Basic Wear modes in Lubricated System

Robert Scott, Noria Corporation

This article provides a basic definition and understanding of the major wear modes or
mechanisms based around the ISO 15243.2004 rolling bearing failure mode
classification. Several other modes of wear that occur in gears, journal bearings,
hydraulic pumps and pistons - but don't occur in rolling bearings - will be discussed.

The ISO system discusses wear in six major categories with 15 subcategories.

Not contained in the ISO classification is Erosion from particles and Cavitation.

Wear mechanisms can also be thought of as occurring in two separate categories: contact and
noncontact modes. Contact wear requires the components to have direct metal-to-metal
contact for wear to occur. Noncontact modes do not require the surfaces to come into direct
contact for them to wear; in other words, a full fluid lubricant film may exist.

Subsurface Fatigue
Subsurface fatigue is a form of wear that occurs after many cycles of high-stress flexing
of the metal. This causes cracks in the subsurface of the metal, which then propagate to
the surface, resulting in a piece of surface metal being removed.

It begins with inclusions or faults in the bearing metal below the surface. Subsurface
microcracks form due to long-term repeated load cycles and stress (500,000 psi), causing
elastic deformation (flexing) of the metal. This is typical in all rolling bearing elements and
races and gear teeth, all of which operate in the elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication
regime. The contact stress is concentrated at a point below the metal surface.

These microcracks normally propagate to the surface, which eventually results in a piece of
the surface material being removed or delaminated. They appear as surface damage or wear
(large pits) referred to as spalling. Other terms for subsurface fatigue include flaking, peeling
and mechanical pitting. A full oil film exists and no metal-to-metal contact or surface damage
is needed. Subsurface fatigue is not a common issue if better quality metals are used in
bearing manufacture. Most bearings will fail by another mechanism first.

Subsurface fatigue failure is the result of a bearing living out its normal life span based on the
load, speed and lubricant film thickness that it is exposed to. The L10 fatigue life of a bearing
is the average time (in hours or cycles) to fail 10 percent of a set of identical bearings under
certain conditions. An estimate of the L10 life can be calculated, providing a rating life of a
bearing.

Surface-initiated Fatigue
This begins with reduced lubrication regime and a loss of the normal lubricant film. The
oil film is reduced to boundary or a mixed regime. Some metal-to-metal contact and
sliding motion occurs. Surface damage occurs. The high points of the metal surface
asperities are removed, which initially appear as a matted or frosted surface. This is not
smearing, as in adhesion (discussed below). This type of surface damage is usually
visible with a magnification of three to five times.

The surface damage is coupled with the cyclic loading of the rollers rolling over the race. This
creates asperity microcracks and microspalling. The cracks start at the surface and migrate
down into the metal. An edge of metal is created at the surface which flexes at the edge of
the surface crack. This creates a cold worked edge which is lighter in color. The cracks
propagate and may intersect within the metal, and a piece of surface material is then
removed. Flaking, mechanical pitting and micropitting are other names used to describe
spalling.

Surface fatigue can also occur as a result of plastic deformation (described below).
Contaminant particles in the oil enter the high-load rolling contact area between rollers and
the race, or between gear teeth, and cause some form of surface damage - a dent. Improper
handling of bearings can cause similar surface damage.

These round-bottomed dents often have a raised berm around their edges. The raised berm
of metal acts as a point of increased load or stress, or creates a reduced lubrication regime
(mixed or boundary), and leads to a lower surface fatigue life. Improved filtration reduces
plastic deformation, and therefore indirectly reduces the occurrence of surface fatigue.

Notice that the term "contact fatigue" is not used by ISO. This is a vague term sometimes
used to describe both forms of fatigue. It does not specify whether metal flexing damage
started in the subsurface or from some initial surface damage. It encompasses any change in
the metal structure caused by repeated stresses concentrated at a microscopic scale in the
contact zone between the rolling elements and raceways, and between gear teeth.

Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear is estimated to be the most common form of wear in lubricated
machinery. Particle contamination and roughened surfaces cause cutting and damage to a
mating surface that is in relative motion to the first.

Three-body abrasion occurs when a relatively hard contaminant (particle of dirt or wear
debris) of roughly the same size as the dynamic clearances (oil film thickness) becomes
imbedded in one metal surface and is squeezed between the two surfaces, which are in
relative motion. When the particle size is greater than the fluid film thickness, scratching,
ploughing or gouging can occur. This creates parallel furrows in the direction of motion, like
rough sanding. Mild abrasion by fine particles may cause polishing with a satiny, matte or
lapped-in appearance. This can be prevented with improved filtration, flushing and sealing out
small particles.

Two-body abrasion occurs when metal asperities (surface roughness, peaks) on one surface
cut directly into a second metal surface. A contaminant particle is not directly involved. The
contact occurs in the boundary lubrication regime due to inadequate lubrication or excessive
surface roughness which could have been caused by some other form of wear. Higher oil
viscosity, increased metal hardness and even demagnetizing bearings after induction heating
during installation may help to reduce two-body abrasion.
Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear is the transfer of material from one contacting surface to another. It
occurs when high loads, temperatures or pressures cause the asperities on two contacting
metal surfaces, in relative motion, to spot-weld together then immediately tear apart,
shearing the metal in small, discrete areas.

The surface may be left rough and jagged or relatively smooth due to smearing/deformation
of the metal. Metal is transferred from one surface to the other. Adhesion occurs in equipment
operating in the mixed and boundary lubrication regimes due to insufficient lube supply,
inadequate viscosity, incorrect internal clearances, incorrect installation or misalignment. This
can occur in rings and cylinders, bearings and gears.

Normal break-in is a form of mild adhesive wear, as is frosting. Scuffing usually refers to
moderate adhesive wear, while galling, smearing and seizing result from severe adhesion.
Adhesion can be prevented by lower loads, avoiding shock loading and ensuring that the
correct oil viscosity grade is being used. If necessary, extreme pressure (EP) and antiwear
(AW) additives are used to reduce the damage.

Corrosion
Moisture corrosion involves material removal or loss by oxidative chemical reaction of
the metal surface in the presence of moisture (water). It is the dissolution of a metal in an
electrically conductive liquid by low amperage and may involve hydrogen
embrittlement. It is accelerated, like all chemical reactions, by increased temperatures.
No metal-to-metal contact is needed. It will occur with a full oil fluid film.

Corrosion is often caused by the contamination or degradation of lubricants in service. Most

lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors that protect against this type of attack. When the
lubricant additives become depleted due to extended service or excessive contamination by
moisture, combustion or other gases or process fluids, the corrosion inhibitors are no longer
capable of protecting against the acidic (or caustic) corrosive fluid and corrosion-induced
pitting can occur. The pits will appear on the metal surface that was exposed to the corrosive
environment.

This may be the entire metal surface or just the lower portion of the metal that may have
been submerged in water not drained from the oil sump or at the roller/race contact points.
Generally, an even and uniform pattern of pits will result from this form of attack. Mild forms
of moisture corrosion result in surface staining or etching. More severe forms are referred to
as corrosive pitting, electro-corrosion, corrosive spalling or rust.

Frictional corrosion is a general form of wear caused by loaded micromovements or

vibration between contacting parts without any water contaminant being present, although
humidity may be necessary. It may also be referred to as fretting wear. It includes both
fretting corrosion and false brinelling, which in the past were often considered to be the same
mechanism.

Fretting corrosion is the mechanical fretting wear damage of surface asperities

accompanied and escalated by corrosion, mostly oxidation in air with some humidity present.
It occurs due to many oscillating micromovements at contacting interfaces between loaded
and mating parts in which the lubricant has not been replenished (an unlubricated contact).
Adhesion is occurring and it is generally considered more severe than false brinelling.

It usually appears as a reddish-brown oxide color (rust without water being present) on steel
and black on aluminum. Metal wear debris flakes are created or shed off.

Fretting corrosion occurs on many mechanical devices such as gear teeth and splines, not just
rolling element bearings, and can occur on surfaces other than the rolling contact. In
bearings, it is also associated with bearing fit on the shaft and in the housing. It occurs where
there is not any large relative motion between the mating parts such as between the shaft
and the inner race and between the housing and the outer race. Fretting corrosion can occur
on materials that do not oxidize.

False brinelling occurs due to micromovements under cyclic vibrations in either static or
rotating boundary lubrication contacts. Mild adhesion of the metal asperities is occurring.
Shallow depressions or dents are created in which the original machining marks are worn off
and no longer visible due to the wearing damage of the metal. False brinelling occurs on the
rolling elements and raceway, similar to small-scale plastic deformation or brinelling (see
below) and hence the name "false brinelling".

False brinelling is usually associated with static nonrotating equipment and, thus, the wear
appears at the roller contacts with the exact same spacing as the rollers. The depressions in
the metal can appear shiny with black wear debris around the edges. If the equipment is
rotating, the wear appears as a gray, wavy washboard pattern on the raceway. Reduced
bearing life or failure ultimately occurs, sometimes in a catastrophic fashion, through surface
fatigue initiating in these damaged surface layers.

An example of false brinelling occurs in standby electric motors and pumps (and others)
which sit idle for periods of time, but are subjected to vibration from the plant floor up
through the load-bearing rolling elements of the bearings. Antiwear additives may be
beneficial in reducing the wear damage.
Electrical Erosion
This type of wear occurs when electric current passes between two metal surfaces (for
example, bearing roller and race) through the oil or grease film. It is subdivided based on
the severity of the damage. Electrical erosion should not be confused with erosion
caused by particles (discussed below).

Excessive voltage (electrical pitting) is caused by a high electrical current or amperage

passing through only a few asperities on the metal. Voltage builds up and then arcs, causing
localized heating/melting and vaporization of the metal surface. This causes deep, large
craters or pits in the metal surfaces, which may correspond to the spacing between the rolling
elements of the bearing. It is possibly due to welding in the area and inadequate grounding or
insulation. It may also be referred to as electrical pitting, arcing or sparking.

Current leakage (electrical fluting) is a less severe form of damage caused by a lower
continuous electrical current. The damage may be shallow craters that are closely positioned
and appear dark gray in color. If the electrical discharge occurs while the bearing is in motion,
with a full fluid film, a washboard effect or grooves appear on the entire bearing raceway and
is called fluting or corduroying.

Plastic Deformation
This is the denting, indentations or depressions in the race or rollers caused by impact or
overloading. The surface metal flows, causing irreversible deformation (not wear). The
machining marks are still visible in the bottom of the dent. The dents often have a raised
lip which increases stresses and leads to surface-initiated fatigue (surface cracks) and
eventual pit formation or adhesive wear. Plastic deformation consists of three
subcategories.

Overload or true brinelling is characterized by static or shock loading, or impact from

operational abuse, causing a permanent dent in the metal without cutting or welding of the
metal. An example occurs in roller bearings when impact causes the rollers to create a series
of dents in the bearing race surface at intervals that match the roller spacing exactly. Some
people consider denting from the impact of hammering on a bearing as overload; others may
consider it as an indentation from handling.

Indentation from debris is a form of plastic deformation but it is caused by a particle

trapped within the dynamic clearances between two machine elements and being over-rolled.
The force causes a round-bottom dent to form in the race or rolling element. Cracks may
propagate down into the metal.

Indentation from handling is similar to that from debris, but results from a bearing being
dropped or hammered, causing localized overloading. It can also be due to nicks from hard or
sharp objects.

It is common to encounter erosion from particles in the oil and cavitation, although this is not
included in the ISO standard for rolling bearings.

Erosion
Erosion could be considered a form of abrasive wear. It occurs principally in high-
velocity, fluid streams where solid particle debris, entrained in the fluid (oil), impinges
on a surface and erodes it away. Hydraulic systems are an example where this type of
wear may occur. Flow rates have a significant influence on these wear rates, which are
proportional to at least the square of the fluid velocity. Erosion typically occurs in
pumps, valves and nozzles. Metal-to-metal contact does not occur. The mechanism of
erosion is used to an advantage in water-jet cutting.
Cavitation
This is a special form of erosion in which vapor bubbles in the fluid form in low-
pressure regions and are then collapsed (imploded) in the higher-pressure regions of the
oil system. The implosion can be powerful enough to create holes or pits, even in
hardened metal if the implosion occurs at the metal surface. This type of wear is most
common in hydraulic pumps, especially those which have restricted suction inlets or are
operating at high elevations.

Restricting the oil from entering the pump suction reduces the pressure on the oil and, thus,
tends to create more vapor bubbles. Cavitation can also occur in journal bearings where the
fluid pressure increases in the load zone of the bearing. No metal-to-metal contact is needed
to create cavitation.

Just to be clear, pitting is a general term used in failure analysis to describe almost any small,
rough-bottomed, circular potholes in the metal surface. Pits can be caused by mechanical
pitting (fatigue or cavitation), chemical pitting (corrosion) or by electrical pitting (stray
arcing), all of which are described above.

Failure analysis is used to assign a wear mechanism to a specific failure. If the wear
mechanism can be determined, then some corrective action can be applied to prevent the
failure from recurring. Often, it can be useful to use the process of elimination to determine
which wear mechanisms could not have produced the observed wear pattern, thus reducing
the number of possible mechanisms. Unfortunately, combinations of wear mechanisms exist
in most situations, thus complicating the selection of the optimum wear-resistant system.

Acknowledgment
Several portions of this article may contain residual wording from an article that was
originally written by Rees Llewellyn of the National Research Council of Canada for the
Alberta section of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE).
About the Author
Bob Scott is a senior technical consultant for Noria, and has more than 25 years of technical experience with lubricants,
lubrication and related machinery. He has written and presented technical papers to lubricant technical societies and
lubrication conferences and has developed and presented training sessions for maintenance and lubricant sales
personnel.

He is certified as a Lubrication Specialist (CLS) and Oil Monitoring Analyst (OMA) Levels I and II by STLE. Bob is also
ICML Level I and II MLT certified.