfbinite wal sCanning omg ley : id pas ete ee hig hopes s/f tS «Focusing My Boum ed dele! trp’ . : Kaveh Too Figure 1, Typicgl Immersion System (76re 5/43 Ke vou edmeage lohencement . Creat % 01: Imaaes. ee Advantages and Disadvantages of Immersion Testing ~ lp 3.1. The most important advantages of immersion testing include: The ability to use different probe sizes and shapes in an automatic inspection mode + The use of beam focusing to improve resolution and increase sensitivity (although this increases scan times) a fa) Increased scan speed abet increase scan spee ante en eper Reduced operator dependence (Less Pe! ie - oe The use of imaging and signal processing equipment inhamcensnl ~ 4 + Coupland Cos ( edn tint op 4 sean Hye “Tssue 2 Page | Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 10: Immersion Techniques 3.2 Significant disadvantages include: Long set-up time Pre-set scan plans reduce the use of spontaneous probe positioning High signal loss at test part-water interface Highly critical positioning/angulation problems 4, Water Gap 4.1 When using a normal angle compressional technique the distance between probe and top of specimen, (the water gap), must be adjusted so that the repeats from the top of the specimen appear on the timebase after the battom echo. This is achieved by applying @ simple formula: : eben King 1 oF OMinimum water gap = _VeWater x Specimen thickness x, Ve Specimen ole ee ve SlBe dele 4.2 Ifthe incidence angle of the beam axis is other than poypal where, for example, shear waves are being generated in the specimen, there will be no repeats, so the formula will not apply. 43. Itis recommended that the water gap be adjusted so that the maximum and minimum effects of the near field are avoided. This is achieved when: ae 06x Nearfidlé, = 0.6m Fx V/wsre ‘The twimerically larger result ofthe above two formulas decides the minimum water gap (0.6. is an arbitrary number which is dictated by specifications or procedures). @ Minimum water gap dey 44 4.5 The usual method of setting up the timebase is to delay the water gay ttom ‘echo to the right of the timebase. Some flaw detectors have a facility whereby the signal from the top of the specimen can be synchronised to zero regardless of water gap distance. Figure Tshows a method of setting timebase manually with the delay control. Probe position at normal to entry surface is achieved by manipulating until maximum entry surface signal is achieved. Bandey Mute intial seg Pulse “Top Surface: Backwail Delores Delay water path off CRT to the left Figure 2, Timebase Setting for Water Immersion Technique Issue 2 Page 2 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 10: Immersion Techniques 5. Probes oie g 5.1 Probes used in immersion testing are dedicated probes and must be waterproof. Because there is no contact, probe wear is eliminated. Higher frequency (25MHz) transducers can be used because there is little chance of probe damage and often the faceplate is omitted to remove impedance match losses resulting from faceplate use. 54, ms? 5.2 Anultrasonic mode changer is not required when introducing shear waves into the specimen as the water itself acts as the mode changer. Figure 3, Shear Wave Immersion Testing 6. Scrubbers 6.1 Tubes fitted to the front of an immersion probe allow the manual handling of probes to impact on specimens. The tube acts as a stand-off distance from the specimen. This type of approach lends itseif to the production inspection of a large number of hand manageable specimens in a small container of water. all yest S Figure 4, Scrubber Tesue 2 Page 3 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 10: Immersion Techniques 7. Back Reflector Method 7.1 The inspection of thin matgzighs (€.g. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic Plates and Assemblies, Printed Circuit Board Stacks) in immersion testing results in difficult resolution problems between front (B) and back (C) surface reflections, figure Sa. Rather than create problems in overcoming the resolution requirement of this situation a back reflector of optically flat glass creates a third signal (D) after the specimen echoes that is monitored for amplitude, figure 5b. A delamination or inclusion in the specimen will cause an undeterminable echo from the specimen (B/C) but will cause a very noticeable attenuation in the back reflector echo (D), figure 5c, which can be gated and alarmed for recording purposes. sass (we) reelute 012384567 890 V2 Figure Sb, Use of Back Reflector Plate fo? Thin Material Inspection - No Defect ae rf 4 eae Figure Se, Use of Back Reflector Plate for Thin Material Inspection - Defect ismie 2 = Page # Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING CHAPTER 10: Immersion Techniques 8 Effect of Part Curvature on Sound Beam 8.1 Figure 6 shows the effect part curvature has on the sound beam during immersion testing particularly when inspecting complex castings and forgings. It can be seen that on a convex surface the sound beam is refracted in accordance with Snells Law, diverging the beam” Areas with concave susfuces are sometimes difficult to inspect because they focus the sound beam into a narrow region, making complete, uniform coverage quite difficult. onan Figure 6, Behaviour of Immersed Ultrasonic Beams to Curved Surfaces 8.2 Itis possible to compensate for some of these contoured surfaces through the use of specially designed transducers or the introduction of contour-correcting lenses applied to flat transducers. Tssue 2 Page 5 Dated: December 2001Aerospace Inspection Training ULTRASONIC TESTING Ll 12 CHAPTER 11: Defect Sizing feseaa timai General Iris not possible to accurately size defects using Ultrasonic Testing, but a number of methods are in use which will give a relative or approximate indication of defect size. The methods covered by this chapter are: —Geop one —Grep twe 20dB drop method Maximum amplitude method ‘© Equivalent flat-bottomed hole method es * Distance, Gain, and Size (D.G.S.) method : Gly eT! + 64dB drop method s 20 3b OvsP + HIK. Anplle Flaw signals where defects are smaller than the beam, obey the inverse square law. Flaws lrger than the beam (or back wall echoes) wili effect the returning echo inversely to their distance fpgm the probe Amph Pi cal? (Gain) The Decibel (4B) —uini fof Sound 11 FEDS? ty 2. 2.1 All methods make use of the calibrated gain control, which is graduated in decibels, ‘The unit for measuring the ratio of sound intensities isthe Bel, In practice this unit is too large so itis divided by 10 to give the decibel, The Be! intensities, so a decibel is a tenth of the logarithm. The difference between two sound intensities is the gain measured in dB. - GolNo Go 2.2 intensity I is compared to intensity Iz Compsrative To 4 Re Prance fexamael” shane GAIN = log + (Bels) -pac = 10log 1 ae eT 2.3. As sound intensity is proportional to the square of the teflector area. — a GAIN = A101og {AS} ap Bett) gy frslrumtt) ‘Areal ipstrament- = tog (SS) ap —pfinstr es } oe te Therefore: oh a De ee Z, GAIN = 40}0g 2 dB forroundholes (Th, 0 Per eer ie 1 onta\ 3. Attenuation db |"h (measayed in the fo en) 3.1 Sound attenuation in materials affects all defect sizing methods and should be considered ‘during defect assessment. Attenuation is measured in dB/mm, Tssie 3 Dated: August 2003 ] Page 1