CS1302 COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT – I
DATA COMMUNICATION

Need for Communication

A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at

different locations.
Communication services & applications are everywhere. Some examples are given below

Need for Computer Communication over Distances

Computer communication has become essential for the following reasons:

(a) Computers can send data at a very fast speed over long distances using satellite and
microwave links. Therefore, the cost of transfer of documents using computers is cheaper than
other conventional means like telegrams.
(b) Computers can have fax system integrated with them. This allows them to send pictures along
with the text. Thus the newspaper reports can be prepared and sent all over the world at a very
high speed by composing and publishing them from different centers.
(c) The time taken to transmit the messages is very small. Hence different computers can be
connected together and the users can work together as a group. Software packages have
been developed for group working in Data Base Management (DBMS) and graphic works.
(d) Different departments of an organization may be separated physically being at distant places
but their data could be stored on a central computer. This data is accessed by computers

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located in different departments. The data at the central computer may be updated from time to
time and accessed by all users. This prevents any bottlenecks in the smooth functioning of the
organization. The latest data (say for inventory) will be easily available at all times to all the
users.
(e) Fluctuations of prices in foreign exchange and shares/equities can be communicated
instantaneously
using the medium of computer communications only. The transfer can be accelerated and verified
at any instant of time.

Data Communication:
Data Communication is defined as the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. The communicating devices must be a
part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware ( physical
equipment) and software (programs).

Characteristics of data Communication :

The effectiveness of a data communication depends on three characteristics
1.Delivery
2.Accuracy
3.Timeliness

Delivery : The system must deliver data to correct destination.

Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. Timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced. and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real
–time transmission.

Components:
The components of a data communication are

Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium
Protocol

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Message : The message is the information to be communicated. It can consist of text
,pictures, numbers, sound, video or audio .
Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer or
workstation telephone handset, video camera and so on..
Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer or
workstation telephone handset, video camera and so on..
Medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. It could be a twisted pair wire , coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or
radio waves.
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.

Data representation.
Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio and video.

Text.
Text is represented as a bit pattern ,
The number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of symbols in the language.
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code. The process of representing the symbols is called coding.
ASCII
The American National Standards Institute developed a code called the American
Standard code for Information Interchange .This code uses 7 bits for each symbol.
Extended ASCII
To make the size of each pattern 1 byte(8 bits),the ASCII bit patterns are augmented with
an extra 0 at the left.
Unicode
To represent symbols belonging to languages other than English,a code with much
greater capacity is needed. Unicode uses 16 bits and can represent up to 65,536 symbols.
ISO
The international organization for standardization known as ISO has designed a code
using a 32 – bit pattern. This code can represent up to 4,294,967,296 symbols.

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Numbers
Numbers are also represented by using bit patterns. ASCII is not used to represent
numbers.The number is directly converted to a binary number.
Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns.An image is divided into a matrix of
pixels,where each pixel is a small dot. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.The size and
value of the pattern depends on the image.The size of the pixel depends on what is called
the resolution.
Audio
Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or
images. It is continuous not discrete
Video
Video can be produced either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images.

Direction of data flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
Simplex
In simplex mode ,the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices on a link
can transmit; the other can only receive.

Ex.Keyboards and monitors.

The keyboard can only introduce input.The monitor can only accept output.

Half-duplex
In half-duplex mode ,each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same time.
When one device is sending ,the other can only receive.

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The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with two directional traffic. The entire
capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the
time.
Ex. Walkie-talkies and CB(citizen band radios.

Full-duplex
In full-duplex mode ,both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. It is like a
two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. Signals going in
either direction share the capacity of the link.
The full duplex is like a two –way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time. Signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link.
Ex. Telephone network
When two people are communicating by a telephone line ,both can listen and talk at the
same time.

Network:
Definition :

An interconnected collection of autonomous computers” interconnected = able to

exchange information

A set of nodes connected by communication links .A node can be any device capable of
sending &/or receiving data to &/or from other nodes in the network

A connected collection of hardware and software that permits information exchange and
resource sharing.
information = data, text, audio, video, images, …
resources = printers, memory, link bandwidth

Uses of networks

•companies & organizations

•resource sharing: programs, equipment, data…
•high reliability: multiple processors/links/file copies/...
•scalability: gradually improve system performance
•rapid communications & remote cooperation
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 •saving money
•private individuals:
•access to remote & diverse information sources
•communicating with other people
•entertainment
•education, healthcare, access to government...

Distributed Processing

Networks use distributed processing which is termed as a task divided among multiple
computers. Instead of a single machine responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers handle a subset.

Performance
Performance can be measured by means of transit time, response time, number of users,
type of transmission medium, capabilities of the connected hardware and the efficiency
of the software.
Transit time
The amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time
The elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Reliability
Reliability is measured by the frequency of failure ,the time it takes a link to recover from
a failure.
Security
Network security is protecting data from unauthorized access.

Type of connection
There are two possible type of connections
Point-to-point
Multipoint
Point-to-point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Ex. Change of television channel by infrared remote control. A point-to-point connection
is established between the remote control and the televisions control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared either spatially or
temporally.

Physical Topology
Physical Topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically. Two or more
links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and the linking devices tone another.

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The basic topologies are
Mesh
Star
Bus and
Ring

Mesh
In a mesh topology each device has a dedicated point to point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.

A fully connected mash network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices. To accommodate that many links every device on the network has (n-1) I/O
ports.

Merits.

• Dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load. This
eliminates the traffic problems that occur when links shared by multiple
devices.
• If one link becomes unusable ,it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security: When every message travels along a dedicated line only the
intended recipient

Demerits

• The amount of cabling and the I/O ports required

• Installation and reconnection are difficult
• The sheer bulk of the wire accommodate more space than available.

The hardware required to connect each link can be prohibitively expensive.

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Star topology

Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller usually called
a hub. If one device has to send data to another it sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other connected device.

Merits
• Less expensive than a mesh topology. Each device needs only one link and I/O
port to connect it to any number of others.
• Installation and reconfigure is easy.
• Robustness. If one link fails only that link is affected.
• Requires less cable than a mesh.

Demerits
• Require more cable compared to bus and ring topologies.

Bus

One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network Nodes are
connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with a metallic core.

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As the signal travels farther and farther ,it becomes weaker .So there is limitation in the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.(In this diagram
taps and connectors are

Merits

• Ease of installation.
• Bus use less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Demerits

• Difficult reconnection and isolation.

• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
• A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission. It also reflects signals
back in the direction of origin creating noise in both directions.

Ring

Each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either
side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches
the destination
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. It regenerates the bits and passes them
along ,when it receives the signal intended for another device.

Merits:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
• The constraints are maximum ring length and the number of devices.
• If one device does not receive the signal within a specified period, it issue an
alarm that alerts the network operator to the problem and its location

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Demerits
• A break in the ring disables the entire network. It can be solved by using a dual
ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Categories of Network

The three primary categories are of network are Local Area Network (LAN),
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and Wide Area Network(WAN). The category into
which a network fall is determined by its size, ownership, the distance it covers and its
physical architecture.

LAN
• A LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building or campus.
• A LAN can be as simple as two PCs or it can extend throughout a company. LAN
size is limited to a few kilometers. The most widely used LAN system is the
Ethernet system developed by the Xerox Corporation.
• It is designed to allow resources (hardware , software or data) to be shared
between PC’s or workstations. It may be used to provide a (shared) access to
remote organizations through a router connected to a Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN) or a Wide Area Network (WAN).
• One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and may become a
server to other clients. Software can be stored on this server and used by the
whole group.
• The size of the LAN may be determined by the licensing restrictions on the
numbers per copy of software. or the number of users licensed to access the
operating system.
• Also differentiated from other types of network by transmission media and
topology.

• LAN use only one type of transmission medium

• The common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star.
• LANs have data rates in the 4 to 10 megabits per second. Can also reach 100
Mbps with gigabit systems in development.

• Intermediate nodes (i.e. repeaters, bridges and switches) allow LANs to be

connected together to form larger LANs. A LAN may also be connected to
another LAN or to WANs and MAN’s using a "router

Metropolitan Area Network

A MAN is designed to extend over an entire city.
• May be a single network such as cable TV network
• May be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network
• Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device
Example A company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices
throughout a city.
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• A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a
public company ,such as local telephone company
• Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS) Switched
Multi-megabit Data Services.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

• A WAN provides long distance transmission of data .,voice ,image and video
information over large geographic areas.
• It may comprise a country ,continent or even the whole world. Transmission rates
are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes
considerably more).
• WAN utilize public, leased, or private communication equipment usually in
combinations and therefore span an unlimited number of miles.
• A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is referred to as an
Enterprise Network. The figure represents the comparison of the different types of
networks

Internetwork
When two or more networks are connected they become an internetwork or internet

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Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. It defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements
of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing
Syntax
It refers to the structure or format of the data. This refers the order in which the data are
presented.
Example
• The first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender.
• The second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver.
• The rest of the stream may be the message itself
Semantics
It refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How a particular pattern to
be interpreted
What action is to be taken based on that interpretation
Example
An address specifies the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message.
Timing
It refers to two characteristics
When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
Example
If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps and the receiver process data at only
1 Mbps, it will overload the receiver and data will be lost.

Standards
Why do we need standards ?
• To create and maintain an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers
• To guarantee national and international interoperability of data,
telecommunication technology and process
• To give a fixed quality and product to the customer
• To allow the same product to be re used again elsewhere
• To aid the design and implementation of ideas
• To provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies and other
service providers to ensure kind of interconnectivity.

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Data communication standards are divided into two categories
De facto(from the fact):
• Standards that have not been approved by an organized body.
• It have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
• This is often established originally by manufacturers to define the functionality of
a new product or technology.
De jure (by law):
• Those that have been legislated by an officially recognized body.
Standards organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.

Standards Creation Committees

ITU, International Telecommunications Union formerly the (CCITT):
• It a standard for telecommunication in general and data systems in particular.
•
ISO, International Standards Organization :
• It is active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological and
economic activity.

ANSI, American National Standards Institute:

• It is a private nonprofit corporation and affiliated with the U.S federal
government.
IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers:
• It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical
engineering , electronics radio and in all related branches of Engineering.
• It oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing
and communications. See http://standards.ieee.org/
•
EIA, Electronic Industries Association:
• It is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns.
• Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in addition
to standards development.
• It also made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces
and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
Forums
• It work with universities and users to test, evaluate ,and standardize new
technologies.
• The forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the
telecommunications community.
• It present their conclusions to standard bodies.
Regulatory Agencies:
• Its purpose is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television and wire
cable communications.

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 • It has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to
communication.
Internet Standards
• It is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those who
work with the internet.
• It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
• A specification begins as an internet draft and attains Internet standard status.
• An Internet draft is a working document and it may be published as Request for
Comment(RFC).RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all
interested parties.

OSI

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) architecture has been developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to describe the operation and design
of layered protocol architectures. This forms a valuable reference model and defines
much of the language used in data communications.

Layer

• Each layer provides services to the next higher layer and shields the upper layer
from the details implemented in the lower layers.
• Each layer appears to be in direct (virtual) communication with its associated
layer on the other computer. Actual communication between adjacent layers takes
place on one computer only.
• Layering simplifies design, implementation, and testing. Only the lowest level
(Physical layer) can directly communicate with its peer communications process
into parts.

Peer-to-Peer Processes

• The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-
to-peer processes.
• At higher layers communication must move down through the layers on device A
aver to device B and then back up through the layers.
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it. and passes the whole package to the layer
just below and transferred to the receiving device.

Interfaces between layers

• The passing of data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

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 • Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for
the layer above it.
• Well defined interfaces and functions provide modularity to a network.

OSI Reference Model

Describes a seven-layer abstract reference model for a network
architecture
Purpose of the reference model was to provide a framework for
the development of protocols

Physical Layer
• It coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission media.
Mechanical: cable, plugs, pins...
Electrical/optical: modulation, signal strength, voltage levels,
bit times,
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur
Major responsibilities of Physical layer are
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
It defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission media. Also defines the type of transmission medium.

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 • Representation of bits:
To transmit the bits, it must be encoded into electrical or optical
signals. It defines the type of representation how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals.
• Data rate:
The number of bits sent each second is also defined by the physical
layer.
• Synchronization of bits:
Sender and the receiver must be synchronized at the bit level .i.e the
sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

Information flows from top to bottom at the sender and bottom to top
at the receiver.

Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery. It
transforms the physical layer a raw transmission facility to a reliable link. It
makes physical layer appear error free to the network layer. The duties of the data
link layer are
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical Addressing: If the frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network the data link layer adds a header to the frame to
define the receiver or sender of the frame. If the frame is intended for a
system located outside the senders network then the receiver address is
the address of the connecting device that connects the network to the next
one.

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 • Flow Control: If the rate at which the data absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control Reliability is added to the physical layer by data link layer
to detect and retransmit loss or damaged frames. and also to prevent
duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame
• Access control When two or more devices are connected to the same link
it determines which device has control over the link at any given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet across
multiple networks. It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination .It does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each
one independently as though each belong to separate message.
The functions of the network layer are
• Logical Addressing If a packet has to cross the network boundary then the
header contains information of the logical addresses of the sender and the
receiver.
Networking When independent networks or links are connected to create an
internetwork or a large network the connective devices route the packet to the final
destination.
Transport Layer
The network layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery ,that is source to
destination delivery of the entire message.
The responsibilities of Transport layer are
• Service-point (port) addressing :Computers run several programs at the same
time. source-to-destination delivery means delivery from a specific process on
one computer to a specific process on the other. The transport layer header
therefore include a type of address called a service – point address.
• Segmentation and reassembly A message is divided into segments and each
segment contains a sequence number. These numbers enable the Transport layer
to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination. The
packets lost in the transmission is identified and replaced.

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 • Connection control : The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer. A connection-oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine and delivers the packets. After all the data are transferred the
connection is terminated.
• Flow control :Flow control at this layer is performed end to end .
• Error Control: Error control is performed end to end. At the sending side ,the
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer with out error. Error correction is achieved through
retransmission.
Session Layer : Session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes ,maintains,
and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems. Specific
responsibilities of the layer are
• Dialog Control : Session layer allows two systems to enter in to a dialog.
Communication between two processes take place either in half-duplex or full-
duplex. Example :the dialog between a terminal connected to a mainframe. Can
be half-duplex.
• Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints into a
stream of data. Example If a system is sending a file of 2000 pages , check
points may be inserted after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100 page unit is
advised and acknowledged independently. So if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523,retransmission begins at page 501,pages 1 to 500 need
not be retransmitted.
Presentation layer. It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. Responsibilities of the presentation layer are
• Translation .The processes in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The Since different
computers use different encoding systems ,the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different encoding methods. At the sender
,the presentation layer changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver dependent format.
• Encryption. The sender transforms the original information from to another
form and sends the resulting message over the entire network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
• Compression. It reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. It is important in
the transmission of text, audio and video.
Application Layer : It enables the user(human/software) to access the network. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management and other types of distributed
information services. Services provided by the application layer are
• Network Virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host.

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 • File transfer, access and management. This application allows a user to access
files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a remote computer and to
manage or control files in a remote computer.
• Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
• Directory services. It provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services .
Transmission Media
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and directly
controlled by the physical layer.
Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories
• Guided &
• Unguided
Guided media
It includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable
Unguided media
It is usually air.

Guided media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another.

Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.
• It has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire enclosed in an insulating
sheath. This in turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil ,braid or a
combination of the two.
• The metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor completes the circuit.
• The outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings .Each RG
number denotes a set of physical specifications such as,
• wire gauge of the inner conductor
• thickness and type of the inner insulator
• the construction of the shield
• the size and type of outer casing
Categories of coaxial cables

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 Cable TV
RG-58 50 Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 Thick Ethernet

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Coaxial Cable Connectors
Coaxial Cable Connectors are used to connect coaxial cable to devices. The most
common type of connector is the Bayone Neill-concelman or BNC connectors. There
are three popular types of connectors

• BNC connector
• BNC T connector &
• BNC terminator

BNC connector
It is used to connect the end of the cable to a device such as a TV set.

BNC T connector
It is used in Ethernet networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or
other devices.

BNC terminator
It is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Performance
• Attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted pair cable.
• Coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth the signal weakens rapidly and
needs the frequent use of repeaters.

Basic definitions

• Signal Attenuation is the phenomenon whereby the amplitude of a signal

decreases as it propagates along a transmission line.
• Attenuation is a function of distance and frequency of signal
• Repeaters are used to increase the power of the signal at appropriate intervals
• Skin effect, which increases attenuation as the bit rate of the transmitted signal
increases

Applications
• Coaxial cable is used in analog telephone network where a single coaxial
cable could carry 10,000 voice signals.
• It is also used in digital telephone network where a cable could carry
digital data up to 600 Mbps.
• Cable TV networks also used RG-59 coaxial cables.
• It is also used in traditional Ethernets.

Fiber Optic Cable.

A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmit signals in the form of light.

Properties of light

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 • Light travels in a straight line as long as it moves through a single uniform
substance. If array traveling through one substance suddenly enters another the
ray changes direction.
Refraction:
If the angle of incidence (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface.
Reflection:
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle the ray reflects and travels
again in the denser substance.

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in the density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding.

Propagation Modes
There are two modes for propagating light along optical channels, each requires fiber
with different physical characteristics
• Multimode
• Single mode
Multimode
Multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths.

Multimode can be implemented in two forms

• Step-index
• Graded index

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Multimode Step –index fiber
• In Multimode Step –index fiber the density of the fiber remains constant from the
center to the edges
• A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line .
• When it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding, there is an abrupt
change to a lower density that alters the angle of the beams motion.
• Step-index -> the suddenness of this change.

Multimode Graded-index fiber

• It decreases the distortion of the signal through the cable.
• Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at
the edge.

Single-Mode
• It uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles, all close to the horizontal
• The Single-Mode fiber itself is manufactured with a smaller diameter than that of
multimode fiber and with lower density.
• This results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90. to make it horizontal.
• All the beams arrive at the destination together and can be recombined with little
distortion to the signal.

Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their
cladding expressed in micrometers.

Fiber-optic cable connectors.

Three different types of connectors are used by fiber –optic cable.
SC ( subscriber channel) Connector:
It is used in cable TV.
ST(Straight-tip) Connector:
It is used for connecting cable to networking devices .

Performance :
• Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted pair cable and coaxial cable.
• Few repeaters are needed when we use fiber optic cable.

Application
It is used in cable TV and LAN (Fast Ethernet and 100Base –X.

Advantages
Higher bandwidth: It can support higher bandwidth than twisted pair or coaxial cable.
Less signal attenuation: Transmission distance is greater than that of other guided
media. Signals can be transmitted for 50 km without requiring regeneration.
Immunity to electromagnetic Interference : Electromagnetic noise can not affect fiber-
optic cables

22
Resistance to corrosive materials: glass is more resistant to corrosive materials.
Light-weight: It is of less weight than the copper cables.
More Immune to taping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to taping than copper
cables.

Disadvantages :
Installation/Maintenance. Installation/Maintenance need expertise since it is a new
technology.
Unidirectional: Propagation of light is unidirectional. Bidirectional communication is
achieved by means of two optical fibers.
Cost: It is more expensive and the use of optical fiber cannot be justified if the need for
bandwidth is not high.
Line Coding : Line Coding is the process of converting binary data , a sequence of bits ,
to a digital signal.

Characteristics of Line coding

Some characteristics of line coding are
• Signal level versus data level
• Pulse rate vs bit rate
• Dc components and
• Self-synchronization

Signal level
The number of values allowed in a particular signal are termed as signal level.
Data level
The number of values used to represent data are termed as data level.
DC component(zero frequency):
If the positive voltages are not get cancelled by the negative voltages then it is called a dc
component. This component is undesirable for 2 reasons They are
• If the signal is to pass through a system that does not allow the passage of a dc
component ,the signal is distorted and may create errors in the output.
• This component is an extra energy residing on the line and is useless.

Self-synchronization:
Need : To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receivers bit
intervals must correspond exactly to the senders bit intervals. If the receiver clock is
faster or slower ,the bit intervals are not matched and the receiver might interpret the
signals differently than the sender intended.

A Self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being

transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
receiver to the beginning ,middle or end of the pulse. If the receivers clock is out of
synchronization, these alerting points can reset the clock

23
Line coding schemes(digital to digital transmission)
Line coding schemes are divided in to three categories.
Unipolar
Polar
Bipolar

Unipolar
Unipolar encoding uses only one polarity.0 is represented by zero voltage and 1 is
represented by positive voltage.
It is inexpensive to implement. Unipolar encoding has two problems
Lack of synchronization
A dc component

Digital/digital encoding

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

encoding

AMI B8ZS HDB3

NRZ RZ Biphase

NRZ-L NRZ-I Manchester Differential

Manchester

Polar encoding :
It uses two voltage levels
Positive
Negative

24
The types of polar encoding are
Non return to zero(NRZ)
Return to zero(RZ)
Biphase

NRZ
The level of the signal is always either positive or negative.

NRZ-L
The level of the signal depends on the type of bit it represents.
The bit 0 is represented by positive voltage
The bit 1 is represented by negative voltage.
Demerits
Problem arises when there is a long stream of 0s or 1s in the data.
If the receiver receives a continuous voltage ,it should determine how many bits are sent
by relying on its clock.
The receiver may or may not be synchronized with the sender clock

NRZ-I
The 1 bit is represented by an inversion (transition between a positive and a negative
voltage) of the voltage level.
The existence of 1’s in the data stream allows the receiver to resynchronize its timer to
the actual arrival of the transmission.
A string of 0’s can still cause problems.

RZ
It uses three values
• Positive
• Negative &
• Zero
In RZ the signal changes during each bit.
A 1 bit is actually represented by positive-to-zero and

25
A 0 bit is actually represented by negative-to-zero
Demerits
It requires two signal changes to encode one bit.
It occupies more bandwidth.

Biphase
The signal changes at the middle of the bit interval and does not return to zero.
There are two types of biphase encoding
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester

Manchester
• It uses the inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both synchronization
and bit representation.
• The bit 1 is represented by negative -to-positive transition.
• The bit 0 is represented by positive-to-negative transition.
Merits
A single transition achieves the level of synchronization but with only two levels of
amplitude

Differential Manchester
Inversion at the middle of the bit interval is used for synchronization.
Presence or absence of additional transition at the beginning of the interval is used to
identify the bit.
A bit 0 is represented by a transition.
A bit 1 means no transition.
It requires two signal changes to represent binary 0,but only one to represent binary 1.

Bipolar
It uses three voltage levels
Positive
Negative and
Zero
• The bit 0 is represented by zero level

26
 • The 1s are represented by alternate positive and negative voltages.If the first 1 bit
is represented by positive amplitude,the second will be represented by the
negative amplitude, and so on.
There are three types of bipolar encoding
AMI
B8ZS
HDB3
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion
A binary 0 is represented by zero voltage.
A binary 1s are represented by alternate positive and negative voltages.
Merits
By inverting on each occurrence of 1,
The dc component is zero
A long sequence of 1s stays synchronized.
Pseudoternary
A binary 0 alternate between positive and negative voltages.

Comparison
The comparison of the different encoding schemes of the following NRZ, Polar
NRZ,NRZ Inverted, Bipolar, Manchester, Differential Manchester are given.

27
MODEMS

The term modem is a composite word that refers to the two functional entities that make
up the device; a signal modulator and a signal demodulator. A modulator creates a band-
pass analog signal from binary data. A demodulator recovers the binary data from the
modulated signal.

Modem stands for modulator and demodulator.

TELEPHONE MODEMS

Traditional telephone lines can carry frequencies between 300 and 3300 HZ, giving them
BW of 3000 Hz; All this range is used for transmitting voice, where a great deal of
interference and distortion can be accepted without loss of intelligibility.

The effective BW of a telephone line being used for data Transmission is 2400 Hz,
covering the range from 600 to 3000 Hz.

MODULATION /DEMODULATION

Telco Telephone Telco

network

Modem Modem

A B

Figure shows the relationship of modems to a communication link. The computer on the
left sends binary data to the modulator portion of the modem; the data is sent as an analog
signal on the telephone lines. The modem on the right receives the analog signal,
demodulates it through its demodulator, and delivers data to the computer on the right.

28
The communication can be bidirectional, which means the computer on the right can also
send data to the computer on the left using the same modulation and demodulation
processes.

Modem standards

V-series standards published by the ITU-T.

• V.32
• V.32bis
• V.34bis
• V.90
• V.92

V.32
This modem uses a combined modulation and demodulation encoding technique
called trellis-coded modulation. Trellis is essentially QAM plus a redundant bit. The Data
stream is divided into 4-bit sections. Instead of a quad bit, however, a pentabit is
transmitted. The value of the extra bit is calculated from the values of the data bits.

In any QAM system, the receiver compares each received signal point to all valid
points in the constellation and selects the closest point as the intended value.. A signal
distorted by transmission noise can arrive closer in value to an adjacent point than to the
intended point, resulting in a misidentification of the point and an error in the received
data.
By adding a redundant bit to each quad bit, trellis-coded modulation increases the
amount of information used to identify each bit pattern thereby reduces the number of
possible matches.

The V.32 calls for 32-QAM with a baud rate of 2400. Because only 4 bits of each
pentabit represents data, the resulting speed is 4*2400=9600.

FDX 2400 baud 9600 bps 2-wire

600 1800 3000

Bandwidth diagram

V.32 bis
The V.32 bis modem support 14,400-bps transmission. The V.32 uses
128-QAM transmission.

29
 V.34 bis
The V.34 bis modem support 28,800-bps transmission with a 960-point
constellation to a bit rate of 33,600 with a 1664-point constellation.
V.90
Traditional modems have a limitations on the data rate.V.90 modems with
a bit rate of 56,000 bps, called 56Kmodems, are available. Downloading rate is 56K,
while the uploading rate is a maximum of 33.6 kbps.

Traditional modems

In traditional modems data exchange is between two computers, A and B,

Through digital telephone network.

Sampling & noise

PCM Telephone Inverse

network PCM

Modem A to B Modem
Quantization
noise happens in
the Telco office
A near A B

30
Traditional modems

Sampling & noise

Inverse Telephone PCM

PCM network

Modem B to A Modem
Quantization
noise happens in
the telco office
A near B B

After modulation by the modem, an analog signal reaches the telephone company
Switching station. Where it is sampled and digitized to be passed through the digital
network. The quantization noise introduced in the signal at the sampling point limits the
data rate according to the capacity. This limit is 33.6 Kbps.

56K Modems

Communication today is via the Internet. In Uploading, The analog signal must still be
sampled at the switching station, which means the data rate in the uploading is limited to
33.6 Kbps. There is no sampling in downloading. Data rate in downloading is 56Kbps.

31
56K MODEMS

Sampling & noise

PCM Telephone ISP

network server

Modem
Uploading,
quantization
noise
A

Inverse Telephone ISP

PCM network server

Modem
downloading, no
quantization noise

32
V.92
The standard above V.92 is called V.92. These modems can adjust their speed,
and if the noise allows, they can upload data at the rate of 48 Kbps. The modem has
additional features. For example, the modem can interrupt the internet connection when
there is an incoming call if the lines has call-waiting service.

RS 232 INTERFACE

• RS 232 is a standard interface by EIA and RS232C is the latest version of this
interface.
INTERFACING WITH RS232

• It expects a modem to be connected to both receiving and transmitting end.

• The modem is termed as DCE(Data Communication Equipment) And the
computer with which modem is interfaced is called DTE (Data Terminal
Equipment).
• The DCE and DTE are linked via a cable whose length does not exceed 50 feet.
The DTE has 35 pins male connector and DCE has 25 pins Female connector.

FEATURES OF RS232 INTERFACE

1. RS232 Signal LEVEL

• RS232 standard follows –ve logic, Logic1 is represented by negative
voltage., logic0 is represented by +ve voltage.
• Level 1 varies from -3 to -15v and level 0 varies from 3 to 15v

2. RS232 SIGNALS

SL NO PIN NUMBER SIGNAL SIGNAL NAME

1 1 --- Frame ground
2 2 TXD Transmit data
3 3 RXD Receive data
4 4 RTS Request to send
5 5 CTS Clear to send
6 6 DSR Data Set Ready
7 7 SG Signal Ground
8 8 RLSD or CD Received line signal detect or carrier detect
9 20 DTR Data Terminal Ready
10 22 RI Ring Indicator

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN DCE AND DTE

• Before sending data to the other end the DTE requests the permission from the
modem by issuing RTS signal.

33
 • The modem has a method to find out if any telephone line is free and if the other
end of modem is ready.
• When the modem finds the communication path is ready for communication it
issues CTS signal to DTE as an acknowledgement.
• The DTE issues DTR signal when it is powered on, error free and ready for
logical connection through the modem.
• The modem issues a DSR signal to indicate that it is powered on and it is error
free.
• The data is transferred by TXD signal from DTE to DCE and RXD signal
receives data from DCE to DTE.
• The RI and RLSD signals are used with the dialed modem, when the telephone
link is shared.

Communication

Frame ground
1 1
RTS
4 4
CTS
5 5
MODEM DTR TERMINAL
20 20
DCE DSR DTE
6 6
TXD
2 2
RXD
3 3
RI
22 22
RLSD or CD
8 8
Ground
7 7

25 pin female connector 25 pin male connector

34
 UNIT II

DATA LINK LAYER

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

ERROR:

Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors

must be detected and corrected. Signals flows from one point to another. Tt is subjected
to unpredictable interferences from heat, magnetism and other forms of electricity.

TYPES OF ERRORS:

• Single bit Error:

The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit is changed
from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1. 010101 is changed to 110101 here only one bit is changed
by single bit error.

• Burst Error:

A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed.

Example:

Here two bits are corrupted .

35
Three kinds of errors can occur:

• the bits in the frame can be inverted, anywhere within the frame including the
data bits or the frame's control bits,
• additional bits can be inserted into the frame, before the frame or after the frame
and
• bits can be deleted from the frame.

DETECTION

Redundancy

Error detection use the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for
detecting errors at the destination .i.e., instead of repeating the entire data stream, a
shorter group of bits may be appended to the end of each unit.

101000000001010 1010000000010101

Ok

101000000001010 1011101 1010000000010101 1011101

Medium

101000000001010 Data unit

101101 Redundancy unit

36
Above figure shows the process of using redundant bits to check the accuracy of a data
unit. Once the data stream has been generated, it passes through a device that analyses it
and adds an appropriately coded redundancy check.

The receiver puts the entire stream through a checking function. The received bit stream
passes the checking criteria. The data portion of the unit is accepted if there is no error,
otherwise rejected and the redundant bits are discarded.

Detection methods

• Parity check
• Cyclic redundancy check
• checksum

Parity check

A redundant bit called parity bit, is added to every data unit so that the total number of
1’s in the unit becomes even (or odd).

SIMPLE PARITY CHECK

In a simple parity check a redundant bit is added to a string of data so that
total number of 1’s in the data become even or odd.
The total data bit is then passed through parity checking function. For
even parity, it checks for even number of 1’s and for odd parity it checks even number of
1’s. If an error is detected the data is rejected.

Example 1: data to be transmitted = 10110101

• 5 1’s in the data

• Parity bit is 1
• Transmitted codeword = 101101011
• If receiver gets 101101011, parity check ok ---accept (OK)
• If receiver gets 101100011, parity check fails ---reject (OK), ask for frame to be re-
transmitted
• If receiver gets 101110011, parity check ok ---accept (NOT OK: even number of
errors undetected)
• If receiver gets 001100011, parity check ok ---accept (NOT OK: even number of
errors undetected)
•
Example 2: data to be transmitted = 10110001

• 4 1’s in the data

• parity bit is 0

• Transmitted codeword = 101100010

37
2-Dimensional Parity Check

Form data into a 2-dimensional array; add single parity check bits to each row
and each column; transmit row-by-row
Example: data = 1110001 1000111 0011001
• Form 3×7 array and add row and column parity bits:
Data bits
1110001 0
1000111 0 row
0011001 1 parity bits

0101111 1
Column parity
bits

• transmitted: 11100010 10001110 00110011 01011111

• Receiver knows to form received bit string into 4×8 array, then check the row and
column parity bits…
• Can detect any odd number of bit errors in a row or column, and can detect an
even number of bit errors if they’re in a single row (using the column parity
checks) or in a single column (using the row parity checks); and can correct any
single bit error

•Example (cont.): suppose bit in position (1,3) is received in error (in other words,
1 bit error)

11000010 row 1 parity check fails

10001110 row 2 parity check ok
00110011 row 3 parity check ok
01011111 row 4 parity check ok

column 1 parity check fails

column 2 parity check ok
column 3 parity check fails
column 4 parity check ok
column 5 parity check ok
column 6 parity check ok
column 7 parity check ok
column 8 parity check ok

Therefore the receiver can detect that bit errors Occurred, but it cannot Correct them (here, if the
Bit errors were in positions (1,3) and (2,1) instead, the receiver parity checks would be the same)

38
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK

CRC is based on binary division.In CRC, instead of adding bits to achieve the
desired parity, a sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC or the CRC remainder, is
appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number. At its destination, the incoming data
unit is assumed to be intact and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicates that the data
unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected.

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE

• Dividing the data unit by a predetermined divisor derives the redundancy bits
used by CRC; the remainder is CRC.
• First a starting of n 0’s is appended to the data unit. The number n is one less than
the number of bits in the predetermined divisor, which is n+1 bits.
• The newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor, using a process called
binary division. The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.
• The CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the appended 0s at the end of the
data unit. Note that the CRC may consist of all 0s.
• The data unit arrives at the receiver data first, followed by the CRC. The receiver
treats the whole string as unit and divides it by the same divisor that was used to
find the CRC remainder.
• If the string arrives without error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero ad
the data unit passes. If the string has been changed in transit, the division yields a
non zero remainder and the data does not pass.

data CRC
data 00..0
N bits

divisor divisor N+1

data CRC
bits

remainder
CRC
Zero, accept
Non zero, reject

receiver sender

39
CRC GENERATOR AND CHECKER
CRC GENERATOR

It uses modulo-2 division. The following figure shows this process

111101

divisor 1 1 0 1 )1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 data plus extra zeros

1101

1000
1101

1010
1101

1110
1101

0110
0000

1100
1101

0 0 1 remainder(CRC)

CRC CHECKER

• A CRC checker function is exactly as the generator does. After receiving the data
appended with the CRC, it does the same modulo-2 division.
• If the remainder is all 0s, the CRC is dropped and the data are accepted;
otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and data are resent.
• The following figure shows the process of division in the receiver. We assume
that there is an error.
• The remainder is not full of 0s, and the data are rejected.

40
 111101

divisor 1 1 0 1 )1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 data plus CRC recieved

1101

1000
1101

1010
1101

1110
1101

0110
0000

1101
1101

0 0 1 result

POLYNOMIALS
The divisor in the CRC most often represented not as a string of 1s and 0s, but as
an algebraic polynomial. The polynomial format is useful to solve the concept
mathematically.

x7+x5+x2+x+1
A polynomial

x7+x5+x2+x+1

1010 0 1 1 1

41
 CHECKSUM

The checksum is based on the redundancy.

CHECKSUM GENERATOR
• In the sender side , the checksum generator subdivides the data unit into equal
segments of n bits.
• These segments are added using ones complement a, the total is also in n bits long
• The total is then complemented and appended to the end of the original data unit
as redundancy bits, called the checksum field.
• The extended data is transmitted across the network.

Receiver sender

Section1 N bits Section1 N bits

Section2 Section2
N bits N bits
--------- ---------
Checksum N bits Checksum All 0s

----------- N bits -----------

Section k N bits
N bits Checksum
Section k
Packet
N bits N bits

If the result is zero,

keep; else reject N bits N bits

CHECKSUM CHECKER

• The receiver subdivides the data unit into k sections each of n bits.
• All sections are added using ones complement arithmetic to get the sum.
• The sum is complemented.
• If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise they are rejected.

42
EXAMPLE

Suppose the block of 16 bits is to be sent using a checksum of 8 bits.

10101001 00111001

the numbers are added using ones complement arithmetic

10101001
00111001

11100010 sum

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 Checksum( 1’s complement value of sum )

The pattern sent is

10101001 00111001 00011101

checksum

Now the receiver receives the pattern with no error

10101001 00111001 00011101

the receiver adds these three sections, it will get all ones, which, after complementing,
is all 0s and shows that there is no error.

10101001
00111001
00011101

11111111 sum

00000000 complement ( pattern is ok )

suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects four bits.

10101111 11111001 00011101

when the receiver adds these sections, it gets

10101111
11111001
00011101

111000101
1

43
 11000101 sum
00111000 complement ( the pattern is corrupted )

PERFORMANCE

• It detects all errors involving an odd number of bits as well as most errors
involving an even number of bits.
• If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or bits
of opposite value in the second segment are also damaged, the sum of those
columns will not change and the receiver will not detect the problem.

HAMMING CODE:

•A minimum number of redundancy bits needed to correct any single bit error in
the data

•A minimum of 4 redundancy bits is needed if the number of data bits is 4.

•Redundancy bits in the Hamming code are placed in the codeword bit positions
that are a power of 2

•Each redundancy bit is the parity bit for a different combination of data bits

•Each data bit may be included in more than one parity check.

44
 • Easy way to compute the redundancy bit values: write down binary
representations for positions of data bits which contain a 1; compute parity
bits for each “column”; put parity bits into codeword in correct order.

• Here: data is 1001101 so codeword will look like 100x110x1xx (where x denotes
redundancy bits)
1’s in positions 3, 6, 7, and 11
11: 1 0 1 1
7: 0 1 1 1
6: 0 1 1 0
3: 0 0 1 1
1001
parity bits
r1 r2 r4 r8

45
So codeword is 10011100101(as before)
suppose that the bit in position 7 is received in error:

• If the transmitted codeword is received error-free, the “new” parity bits the
receiver computes will all be 0 ,the receiver knows no bit errors occurred.
• This simple form of Hamming code can be used to provide some protection
against burst errors, by transmitting 1st bit from every codeword to be transmitted, then
2nd bit from every one of these codeword, and so on…In some cases, burst errors can be
corrected

FLOW CONTROL AND ERROR CONTROL

The two main features of data kink layer are flow control and error control.

.FLOW CONTROL
Flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving ACK It is
one of the most important duties of the data link layer.

46
ERROR CONTROL
• Error control in the data link layer is based on ARQ (automatic repeat request), which
is the retransmission of data.
• The term error control refers to methods of error detection and retransmission.
• Anytime an error is detected in an exchange, specified frames are retransmitted. This
process is called ARQ.

FLOW AND ERROR CONTROL MECHANISMS

1. STOP-AND WAIT ARQ.
2. GO-BACK-N ARQ.
3. SELECTIVE-REPEAT ARQ.

STOP-AND- WAIT ARQ

This is the simplest flow and error control mechanism. It has the following
features.
• The sending devise keeps the copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives
an acknowledgement for that frame. Keeping a copy allows the sender to re-
transmit lost or damaged frames until they are received correctly.
• Both data and acknowledgement frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1. A data
frame 0 is acknowledged by an ACK 1.
• A damaged or lost frame is treated in the same manner by the receiver. If the
receiver detects an error in the received frame, it simply discards the frame and
sends no acknowledgement.
• The sender has a control variable, which we call S, that holds the number of
recently sent frame. The receiver has a control variable, which we call R that
holds the number of the next frame expected.
• The sender starts a timer when it sends a frame. If an ACK is not received within
an allotted time period the sender assumes that the frame was lost or damaged and
resends it.
• The receivers send only positive ACK for frames received safe and sound; it is
silent about the frames damaged or lost.

OPERATION:

The possible operations are

Normal operation
lost frame
ACK lost
delayed ACK.

The sender sends frame 0 and wait to receive ACK 1. when ACK 1 is received it sends
frame 1 and then waits to receive ACK 0, and so on.

The ACK must be received before the time out that is set expires. The following figure
shows successful frame transmission.

47
 Sender Receiver

S=0 Frame 0
R=0
ACK 1
S=1 Frame 1
R=1
ACK 0
S=0

•
•
•

Time Time

Lost or damaged acknowledgement

o When the receiver receives the damaged frame it discards it, which essentially
means the frame is lost. The receiver remains silent about a lost frame and
keeps its value of R.
o For example in the following figure the sender transmits frame 1, but it is lost.
The receiver does nothing, retaining the value of R (1). After the timer at the
sender site expires, another copy of frame 1 is sent.

Sender Receiver

S=0 Frame 0
R=0
ACK 1
S=1 Frame 1
R=1
Lost
S=1 Frame 1 R=1
Time-out
ACK0 R=0
S=0

Lost acknowledgement
o A lost or damaged ACK is handle in the same by the sender; if the sender
receives a damaged ACK, it discards it.

48
 o The following figure shows a lost ACK 0.the waiting sender does not know if
frame 1 has been received. When the timer for frame 1 expires the sender
retransmits frame 1.
o Note that the receiver has already received frame 1 and is expecting to receive
frame 0. Therefore, its silently discards the second copy of frame 1.

Sender Receiver

S=0 Frame 0
R=0
ACK 1
S=1 Frame 1
R=1
ACK 0
Time-out S=1 Lost
Frame 1
R=0
ACK0
S=0 Expecting frame 0
Frame 1 is discarded

Time Time

• Delayed acknowledgement

o An ACK can be delayed at the receiver or by some problem with the link. The
following figure shows the delay of ACK 1; it ids received after the timer for
frame 0 as already expired.

o The sender has already retransmitted a copy of frame 0. The receiver expects
frame 1 so its simply discards the duplicate frame 0.

o The sender has now received two ACK’s, one that was delayed and one that
was sent after the duplicate frame 0 arrived. The second ACK 1 is discarded.

49
 Sender Receiver

S=0 Frame 0
R=0
Time-out ACK1
S=0 Frame0 R=1

S=1 Frame 1 Expecting frame 0

ACK1 Frame 1 is discarded
Discarded

S=1 Frame1
Time-out R=1
ACK0

Time Time
BIDIRECTIONAL TRANSMISSION
The stop – and – wait mechanism is unidirectional. We can have bi-directional
transmission if the two parties have two separate channels for full duplex communication
or share the same channel for off duplex transmission. In this case, each party needs both
S and R variables to track frames sent and expected.
PIGGYBACKING
It’s a method to combine a data frame with an ACK. In following figure both the
sender and the receiver have data to send. Instead of sending separate data and ACK
frames. It can save bandwidth because the overhead from a data frame and an ACK frame
can be combined into just one frame

Sender Receiver

R=0
S=0 Frame 0,ACK0 R=0
S=0
R=0 Frame0,ACK 1
S=1
Frame 1,ACK1 R=1
S=1
R=1 Frame1,ACK 0
S=0

Time Time

50
GO-BACK-N ARQ
• As in Stop-and-wait protocol senders has to wait for every ACK then next frame
is transmitted. But in GO-BACK-N ARQ number of frames can be transmitted
without waiting for ACK. A copy of each transmitted frame is maintained until
the respective ACK is received.

Features of GO-BACK-N ARQ

1.sequence numbers.
Sequence numbers of transmitted frames are maintained in the header of
frame. If k is the number of bits for sequence number, then the numbering can
range from 0 to 2k-1. Example: if k=3 means sequence numbers are 0 to 7.
2. sender sliding window:
• Window is a set of frames in a buffer waiting for ACK. This window keeps on
sliding in forward direction, the window size is fixed. As the ACK is received, the
respective frame goes out of window and new frame to sent come into window.
Figure illustrates the sliding window.
• If Sender receives. ACK 4, then it knows Frames upto
and including Frame 3 were correctly received

Window size=7

3. Receiver sliding window:

In the receiver side size of the window is always one. The receiver is expecting to
arrive frame in specifies sequence. Any other frame is received which is out of order is
discarded. The receiver slides over after receiving the expected frame. The following
figure shows the receiver side-sliding window.

6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

51
4. Control variables:
Sender variables and Receiver variables:
Sender deals with three different variables
S -> sequence number of recently sent frame
SF -> sequence number of first frame in the window.
SL -> sequence number of last frame in the window.
The receiver deals with only one variable
R -> sequence number of frame expected.
5. Timers
The sender has a timer for each transmitted frame. The receivers don’t have any
timer.
6. Acknowledgement:
The receiver responds for frame arriving safely by positive ACK. For damaged or
lost frames receiver doesn’t reply, the sender has to retransmit it when timer of that frame
elapsed. The receiver may ACK once for several frames.
7. resending frames:
if the timer for any frame expires, the sender sender has to
resend that frame and the subsequent frame also, hence the protocol is called GO-
BACK-N ARQ.
Operation
Normal operation:Following diagram shows this mechanism. The sender keeps track of
the outstanding frames and updates the variables and windows as acknowledgements
arrive.

Sender Receiver
SF SL

0 1 2 3 0 1 Frame 0
0 1 2 3 0 1

S Frame 1
0 1 2 3 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 ACK 2

S Frame 2
0 1 2 3 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 ACK3

S Frame 3 0 1 2 3 0 1

0 1 2 3 0 •
•
S
Time Time
52
Damaged or lost frame:
Figure shows that frame 2 is lost. Note that when the receiver receives frame 3, it is
discarded because the receiver is expecting frame 2, not frame3. after the timer for frame
2 expires at the sender site, the sender sends frame 2 and 3.

Sender Receiver
SF SL

0 1 2 3 0 1 Frame 0
0 1 2 3 0 1

S Frame 1
0 1 2 3 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 ACK 2

S Frame 2 lost
0 1 2 3 0
0 1 2 3 0 1

Frame 3
0 1 2 3 0 1 Frame 3 is discarded, not
in the window
Timeout
resent Frame 2
0 1 2 3 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1
Frame 3
resent

0 1 2 3 0 • 0 1 2 3 0 1
•
S R

Time Time

Damaged or lost acknowledgement:

If an ACK is lost, we can have two situations. If the next ACK arrives before the
expiration of timer, there is no need for retransmission of frames because ACK are
cumulative in this protocol.. if the next ACK arrives after the timeout, the frame and all
the frames after that are resent. The receiver never resends an ACK.
For diagrams refer your class work notes.

Delayed Acknowledgement:
A delayed ACK also triggers the resending of frames.

53
SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ:
• The configuration and its control variables for this are same as those
selective repeat ARQ.
• The size of the window should be one half of the value 2m.
• The receiver window size must also be the size. In this the receiver is
looking for a range of sequence numbers.
• The receiver has control variables RF and RL to denote the boundaries of
the window.

selective repeat also defines a negative ACK NAK that reports the sequence
number of a damaged frame before the timer expires.

Operation

Normal operation
Normal operations of the selective repeat ARQ is same as GO-BACK-N ARQ
mechanism.
Lost or damaged frame
The following figure shows operation of the mechanism with an example of a lost
frame.
Frame 0 and 1 are accepted when received because they are in the range specified
by the receiver window. When frame 3 is received, it is also accepted for the same
reason. However the receiver sends a NAK 2 to show that frame 2 has not been
received. When the sender receives the NAK 2, it resends only frame 2, which is then
accepted because it is in the range of the window.

54
 Sender Receiver

0 1 2 3 0 1 Frame 0
0 1 2 3 0 1

S Frame 1
0 1 2 3 0 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 ACK 2

S Frame 2 lost

0 1 2 3 0 1

Frame 3
0 1 2 3 0 1
NAK 2 0 1 2 3 0 1

Frame 2
0 1 2 3 0 1
resent 0 1 2 3 0 1

Time Time

Lost and delayed ACKs and NAKs

In this sender also sets a timer for each frame sent. The remaining operations are
same as GO-BACK-N ARQ.

High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol

• HDLC standardized ISO in 1979 and accepted by most other standards bodies
(ITU-T, ANSI)

55
• 3 types of end-stations:
Primary–sends commands
Secondary–can only respond to Primary’s commands
Combined–can both command and respond
• 3 types of configuration
(Note: no balanced multipoint)

TRANSFER MODE

•
Mode = relationship between 2 communicating devices;
•
Describes who controls the link
o NRM = Normal Response Mode
o ABM = Asynchronous Balanced Mode
NRM:

56
 only difference is that secondary needs permission from the Primary in NRM, but
doesn’t need permission from the Primary in ARM.

FRAMES:
3 types of Frames are
I-Frame – transports user data and control info about user data.
S-Frame – supervisory Frame, only used for transporting control information
U-Frame – unnumbered Frame, reserved for system management(managing the
link itself)

FRAME FORMAT

U-Frames:

• U-frames are used for functions such as link setup. They do not contain any
sequence numbers.
• Five code bits denote the frame type (but there are not 32 different possibilities):
• Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM).Used in the link set up to indicate
ABM mode will be used.
• Set Normal Response Mode (SNRM).Used for asymmetric mode (master/slave).
• SABME and SNMRE—extended format.
• Disconnect (DISC).Used to disconnect the logical connection.
• Frame Reject (FRMR)—reject frame with incorrect semantics.

57
 • Unnumbered Acknowledgement (UA).Used to acknowledge other frames in this
class.
• Unnumbered Information (UI)–initialisation, poling and status information
needed by the data link layer.
• U-frames may carry data when unreliable connectionless service is called for.

S-Frames:

• S-frames are similar to unnumbered frames, the main difference being that they
do carry sequence information.
• Some supervisory frames function as positive and negative acknowledgements,
they therefore play a very important role in error and flow control.
• Two bits indicate the frame type, so that there are four possibilities.

• Receiver Ready -RR(Positive Acknowledgement)

• Receiver Not Ready -RNR
• Reject -REJ(NAK go-back-N)
• Selective Reject -SREJ(NAK selective retransmit)

Control Field:

58
IEEE 802.4 TOKEN BUS

• IEEE 802.4 describes a token bus LAN standard.

• In token passing method stations, connected on a bus are arranged in a
logical ring. When the logical ring is initiated, the highest number
station may send the first frame. After this it passes permission to its
immediate neighbor by sending a special frame called a token.
• The token propagates around the logical ring, with only the token
holder being permitted to transmit frames. Since only one station at a
time holds the token, collision do not occur.
• There is no relation between the physical location of the station on the
bus and its logical sequence number..

The following figure shows the operation of the token bus.

Physical topology

90 50 120

400 75

Logical sequence of token passing

50 75

400

120 90

59
Token passing in a bus

802.4 cable standards

• The token bus standard specifies three physical layer options in terms
of transmission medium, signaling technique, data rate and maximum
electrical cable segment length.

Medium options
1. Broadband: Transmission medium is co-axial cable and its uses
AM/PSK as a signaling techniques, data rate is 1,5,10 mbps.

2. Carrier band: Transmission medium is co-axial cable and its

uses KSK as a signaling techniques, data rate is 1,5,10Mbps.

3. Optical fiber: Transmission medium is optical fiber and its uses

ASK with Manchester encoding as a signaling techniques, data
rate is 5,10,20Mbps.

IEEE 802.4 Frame format

• Token bus frame format is shown in the following figure.

1 1 1 2-6 2-6 0-8182 4

Preamble
pr SD FC DA SA DATA FCS ED

• Preamble: the preamble is an at least one byte long pattern to establish

bit synchronization
• SD: Start frame delimiter: Its also one byte unique bit pattern, which
marks the start of the frame.
• FC: Frame control: The frame control field is used to distinguish data
frames from control frames. For data frame, it carries the frames
60
 priority. The frame control field indicates the type of the frame data
frame or control frame.
• DA: Destination address: The destination address field is 2 or 6 bytes
long.
• SA: Source address: The destination address field is 2 or 6 bytes long.
• DATA: Data field
• FCS: Frame check sequence: frame check sequence is 4 bytes long
and contains CRC code. It is used to detect transmission errors on DA,
SA, FC and data fields.
• ED: End delimiter: It is a unique bit pattern, which marks the end of
the frame. It is one byte long.
• The total length of the frame is 8191 bytes.

Performance:
For token ring, the slightly higher delay compared to CSMS/CD bus
occurs. For higher transmission loads the token ring performs well.

IEEE 802.5 TOKEN RING

• IEEE 802.4 describes a token ring LAN standard.

• In a token ring a special bit pattern, called the token circulates around
the ring when all stations are idle.
• When a station transmits, it breaks the ring and inserts its own frame
with source and destination address.
• When the frame eventually returns to the originating station after
completing the round, the station removes the frame and closes the
ring. Because there is only one token, only one station can transmit at
a given instant, thus solving the channel access problem.
• Each station is connected to the ring through a Ring Interface Unit
(RIU). The sequence of token is determined by the physical locations
of the stations on the ring.

The following figure shows the operation and arrangement of the Token
Ring.

61
 stations

Ring interface

802.5 cable standards

Its uses two types of transmission medium.

1. Shielded twisted pair cable: (STP)

It uses differential Manchester encoding technique. Data
rate is 4 or
16 Mbps. Maximum number of repeaters allowed is 250.
2. Unshielded twisted pair cable: (UTP)
It uses differential Manchester encoding technique. Data
rate is
4Mbps. Maximum number of repeaters allowed is 250.

IEEE 802.5 Frame format

• Token ring frame format is shown in the following figure.

Token frame format

1 1 1 byte
62
 SD AC ED

Data Frame

1 1 1 2-6 2-6 No limit 4

1 1
SDpr AC FC DA SA DATA FCS ED FS

• SD: Start frame delimiter: Its also one byte unique bit pattern, which
marks the start of the frame.
• AC: Access control: It is one byte long field containing priority
bits(P), Token bit(T),
monitoring bit(M), and reservation bir(R).
• FC: Frame control: The frame control field is used to distinguish data
frames from control frames. For data frame, it carries the frames
priority. The frame control field indicates the type of the frame data
frame or control frame.
• DA: Destination address: The destination address field is 2 or 6 bytes
long.
• SA: Source address: The destination address field is 2 or 6 bytes long.
• DATA: Data field
• FCS: Frame check sequence: frame check sequence is 4 bytes long
and contains CRC code. It is used to detect transmission errors on DA,
SA, FC and data fields.
• ED: End delimiter: It is a unique bit pattern, which marks the end of
the frame. It is one byte long.
• FS: Frame status: This field is none byte long and contains a unique
bit pattern marking the end of a token or a data frame.

Performance:
When traffic is light, the token will spend most of its time idly
circulating around the ring. When traffic is heavy, there is a queue at each
station. Network efficiency is more.

63
Disadvantages:
• A break in a link or repeater failures disturbs the entire network.
• Installation of new repeaters requires identification of two
topologically adjacent repeaters.
• Since the ring is closed loop, a packet will circulate indefinitely
unless it is removed.
• Each repeater adds an increment of delay.
• There is practical limit to the number of repeaters.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface

Introduction
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a 100-Mbps token-
passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-optic cable. FDDI is frequently used as
high-speed backbone technology because of its support for high bandwidth
and greater distances than copper. It should be noted that relatively recently,
a related copper specification, called Copper Distributed Data Interface
(CDDI), has emerged to provide 100-Mbps service over copper. CDDI is the
implementation
of FDDI protocols over twisted-pair copper wire. This chapter focuses
mainly on FDDI specifications and operations, but it also provides a high-
level overview of CDDI.

FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in

opposite directions (called counter-rotating). The dual rings consist of a
primary and a secondary ring. During normal operation, the primary ring is
used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. As will be
discussed in detail later in this chapter, the primary purpose of the dual rings
is to provide superior reliability and robustness. Figure 8-1 shows the
counter-rotating primary and secondary FDDI rings.

FDDI Specifications
FDDI specifies the physical and media-access portions of the OSI reference
model. FDDI is not actually a single specification, but it is a collection of
four separate specifications, each with a specific function. Combined, these
64
specifications have the capability to provide high-speed connectivity
between upper-layer protocols such as TCP/IP and IPX, and media such as
fiber-optic cabling.

FDDI's four specifications are the Media Access Control (MAC), Physical
Layer
Protocol (PHY), Physical-Medium Dependent (PMD), and Station
Management (SMT) specifications. The MAC specification defines how the
medium is accessed, including frame format, token handling, addressing,
algorithms for calculating cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, and error-
recovery mechanisms. The PHY specification defines data
encoding/decoding procedures, clocking requirements, and framing, among
other functions. The PMD specification defines the characteristics of the
transmission medium, including fiber-optic links, power levels, bit-error
rates, optical components, and connectors. The SMT specification defines
FDDI station configuration, ring configuration, and ring control features,
including station insertion and removal, initialization, fault isolation and
recovery, scheduling, and statistics collection.

FDDI is similar to IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring in its
relationship with the OSI model. Its primary purpose is to provide
connectivity between upper OSI layers of common protocols and the media
used to connect network devices. Figure 8-3 illustrates the four FDDI
specifications and their relationship to each other and to the IEEE-defined
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer. The LLC sublayer is a component of
Layer 2, the MAC layer, of the OSI reference model.

65
Figure 8-3: FDDI Specifications Map to the OSI Hierarchical Model

FDDI Frame Format

The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. This
is one of the areas in which FDDI borrows heavily from earlier LAN
technologies, such as Token Ring. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500
bytes. Figure 8-10 shows the frame format of an FDDI data frame and token.

Figure 8-10: The FDDI Frame Is Similar to That of a Token Ring Frame

66
FDDI Frame Fields

The following descriptions summarize the FDDI data frame and token fields
illustrated in Figure 8-10.

• Preamble—Gives a unique sequence that prepares each station for an

upcoming frame.
• Start delimiter—Indicates the beginning of a frame by employing a
signaling pattern that differentiates it from the rest of the frame.
• Frame control—Indicates the size of the address fields and whether
the frame contains asynchronous or synchronous data, among other
control information.
• Destination address—Contains a unicast (singular), multicast (group),
or broadcast (every station) address. As with Ethernet and Token Ring
addresses, FDDI destination addresses are 6 bytes long.
• Source address—Identifies the single station that sent the frame. As
with Ethernet and Token Ring addresses, FDDI source addresses are 6
bytes long.
• Data—Contains either information destined for an upper-layer
protocol or control information.
• Frame check sequence (FCS)—Is filed by the source station with a
calculated cyclic redundancy check value dependent on frame
contents (as with Token Ring and Ethernet). The destination address
recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was damaged in
transit. If so, the frame is discarded.
• End delimiter—Contains unique symbols; cannot be data symbols that
indicate the end of the frame.
• Frame status—Allows the source station to determine whether an
error occurred; identifies whether the frame was recognized and
copied by a receiving station.

Dual Ring

FDDI's primary fault-tolerant feature is the dual ring. If a station on the dual
ring fails or is powered down, or if the cable is damaged, the dual ring is
automatically wrapped (doubled back onto itself) into a single ring. When
the ring is wrapped, the dual-ring topology becomes a single-ring topology.
Data continues to be transmitted on the FDDI ring without performance
impact during the wrap condition. Figure 8-6 and Figure 8-7 illustrate the
effect of a ring wrapping in FDDI.

67
Figure 8-6: A Ring Recovers from a Station Failure by Wrapping

Figure 8-7: A Ring also Wraps to Withstand a Cable Failure

When a single station fails, as shown in Figure 8-6, devices on either side of
the failed (or powered-down) station wrap, forming a single ring. Network

68
operation continues for the remaining stations on the ring. When a cable
failure occurs, as shown in Figure 8-7, devices on either side of the cable
fault wrap. Network operation continues for all stations.

It should be noted that FDDI truly provides fault tolerance against a single
failure only. When two or more failures occur, the FDDI ring segments into
two or more independent rings that are incapable of communicating with
each other.

The IEEE 802.3 Logical Relationship to the ISO

Reference Model
Figure 7-4 shows the IEEE 802.3 logical layers and their relationship to the
OSI reference model. As with all IEEE 802 protocols, the ISO data link
layer is divided into two IEEE 802 sublayers, the Media Access Control
(MAC) sublayer and the MAC-client sublayer. The IEEE 802.3 physical
layer corresponds to the ISO physical layer.

Figure 7-4 Ethernet's Logical Relationship to the ISO Reference Model

The MAC-client sublayer may be one of the following:

• Logical Link Control (LLC), if the unit is a DTE. This sublayer provides
the interface between the Ethernet MAC and the upper layers in the protocol
stack of the end station. The LLC sublayer is defined by IEEE 802.2
standards.

69
• Bridge entity, if the unit is a DCE. Bridge entities provide LAN-to-LAN
interfaces between LANs that use the same protocol (for example, Ethernet
to Ethernet) and also between different protocols (for example, Ethernet to
Token Ring). Bridge entities are defined by IEEE 802.1 standards.

Because specifications for LLC and bridge entities are common for all IEEE
802 LAN protocols, network compatibility becomes the primary
responsibility of the particular network protocol. Figure 7-5 shows different
compatibility requirements imposed by the MAC and physical levels for
basic data communication over an Ethernet link.

Figure 7-5 MAC and Physical Layer Compatibility Requirements for Basic
Data Communication

The MAC layer controls the node's access to the network media and is
specific to the individual protocol. All IEEE 802.3 MACs must meet the
same basic set of logical requirements, regardless of whether they include
one or more of the defined optional protocol extensions. The only
requirement for basic communication (communication that does not require

70
optional protocol extensions) between two network nodes is that both MACs
must support the same transmission rate.

The 802.3 physical layer is specific to the transmission data rate, the signal
encoding, and the type of media interconnecting the two nodes. Gigabit
Ethernet, for example, is defined to operate over either twisted-pair or
optical fiber cable, but each specific type of cable or signal-encoding
procedure requires a different physical layer implementation.

The Ethernet MAC Sublayer

The MAC sub layer has two primary responsibilities:

• Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and

frame parsing/error detection during and after reception

• Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and

recovery from transmission failure

The Basic Ethernet Frame Format

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format that is required
for all MAC implementations, plus several additional optional formats that
are used to extend the protocol's basic capability. The basic data frame
format contains the seven fields shown in Figure 7-6.

• Preamble (PRE)—Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern

of ones and zeros that tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that
provides a means to synchronize the frame-reception portions of receiving
physical layers with the incoming bit stream.

• Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF)—Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an

alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1-bits
indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of the
destination address.

• Destination address (DA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies

which station(s) should receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field
indicates whether the address is an individual address (indicated by a 0) or a
group address (indicated by a 1). The second bit from the left indicates
whether the DA is globally administered (indicated by a 0) or locally

71
administered (indicated by a 1). The remaining 46 bits are a uniquely
assigned value that identifies a single station, a defined group of stations, or
all stations on the network.

• Source addresses (SA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the

sending station. The SA is always an individual address and the left-most bit
in the SA field is always 0.

• Length/Type—Consists of 2 bytes. This field indicates either the number

of MAC-client data bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame, or
the frame type ID if the frame is assembled using an optional format. If the
Length/Type field value is less than or equal to 1500, the number of LLC
bytes in the Data field is equal to the Length/Type field value. If the
Length/Type field value is greater than 1536, the frame is an optional type
frame, and the Length/Type field value identifies the particular type of frame
being sent or received.

• Data—Is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal

to 1500. If the length of the Data field is less than 46, the Data field must be
extended by adding a filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to
46 bytes.

• Frame check sequence (FCS)—Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence

contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by
the sending MAC and is recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for
damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and
Data fields.

Figure 7-6 The Basic IEEE 802.3 MAC Data Frame Format

72
Note Individual addresses are also known as unicast addresses because they
refer to a single MAC and are assigned by the NIC manufacturer from a
block of addresses allocated by the IEEE. Group addresses (a.k.a. multicast
addresses) identify the end stations in a workgroup and are assigned by the
network manager. A special group address (all 1s—the broadcast address)
indicates all stations on the network.

Frame Transmission

Whenever an end station MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the

accompanying address and data information from the LLC sublayer, the
MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring the LLC information
into the MAC frame buffer.

• The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and
SOF fields.

• The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields.

• The LLC data bytes are counted, and the number of bytes is inserted into
the Length/Type field.

• The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of
LLC data bytes is less than 46, a pad is added to bring the Data field length
up to 46.
73
• An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data
fields and is appended to the end of the Data field.

After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission will depend on

whether the MAC is operating in half-duplex or full-duplex mode.

The IEEE 802.3 standard currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support
half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be either transmitting or
receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously. Full-duplex
operation is an optional MAC capability that allows the MAC to transmit
and receive frames simultaneously.

UNIT III

Network Layer
• Transport segment from sending to receiving host.
• On sending side encapsulates segments into datagrams.
• On receiving side, delivers segments to transport layer.
• network layer protocols in every host, router.
• Router examines header fields in all IP datagrams passing through it.

Network-Layer Functions
• forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router
Output.
• routing: determine route taken by packets from source to destination.

Internetworking

• Internetworking is a scheme for interconnecting multiple networks of

dissimilar technologies
• Uses both hardware and software
o Extra hardware positioned between networks
o Software on each attached computer
• System of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or an
internet

Switching Schemes

74
(1) Circuit Switching
(2) Message Switching (Store-and-Forward)
(3) Packet Switching (Store-and-Forward)

Circuit Switching

• Provides service by setting up the total path of connected lines hop-by-hop

from the origin to the destination
• Example: Telephone network

1. Control message sets up a path from origin to destination

2. Return signal informs source that data transmission may proceed
3. Data transmission begins
4. Entire path remains allocated to the transmission (whether used or not)
5. When transmission is complete, source releases the circuit.

VC implementation

A VC consists of:

75
 1. Path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. Entries in forwarding tables in routers along path

Packet belonging to VC carries a VC number.

VC number must be changed on each link.

New VC number comes from forwarding table

Packet Switching
• Messages are split into smaller pieces called packets.
• These packets are numbered and addressed and sent through the network
one at a time.
• Allows Pipelining
– Overlap sending and receiving of packets on multiple
links.

IP Addresses

76
Each network interface on the Internet as a unique global address, called the
IP address. An IP address- is 32 bits long. It encodes a network number and
a host number.IP addresses are written in a dotted decimal notation:
128.238.42.112 means
10000000 in 1st Byte
11101110 in 2nd Byte
00101010 in 3rd Byte
01110000 in 4th Byte

Internet Address Classes:

IP distinguishes 5 classes of addresses.

Internet Address Classes

IP Address classes

77
• Class A:
– For very large organizations
– 16 million hosts allowed
• Class B:
– For large organizations
– 65 thousand hosts allowed
• Class C
– For small organizations
– 255 hosts allowed
• Class D
– Multicast addresses
– No network/host hierarchy

Internet= a collection of connected networks which share a common set of

rules for communication
IP Address Hierarchy

• Note that Class A, Class B, and Class C addresses only support two levels
of hierarchy
• Each address contains a network and a host portion, meaning two levels of
Hierarchy.
• However, the host portion can be further split into “subnets” by the address
class owner
• This allows for more than 2 levels of hierarchy.

IP Subnetting

• Subnetting is a technique used to allow a single IP network address to

Span multiple physical networks
• IP hosts should support subnetting.
• Subnetting is done by using some of the bits of the host-id part of the
IP address physical layer network identifier
• The subnet mask is used to determine the bits of the network
identifier.
• All hosts on the same network should have the same subnet mask.
• IP address is composed of a Netid part and a Hostid part
2-level
hierarchy.

Sometimes a 2-level hierarchy is insufficient for an organisation’s needs.

78
Subnetting

• An IP packet from some other network destined for host 141.14.2.21

still reaches router R1, since the destination address is still a Class B
address with Netid141.14 and Hostid 2.21 as far as the rest of the
Internet is concerned.
• when the packet reaches router R1, the interpretation of the IP address
changes
• R1 knows that there are 3 levels of hierarchy within the organization,
and that in this case, the Netid is 141.14,the Subnetid is 2, and the
Hostid is 21.

79
 • How is this knowledge of the internal network hierarchy implemented
in the organization’s routers?
• Masking of IP addresses during the packet-forwarding process.
• Masking is done whether or not subnetting is being used with
subnetting,

the Netid defines the site, the Subnetid defines the physical network, and
the Hostid defines the actual machine.

Subnet Masks
Subnet masks allow hosts to determine if another IP address is on the same
subnet or the same network.

Router

• A router is a hardware component used to interconnect networks

• A router has interfaces on multiple networks

80
 • Networks can use different technologies
• Router forwards packets between networks
• Transforms packets as necessary to meet standards for each network

Routing issues:

Scalability: must be able to support large numbers of hosts, routers,
networks

Adapt to changes in topology or significant changes in traffic, quickly and

efficiently

self-healing: little or not human intervention

Route selection may depend on different criteria

Performance: "choose route with smallest delay"

Policy : "choose a route that doesn't cross a government network"

(equivalently: "let no non-government traffic cross this network")

Classification of Routing algorithms

Centralized versus decentralized

Centralized: central site computes and distributed routes (equivalently:

information for computing routes known globally, each router makes same
computation)

81
Decentralized: each router sees only local information (itself and physically-
connected neighbors) and computes routes on this basis. pros and cons?

Static versus adaptive

Static: routing tables change very slowly, often in response to human

intervention
Dynamic: routing tables change as network traffic or topology change

Two basic approaches adopted in practice:

Link-state routing: centralized, dynamic (periodically run)

Distance vector: distributed, dynamic (in direct response to changes)

Routers

Routers are distinguished by the functions they perform

Internal routers
• Only route packets within one area
Area border routers
• Connect to areas together
Backbone routers
• Reside only in the backbone area
AS boundary routers
• Routers that connect to a router outside the AS

Routing
The most common routing algorithms are distance-vector and link-
state routing.

Distance-vector:
• Each router exchanges information about the entire network with
neighboring routers at regular intervals.
• Neighboring routers = connected by a direct link (e.g. a LAN)
• Regular intervals: e.g. every 30 seconds

Link-state:
82
 • Each router exchanges information about its neighborhood with all
routers in the network when there is a change.
• Neighborhood of a router = set of neighbor routers for this router.
• Each router’s neighborhood information is flooded through the
network.
• Change: e.g. if a neighboring router does not reply to a status
message.

• “Clouds” represent LANs; number in cloud represents network ID

• A, B, C, D, E, F are routers (or gateways)

• Each router sends its information about the entire network only to its
neighbors

83
How do non-neighboring routers learn about each other and share
information?
•A router sends its information to its neighbors
•Each neighbor router adds this information to its own, and sends the
updated information to its neighbors; the first router learns about its
neighbors’ neighbors.
84
Routing table update algorithm (distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm):
• Add 1 to cost of each incoming route (since each neighbor is 1hop
away)
• If a new destination is learned, add its information to the routing table
• If new information received on an existing destination:
• If Next Hop field is the same, replace existing entry with the new
information even if the cost is greater(“new information invalidates
old”)
• If Next Hop field is not the same, only replace existing entry with the
new information if the cost is lower

Example of routing table update algorithm

Final routing tables :

85
Problem with distance-vector routing:
• Slow convergence of distance vector routing algorithms under some
conditions
• Slow reaction to link/router failure because information only comes
from neighboring routers and it may be out-of-date (e.g. it may not
properly reflect the impact of the failure on route costs)

Link-State routing

•Each router sends information about its neighborhood to every other router

86
• Link cost is usually a weighted sum of various factors
• e.g. traffic level, security level, packet delay
• Link cost is from a router to the network connecting it to another
router.
• when a packet is in a LAN (which is typically a broadcast network),
every node –including the router –can receive it
• No cost assigned when going .

87
 • Routers share information by advertising, which means sending link-
state packets•.

• Every router builds a link-state packet and floods it through the

network, so when all such packets have been received at a router, it
can build its link-state database.
• Assuming that every router receives the same set of link-state packets
(as if the routers were synchronized),every router builds the same
link-state database. Using this database, each router can then calculate
its routing table.

To calculate its routing table, a router uses Dijkstra’s Shortest-Path

algorithm
• First, identify all link costs in the network: either from the link-state
database, or using the fact that the cost of any link from a network to a
router is 0
• This algorithm builds a shortest-path spanning tree for the router such
a tree has a route to all possible destinations, and no loops.
• The router running the algorithm is the root of its shortest-path
spanning tree.
• Even if all routers’ link-state databases are identical, the trees
determined by the routers are different (since the root of each tree is
different)
• A node is either a network or a router; nodes are connected by arcs.

88
 • The algorithm keeps track of 2 sets of nodes and arcs –Temporary and
Permanent.
• Initially, the Temporary set contains all neighbor nodes of the router
itself, and the arcs connecting them to the router; only the router is
initially Permanent.
• When all nodes and arcs are in the Permanent set, the algorithm has
terminated.
• Identify the Temporary node whose arc has the lowest cumulative cost
from the root: this node and arc are moved into the Permanent set.
• Any nodes which are connected to the new Permanent node and are
not already in the Temporary set, along with the connecting arcs, are
made Temporary.
• Also, if any node already in the Temporary set has a lower cumulative
cost from the root by using a route passing through the new
Permanent node, then this new route replaces the existing one
• Repeat until all nodes and arcs are Permanent.

Let’s follow the steps of the algorithm run by router A.

89
90
91
• Once a router has found its shortest-path spanning tree, it can build its
routing table.
• To complete the Example, here is router A’s link-state routing table

92
 • In large networks, the memory required to store the link-state database
and the computation time to calculate the link-state routing table can
be significant.
• in practice, since the link-state packet receptions are not synchronized,
routers may be using different link-state databases to build their
routing tables.
Note:

• Link-state routing algorithms have several desirable properties, e.g.

rapid convergence; small amount of traffic generated; rapid response
to topology changes.

UNIT - IV
The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end data transport
Primary functions include:
• Provision of connection oriented or connectionless service.

93
 • Disassembling and reassembling data.
• Setup and release of connections across the network.

Services provided by Internet transport protocols

TCP service:
• connection- oriented: setup required between client, server
• reliable transport between sending and receiving process
• flow control: sender won’t overwhelm receiver
• congestion control: throttle sender when network overloaded
• does not provide: timing, minimum bandwidth

UDP service:
• unreliable data transfer between sending and receiving process
• does not provide: connection setup, reliability, flow control, congestion
control, timing, or bandwidth guarantee guarantees

UDP

•UDP is a connectionless transport protocol–extends IP’s host-to-host

delivery service into a process-to-process communication service
• can have multiple application processes on a single host,
each with their own port number.
• A process is uniquely addressed by a < port, host > pair
• Common services are available at well-known (and
reserved) ports on each host; user applications must
choose their ports from the set of non-reserved ports.

•UDP doesn’t support flow control or reliable/in-order delivery, but it does

support error detection by computing an “optional” checksum over the UDP
header, UDP data, and IP pseudo header(includes source and destination
address fields from the IP header)

•New: Reliable UDP –provides reliable in-order delivery (up to a maximum

number of retransmissions), with simple window flow control, for virtual
connections.

Addressing

94
An address at the transport layer is typically a tuple (Station, Port) where
• Station is the network address of the host, and
• Port identifies the application

UDP Data Packet

• The source port, much like the source port in TCP, identifies the
process on the originating system. TCP ports and UDP ports are not
the same. There is no relationship between the two.
• The destination port identifies the receiving process on the receiving
machine. Whereas the IP address identifies which machine should get
the packet, the port identifies which machine should get the data.
• The length field contains the length of the UDP datagram. This
includes the length of the UDP header and UDP data. It does not
include anything added to the packet in-transit by other protocols --
but these are stripped away before UDP sees the datagram at the other
side.
• The checksum field is used by UDP to verify the correctness of the
UDP header and data. If the checksum indicates an error, the packet is
dropped. UDP is unreliable, so it makes no attempt to mitigate the
loss.

Application

95
 • Datagram oriented
• unreliable, connectionless
• simple
• unicast and multicast
• Useful only for few applications, e.g., multimedia applications
• Used a lot for services
– network management(SNMP), routing (RIP),naming(DNS), etc.

Port Numbers
• UDP (and TCP) use port numbers to identify applications
• A globally unique address at the transport layer (for both UDP and
TCP) is a tuple <IP address, port number>
• There are 65,535 UDP ports per host.

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

TCP is a reliable, point-to-point, connection-oriented, full-duplex protocol.

Reliable: A reliable protocol ensures that data sent from one machine to
another will eventually be communicated correctly. It does not guarantee
that this data will be transmitted correctly within any particular amount of
time -- just that given enough time, it will arrive. Life isn't perfect, and it is
possible for corrupted data to be thought correct by a reliable protocol -- but
the probability of this occurring is very, very, very low Point-to-point: Point-
to-point protocols are those protocols that communicate information
between two machines. By contrast, broadcast and multicast protocols
communicate information from one host to many hosts.

96
 • Connection-oriented :A connection oriented protocol involves a
connection or session between the endpoints. In other words, each
host is aware of the other and can maintain information about the state
of communication between them. The connection needs to be
initialized and destroyed. The shared state that is possible with a
connection-oriented protocol is essential to a reliable protocol. In
particular, the notion of a sequence number or serial number is a
practical necessity, if not a theoretical necessity.

• Full-duplex:By full-duplex we mean a mode of communication such

that both sides can send and receive concurrently

TCP Data Packet

TCP header fields

Flag bits:

– URG: Urgent pointer is valid

97
 • If the bit is set, the following bytes contain an urgent message in the
sequence number range “SeqNo <= urgent message <= SeqNo +
urgent pointer”
• ACK: Segment carries a valid acknowledgement
• PSH: PUSH Flag
• Notification from sender to the receiver that the receiver should pass
all data that it has to the application.
• Normally set by sender when the sender’s buffer is empty
• RST: Reset the connection
• The flag causes the receiver to reset the connection.
• Receiver of a RST terminates the connection and indicates higher
layer application about the reset
• SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers
• Sent in the first packet when initiating a connection
• FIN: Sender is finished with sending
• Used for closing a connection
• Both sides of a connection must send a FIN.

TCP Connection Establishment

TCP uses a three-way handshake

(1) ACTIVE OPEN: Client sends a segment with

• SYN bit set *
• port number of client
• initial sequence number (ISN) of client

(2) PASSIVE OPEN: Server responds with a segment

• SYN bit set *
• initial sequence number of server
• ACK for ISN of client

(3) Client acknowledges by sending a segment with

• ACK ISN of server (* counts as one byte)

98
Connection Termination :

Congestion Control

Open Loop Congestion Control

99
 -To prevent congestion before it happens

Retransmission policy :
Good Retransmission policy & Retransmission timer.

Window policy
-Selective Repeat Window.

Acknowledgement policy:
-Does not acknowledge every packet.

Discarding Policy:
-Good discarding Policy.

Admission Policy
-Switches check the resource requirement of flow.

Closed Loop Congestion control

- To alleviate congestion after it happens
Back Pressure(router con):
-Inform the previous upstream router.

Choke point:
-packet sent by router to Source.
Implicit Signaling:
-Source can detect
Explicit Signaling:
-Routers inform sender
Backward Signaling:
-Warn the Source (opp dir)
Forward Signaling:
-Warn the Destination

Slow Start :
Set cwnd size to max. seg size. Increases exponentially.

Additive Increase:
After it reaches threshold increase by 1 seg.If it reaches time-out then multiplicative
decrease.

Multiplicative decrease:
Set the threshold to one half of last cwnd size. Each time it is reduced to one half of last
cwnd size if a time –out occurs.
Traffic Shaping
• Traffic shaping controls the rate at which packets are sent (not just how many)

100
 • At connection set-up time, the sender and carrier negotiate a traffic pattern
(shape)

• Two traffic shaping algorithms are:

– Leaky Bucket
– Token Bucket

The Leaky Bucket Algorithm

• The Leaky Bucket Algorithm used to control rate in a network. It is
implemented as a single-server queue with constant service time. If the bucket
(buffer) overflows then packets are discarded.
•
• The leaky bucket enforces a constant output rate regardless of the burstiness of
the input. Does nothing when input is idle.

• The host injects one packet per clock tick onto the network. This results in a
uniform flow of packets, smoothing out bursts and reducing congestion.

• When packets are the same size (as in ATM cells), the one packet per tick is okay.
For variable length packets though, it is better to allow a fixed number of bytes
per tick.

Token Bucket Algorithm

• In contrast to the LB, the Token Bucket (TB) algorithm, allows the output rate to
vary, depending on the size of the burst.

• In the TB algorithm, the bucket holds tokens. To transmit a packet, the host must
capture and destroy one token.

• Tokens are generated by a clock at the rate of one token every ∆t sec.

• Idle hosts can capture and save up tokens (up to the max. size of the bucket) in
order to send larger bursts later.
Token bucket operation
• TB accumulates fixed size tokens in a token bucket

• Transmits a packet (from data buffer, if any are there) or arriving packet if the
sum of the token sizes in the bucket add up to packet size

• More tokens are periodically added to the bucket (at rate ∆t). If tokens are to be
added when the bucket is full, they are discarded
Token bucket properties
• Does not bound the peak rate of small bursts, because bucket may contain enough
token to cover a complete burst size

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 • Performance depends only on the sum of the data buffer size and the token bucket
size

Domain Name System

Introduction

A sys that can map a name to an address or an add to a name.

Mapping was done using a host file
It has 2 columns
Name and address

Every host could store the host file on its disk and should be updated from master
file.

If a program or a user wanted to map a name to an add. ,host consulted the host
file and found mapping

Divide the huge amt of info into smaller parts

Store each part on a different computer

The host that needs mapping can contact the closest computer holding the needed
information

i.e. DNS
Name Space

Names assigned to machines must be selected from name space with control over
the binding between names and IP addresses.

A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be organised in two
ways.
Flat Name Space
Hierarchical Name Space

Flat Name Space :

• Name is assigned to an address.
• Name in this space is a sequence of
characters without structure.
Demerit:
• Can’t be used in large system such as Internet
• It must be centrally controlled to avoid ambiguity and duplication
Hierarchical Name Space
• Each name is made of several parts
• First part – nature of the organization
• Second part – Name
• Third part – department
• So the authority to assign and control the name space can be decentralized
• Suffixes can be added to the name to define the host or resources
• To have a hierarchical name
Space, DNS was designed
• Names are defined in an inverted tree structure with root at the top.

102
 • Tree can have only 128 levels
Label :
Each node in the tree has a label(a string with a maximum of 63 characters)

Root label is a null string

Children of a node have different labels which guarantees the uniqueness of
domain names.
Domain Name:

Each node in the tree has a domain name.

DN is a sequence of labels separated by dots

Always read from the node up to the root

FQDN

If label is terminated by a null string it is called a FQDN

103

A domain name that contains the full name of a host

Contains all labels from specific to general

Uniquely define the name of the host.
challenger.atc.fhda.edu.

PQDN

If label is not terminated by a null string it is called PQDN.

Starts from a node but does not reach the root.

Used when the name to be resolved belongs to the same site as client.

Resolver can supply the missing part called suffix ,to create an FQDN.

DNS client adds suffix atc.fhda.deu before passing the address to the DNS server.
Domain:

A domain is a sub-tree of the domain space.

Domain may itself be divided into sub domains.

Distribution of Name Space

The info contained in the domain name space must be stored.

104

Not reliable to have info in 1 computer.

So distribute the information among many computers called servers

Hierarchy of Name Servers

Distribute the info among many computers called DNS servers

Divide the whole space into many domains based on the first level.

Let the root stand alone and create as many domains as there are

Allows domains to be divided further into smaller domains

Each server can be responsible for either a large or a small domain

Zone

What a Server is responsible for or has authority over is called zone.

If a server accepts responsibility for a domain and does not divide the domain into
smaller domains.

The domain and the zone refer to the same thing.

Server makes a database called a zone file.

It keeps all the information for every node under that domain

Root server

Is a server whose zone consists of whole tree

It does not store any info about domain but delegates authority to other servers
Primary server:

A server that stores a file about the zone for which it is an authority.

Responsible for creating, maintaining the and updating the zone file

105

It stores the zone file on a local disk

Secondary server

A server that transfers the complete information about a zone from another server
and stores the file on its local disk

It neither creates nor updates the zone files.

Updating is done by a primary server, which sends the updated version to
secondary

A primary server loads all information from the disk file; the secondary server
loads all information from the primary server

DNS In The Internet

In the Internet, Domain name space (tree) is divided into 3 sections.

Generic Domain

It defines registered hosts according to their generic behavior.

Each node in the tree defines a domain, which is an index to the domain name
space database.

Seven labels describe three organization types.

106
Generic Domain Labels

Label Description

com Commercial organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

int International organizations

mil Military groups

net Network support centers

org Nonprofit organizations

107
 Country Domain
Follows the same format as the generic domain but uses two character country
abbreviations.

Inverse domain

It is used to map an address to a name

Ex:

When a server has received a request from a client to do a task

Whereas the server has a file that contains a list of authorized clients, the server
lists only the IP address of the client

To determine if the client is on the authorized list ,server send a query

To inverse DNS server and ask for a mapping of address to a name

This query is called inverse or pointer (PTR) query

To handle this ,inverse domain is added to the domain space with the first level
node called arpa

Second level is also one single node named in-addr

Rest of the domain defines the IP address.

108
Resolution

Mapping a name to an address or an address to a name is called name-address
resolution.

Resolver

A host that needs to map an address to a name or a name to an address calls a
DNS client named a resolver.

It accesses the closest DNS server with a mapping request

If the server has the information , it satisfies the resolver.

Otherwise it refers the resolver to other servers or ask other servers to provide
information.

After the resolver receives the mapping ,it interprets to see if it is a real resolution
or an error and finally delivers the result to the process that requested it.

Mapping Names to addresses

The resolver gives a domain name to the server and asks for the corresponding
address

In this ,server checks the generic domain or the country domain to find the
mapping

If from the generic domain the resolver receives a domain name such as
chal.atc.fhda.edu.

Query is sent by the resolver to the local DNS server for resolution

If cant refers the resolver to other servers or ask other servers directly

If from the country domain, the resolver receives a domain name such as
ch.fhda.cu.ca.us.

109
 Mapping addresses to names

Client can send an IP address to a server to be mapped to a domain name – called
PTR query

To answer this uses inverse domain

In the request IP address is reversed and 2 labels in-addr & arpa are appended to
create a domain acceptable by the inverse domain section

132.34.45.121 ,121.45.34.132.in-addr.arpa.

Recursive Resolution

The resolver expects the server to supply the final answer

If server is the authority for the domain name ,it checks the database and responds

If not the authority ,sends the request to another server (parent) and waits for
response

If the parent is the authority respond otherwise sends the query to yet another
server

If resolved, response travels back until it reaches the requesting client

This is recursive resolution

Iterative Resolution

110
DNS Messages

Header format

Identification
Used by the client to match the response with the query.
Uses a diff id no. each time it sends a query.
Server duplicates this no. in the corresponding response.

Flag
Collection of fields that define the
Type of msg
Type of answers requested
Type of desired resolution (recursive or iterative)

No. of question records

Contains the number of queries in the question section of the msg
No. of answer records
Contains the number of answer records in the answer section of the response msg.
value is zero in the query msg
No. of authoritative records

Contains the number of authoritative records in the authoritative section of a
response msg

value is zero in query msg

111
 No. of additional records

Contains the number of additional records in the additional section of a response
msg

value is zero in query msg

Question Section

Consist of one or more question records

Present on both query and response msg

Answer Section

Consist of one or more resource records

Present only on response msg

It includes the answer from the server to the client (resolver)
Authoritative Section

Consist of one or more resource records

Present only on response msg

It gives info (domain name ) about one or more authoritative servers for the query

Additional Information Section

Consist of one or more resource records

Present only on response msg

It gives additional info (domain name ) that help the resolver

DNS can use the services of UDP or TCP, using the well-known port 53.

SMTP

Mail : Exchanges info between people

Format of an email

112
 Addresses

To deliver mail, an addressing system used by SMTP consists of 2 parts

Local part : defines the name of a specific file called mail box

All the mail received for a user is stored in the mail box for retrieval by the user
agent

Domain Name : comes from the DNS database or is a logical name (name of the
organization)

Email address

User agent
A s/w package that composes, reads, replies to, and forward messages.

Some examples of command-driven user agents are mail, pine, and elm
Some examples of GUI-based user agents are Eudora, Outlook, and Netscape.

MIME:
It converts a Non-ASCII code to ASCII code.

113
MIME Header:

Data types and subtypes in MIME

Type Subtype Description

Text Plain Unformatted text
Body contains ordered
Mixed parts of different data
types
Same as above, but no
Parallel
order
Multipart
Similar to mixed, but the
Digest
default is message/RFC822
Parts are different
Alternative versions of the same
message
Body is an encapsulated
RFC822
message
Body is a fragment of a
Message Partial
bigger message
Body is a reference to
Ext. Body
another message
JPEG Image is in JPEG
Image
GIF Video is in GIF format
Video MPEG Video is in MPEG format
Single-channel encoding of
Audio Basic
voice at 8 KHz
PostScript Adobe PostScript
Application Octet- General binary data (8-bit
Stream bytes)

114
 Content-transfer encoding

Category Description
Type ASCII characters and short lines
7bit ASCII characters and short lines
Non-ASCII characters and short
8bit
lines
Non-ASCII characters with
Binary
unlimited-length lines
6-bit blocks of data are encoded into
Base64
8-bit ASCII characters

Quoted Printable : Non-ASCII characters are encoded as an equal sign followed by an

ASCII code.

Base64

Base64 encoding table

Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code

0 A 11 L 22 W 33 h 44 s 55 3
1 B 12 M 23 X 34 i 45 t 56 4
2 C 13 N 24 Y 35 j 46 u 57 5
3 D 14 O 25 Z 36 k 47 v 58 6
4 E 15 P 26 a 37 l 48 w 59 7

115
5 F 16 Q 27 b 38 m 49 x 60 8
6 G 17 R 28 c 39 n 50 y 61 9
7 H 18 S 29 d 40 o 51 z 62 +
8 I 19 T 30 e 41 p 52 0 63 /
9 J 20 U 31 f 42 q 53 1
㌌㏒

琰茞

Ü
㌌㏒

琰
10 K 21 V 32 g 43 r 54 2
㌌㏒

琰茞

Ü
㌌㏒

琰

Quoted Printable:

MTA

Actual mail transfer is done through MTA

To send mail a system must have a client MTA and to receive a mail a server
MTA

Mail transfer occurs between two mail servers

MTA client and server

Commands and responses

116

Uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and
an MTA server

Command or reply is terminated by a two character end–of–line token
Commands

Sent from client to server

Consist of a keyword followed by zero or more arguments
Responses

Sent from server to the client

Response is a three digit code that may be followed by additional textual
information
Mail transfer

Transferring a mail message occurs in 3 phases
Connection establishment

After a client has made a TCP connection to the well known port 25 ,SMTP
server starts the connection phase.
Message transfer
Message between a sender and one or more recipients can be exchanged.

Connection Termination
After the message is transferred ,the client terminates the connection

Mail Delivery
Consists of 3 stages
Ist stage

Email goes from user agent to the local server.

Mail does not go directly to the remote server.

Mail is stored in the local server until it can be sent.

User agent uses SMTP client s/w and the local server uses SMTP server s/w.

Second stage

Email is relayed by local server, which now acts as SMTP client to the remote
server, which is the SMTP server in this stage

Email is delivered to the remote server ,not to the remote user agent

Third stage

The remote user agent uses a mail access protocol such as POP3 or IMAP4 to
access the mailbox and the mail

117
Mail Access Protocols

SMTP is involved in the first and second stages but not in third stage, since it is a
push protocol (pushes msgs from sender to receiver).

The third stage needs a pull protocol

Operation must start with the recipient

Mail must stay in the mail server mailbox until the recipient receives it

Third stage uses a mail access protocol(POP3,IMAP4)

POP3

Simple but limited in functionality

Mail access starts with the client when the user needs to download email from the
mailbox on the mail server

Client (user agent opens a connection with the server on TCP port 110.

It sends its user name and password to access the mailbox

User can then list and retrieve the mail messages one by one

POP3 has two modes
Delete mode& Keep mode
Delete mode

Mail is deleted from the mail box after each retrieval

Normally used when the user is working at permanent computer and save and
organize the received mail after reading or replying
Keep mode

Normally used when the user accesses mail away from primary computer. Mail is
read but kept in the system for later retrieval and organizing.

Assumes that each time a client accesses the server, the whole mailbox will be
cleared out

Not convenient when access their mailboxes from different clients (home or
hotel)

118
IMAP4

Powerful and more complex.

User can check the email header prior to downloading.

User can check the contents of email for a specific string of characters prior to
downloading.

Can partially download email.

User can create, delete or rename mailboxes on the mail server.

Can create a hierarchy of mailboxes in a folder for email storage.

FTP

For copying a file from one host to another
FTP uses the services of TCP. It needs two TCP connections. The well-known port 21
is used for the control connection, and the well-known port 20 is used for the data
connection

When a user starts an FTP session control connection opens

119

While the control connection is open, the data connection can be opened and close
multiple times if several files are transferred

Conn remains open during the entire process

Service type used is minimize delay

User types commands and expects to receive responses without significant delay
Data connection

Uses the well known port 20 at the server site

Connection open when data ready to transfer

Closed when it is not needed

Service type used is maximize throughput
Communication

FTP client and server run on different computers

Must communicate with each other

May use different operating system, diff character sets, diff file structures and diff
file formats

FTP make this compatible

FTP has 2 diff approaches. one for ctrl conn & the other for data conn
Communication over ctrl conn

Same approach as SMTP

Uses the ASCII character set.

Communication is achieved through commands and responses

Each line is terminated with a two-character (carriage return and line feed) end-
of-line token

Communication over data conn

To transfer files through data conn, client must

Define the type of file

Structure of the data

Transmission mode
Heterogeneity solved by
File type ,data structure and transmission mode
Using the data connection

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File transfer

HTTP

Used mainly to access data on the www

The protocol transfers data in the form of plain text, hyper text, audio and video
and so on.

A client sends a request ,which looks like mail to the server

The server sends the response which looks like a mail reply to the client
The request and response messages carry data in the form of a letter with a MIME-like
format

HTTP uses the services of TCP on well-known port 80.

Request Message

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Request Line:

Request msg

Request type:
Several request types are defined
RT categorizes the request msgs into several methods
URL
A client that wants to access a web page needs an address.
To facilitate access of documents ,it uses URL.
It defines 4 things

Method: a protocol used to retrieve the document (FTP and HTTP)

Host : a computer where info is located

Port number of server

Path name of file where info is located

Current version is HTTP 1.1

Methods

Request type defines several kinds of messages referred as methods

Request method is the actual command or request that a client issues to the server

GET :if the client wants to retrieve the document from the server

HEAD: if the client wants some info about the document

POST: used by the client to provide some info to the server

PUT: used by the client wants to provide a new or replacement document to be

stored on the server

PATCH : similar to PUT with some differences to be implemented with the
existing file.

COPY : copies a file to another location

MOVE: moves a file to another location

DELETE : removes a document on the server

LINK : creates a link or links from a doc to another location

UNLINK: deletes the link created by the link

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Response Message:

Status Line:

Header Format:

Exchange additional info between the client and the server

Example:
Client can request that the doc be sent in a special format
Server can send extra info about the document

General header: gives info about the msg

Request Header: can only be in response msg
Specifies the servers configuration and special info about the request

Entity header :gives info about the body of the document

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Other features

Persistent Connection: the server leaves the connection open for more requests
after sending a response.

Non-Persistent Connection: one TCP connection is made for each request and
response.
HTTP version 1.1 specifies a persistent connection by default

WWW

Repository of info spread all over the world and linked together

It has a unique combination of flexibility, portability and user-friendly features .

It is a distributed client-server service.

A client using a browser can access a service using a server.

The service provided is distributed over many locations called websites.

Hypertext and hypermedia

Info is stored in a set of documents that are linked using the concept of pointers

An item can be associated with another document by a pointer

Hypermedia: It can contain pictures , graphics and sound

A unit of Hypertext or hypermedia available on the web is called a page

Hypertext:

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Browser Architecture:

Categories of Web documents

Static Document :

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HTML

A language for creating web pages.

Allows to embed formatting instructions in the file itself.

Boldface tags

Effect of boldface tags

Structure of a Web page

A web page is made of 2 parts

Head and Body

Head : contains the title of the page

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Beginning and ending tags

Common tags

Beginning Ending
Meaning
Tag Tag
Skeletal Tags

<HTML> </HTML> Defines an HTML document

<HEAD> </HEAD> Defines the head of the document

<BODY> </BODY> Defines the body of the document

Title and Header Tags

<TITLE> </TITLE> Defines the title of the document

<Hn> </Hn> Defines the title of the document

Beginning Ending
Meaning
Tag Tag

Text Formatting Tags

<B> </B> Boldface

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<I> </I> Italic
<U> </U> Underlined
<SUB> </SUB> Subscript
<SUP> </SUP> Superscript

Data Flow Tag

<CENTER> </CENTER> Centered

<BR> </BR> Line break

Beginning Ending
Meaning
Tag Tag
List Tags
<OL> </OL> Ordered list
<UL> </UL> Unordered list
<LI> </LI> An item in a list
Image Tag

<IMG>
㌌㏒

琰茞

Ü Defines an image

Hyperlink Tag

<A> </A> Defines an address (hyperlink)

Executable Contents

<APPLET> </APPLET> The document is an applet

This example shows how tags are used to let the browser format the appearance of the
text

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Dynamic Document

Do not exist in a predefined format

It is created by a web server whenever a browser requests the document

Active document

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Skeleton of an applet

Instantiation of the object defined by an applet

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Creation and compilation

HTML document carrying an applet

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In this example, we first import two packages, java.awt and java.applet. They
contain the declarations and definitions of classes and methods that we need. Our
example uses only one publicly inherited class called First. We define only one
public method, paint. The browser can access the instance of First through the
public method paint. The paint method, however, calls another method called
drawString, which is defined in java.awt.*.

import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;

public class First extends Applet

{
public void paint (Graphics g)
{
g.drawString ("Hello World", 100, 100);
}
}

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