A C++ Crash Course

Part I

UW Association for Computing Machinery

http://www.cs.washington.edu/orgs/acm/tutorials
[email protected]
Questions & Feedback to Hannah C. Tang (hctang) and Albert J. Wong (awong)

What Well Cover

C/C++ fundamentals
Functions
Primitive data types

The stack
Arrays (working model)
Pointers

A practice program

C-style types
Typedefs
Structs

Arrays (whole story)

More C++-isms
C++-style vs Java-style
references
C++ gotchas

What Were NOT Covering

Topics related to C++ classes
Multiple files
The preprocessor

C++ classes
Inheritance and dynamic dispatch

Memory management
The heap
Destructors

Advanced topics
Modifiers: const, static, and extern
Operator overloading
Templates

Goals of Java
Java, C, and C++, have different design goals.
Java

Simple
Consistent
Huge OO Focus
Cross platform via a virtual machine
Originally for embedded systems

Goals of C and C++

C and C++ are popular because they have met, with
reasonable success, their goals.

C
Low level
No Runtime Type info
Easy implementation

C++
Originally to add some OO functionality to C
Attempt to be a higher-level language
Now its a totally different language

A simple program snippet

public void printSum(void)
{
int x, y;

void printSum(void)
{
int x, y;

// get user input

// get user input

int sum = x + y;

int sum = x + y;

// print sum

// print sum
}

The simple program Java version

class Calculator {
public void printSum(void) {
int x, y;
// get user input

App

int sum = x + y;
// print sum
}

printSum()

}
class App {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Calculator c = new Calculator;
c.printSum();
}
}

Calculator

The simple program C++ version

void printSum(void) {
int x, y;

class Calculator {
public void printSum(void) {
int x, y;

// get user input

// get user input

int sum = x + y;

int sum = x + y;

// print sum

// print sum

}
}

int main(int argc,

const char * argv[]) {
printSum();
return 0;
}

class App {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Calculator c = new Calculator;
c.printSum();
}
}

Procedural Programming
Functions are free-floating methods disassociated from
any class
Functions declarations can be separate from function
implementations
The declaration provides the signature, which specifies the
name, return type, and parameter list of the function

C is completely procedural
C++ mixes object-oriented and procedural programming

Discussion Point I
Which of these programs can be written
procedurally? Object-orientedly?
HelloWorld
A traffic simulator
Must simulate cars, roads, and the interactions between
these entities

A calculator
Accepts two numbers, then calculates the sum or
difference, depending on a user-selected operator

An mp3 player
Accepts a list of files, and plays them in the specified
order. Needs to support skins

Come up with your own example

Function Syntax and Semantics

<ReturnType> functionName( <parameter list> );
int calculatePower(int base, int exponent);

<ReturnType> can be any type except an array

Class-scoped methods and free-floating
functions are basically the same, except

Parameter Passing in Java Part I

class Example {
public void moveToDiagonal(Point p) {
p.setY(p.getX());
}
public static void main( String[] args ) {
Point pt;
pt = new Point(3, 4);
moveToDiagonal(pt);
// What are the coordinates of pt now?
}
}

In Java, everything is a reference

x: 3 x: 3
y: 4 y: 3

pt
Point pt;
pt = new Point(3, 4)

p
moveToDiagonal(Point p) {
p.setY(p.getX());
}

In Java, modifying a method parameter means

modifying the original instance

 almost everything is a reference

Java atomic types:
int
double
boolean
etc

C++ atomic types:

int
double
bool
etc

In Java, modifying an atomically-typed parameter did

NOT modify the original instance.
In Java, atomic types are passed by copy. The same
semantics hold for C++ atomic types

C/C++ Function Parameters

In C++, all function parameters are passed
by copy even if theyre not of atomic
type
Why?
First, a brief detour

Detour: Functions & Memory

Every function needs a place
to store its local variables.
i
Collectively, this storage is
Memory
called the stack
d2
location
This storage (memory aka
d1
RAM), is a series of storage
spaces and their numerical
y
addresses
x
Instead of using raw
addresses, we use variables
to attach a name to an
void aFunc(int x,
address
{
All of the data/variables for a
double d1, d2;
particular function call are
int i;
located in a stack frame
}

int y)

Detour: Functions & Memory (cont)

When a function is called, a new
stack frame is set aside
Parameters and return values are
passed by copy (ie, theyre copied
into and out of the stack frame)
When a function finishes, its stack
frame is reclaimed
void aFunc(int x, int y) {
double d1 = x + y;
}
int main(int argc,
const char * argv[]) {
int x = 7;
aFunc(1, 2);
aFunc(2, 3);
return 0;
}

d1
aFunc

y
x
x

main

C/C++ Function Parameters (cont.)

In C++, all function parameters are passed by
copy even if theyre not of atomic type
Why?
In C++, all variables exist on the stack by default
In C++, parameters are copied into the callees stack
frame
Well talk about Java parameter passing later (when
we talk compare C++ and Java references)

Discussion Point II
Examine the code fragment below.
Draw the stack frame(s) for some sample input.
If you see any bugs, what are they? How would the
program behave?
void sillyRecursiveFunction(int i) {
if(i == 0) {
return;
}
else {
sillyRecursiveFunction(i 1);
}
}

Arrays
<ArrayType> arrayName[ numElements ]
Arrays are contiguous memory
locations, and its name refers
only to the address of the first
element
Indexing into an array is the
same as adding an offset to the
address of the first element
When declaring an array, its size
must be known at compile-time

myArray[5]
myArray[4]
myArray[3]
myArray[2]
myArray[1]
myArray[0]
or myArray

Arrays as function parameters

<ReturnType> funcName( ArrayType arrName[ ] )
int sumOfArray( int values[], int numValues )

Arrays are not passed by copy. Instead,

the address of the first element is passed
to the function
Note how array parameters and nonparameter arrays behave identically

Discussion Point III

Why are arrays not passed by copy?
Hint: the size of a stack frame is computed
long before the program is run (specifically, at
compile time)

Pointers
What if we had variables that contained addresses?
They could contain addresses of anything!
We could use these
variables in functions to
modify the callers data
(we could implement
Javas parameterpassing semantics!)

x
(4104)

Variable
name

y
(4100)
n
(4096)

Address

Storage space

Pointers: vocabulary
A pointer is a variable
which contains
addresses of other
variables
Accessing the data at
the contained address
is called dereferencing
a pointer or following a
pointer

x
(4104)
y
(4100)

4096

n
(4096)

Pointer Syntax
Declaring Pointers

Using Pointers

Dereferencing a pointer:
*ptrName
Go to the address contained in the
variable ptrName
ptrName is a variable which
contains the address of
something of type <Type>
Getting the address of a variable:
&aVar
Get the address of aVar

Declaring a pointer:
<Type> * ptrName;

For example:
int * nPtr1, * nPtr2;
void aFunc(
int aParam,
int * ptrParam);

For example:
aFunc(myInt,
&anotherInt);
anInt = *myPtr * 4;
*dinner = 100;

Pointers: Putting it all together

The code
int * p;
int q;
p = &q
*p = 5;

Box Diagrams
ps type is int
pointer. qs type
is int.
Assign 5 to where
p points (which is
q).
p

Memory Layout
p contains the
address of an
int. q contains an
int.
Go to the address
that p contains, and
place a 5 there.
p (8200)

8196

q (8196)

Pointers: Putting it all together (cont.)

The code

Memory Layout

Box diagram

main
void doubleIt(int x,
int * p)
{
16
a
*p = 2 * x;
}
int main(int argc,
const char * argv[])
{
doubleIt
int a = 16;
doubleIt(9, &a);
x 9
return 0;
}
p

p
(8200)

8192
doubleIt

x
(8196)

a
(8192)

16

main

Pointer Arithmetic
Pointers are numbers, so you can do math on them!
int * p = &a;
p
(8200)
b
(8196)
a
(8192)

8192
9
16

*p = 200;
p
(8200)
b
(8196)
a
(8192)

8192
9
200

*(p+1) = 300;
p
(8200)
b
(8196)
a
(8192)

8192
300
200

Pointer p refers to an int, so adding 1 to p increments the address by

the size of one int. The C/C++ expression for this is sizeof(int)

Pointers and Arrays

Pointers and arrays are (almost) interchangeable
Given:
int myArray[5];
int * p = myArray;

These are equivalent:

*p
myArray[0]
*(p+0)
*myArray
p[0]
0[p]

myArray[4]
(9000)
myArray[3]
(8196)
myArray[2]
(8192)
myArray[1]
(8188)
myArray[0]
(8184)
p
(8180)

8184

Discussion Point IV
How do pointers and arrays differ?
Hint: how are pointers implemented in
memory? Arrays?

Exercise
Get up and stretch!
Do the worksheet exercise
Then, write a program to do the following:
Read some numbers from the user (up to a
max number of numbers)
Calculate the average value of those numbers
Print the users values which are greater than
the average

Get up and stretch again!

Pointer Problems
Pointers can refer to other variables, but:
Create an additional variable
Have an ugly syntax

Function Pointers
<ReturnType> (*ptrName)(arg type list );

Functions are pieces of code in memory

Pointers can point to functions.
This syntax is U-G-L-Y (the ugliest in C)
Notice that the name of the variable appears in
the middle of the statement!
You do not have to dereference a function
pointer
Function pointers are not scary. They are useful!

Function Pointers - example

void foo(int i, char b);
void bar(int i, char b);
int main(void) {
void (*p)(int,char);
p = foo;
p(1, c);

// equivalent to foo(1, c);

p = bar;
p(2, b); // equivalent to bar(2, b);
(*p)(2, b); // Exactly the same
return 0;
}

References
References are an additional name to an
existing memory location
If we wanted something called ref to refer to a variable x:
Pointer:
x

ref

Reference:
9

x
ref

Properties of References
Reference properties:
Cannot be reassigned
Must be assigned a referee at construction

Therefore:
References cannot be NULL
You cannot make an array of references.
Given what you know about references, can you
explain where these properties come from?

Reference Syntax
References

Pointers

Declaring a reference:
<Type> & refName =
referee;

Declaring a pointer:
<Type> * ptrName;

Usage:
int n;
int & referee = n;
void aFunc(
int aParam,
int & ptrParam);

Usage:
int n;
int * nPtr1 = &n;
void aFunc(
int aParam,
int * ptrParam);

aFunc(1, n);

aFunc(1, &n);

Discussion Point V
What are the differences between Java
references and C++ references? What
about Java references and C++ pointers?

C-style struct
A struct is used to group related data items
struct student {
int id;
char name[80;]
};

Note that the it is optional

to name a struct

To the programmer
id and name are now related
struct student creates a convenient grouping

To the compiler
Id and name have a fixed ordering (not offset) in memory
Struct student is a first-class type that can be passed to functions

struct Syntax
Declaring a Struct

Access struct fields

Declaring a struct:
struct [optional name] {
<type> field1;
<type> field2;

} [instance list];

Accessing a field in a struct:

foo.field1;

Examples:
struct Foo {
int field1;
char field2;
} foo,*foo_ptr;

The * has lower precedence than the . :

*foo_ptr.field1;
means
*(foo_ptr.field1);
Which wont compile

struct Foo foo2;

struct { int a; } blah;

gets field1 from the instance foo of

struct Foo

Pointers syntax and structs

Accessing a field in a struct pointer:

(*foo_ptr).field1;
foo_ptr->field1;

enum
An enum creates an enumerated type; they
are options with an associated value
enum PrimaryColors {
RED = 0,
GREEN,
BLUE
};

Note that the it is optional

to name an enum

By default, the first option is given the value 0

You can assign an option any integer
Subsequent options have the previous options value + 1
All enumeration values are in the same namespace

enum Syntax
Declaring an enum
Declaring a enum:
enum [optional name] {
OptionName [= int],
OptionName [= int],

} [instance list];
Example of an enum:
enum Color {
RED,
GREEN,
BLUE
} color, *color_ptr;
enum Color c;
void drawCircle
(enum Color c);

Enum quirks
Problems with Enums:
Frail abstraction
Treated as integers
Can be assigned invalid values
Flat namespace
Proper use guidelines:
Avoid breaking abstraction
Mangle name of enum into option
name (so ColorRed instead of Red)
Here is one sanctioned abstraction break
enum Color {
RED,
GREED,
BLUE,
NumberOfColors
};

union
An union creates an union type; all fields
share the same memory location
union Argument {
int intVal;
double doubleVal;
char charVal;
};

Note that the it is optional

to name a union

Changing intVal changes doulbeVal and charVal!

Can be used to create constrained-type containers
Usually used in conjunction with an enum that says which
field is currently valid.

union Syntax
Declaring an enum
Declaring a enum:
union [optional name] {
<type> name1;
<type> name2;

} [instance list];
Example of a union:
union Argument {
int value;
char *string;
} arg1, *ptr;
union Argument arg2;
arg1.value = 3;
arg2.string = NULL;

Union quirks
Problems with Enums:
Only assume that the last field
written two is valid.
Dont use to save space.
Proper use guidelines:
Ensure you have another method
of knowing which field is currently
valid.

Typedef
Typedef is used to create an alias to a type
typedef
unsigned char
unsigned char mybyte;
byte mybyte;

byte;

byte now represents an unsigned char

Both definitions of mybyte are equivalent to the
compiler.
The second definition is preferred as it gives more
info

Typedef common uses

Abstraction
The user may easily change the type used to
represent a variable.

Clarification
More informative names for a type be given
Variables that use the same type in different ways can
be separated easily

Convenience
Type names can get very long
People like structs to look like real types
Some type names (like function pointers or array
pointers) are really hard to read/write

Typedefs structs/enums/unions
People often make a typedef of an
anonymous struct, enum, or union
typedef struct {
int id;
char name[80];
} Student;

struct Student {
int id;
char name[80];
};

Student st;

struct Student st;

These are almost the same.

However, anonymous
structs cannot refer to
themselves.

struct List {
int data;
struct List *next;
};

Discussion Point VI
What advantages do named
structs/unions have over anonymous
ones? Are enums different?
How would you try to pass anonymous
structs, enums, or unions to a function? Can
you?

C++ Gotcha I
Dont use exceptions unless you
know what youre doing!
Uncaught C++ exceptions do not produce a stack trace.
C++ does not automatically reclaim newd resources
(more in a later tutorial)
void someFunc(void) {
throw Exception!";
}
int main(int argc,
const char * argv[]) {
someFunc();
return 0;
}

$ ./myProg
Aborted
$

C++ Gotcha II
Dont return pointers (or references) to
local variables!
double * aFunc(void) {
double d;
return &d;
}
int main(int argc,
const char * argv[]) {
double * pd = aFunc();
*pd = 3.14;
return 0;
}

Boom! (maybe)

C++ Gotcha III

Uninitialized pointers are bad!
int * i;
if( someCondition ) {

i = new int;
} else if( anotherCondition ) {

i = new int;
Does the phrase null
}
*i = someVariable;

pointer exception
sound familiar?

C++ Gotcha IV
Never use an array without knowing its size
C++ arrays do not
know their own size.
Always pass a size
variable with the array
Always check the
bounds manually (C++
wont do it for you!)

int myArray[5];
myArray[0]
myArray[1]
myArray[2]
myArray[3]
myArray[4]

=
=
=
=
=

85;
10;
2;
45;
393;

myArray[5] = 9;
myArray[-1] = 4;
No Error! Undefined Behavior!

What We Covered
The procedural programming paradigm
Functions and parameter passing
The C/C++ memory model Part I (the stack)
Pointers
Arrays
C++-style References

C type constructs
Structs, enums, unions, typedefs

Any questions?

Acknowledgements & References

Books:
Essential C++ (C++ In-Depth Series), Stanley B. Lippman, 1999, 304
pgs.
The C++ Primer, 3rd edition, Stanley B. Lippman, 1998, 1237 pgs.
Effective C++, 2nd edition, Scott Meyers, 1997, 304 pgs.
The C++ Language, 2nd Edition, Bjarne Stroustrup, 2000, 1019 pgs.
Thinking in C++, 2nd Edition, Bruce Eckel, 2000, 814 pgs.
Also available online (for free):
http://mindview.net/Books/TICPP/ThinkingInCPP2e.html

Nathan Ratliff
Version 1 of the C++ tutorial

Doug Zongker
Version 1 of the handouts

Hannah C. Tang & Albert J. Wong

Wrote, proofread, and presented the current version of the tutorial and
handouts

Its basically over now

The next few slides are here for completeness. You
do not need to know most of the following info.
The stuff on array, the majority of C developers
probably do not know this following info.
If you are not comfortable with the material on
pointers and arrays presented previously, just skip
the next slides.
If you are terminally curious, keep going.

Arrays (the whole story)

Arrays are not pointers. They are not first
class types either.
Arrays know their size!
Arrays forget their size after they get passed to a function!
You CANNOT return arrays of any type
int foo(int ar[ ]) {
printf(%d\n, sizeof(ar));
}
int main(void) {
int ar[10];
printf(%d\n,sizeof(ar));
foo(ar);
return 0;
}

The output of this, assuming

a 4-byte int would be:
40
4

Pointers to Arrays
int (*ar)[3]

vs.

int *ar[3]

The first is a pointer to an array of 3 integers.

The second is a array of 3 elements, where each element is an intpointer.
This is how multidimensional arrays work

int a[3];
int *p = a;
p+1 == 8188
int (*p2)[3] = &a;
p2+1 == 8196
(*p2)[0] == p2[0][0] == 122
(*(p2+1))[0] == p2[1][0] == p2 == 8184

p
(8200)
p2
(8196)
&a[2]
(8192)
&a[1]
(8188)
&a[0]
(8184)

8184
8184
16
485
122