Information Security Booklet – July 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
Overview............................................................................................................... 1
Coordination with GLBA Section 501(b) ............................................................... 2
Security Objectives ............................................................................................... 2
Regulatory Guidance, Resources, and Standards ................................................ 3

SECURITY PROCESS....................................................................... 4
Overview............................................................................................................... 4
Governance .......................................................................................................... 5
Management Structure............................................................................... 5
Responsibility and Accountability ............................................................... 5

INFORMATION SECURITY RISK ASSESSMENT............................ 9

Overview............................................................................................................... 9
Key Steps ........................................................................................................... 10
Gather Necessary Information ................................................................. 10
Identification of Information and Information Systems.............................. 11
Analyze the Information ........................................................................... 11
Assign Risk Ratings ................................................................................. 14
Key Risk Assessment Practices.......................................................................... 15

INFORMATION SECURITY STRATEGY ........................................ 17

Key Concepts ..................................................................................................... 18
Architecture Considerations ................................................................................ 19
Policies and Procedures........................................................................... 19
Technology Design .................................................................................. 20
Outsourced Security Services .................................................................. 21

SECURITY CONTROLS IMPLEMENTATION................................. 22

Access Control.................................................................................................... 22
Access Rights Administration................................................................... 22
Authentication .......................................................................................... 25
Network Access ....................................................................................... 37
Operating System Access ........................................................................ 46
Application Access ................................................................................... 48
 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

Remote Access ........................................................................................ 50

Physical and Environmental Protection............................................................... 52
Data Center Security................................................................................ 53
Cabinet and Vault Security....................................................................... 54
Physical Security in Distributed IT Environments ..................................... 54
Encryption ........................................................................................................... 56
How Encryption Works ............................................................................. 57
Encryption Key Management ................................................................... 57
Encryption Types ..................................................................................... 58
Examples of Encryption Uses .................................................................. 59
Malicious Code Prevention ................................................................................. 60
Controls to Protect Against Malicious Code ............................................. 61
Systems Development, Acquisition, and Maintenance ....................................... 63
Software Development and Acquisition.................................................... 63
Systems Maintenance .............................................................................. 67
Personnel Security.............................................................................................. 70
Background Checks and Screening ......................................................... 71
Agreements: Confidentiality, Non-Disclosure, and Authorized Use.......... 71
Job Descriptions....................................................................................... 72
Training .................................................................................................... 72
Data Security ...................................................................................................... 72
Theory and Tools ..................................................................................... 73
Practical Application ................................................................................. 73
Service Provider Oversight ................................................................................. 76
Trust Services .......................................................................................... 77
SAS 70 Reports ....................................................................................... 77
Business Continuity Considerations.................................................................... 78
Insurance ............................................................................................................ 79

SECURITY MONITORING ............................................................... 81

Architecture Issues ............................................................................................. 82
Activity Monitoring............................................................................................... 82
Network Intrusion Detection Systems ...................................................... 83
Honeypots ................................................................................................ 85
Host Intrusion Detection Systems ............................................................ 86
Log Transmission, Normalization, Storage, and Protection...................... 87
Condition Monitoring ........................................................................................... 87
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Self Assessments..................................................................................... 87
Metrics...................................................................................................... 88
Independent Tests ................................................................................... 88
Analysis and Response ...................................................................................... 90
Security Incidents..................................................................................... 91
Intrusion Response .................................................................................. 92
Outsourced Systems........................................................................................... 93

SECURITY PROCESS MONITORING AND UPDATING ................ 95

Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 95
Updating ............................................................................................................. 96

APPENDIX A: EXAMINATION PROCEDURES.................. A-1

APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY ................................................. B-1

APPENDIX C: LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND GUIDANCE C-1

 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
Information is one of a financial institution’s most important assets. Protection of infor-
mation assets is necessary to establish and maintain trust between the financial institution
and its customers, maintain compliance with the law, and protect the reputation of the
institution. Timely and reliable information is necessary to process transactions and sup-
port financial institution and customer decisions. A financial institution’s earnings and
capital can be adversely affected if information becomes known to unauthorized parties,
is altered, or is not available when it is needed.
Information security is the process by which an organization protects and secures its sys-
tems, media, and facilities that process and maintain information vital to its operations.
On a broad scale, the financial institution industry has a primary role in protecting the
nation’s financial services infrastructure. The security of the industry’s systems and in-
formation is essential to its safety and soundness and to the privacy of customer financial
information. Individual financial institutions and their service providers must maintain
effective security programs adequate for their operational complexity. These security
programs must have strong board and senior management level support, integration of
security activities and controls throughout the organization’s business processes, and
clear accountability for carrying out security responsibilities. This booklet provides
guidance to examiners and organizations on assessing the level of security risks to the
organization and evaluating the adequacy of the organization’s risk management.
Organizations often inaccurately perceive information security as the state or condition of
controls at a point in time. Security is an ongoing process, whereby the condition of a
financial institution’s controls is just one indicator of its overall security posture. Other
indicators include the ability of the institution to continually assess its posture and react
appropriately in the face of rapidly changing threats, technologies, and business condi-
tions. A financial institution establishes and maintains truly effective information secu-
rity when it continuously integrates processes, people, and technology to mitigate risk in
accordance with risk assessment and acceptable risk tolerance levels. Financial institu-
tions protect their information by instituting a security process that identifies risks, forms
a strategy to manage the risks, implements the strategy, tests the implementation, and
monitors the environment to control the risks.
Financial institutions may outsource some or all of their information processing. Exam-
iners may use this booklet when evaluating the financial institution’s risk management
process, including the duties, obligations, and responsibilities of the service provider for
information security and the oversight exercised by the financial institution.

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COORDINATION WITH GLBA SECTION 501(B)

Member agencies of the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) im-
plemented section 501(b) of the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA) 1 by defining
a process-based approach to security in the “Interagency Guidelines Establishing Infor-
mation Security Standards” (501(b) guidelines) . The 501(b) guidelines afford the FFIEC
agencies 2 (agencies) enforcement options if financial institutions do not establish and
maintain adequate information security programs. This booklet follows the same proc-
ess-based approach, applies it to various aspects of the financial institution’s operations
and all related data, and serves as a supplement to the agencies’ GLBA 501(b) expecta-
tions.

SECURITY OBJECTIVES
Information security enables a financial institution to meet its business objectives by im-
plementing business systems with due consideration of information technology (IT)-
related risks to the organization, business and trading partners, technology service pro-
viders, and customers. Organizations meet this goal by striving to accomplish the follow-
ing objectives. 3
ƒ Availability—The ongoing availability of systems addresses the processes,
policies, and controls used to ensure authorized users have prompt access
to information. This objective protects against intentional or accidental at-
tempts to deny legitimate users access to information or systems.
ƒ Integrity of Data or Systems—System and data integrity relate to the proc-
esses, policies, and controls used to ensure information has not been al-
tered in an unauthorized manner and that systems are free from unauthor-
ized manipulation that will compromise accuracy, completeness, and reli-
ability.
ƒ Confidentiality of Data or Systems—Confidentiality covers the processes,
policies, and controls employed to protect information of customers and
the institution against unauthorized access or use.
ƒ Accountability—Clear accountability involves the processes, policies, and
controls necessary to trace actions to their source. Accountability directly
supports non-repudiation, deterrence, intrusion prevention, security moni-
toring, recovery, and legal admissibility of records.
ƒ Assurance—Assurance addresses the processes, policies, and controls
used to develop confidence that technical and operational security meas-
ures work as intended. Assurance levels are part of the system design and

1
See Appendix C for a listing of laws, regulations, and agency guidance.
2
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve Board), Federal Deposit Insurance Corpo-
ration (FDIC), National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC),
and Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS).
3
Underlying Models for IT Security, NIST, SP800-33, p. 2.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

include availability, integrity, confidentiality, and accountability. Assur-

ance highlights the notion that secure systems provide the intended func-
tionality while preventing undesired actions.
Integrity and accountability combine to produce what is known as non-repudiation. Non-
repudiation occurs when the financial institution demonstrates that the originators who
initiated the transaction are who they say they are, the recipient is the intended counter
party, and no changes occurred in transit or storage. Non-repudiation can reduce fraud
and promote the legal enforceability of electronic agreements and transactions. While
non-repudiation is a goal and is conceptually clear, the manner in which non-repudiation
can be achieved for electronic systems in a practical, legal sense may have to wait for fur-
ther judicial clarification. 4

REGULATORY GUIDANCE, RESOURCES, AND

STANDARDS
Financial institutions developing or reviewing their information security controls, poli-
cies, procedures, or processes have a variety of sources upon which to draw. First, fed-
eral laws and regulations address security, and regulators have issued numerous security
related guidance documents. 5 Institutions also have a number of third-party or security
industry resources to draw upon for guidance, including outside auditors, consulting
firms, insurance companies, and information security professional organizations. In addi-
tion, many national and international standard-setting organizations are working to define
information security standards and best practices for electronic commerce. While no
formal industry accepted security standards exist, these various standards provide
benchmarks that both financial institutions and their regulators can draw upon for the de-
velopment of industry expectations and security practices. Some standard-setting groups
include the following organizations:
ƒ The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) at
www.nist.gov;
ƒ The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Information
technology at www.iso.ch with specific standards such as
- The code of practice for information security management (ISO/IEC
17799) and
- Information technology—Security techniques—Evaluation criteria for
IT security (ISO/IEC 15408); and
ƒ The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA)—
Control Objectives for Information Technology (COBIT), at
www.isaca.org/cobit.htm.

4
The federal E-Sign Act, 15 USC 7001, et seq., does not resolve this issue.
5
See Appendix B for a listing of laws, regulations, and agency guidance. See also the FFIEC IT Examination
Handbook series of booklets, of which this booklet is a part.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

SECURITY PROCESS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should implement an ongoing security process
and institute appropriate governance for the security function, as-
signing clear and appropriate roles and responsibilities to the board
of directors, management, and employees.

OVERVIEW
The security process is the method an organization uses to implement and achieve its se-
curity objectives. The process is designed to identify, measure, manage, and control the
risks to system and data availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and to ensure account-
ability for system actions. The process includes five areas that serve as the framework
for this booklet:
ƒ Information Security Risk Assessment—A process to identify and assess
threats, vulnerabilities, attacks, probabilities of occurrence, and outcomes.
ƒ Information Security Strategy—A plan to mitigate risk that integrates
technology, policies, procedures, and training. The plan should be re-
viewed and approved by the board of directors.
ƒ Security Controls Implementation—The acquisition and operation of tech-
nology, the specific assignment of duties and responsibilities to managers
and staff, the deployment of risk-appropriate controls, and the assurance
that management and staff understand their responsibilities and have the
knowledge, skills, and motivation necessary to fulfill their duties.
ƒ Security Monitoring—The use of various methodologies to gain assurance
that risks are appropriately assessed and mitigated. These methodologies
should verify that significant controls are effective and performing as in-
tended.
ƒ Security Process Monitoring and Updating—The process of continuously
gathering and analyzing information regarding new threats and vulner-
abilities, actual attacks on the institution or others combined with the ef-
fectiveness of the existing security controls. This information is used to
update the risk assessment, strategy, and controls. Monitoring and updat-
ing makes the process continuous instead of a one-time event.
Security risk variables include threats, vulnerabilities, attack techniques, the expected
frequency of attacks, financial institution operations and technology, and the financial

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

institution’s defensive posture. All of these variables change constantly. Therefore, an

institution’s management of the risks requires an ongoing process.

GOVERNANCE
Governance is achieved through the management structure, assignment of responsibilities
and authority, establishment of policies, standards and procedures, allocation of re-
sources, monitoring, and accountability. Governance is required to ensure that tasks are
completed appropriately, that accountability is maintained, and that risk is managed for
the entire enterprise. Although all aspects of institutional governance are important to the
maintenance of a secure environment, this booklet will speak to those aspects that are
unique to information security. This section will address the management structure, re-
sponsibilities, and accountability

MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
Information security is a significant business risk that demand engagement of the Board
of Directors and senior business management. It is the responsibility of everyone who
has the opportunity to control or report the institution’s data. Information security should
be supported throughout the institution, including the board of directors, senior manage-
ment, information security officers, employees, auditors, service providers, and contrac-
tors. Each role has different responsibilities for information security and each individual
should be accountable for his or her actions. Accountability requires clear lines of report-
ing, clear communication of expectations, and the delegation and judicious use of appro-
priate authority to bring about appropriate compliance with the institution’s policies,
standards, and procedures.

RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

The board of directors, or an appropriate committee of the board, is responsible for over-
seeing the development, implementation, and maintenance of the institution’s informa-
tion security program, and making senior management accountable for its actions. Over-
sight requires the board to provide management with guidance; approve information se-
curity plans, policies and programs; and review reports on the effectiveness of the infor-
mation security program. The board should provide management with its expectations
and requirements and hold management accountable for
ƒ Central oversight and coordination,
ƒ Assignment of responsibility,
ƒ Risk assessment and measurement,
ƒ Monitoring and testing,
ƒ Reporting, and
ƒ Acceptable residual risk.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

The board should approve written information security policies and the written report on
the effectiveness of the information security program at least annually. A written report
to the board should describe the overall status of the information security program. At a
minimum, the report should address the results of the risk assessment process; risk man-
agement and control decisions; service provider arrangements; results of security moni-
toring and testing; security breaches or violations and management’s responses; and rec-
ommendations for changes to the information security program. The annual approval
should consider the results of management assessments and reviews, internal and external
audit activity related to information security, third-party reviews of the information secu-
rity program and information security measures, and other internal or external reviews
designed to assess the adequacy of information security controls.
Senior management’s attitude towards security affects the entire organization’s commit-
ment to security. For example, the failure of a financial institution president to comply
with security policies could undermine the entire organization’s commitment to security.
Senior management should
ƒ Clearly support all aspects of the information security program;
ƒ Implement the information security program as approved by the board of
directors;
ƒ Establish appropriate policies, procedures, and controls;
ƒ Participate in assessing the effect of security issues on the financial institu-
tion and its business lines and processes;
ƒ Delineate clear lines of responsibility and accountability for information
security risk management decisions;
ƒ Define risk measurement definitions and criteria;
ƒ Establish acceptable levels of information security risks; and
ƒ Oversee risk mitigation activities.
Senior management should designate one or more individuals as information security of-
ficers. Security officers should be responsible and accountable for administration of the
security program. At a minimum, they should directly manage or oversee the risk as-
sessment process, development of policies, standards, and procedures, testing, and secu-
rity reporting processes. To ensure appropriate segregation of duties, the information se-
curity officers should report directly to the board or to senior management and have suf-
ficient independence to perform their assigned tasks. Typically, the security officers
should be risk managers and not a production resource assigned to the information tech-
nology department.
Security officers should have the authority to respond to a security event 6 by ordering
emergency actions to protect the financial institution and its customers from an imminent

6
A security event occurs when the confidentiality, integrity, availability, or accountability of an information
system is compromised.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

loss of information or value. They should have sufficient knowledge, background, and
training, as well as an organizational position, to enable them to perform their assigned
tasks.
Senior management should enforce its security program by clearly communicating re-
sponsibilities and holding appropriate individuals accountable for complying with these
requirements. A central authority should be responsible for establishing and monitoring
the security program. Security management responsibilities, however, may be distributed
to various lines of business depending on the institution’s size, complexity, culture, na-
ture of operations, and other factors. The distribution of duties should ensure an appro-
priate segregation of duties between individuals or organizational groups.
Senior management also has the responsibility to ensure integration of security controls
throughout the organization. To support integration, senior management should
ƒ Ensure the security process is governed by organizational policies and
practices that are consistently applied,
ƒ Require that data with similar criticality and sensitivity characteristics be
protected consistently regardless of where in the organization it resides,
ƒ Enforce compliance with the security program in a balanced and consis-
tent manner across the organization,
ƒ Coordinate information security with physical security, and
ƒ Ensure an effective information security awareness program has been im-
plemented throughout the organization.
Senior management should make decisions regarding the acceptance of security risks and
the performance of risk mitigation activities using guidance approved by the board of di-
rectors. Those decisions should be incorporated into the institution’s policies, standards,
and procedures.
Employees should know, understand, and be held accountable for fulfilling their security
responsibilities. Institutions should define these responsibilities in their security policy.
Job descriptions or contracts should specify any additional security responsibilities be-
yond the general policies. Financial institutions can achieve effective employee aware-
ness and understanding through security training and ongoing security-related communi-
cations, employee certifications of compliance, self-assessments, audits, and monitoring.
Internal auditors should pursue their risk-based audit program to ensure appropriate poli-
cies and procedures and the adequacy of implementation, and issue appropriate reports to
the Board of Directors. For more information, refer to the “Audit” booklet in the FFIEC
IT Examination Handbook.
Management also should consider and monitor the roles and responsibilities of external
parties. The security responsibilities of technology service providers (TSPs), contractors,
customers, and others who have access to the institution’s systems and data should be
clearly delineated and documented in contracts. Appropriate reporting mechanisms
should be in place to allow management to make judgments as to the fulfillment of those

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

responsibilities. Finally, sufficient controls should be included in the contract to enable

management to enforce contractual requirements. For more information, refer to the
“Outsourcing Technology Services” booklet in the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

INFORMATION SECURITY RISK

ASSESSMENT

Action Summary
Financial institutions must maintain an ongoing information security
risk assessment program that effectively
ƒ Gathers data regarding the information and technology as-
sets of the organization, threats to those assets, vulnerabili-
ties, existing security controls and processes, and the current
security standards and requirements;
ƒ Analyzes the probability and impact associated with the
known threats and vulnerabilities to their assets; and
ƒ Prioritizes the risks present due to threats and vulnerabilities to
determine the appropriate level of training, controls, and as-
surance necessary for effective mitigation.

OVERVIEW
The quality of security controls can significantly influence all categories of risk. 7 Tradi-
tionally, examiners and institutions recognized the direct impact on opera-
tional/transaction risk from incidents related to fraud, theft, or accidental damage. Many
security weaknesses, however, can directly increase exposure in other risk areas. For ex-
ample, the GLBA introduced additional legal/compliance risk due to the potential for
regulatory noncompliance in safeguarding customer information. The potential for legal
liability related to customer privacy breaches may present additional risk. Effective ap-
plication access controls can strengthen credit and market risk management by enforcing
risk limits on loan officers or traders. For example, if a trader were to exceed the in-
tended trade authority, the institution may unknowingly assume additional market risk
exposure.
A strong security program reduces levels of reputation, operational, legal, and strategic
risk by limiting the institution’s vulnerability to intrusion attempts and maintaining cus-
tomer confidence and trust in the institution. Security concerns can quickly erode cus-

7
The various FFIEC agencies have different names for the various categories of risk. The Federal Reserve in-
cludes six types of risk, which are credit, market, liquidity, operational, legal, and reputational. The OCC in-
cludes nine types of risk which are credit, interest rate, liquidity, price, foreign exchange, transaction, compli-
ance, reputation, and strategic. This booklet uses the Federal Reserve categories with the addition of strategic
risk and the assumption that market risk includes interest rate risk, price risk, and foreign exchange risk.

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

tomer confidence and potentially decrease the adoption rate and rate of return on invest-
ment for strategically important products or services. Examiners and risk managers
should incorporate security issues into their risk assessment process for each risk cate-
gory. Financial institutions should ensure that security risk assessments adequately con-
sider potential risk in all business lines and risk categories.
Information security risk assessment is the process used to identify and understand risks
to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and information systems.
In its simplest form, a risk assessment consists of the identification and valuation of as-
sets and an analysis of those assets in relation to potential threats and vulnerabilities, re-
sulting in a ranking of risks to mitigate. The resulting information should be used to de-
velop strategies to mitigate those risks.
An adequate assessment identifies the value and sensitivity of information and system
components and then balances that knowledge with the exposure from threats and vulner-
abilities. A risk assessment is a pre-requisite to the formation of strategies that guide the
institution as it develops, implements, tests, and maintains its information systems secu-
rity posture. An initial risk assessment may involve a significant one-time effort, but the
risk assessment process should be an ongoing part of the information security program.
Risk assessments for most industries focus only on the risk to the business entity. Finan-
cial institutions must also consider the risk to their customers’ information. For example,
the 501(b) guidelines require financial institutions to “protect against unauthorized access
to or use of customer information that could result in substantial harm or inconvenience
to any customer.”

KEY STEPS
Common elements of risk assessment approaches involve three phases: information gath-
ering, analysis, and prioritizing responses. Vendor concerns add additional elements to
the process.

GATHER NECESSARY INFORMATION

An effective risk assessment should be based on a current and detailed knowledge of the
institution’s operating and business environments. Sufficient information should be ref-
erenced in the risk assessment to document a thorough understanding of these environ-
ments. Both technical and non-technical information should be gathered. Examples of
relevant technical information include network maps detailing internal and external con-
nectivity; hardware and software inventories; databases and files that contain critical
and/or confidential information; processing arrangements and interfaces with external
entities; hardware and software configurations; and policies, standards, and procedures
for the operation, maintenance, upgrading, and monitoring of technical systems.
Non-technical information that may be necessary includes the policies, standards, and
procedures addressing physical security (including facilities as well as information assets

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

that include loan documentation, deposit records and signature cards, and key and access
code lists), personnel security (including hiring background checks and behavior moni-
toring), vendor contracts, personnel security training and expertise, and insurance cover-
age. Additionally, information regarding control effectiveness should be gathered. Typi-
cally, that information comes from security monitoring, including self-assessments, met-
rics, and independent tests.

IDENTIFICATION OF INFORMATION AND INFORMATION

SYSTEMS
A risk assessment should include an identification of information and the information
systems to be protected, including electronic systems and physical components used to
access, store, transmit, protect, and eventually dispose of information. Information and
information systems can be both paper-based and electronic-based.
The institution’s analysis should include a system characterization and data flow analysis
of networks (where feasible), computer systems, connections to business partners and the
Internet, and the interconnections between internal and external systems. Some systems
and data stores may not be readily apparent. For example, backup tapes, portable com-
puters, personal digital assistants, media such as compact disks, micro drives, and disk-
ettes, and media used in software development and testing should be considered.
In identifying information and the information systems, it is important to understand how
the institution uses information in its day-to-day operations. For example, the risk as-
sessment should address employee access, use, and dissemination of information in re-
sponse to requests. Institutions should also consider how they store, transmit, transfer,
and dispose of media (paper or electronic) containing information, authorize and authen-
ticate those who receive information both physically and electronically, and how they
make information available for viewing.
A financial institution’s outsourcing strategy also should be considered in identifying
relevant data flows and information processing activities. The institution's system archi-
tecture diagram and related documentation should identify service provider relationships,
where and how data is passed between systems, and the relevant controls that are in
place.

ANALYZE THE INFORMATION

Classify and Rank Sensitive Data, Systems, and
Applications
Financial institutions should assess the relative importance of the various information
systems based on the nature of their function, the criticality of data they support, and the
sensitivity of data they store, transmit, or protect. When assessing the sensitivity of data,

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institutions should consider the increased risk posed to the institution from the aggrega-
tion of data elements.
Institutions may establish an information data classification program to identify and rank
data, systems, and applications in order of importance. Classifying data allows the insti-
tution to ensure consistent protection of information and other critical data throughout the
system. Classifying systems allows the institution to focus its controls and efforts in an
efficient and structured manner. Systems that store or transmit data of different sensitivi-
ties should be classified as if all data were at the highest sensitivity. Classification should
be based on a weighted composite of all relevant attributes.

Assess Threats and Vulnerabilities

Financial institutions should assess potential threats and vulnerabilities of their informa-
tion systems. Generally, this assessment is to determine which threats or vulnerabilities
deserve priority attention relative to the value of the information or information systems
being protected. Although threats and vulnerabilities need to be considered simultane-
ously, it is important to distinguish threats from vulnerabilities.
Threats are events that could cause harm to the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of
information or information systems. They can be characterized as the potential for agents
exploiting a vulnerability to cause harm through the unauthorized disclosure, misuse, al-
teration, or destruction of information or information systems. Threats can arise from a
wide variety of sources. Traditionally, the agents have been categorized as internal (mali-
cious or incompetent employees, contractors, service providers, and former insiders) and
external (criminals, recreational hackers, competitors, and terrorists). Each of the agents
identified may have different capabilities and motivations, which may require the use of
different risk mitigation and control techniques and the focus on different information
elements or systems. Natural and man-made disasters should also be considered as
agents.
Vulnerabilities can be characterized as weaknesses in a system, or control gaps that, if
exploited, could result in the unauthorized disclosure, misuse, alteration, or destruction of
information or information systems. Vulnerabilities are generally grouped into two types:
known and expected. Known vulnerabilities are discovered by testing or other reviews of
the environment, knowledge of policy weaknesses, knowledge of inadequate implemen-
tations, and knowledge of personnel issues. Adequate and timely testing is essential to
identify many of these vulnerabilities. Inadequate or untimely testing may critically
weaken the risk assessment.
Expected vulnerabilities to consider are those that can reasonably be anticipated to arise
in the future. Examples may include unpatched software, new and unique attack meth-
odologies that bypass current controls, employee and contractor failures to perform secu-
rity duties satisfactorily, personnel turnover resulting in less experienced and knowledge-
able staff, new technology introduced with security flaws, and failure to comply with
policies and procedures. Although some vulnerabilities may exist only for a short time

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 Information Security Booklet – July 2006

until they are corrected, the risk assessment should consider the risk posed for the time
period the vulnerability might exist.
Financial institutions should analyze through scenarios the probability of different threat
agents causing damage. These scenarios should consider the financial institution’s busi-
ness strategy, quality of its control environment, and its own experience, or the experi-
ence of other institutions and entities, with respect to information security failures. The
assignment of probabilities by the financial institution should be appropriate for the size
and complexity of the institution. Simple approaches (e.g., probable, highly possible,
possible, and unlikely) are generally sufficient for smaller, non-complex, financial insti-
tutions.
Business lines should also analyze the potential damage, or impact, of a threat agent’s
action. Impact can be measured in terms of data integrity, confidentiality, and availabil-
ity of information; costs associated with finding, fixing, repairing, and restoring a system;
lost productivity; financial losses; and other issues affecting the institution’s operations,
and reputation.
Many analytical methods may be used to arrive at the likelihood and impact of a threat
agent’s action. Methods fall into two general categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative methods involve assigning numerical measurements that can be entered into
the analysis to determine total and residual risks. Measurements may include costs to
safeguard the information and information systems, value of that information and those
systems, threat frequency and probability, and the effectiveness of controls. Techniques
may include manual or automated data analysis to provide measurement of the potential
damage in relation to the controls. A shortcoming of quantitative methods is a lack of
reliable and predictive data on threat frequency and probability, and the future reliability
and performance of the control structure. That shortcoming is typically addressed by as-
signing numeric values based on qualitative judgments.
Qualitative analysis involves the use of scenarios and attempts to determine the serious-
ness of threats and the effectiveness of controls. Qualitative analysis is by definition sub-
jective, relying upon judgment, knowledge, prior experience, and industry information.
Qualitative techniques may include walk-throughs, storyboarding, surveys, question-
naires, interviews, and workgroups to obtain information about the various scenarios.
Each identified threat should be analyzed to determine potential severity and loss against
the effectiveness of the existing control structure.

Evaluate Control Effectiveness

The institution should identify controls that will mitigate the impact or likelihood of each
identified threat agent exploiting a specific vulnerability. Controls are generally catego-
rized by timing (preventive, detective, or corrective) or nature (administrative, technical,
or physical). The evaluation should recognize the unique control environment of the in-
stitution, and evaluate the effectiveness of that environment in responding to the threats
arrayed against it. The evaluation should address the controls that prevent harm as well

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as those that detect harm and correct damage that occurs. Preventive controls act to limit
the likelihood of a threat agent succeeding. Detective and corrective controls are essen-
tial to identify harmful actions as they occur, to facilitate their termination, and to reduce
damage.
Controls should not be assumed to be completely effective. Measures of control effec-
tiveness can be obtained from a well-planned and executed security monitoring program.
Self-assessments, metrics, and independent tests may address compliance with existing
controls and the adequacy of those controls. A well-planned and executed security moni-
toring program is sound industry practice and should be based on an assessment of the
risk of non-compliance or circumvention of the institution’s controls.
The evaluation of controls should also encompass the risks to information held and proc-
essed by service providers. An institution’s contract with the service provider should
contain language that establishes standards the service provider should meet and provide
for periodic reporting against those standards. The contract should include a provision
for the independent review of internal controls at service providers and vendors, require
that timely action be taken to address identified vulnerabilities, and require a reporting to
the institution of the review, its findings, and the actions taken in response to the findings.
The report should be sufficient to enable the institution to evaluate contract compliance
and to assess risk.
The evaluation of controls should include a review of the relevant physical access con-
trols — including access to records, equipment, and financial institution and data center
facilities — and provide an assessment of potential vulnerabilities to a physical attack or
other disaster. Reviews should be comprehensive and address all data and facilities, in-
cluding remote facilities. Because the risk from many threat scenarios may be mitigated
by physical as well as other controls, the physical control evaluation is an integral part of
the overall scenario evaluation.

ASSIGN RISK RATINGS

After completing the inventory of information and systems, assessing the likelihood and
exposure of identified threats and vulnerabilities, and evaluating control effectiveness, the
institution should assign risk ratings to the information and information systems. The key
to assigning risk ratings is to organize the information and information systems within a
logical framework.
The framework should recognize that not all threats and risks are equal and acknowledge
that financial institutions have finite managerial and financial resources. As with credit
or interest rate risk, reasonably foreseeable risks should be prioritized and rated according
to the sensitivity and importance of the information.
The probability or likelihood of an event occurring, and the impact the event would have
on a financial institution should be considered in determining the appropriate risk rating
for information. The probability of an event occurring, and its impact on the institution,

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is directly influenced by a financial institution’s business profile and the effectiveness of

its controls. Typically, the result is expressed in differing levels of risk, for example,
“High,” “Medium,” or “Low” ratings. The specific risk rating is judgmentally deter-
mined and assigned in relation to the level of exposure and the threat likelihood, taking
into consideration the adequacy of related internal controls. Where controls are inade-
quate or found not to exist, the risk assessment should include an action plan to improve
the controls.
Once the risks associated with threats and vulnerabilities have been assessed, probabili-
ties assigned, and risks rated, risks should be segregated into those the financial institu-
tion is willing to accept and those that should be mitigated. Guidance from the board of
directors should be used for that segregation. Once the institution identifies the risks to
mitigate, it can begin to develop its risk mitigation strategy.

KEY RISK ASSESSMENT PRACTICES

A risk assessment is the key driver of the information security process. Its effectiveness
is directly related to the following key practices:
ƒ Multidisciplinary and Knowledge Based Approach—A consensus evaluation of
the risks and risk mitigation practices requires the involvement of users with a
broad range of expertise and business knowledge. Not all users may have the
same opinion of the severity of various attacks, the importance of various con-
trols, and the importance of various data elements and information system com-
ponents. Management should apply a sufficient level of expertise to the assess-
ment.
ƒ Systematic and Central Control—Defined procedures and central control and
coordination help to ensure standardization, consistency, and completeness of risk
assessment policies and procedures, as well as coordination in planning and per-
formance. Central control and coordination will also facilitate an organizational
view of risks and lessons learned from the risk assessment process.
ƒ Integrated Process—A risk assessment provides a foundation for the remainder
of the security process by guiding the selection and implementation of security
controls and the timing and nature of testing those controls. Testing results, in
turn, provide evidence to the risk assessment process that the controls selected
and implemented are achieving their intended purpose. Testing can also validate
the basis for accepting risks.
ƒ Accountable Activities—The responsibility for performing risk assessments
should reside primarily with members of management in the best position to de-
termine the scope of the assessment and the effectiveness of risk reduction tech-
niques. For a mid-sized or large institution, those managers will likely be in the
business unit. The information security officer(s) is (are) responsible for oversee-
ing the performance of each risk assessment and the integration of the risk as-
sessments into a cohesive whole. Senior management is accountable for abiding
by the board of directors' guidance for risk acceptance and mitigation decisions.

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ƒ Documentation—Documentation of the risk assessment process and procedures

assists in ensuring consistency and completeness as well as accountability. This
documentation provides a useful starting point for subsequent assessments, poten-
tially reducing the effort required in those assessments. Decisions to mitigate or
accept risk should be documented in order to achieve accountability for risk deci-
sions.
ƒ Enhanced Knowledge—Risk assessment increases management’s knowledge of
the institution’s mechanisms for storing, processing, and communicating informa-
tion, as well as the importance of those mechanisms to the achievement of the in-
stitution’s objectives. Increased knowledge allows management to respond more
rapidly to changes in the environment. Those changes can range from new tech-
nologies and threats to regulatory requirements.
ƒ Regular Updates—Risk assessments should be updated as new information af-
fecting information security risks is identified (e.g., a new threat, vulnerability,
adverse test result, hardware change, software change, or configuration change).
At least once a year, senior management should review the entire risk assessment
to ensure relevant information is appropriately considered.

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INFORMATION SECURITY
STRATEGY

Action Summary
Financial institutions should develop a strategy that defines control
objectives and establishes an implementation plan. The security
strategy should include
ƒ Appropriate consideration of prevention, detection, and re-
sponse mechanisms,
ƒ Implementation of the least permissions and least privileges
concepts,
ƒ Layered controls that establish multiple control points be-
tween threats and organization assets, and
ƒ Policies that guide officers and employees in implementing
the security program.

An information security strategy is a plan to mitigate risks while complying with legal,
statutory, contractual, and internally developed requirements. Typical steps to building a
strategy include the definition of control objectives, the identification and assessment of
approaches to meet the objectives, the selection of controls, the establishment of bench-
marks and metrics, and the preparation of implementation and testing plans.
The selection of controls is typically grounded in a cost comparison of different strategic
approaches to risk mitigation. The cost comparison typically contrasts the costs of vari-
ous approaches with the potential gains a financial institution could realize in terms of
increased confidentiality, availability, or integrity of systems and data. Those gains could
include reduced financial losses, increased customer confidence, positive audit findings,
and regulatory compliance. Any particular approach should consider: (1) policies, stan-
dards, and procedures; (2) technology design; (3) resource dedication; (4) training; and
(5) testing.
For example, an institution’s management may be assessing the proper strategic approach
to the security monitoring of activities for an Internet environment. Two potential ap-
proaches are identified for evaluation. The first approach uses a combination of network
and host sensors with a staffed monitoring center. The second approach consists of daily
access log review. The former alternative is judged much more capable of detecting an
attack in time to minimize any damage to the institution and its data, albeit at a much
greater cost. The added cost is entirely appropriate when customer data and institution

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processing capabilities are exposed to an attack, such as in an Internet banking environ-

ment. The latter approach may be appropriate when the primary risk is reputational dam-
age, such as when the only information being protected is an information-only Web site,
and the Web site is not connected to other financial institution systems.

KEY CONCEPTS
Security requires the integration of people, process, and technology. Each of the three
components should be managed considering the capabilities and limitations of the other
components. When the components are considered in total, they should provide for ade-
quate overall risk mitigation.
Security strategies include prevention, detection, and response, and all three are needed
for a comprehensive and robust security framework. Typically, security strategies focus
most resources on prevention. Prevention addresses the likelihood of harm. Detection
and response are generally used to limit damage once a security breech has occurred.
Weaknesses in prevention may be offset by strengths in detection and response.
Security strategies should establish limitations on access and limitations on the ability to
perform unauthorized actions. Those limitations derive from concepts known as security
domains, least permissions, and least privileges.
The creation of security domains involves designing a network so that users and network
resources are grouped in a logical or physical manner, and control sets are established to
mitigate the risks relevant to each individual domain. At the network level, connectivity
between network areas may be disabled, or tightly controlled through perimeters. Tools
could include firewalls, virtual local area networks (VLANs), router access control lists
(ACLs), and directories. The tools allow for restrictions on access and authorizations at
the network and application layers.
The concepts of least permissions and least privileges are used to provide functionality
while limiting potentially harmful actions. They generally involve restricting authoriza-
tions at the network, server, and client level. For example, a user could be allowed access
to only certain network resources and denied access to others. A user could be allowed
access to some program functions or file areas and not allowed access to others. A pro-
gram could be allowed access to some of a computer’s or network’s resources and disal-
lowed access to others. Authorization for users most often is managed by assigning a
user to a group, and granting permissions to the group.
Financial institutions should design multiple layers of security controls to establish sev-
eral lines of defense between the attacker and the asset being attacked. 8 The layers
should be at multiple control points throughout the communication and transactional flow

8
An Internet security example of this concept may involve the following configuration: a packet filtering router
with strict access control rules, in front of an application level firewall, in front of Web servers, in front of a
transactional server, in front of a database server, with intrusion detection systems located at various points be-
tween the servers and on certain hosts.

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and should include both systems and manual processes. To successfully attack an asset,
each layer must be penetrated. With each penetration, the probability of detecting the
attacker increases.

ARCHITECTURE CONSIDERATIONS
Financial institutions can gain valuable insights into the development of a security archi-
tecture and the integration of that architecture into their other technology processes by
referencing one or more widely recognized technology standards. Examples of the stan-
dards include
ƒ Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology (COBIT) –
provides a broad and deep framework for controls.
ƒ IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL) – provides a list of recognized practices
for IT service management.
ƒ ISO 17799 – provides a library of possible controls that can be included in
an architecture and guidance in control selection.
ƒ BITS (Bank Information Technology Secretariat) and other industry pub-
lications for discrete controls, such as vendor management.
Primary considerations in a network security architecture are the policies, standards, and
procedures employed as a part of the governance structure and the technology design.
Other considerations are the necessary resources, personnel training, and testing. Each
should be appropriate for the size and complexity of the institution and sufficiently flexi-
ble to allow for timely and necessary updates to keep pace with changes in technology
and the overall environment.

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Policies are the primary embodiment of strategy, guiding decisions made by users, ad-
ministrators, and managers and informing those individuals of their security responsibili-
ties. Policies also specify the mechanisms through which responsibilities can be met, and
provide guidance in acquiring, configuring, and auditing information systems.
Key actions that contribute to the success of a security policy are
ƒ Implementing through ordinary means, such as system administration pro-
cedures and acceptable-use policies;
ƒ Enforcing policy through security tools and sanctions;
ƒ Delineating the areas of responsibility for users, administrators, and man-
agers;
ƒ Communicating in a clear, understandable manner to all concerned;
ƒ Obtaining employee certification that they have read and understood the
policy;
ƒ Providing flexibility to address changes in the environment; and

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ƒ Conducting annually a review and approval by the board of directors.

Institutions are required to establish an information security program that meets the re-
quirements of the 501(b) guidelines. Information security polices and procedures are
some of the institution’s measures and means by which the objectives of the information
security program are achieved.

TECHNOLOGY DESIGN
A financial institution can significantly mitigate the risk of security events by an appro-
priate technology design that provides for effective network-level monitoring, limits an
intruder’s ability to traverse the network, offers the minimum level of services required
for business needs, and is updated in a timely manner to mitigate newly discovered vul-
nerabilities.
An effective means of accomplishing those goals is through the use of security domains.
A security domain is a part of the system with its own policies and control mechanisms.
Security domains for a network are typically constructed from routing controls and direc-
tories.
Domains constructed from routing controls may be bounded by network perimeters with
perimeter controls. The perimeters separate what is not trusted from what may be trust-
worthy. The perimeters serve as well-defined transition points between trust areas where
policy enforcement and monitoring takes place. An example of such a domain is a de-
militarized zone (DMZ), bounded by a perimeter that controls access from outside and
inside the institution.
Domains constructed from directories may limit access to network resources and applica-
tions based on role or function. Directory-driven domains may allow access to different
network-driven domains. For example, a network management domain may use the same
cabling and network interface cards as other domains, allow access to all computing de-
vices in all domains, but limit the allowed access based on the user’s role or function.
The selection of where to put which control is a function of the risk assessment. Institu-
tions generally should establish defenses that address the network and application layers
at external connections, whether from the Internet or service providers. Internally, pe-
rimeters can be established at higher-risk security domains, such as wire transfer, and to
segregate at a network level those areas of the institution that work with customer infor-
mation from other areas. Internal perimeters also may be used to create security domains
based on geography or other logical or physical separations.
Hosts may also include security perimeters. Those perimeters are enforced through au-
thorizations for users and programs. The authorizations can be a part of applications, the
file system, and the operating system.

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OUTSOURCED SECURITY SERVICES

Security services may be outsourced to obtain greater expertise, a greater range of ser-
vices, or to decrease cost. Should security services be outsourced, the institution retains
the same responsibilities for security as if those services were performed in-house. The
“Outsourcing Technology Servicing” booklet in the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook,
provides additional information relevant to outsourcing.
Institutions should ensure they have sufficient expertise to oversee and manage an out-
sourced security service relationship. The expertise applied to monitor the outsourced
security service relationship should be both contract-related, and security-related. The
contract-related oversight addresses contract compliance. The security-related oversight
entails understanding the scope and nature of the service sufficiently to identify and ap-
propriately react when the services provided are not at the level indicated in the service
level agreement, no longer appropriately coordinate with the security controls at the insti-
tution, or no longer provide the risk mitigation desired.
Institutions should monitor outsourced security service providers appropriate to the level
of risk to ensure the service provider fulfills its responsibilities. Monitoring tools include
reports from the service provider, independent reviews of the service provider’s perform-
ance, and independent tests of the service provided.

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SECURITY CONTROLS
IMPLEMENTATION
ACCESS CONTROL
The goal of access control is to allow access by authorized individuals and devices and to
disallow access to all others.
Authorized individuals may be employees, technology service provider (TSP) employees,
vendors, contractors, customers, or visitors. Access should be authorized and provided
only to individuals whose identity is established, and their activities should be limited to
the minimum required for business purposes.
Authorized devices are those whose placement on the network is approved in accordance
with institution policy. Change controls are typically used for devices inside the external
perimeter, and to configure institution devices to accept authorized connections from out-
side the perimeter.
An effective control mechanism includes numerous controls to safeguard and limits ac-
cess to key information system assets at all layers in the network stack. This section ad-
dresses logical and administrative controls, including access rights administration for in-
dividuals and network access issues. A subsequent section addresses physical security
controls.

ACCESS RIGHTS ADMINISTRATION

Action Summary
Financial institutions should have an effective process to administer
access rights. The process should include:
ƒ Assigning users and devices only the access required to per-
form their required functions,
ƒ Updating access rights based on personnel or system
changes,
ƒ Reviewing periodically users’ access rights at an appropriate
frequency based on the risk to the application or system, and
ƒ Designing appropriate acceptable-use policies and require
users to agree to them in writing.

System devices, programs, and data are system resources. Each system resource may
need to be accessed by individuals (users) in order for work to be performed. Access be-
yond the minimum required for work to be performed exposes the institution’s systems

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and information to a loss of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Accordingly, the

goal of access rights administration is to identify and restrict access to any particular sys-
tem resource to the minimum required for work to be performed. The financial institu-
tion’s security policy should address access rights to system resources and how those
rights are to be administered.
Management and information system administrators should critically evaluate informa-
tion system access privileges and establish access controls to prevent unwarranted access.
Access rights should be based upon the needs of the applicable user to carry out legiti-
mate and approved activities on the financial institution’s information systems. Policies,
procedures, and criteria need to be established for both the granting of appropriate access
rights and for the purpose of establishing those legitimate activities.
Formal access rights administration for users consists of four processes:
ƒ An enrollment process to add new users to the system;
ƒ An authorization process to add, delete, or modify authorized user access
to operating systems, applications, directories, files, and specific types of
information;
ƒ An authentication process to identify the user during subsequent activities;
and
ƒ A monitoring process to oversee and manage the access rights granted to
each user on the system.
The enrollment process establishes the user’s identity and anticipated business needs for
information and systems. New employees, IT outsourcing relationships, and contractors
may also be identified, and the business need for access determined during the hiring or
contracting process.
During enrollment and thereafter, an authorization process determines user access rights.
In certain circumstances the assignment of access rights may be performed only after the
manager responsible for each accessed resource approves the assignment and documents
the approval. In other circumstances, the assignment of rights may be established by the
employee’s role or group membership, and managed by pre-established authorizations for
that group. Customers, on the other hand, may be granted access based on their relation-
ship with the institution.
Authorization for privileged access should be tightly controlled. Privileged access refers
to the ability to override system or application controls. Good practices for controlling
privileged access include
ƒ Identifying each privilege associated with each system component,
ƒ Implementing a process to allocate privileges and allocating those privi-
leges either on a need-to-use or an event-by-event basis,
ƒ Documenting the granting and administrative limits on privileges,
ƒ Finding alternate ways of achieving the business objectives,

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ƒ Assigning privileges to a unique user ID apart from the one used for nor-
mal business use,
ƒ Logging and auditing the use of privileged access,
ƒ Reviewing privileged access rights at appropriate intervals and regularly
reviewing privilege access allocations, 9 and
ƒ Prohibiting shared privileged access by multiple users.
The access rights process programs the system to allow the users only the access rights
they were granted. Since access rights do not automatically expire or update, periodic
updating and review of access rights on the system is necessary. Updating should occur
when an individual’s business needs for system use changes. Many job changes can re-
sult in an expansion or reduction of access rights. Job events that would trigger a re-
moval of access rights include transfers, resignations, and terminations. When these job
events occur, institutions should take particular care to promptly remove the access rights
for users who have remote access privileges, access to customer information, and perform
administration functions for the institution’s systems.
Because updating may not always be accurate, periodic review of user accounts is a good
control to test whether the access right removal processes are functioning and whether
users exist who should have their rights rescinded or reduced. Financial institutions
should review access rights on a schedule commensurate with risk.10
Access rights to new software and hardware present a unique problem. Typically, hard-
ware and software are shipped with default users, with at least one default user having
full access rights. Easily obtainable lists of popular software exist that identify the de-
fault users and passwords, enabling anyone with access to the system to obtain the default
user’s access. Default user accounts should either be disabled, or the authentication to
the account should be changed. Additionally, access to these default accounts should be
monitored more closely than other accounts.
Sometimes software installs with a default account that allows anonymous access.
Anonymous access is appropriate, for instance, where the general public accesses an in-
formational Web server. Systems that allow access to or store sensitive information, in-
cluding customer information, should be protected against anonymous access.
The access rights process also constrains user activities through an acceptable-use policy
(AUP). Users who can access internal systems typically are required to agree to an AUP
before using a system. An AUP details the permitted system uses and user activities and
the consequences of noncompliance. AUPs can be created for all categories of system
users, from internal programmers to customers. An AUP is a key control for user aware-
ness and administrative policing of system activities. Examples of AUP elements for in-
ternal network and stand-alone users include

9
See ISO17799, 9.2.4
10
ISO17799, 9.2.4 requires reviews at six month intervals.

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ƒ The specific access devices that can be used to access the network;
ƒ Hardware and software changes the user can make to their access device;
ƒ The purpose and scope of network activity;
ƒ Network services that can be used and those that cannot be used;
ƒ Information that is allowable and not allowable for transmission using
each allowable service;
ƒ Bans on attempting to break into accounts, crack passwords, or disrupt
service;
ƒ Responsibilities for secure operation; and
ƒ Consequences of noncompliance.
Depending on the risk associated with the access, authorized internal users should gener-
ally receive a copy of the policy and appropriate training, and signify their understanding
and agreement with the policy before management grants access to the system.
Customers may be provided with a Web site disclosure as their AUP. Based on the na-
ture of the Web site, the financial institution may require customers to demonstrate
knowledge of and agreement to abide by the terms of the AUP. That evidence can be pa-
per based or electronic.
Authorized users may seek to extend their activities beyond what is allowed in the AUP,
and unauthorized users may seek to gain access to the system and move within the sys-
tem. Network security controls provide many of the protections necessary to guard
against those threats.

AUTHENTICATION

Action Summary
Financial institutions should use effective authentication methods
appropriate to the level of risk. Steps include
ƒ Selecting authentication mechanisms based on the risk asso-
ciated with the particular application or services;
ƒ Considering whether multi-factor authentication is appropri-
ate for each application, taking into account that multi-
factor authentication is increasingly necessary for many forms
of electronic banking and electronic payment activities; and
ƒ Encrypting the transmission and storage of authenticators
(e.g., passwords, personal identification numbers (PINs), digi-
tal certificates, and biometric templates).

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Authentication is the verification of identity by a system based on the presentation of

unique credentials to that system. The unique credentials are in the form of something
the user knows, something the user has, or something the user is. Those forms exist as
shared secrets, tokens, or biometrics. More than one form can be used in any authentica-
tion process. Authentication that relies on more than one form is called multi-factor au-
thentication and is generally stronger than any single-factor authentication method. Au-
thentication contributes to the confidentiality of data and the accountability of actions
performed on the system by verifying the unique identity of the system user.
Authentication over the Internet banking delivery channel presents unique challenges.
That channel does not benefit from physical security and controlled computing and com-
munications devices like internal local area networks (LANs), and is used by people
whose actions cannot be controlled by the institution. The agencies consider the use of
single-factor authentication in that environment, as the only control mechanism, to be in-
adequate for high-risk transactions involving access to customer information or the
movement of funds to other parties. Financial institutions should perform risk assess-
ments of their environment and, where the risk assessments indicate the use of single-
factor authentication is inadequate, the institutions should implement multi-factor authen-
tication, layered security, or other controls reasonably calculated to mitigate risk.
Authentication is not identification as that term is used in the USA PATRIOT Act
(31 USC 5318(l)). Authentication does not provide assurance that the initial identifica-
tion of a system user is proper. Procedures for the initial identification of a system user
are beyond the scope of this booklet.

Shared Secret Systems

Shared secret systems uniquely identify the user by matching knowledge on the system to
knowledge that only the system and user are expected to share. Examples are passwords,
pass phrases, or current transaction knowledge. A password is one string of characters
(e.g., “t0Ol@Tyme”). A pass phrase is typically a string of words or characters (e.g.,
“My car is a shepherd”) that the system may shorten to a smaller password by means of
an algorithm. Current transaction knowledge could be the account balance on the last
statement mailed to the user/customer. The strength of shared secret systems is related to
the lack of disclosure of and about the secret, the difficulty in guessing or discovering the
secret, and the length of time that the secret exists before it is changed.
A strong shared secret system only involves the user and the system in the generation of
the shared secret. In the case of passwords and pass phrases, the user should select them
without any assistance from any other user, such as the help desk. One exception is in
the creation of new accounts, where a temporary shared secret could be given to the user
for the first log-in, after which the system requires the user to create a different password.
Controls should prevent any user from re-using shared secrets that may have been com-
promised or were recently used by them.

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Passwords are the most common authentication mechanism. Passwords are generally
made difficult to guess when they are composed from a large character set, contain a
large number of characters, and are frequently changed. However, since hard-to-guess
passwords may be difficult to remember, users may take actions that weaken security,
such as writing the passwords down. Any password system must balance the password
strength with the user’s ability to maintain the password as a shared secret. When the
balancing produces a password that is not sufficiently strong for the application, a differ-
ent authentication mechanism should be considered. Pass phrases are one alternative to
consider. Due to their length, pass phrases are generally more resistant to attack than
passwords. The length, character set, and time before enforced change are important con-
trols for pass phrases as well as passwords.
Shared secret strength is typically assured through the use of automated tools that enforce
the password selection policy. Authentication systems should force changes to shared
secrets on a schedule commensurate with risk.
Passwords that are either not changed or changed infrequently are known as static pass-
words. While all passwords are subject to disclosure, static passwords are significantly
more vulnerable. An attacker can obtain a password through technical means and
through social engineering. Internet banking customers are targeted for such social engi-
neering through phishing attacks. Institution employees and contractors may be similarly
targeted. Static passwords are appropriate in systems whose data and connectivity is con-
sidered low risk, and in systems that employ effective compensating controls such as
physical protections, device authentication, mutual authentication, host security, user
awareness, and effective monitoring and rapid response.
Weaknesses in static password mechanisms generally relate to the ease with which an
attacker can discover the secret. Attack methods vary.
ƒ A keylogger or other monitoring device on the user’s computer may re-
cord shared secrets and transmit them to the attacker. Keyloggers and
other similar devices are an emerging problem for e-banking applications
because financial institutions do not control the customer’s computer.
Controls to protect against keyloggers include using different au-
thentication methods such as dynamic passwords.
ƒ A dictionary attack is one common and successful way to discover pass-
words. In a dictionary attack, the attacker obtains the system password
file and compares the password hashes against hashes of commonly used
passwords.
Controls against dictionary attacks include securing the password
file from compromise, detection mechanisms to identify a compro-
mise, heuristic 11 intrusion detection to detect differences in user be-
havior, and rapid reissuance of passwords should the password file
ever be compromised. While extensive character sets and storing
11
Behavior-based

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passwords as one-way hashes can slow down a dictionary attack,

those defensive mechanisms primarily buy the financial institution
time to identify and react to the password file compromises.
ƒ An additional attack method targets a specific account and submits pass-
words until the correct password is discovered.
Controls against these attacks are account lockout mechanisms,
which commonly lock out access to the account after a risk-based
number of failed login attempts. 12
ƒ A variation of the previous attack uses a popular password, and tries it
against a wide range of usernames.
Controls against this attack on the server are a high ratio of possible
passwords to usernames, randomly generated passwords, and scan-
ning the Internet protocol (IP) addresses of authentication requests
and client cookies for submission patterns.
ƒ Password guessing attacks also exist. These attacks generally consist of
an attacker gaining knowledge about the account holder and password
policies and using that knowledge to guess the password.
Controls include training in and enforcement of password policies
that make passwords difficult to guess. Such policies address the se-
crecy, length of the password, character set, prohibition against using
well-known user identifiers, and length of time before the password
must be changed. Users with greater authorization or privileges,
such as root users or administrators, should have longer, more com-
plex passwords than other users.
ƒ Some attacks depend on patience, waiting until the logged-in workstation
is unattended.
Controls include automatically logging the workstation out after a
period of inactivity 13 and heuristic intrusion detection.
ƒ Attacks can take advantage of automatic log-in features, allowing the at-
tacker to assume an authorized user’s identity merely by using a work-
station.
Controls include prohibiting and disabling automatic log-in features,
screensaver activation that requires user re-authentication, and heu-
ristic intrusion detection.
ƒ Users’ inadvertent or unthinking actions can compromise passwords. For
instance, when a password is too complex to readily memorize, the user
could write the password down but not secure the paper. Frequently, writ-
ten-down passwords are readily accessible to an attacker under mouse
pads or in other places close to the user’s machines. Additionally, attack-

12
Existing industry practice is no more than five access attempts for customer retail account access.
13
Existing industry practice is no more than 20-30 minutes but may be substantially less depending on the appli-
cation.

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ers frequently are successful in obtaining passwords by using social engi-

neering and tricking the user into giving up their password.
Controls include user training, heuristic intrusion detection, and sim-
pler passwords combined with another authentication mechanism.
ƒ Attacks can also become much more effective or damaging if different
network devices share the same or a similar password.
Controls include a policy that forbids the same or similar password
on particular network devices.
Passwords can also be dynamic. Dynamic passwords typically use seeds, 14 or starting
points, and algorithms to calculate a new shared secret for each access. Because each
password is used for only one access, dynamic passwords can provide significantly more
authentication strength than static passwords. In most cases, dynamic passwords are im-
plemented through tokens. A token is a physical device, such as an ATM card, smart
card, or other device that contains information used in the authentication process.

Token Systems
Token systems typically authenticate the token and assume that the user who was issued
the token is the one requesting access. One example is a token that generates dynamic
passwords after a set number of seconds. When prompted for a password, the user enters
the password generated by the token. The token’s password-generating system is identi-
cal and synchronized to that in the system, allowing the system to recognize the password
as valid. The strength of this system of authentication rests in the frequent changing of
the password and the inability of an attacker to guess the seed and password at any point
in time.
Another example of a token system uses a challenge/response mechanism. In this case,
the user identifies him/herself to the system, and the system returns a code to enter into
the password-generating token. The token and the system use identical logic and initial
starting points to separately calculate a new password. The user enters that password into
the system. If the system’s calculated password matches that entered by the user, the user
is authenticated. The strengths of this system are the frequency of password change and
the difficulty in guessing the challenge, seed, and password.
Other token methods involve multi-factor authentication, or the use of more than one au-
thentication method. For instance, an ATM card is a token. The magnetic strip on the
back of the card contains a code that is recognized in the authentication process. How-
ever, the user is not authenticated until he or she also provides a PIN, or shared secret.
This method is two-factor, using both something the user has and something the user
knows. Two-factor authentication is generally stronger than single-factor authentication.
This method can allow the institution to authenticate the user as well as the token.

14
A “seed” is a starting point for the dynamic password system. Shared starting points, timing, and logic be-
tween the token and the server allow password changes to synchronize between the two devices.

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Weaknesses in token systems relate to theft or loss of the token either during delivery to
the user or while in the possession of the user; ease in guessing any password-generating
algorithm within the token; ease of successfully forging any authentication credential that
unlocks the token; the reverse engineering, or cloning, of the token; and “man-in-the-
middle” attacks. Each of these weaknesses can be addressed through additional control
mechanisms. Token theft or loss generally is protected against by policies that require
prompt reporting and cancellation of the token’s ability to allow access to the system, and
monitoring of token delivery and use. Additionally, the impact of token theft is reduced
when the token is used in multi-factor authentication; for instance, the password from the
token is paired with a password known only by the user and the system. This pairing re-
duces the risk posed by token loss, while increasing the strength of the authentication
mechanism. Forged credentials are protected against by the same methods that protect
credentials in non-token systems. Protection against reverse engineering requires physi-
cal and logical security in token design. For instance, token designers can increase the
difficulty of opening a token without causing irreparable damage, or obtaining informa-
tion from the token either by passive scanning or active input/output. Man-in-the-middle
attacks can be protected against through the use of public key infrastructure (PKI).
Token systems can also incorporate public key infrastructure and biometrics.

Public Key Infrastructure

Public key infrastructure, if properly implemented and maintained, can provide a strong
means of authentication. By combining a variety of hardware components, system soft-
ware, policies, practices, and standards, PKI can provide for authentication, data integ-
rity, defenses against customer repudiation, and confidentiality. The system is based on
public key cryptography in which each user has a key pair—a unique electronic value
called a public key and a mathematically related private key. The public key is made
available to those who need to verify the user’s identity.
The private key is stored on the user’s computer or a separate device such as a smart card.
When the key pair is created with strong encryption algorithms and input variables, the
probability of deriving the private key from the public key is extremely remote. The pri-
vate key must be stored in encrypted text and protected with a password or PIN to avoid
compromise or disclosure. The private key is used to create an electronic identifier called
a digital signature that uniquely identifies the holder of the private key and can only be
authenticated with the corresponding public key.
The certificate authority (CA), which may be the financial institution or its service pro-
vider, plays a key role by attesting with a digital certificate that a particular public key
and the corresponding private key belongs to a specific user or system. It is important
when issuing a digital certificate that the registration process for initially verifying the
identity of users is adequately controlled. The CA attests to the individual user’s identity
by signing the digital certificate with its own private key, known as the root key. Each
time the user establishes a communication link with the financial institution’s systems, a

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digital signature is transmitted with a digital certificate. These electronic credentials en-
able the institution to determine that the digital certificate is valid, identify the individual
as a user, and confirm that transactions entered into the institution’s computer system
were performed by that user.
The user’s private key exists electronically and is susceptible to being copied over a net-
work as easily as any other electronic file. If it is lost or compromised, the user can no
longer be assured that messages will remain private or that fraudulent or erroneous trans-
actions would not be performed. User AUPs and training should emphasize the impor-
tance of safeguarding a private key and promptly reporting its compromise.
PKI minimizes many of the vulnerabilities associated with passwords because it does not
rely on shared secrets to authenticate customers, its electronic credentials are difficult to
compromise, and user credentials cannot be stolen from a central server. 15 The primary
drawback of a PKI authentication system is that it is more complicated and costly to im-
plement than user names and passwords. Whether the financial institution acts as its own
CA or relies on a third party, the institution should ensure its certificate issuance and
revocation policies and other controls discussed below are followed.
When utilizing PKI policies and controls, financial institutions need to consider the fol-
lowing:
ƒ Defining within the certificate issuance policy the methods of initial veri-
fication that are appropriate for different types of certificate applicants and
the controls for issuing digital certificates and key pairs;
ƒ Selecting an appropriate certificate validity period to minimize transac-
tional and reputation risk exposure—expiration provides an opportunity to
evaluate the continuing adequacy of key lengths and encryption algo-
rithms, which can be changed as needed before issuing a new certificate;
ƒ Ensuring that the digital certificate is valid by such means as checking a
certificate revocation list before accepting transactions accompanied by a
certificate;
ƒ Defining the circumstances for authorizing a certificate’s revocation, such
as the compromise of a user’s private key or the closing of user accounts;
ƒ Updating the database of revoked certificates frequently, ideally in real-
time mode;
ƒ Employing stringent measures to protect the root key including limited
physical access to CA facilities, tamper-resistant security modules, dual
control over private keys and the process of signing certificates, as well as
the storage of original and back-up keys on computers that do not connect
with outside networks;

15
Private keys are necessary to defeat the system, and those keys are stored in a distributed fashion on each
user’s access device.

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ƒ Requiring regular independent audits to ensure controls are in place, pub-

lic and private key lengths remain appropriate, cryptographic modules
conform to industry standards, and procedures are followed to safeguard
the CA system;
ƒ Recording in a secure audit log all significant events performed by the CA
system, including the use of the root key, where each entry is time/date
stamped and signed;
ƒ Regularly reviewing exception reports and system activity by the CA’s
employees to detect malfunctions and unauthorized activities; and
ƒ Ensuring the institution’s certificates and authentication systems comply
with widely accepted PKI standards to retain the flexibility to participate
in ventures that require the acceptance of the financial institution’s certifi-
cates by other CAs.
The encryption components of PKI are addressed more fully under “Encryption.”

Biometrics
Biometrics can be implemented in many forms, including tokens. Biometrics verifies the
identity of the user by reference to unique physical or behavioral characteristics. A physi-
cal characteristic can be a thumbprint or iris pattern. A behavioral characteristic is the
unique pattern of key depression strength and pauses made on a keyboard when a user
types a phrase. The strength of biometrics is related to the uniqueness of the physical
characteristic selected for verification. Biometric technologies assign data values to the
particular characteristics associated with a certain feature. For example, the iris typically
provides many more characteristics to store and compare, making it more unique than
facial characteristics. Unlike other authentication mechanisms, a biometric authenticator
does not rely on a user’s memory or possession of a token to be effective. Additional
strengths are that biometrics do not rely on people to keep their biometric secret or physi-
cally secure their biometric. Biometrics is the only authentication methodology with
these advantages.
Enrollment is a critical process for the use of biometric authentication. The user’s physi-
cal characteristics must be reliably recorded. Reliability may require several samples of
the characteristic and a recording device free of lint, dirt, or other interference. The en-
rollment device must be physically secure from tampering and unauthorized use.
When enrolled, the user’s biometric is stored as a template. Subsequent authentication is
accomplished by comparing a submitted biometric against the template, with results
based on probability and statistical confidence levels. Practical usage of biometric solu-
tions requires consideration of how precise systems must be for positive identification
and authentication. More precise solutions increase the chances a person is falsely re-
jected. Conversely, less precise solutions can result in the wrong person being identified
or authenticated as a valid user (i.e., false acceptance rate). The equal error rate (EER) is
a composite rating that considers the false rejection and false acceptance rates. Lower

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EERs mean more consistent operations. However, EER is typically based upon labora-
tory testing and may not be indicative of actual results due to factors that can include the
consistency of biometric readers to capture data over time, variations in how users pre-
sents their biometric sample (e.g., occasionally pressing harder on a finger scanner), and
environmental factors.
Weaknesses in biometric systems relate to the ability of an attacker to submit false physi-
cal characteristics or to take advantage of system flaws to make the system erroneously
report a match between the characteristic submitted and the one stored in the system. In
the first situation, an attacker might submit to a thumbprint recognition system a copy of
a valid user’s thumbprint. The control against this attack involves ensuring a live thumb
was used for the submission. That can be done by physically controlling the thumb
reader, for instance having a guard at the reader to make sure no tampering or fake
thumbs are used. In remote entry situations, logical liveness tests can be performed to
verify that the submitted data is from a live subject.
Attacks that involve making the system falsely deny or accept a request take advantage of
either the low degrees of freedom in the characteristic being tested, or improper system
tuning. Degrees of freedom relate to measurable differences between biometric readings,
with more degrees of freedom indicating a more unique biometric. Facial recognition
systems, for instance, may have only nine degrees of freedom while other biometric sys-
tems have over one hundred. Similar faces may be used to fool the system into improp-
erly authenticating an individual. Similar irises, however, are difficult to find and even
more difficult to fool a system into improperly authenticating.
Attacks against system tuning also exist. Any biometric system has rates at which it will
falsely accept a reading and falsely reject a reading. The two rates are inseparable; for
any given system improving one worsens the other. Systems that are tuned to maximize
user convenience typically have low rates of false rejection and high rates of false accep-
tance. Those systems may be more open to successful attack.

Authenticator Reissuance
Authorized users may need to have authenticators reissued. Many situations create that
need, such as the user forgetting the shared secret, losing a token, or the change of a bio-
metric identifier. Prior to reissuing an authenticator, institutions should appropriately
verify the identity of the receiving individual. The strength of the verification should be
appropriate to mitigate the risk of impersonation. For example, the comparison of Inter-
net-banking customer responses to questions regarding readily available public informa-
tion generally is not an adequate risk mitigator.

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Behavioral Authentication
Behavioral authentication is the assurance gained from comparing connection-related and
activity-related information with expectations. For example, many institutions may ex-
pect Internet banking activity from certain Internet Protocol (IP) ranges to use certain
user agents, to traverse the Web site in a certain manner, and to submit transactions that
have certain characteristics. Although behavioral authentication does not provide strong
assurance that individuals are who they claim to be, it may provide a strong indication
that authenticators presented are from an imposter. Accordingly, behavioral authentica-
tion is frequently useful to supplement other means of authentication.

Device Authentication
Device authentication typically takes place either as a supplement to the authentication of
individuals or when assurance is needed that the device is authorized to be on the net-
work.
Devices are authenticated through either shared secrets, such as pre-shared keys, or the
use of PKI. Authentication can take place at the network level and above. At the network
level, IPv6 16 has the built-in ability to authenticate each device.
Device authentication is subject to the same shared-secret and PKI weaknesses as user
authentication, and is subject to similar offsetting controls. Additionally, similar to user
authentication, if the device is under the attacker’s control or if the authentication mecha-
nism has been compromised, communications from the device should not be trusted.

Mutual Authentication
Mutual authentication occurs when all parties to a communication authenticate them-
selves to the other parties. Authentications can be single or multifactor. An example of a
mutual authentication is the identification of an Internet banking user to the institution,
the display of a shared secret from the institution to the user, and the presentation of a
shared secret from the user back to the institution. An advantage of mutual authentica-
tion is the assurance that communications are between trusted parties. However, various
attacks, such as man-in-the-middle attacks, can thwart mutual authentication schemes.

Authentication for Single Sign-On Protocols

Several single sign-on protocols are in use. Those protocols allow clients to authenticate
themselves once to obtain access to a range of services. An advantage of single sign-on
systems is that users do not have to remember or possess multiple authentication mecha-
nisms, potentially allowing for more complex authentication methods and fewer user-
created weaknesses. Disadvantages include the broad system authorizations potentially

16
IPv6 is one of two Internet protocols in widespread use. The other is IPv4.

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tied to any given successful authentication, the centralization of authenticators in the sin-
gle sign-on server, and potential weaknesses in the single sign-on technologies.
When single sign-on systems allow access for a single log-in to multiple instances of sen-
sitive data or systems, financial institutions should employ robust authentication tech-
niques, such as multi-factor, PKI, and biometric techniques. Financial institutions should
also employ additional controls to protect the authentication server and detect attacks
against the server and server communications.

Examples of Common Authentication Weaknesses, Attacks,

and Offsetting Controls
All authentication methodologies display weaknesses. Those weaknesses are of both a
technical and a nontechnical nature. Many of the weaknesses are common to all mecha-
nisms. Examples of common weaknesses include warehouse attacks, social engineering,
client attacks, replay attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, and hijacking.
Warehouse attacks result in the compromise of the authentication storage system and the
theft of the authentication data. Frequently, the authentication data is encrypted; how-
ever, dictionary attacks make decryption of even a few passwords in a large group a triv-
ial task. A dictionary attack uses a list of likely authenticators, such as passwords, runs
the likely authenticators through the encryption algorithm, and compares the result to the
stolen, encrypted authenticators. Any matches are easily traceable to the pre-encrypted
authenticator.
Dictionary and brute force 17 attacks are viable due to the speeds with which comparisons
are made. As microprocessors increase in speed, and technology advances to ease the
linking of processors across networks, those attacks will be even more effective. Because
those attacks are effective, institutions should take great care in securing their authentica-
tion databases. Institutions that use one-way hashes should consider the insertion of se-
cret bits (also known as “salt”) to increase the difficulty of decrypting the hash. The salt
has the effect of increasing the number of potential authenticators that attackers must
check for validity, thereby making the attacks more time consuming and creating more
opportunity for the institution to identify and react to the attack.
Warehouse attacks typically compromise an entire authentication mechanism. Should
such an attack occur, the financial institution might have to deny access to all or nearly
all users until new authentication devices can be issued (e.g. new passwords). Institutions
should consider the effects of such a denial of access, and appropriately plan for large-
scale re-issuances of authentication devices.
Social engineering involves an attacker obtaining authenticators by simply asking for
them. For instance, the attacker may masquerade as a legitimate user who needs a pass-
word reset or as a contractor who must have immediate access to correct a system per-

17
An attack that tries all possible combinations of the allowed character set.

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formance problem. By using persuasion, being aggressive, or using other interpersonal

skills, the attackers encourage a legitimate user or other authorized person to give them
authentication credentials. Controls against these attacks involve strong identification
policies and employee training.
Client attacks are an area of vulnerability common to all authentication mechanisms.
Passwords, for instance, can be captured by hardware- or software-based keystroke cap-
ture mechanisms. PKI private keys could be captured or reverse-engineered from their
tokens. Protection against these attacks primarily consists of physically securing the cli-
ent systems, and, if a shared secret is used, changing the secret on a frequency commen-
surate with risk. While physically securing the client system is possible within areas un-
der the financial institution’s control, client systems outside the institution may not be
similarly protected.
Replay attacks occur when an attacker eavesdrops and records the authentication as it is
communicated between a client and the financial institution system and then later uses
that recording to establish a new session with the system and masquerade as the true user.
Protections against replay attacks include changing cryptographic keys for each session,
using dynamic passwords, expiring sessions through the use of time stamps, expiring PKI
certificates based on dates or number of uses, and implementing liveness tests for biomet-
ric systems.
Man-in-the-middle attacks place the attacker’s computer in the communication line be-
tween the server and the client. The attacker’s machine can monitor and change commu-
nications. Controls against man-in-the-middle attacks include prevention through host
and client hardening, appropriate hardening and monitoring of domain name service
(DNS) servers and other network infrastructure, authentication of the device communi-
cating with the server, and the use of PKI.
Hijacking is an attacker’s use of an authenticated user’s session to communicate with sys-
tem components. Controls against hijacking include encryption of the user’s session and
the use of encrypted cookies or other devices to authenticate each communication be-
tween the client and the server.

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NETWORK ACCESS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should secure access to their computer net-
works through multiple layers of access controls to protect against
unauthorized access. Institutions should
ƒ Group network servers, applications, data, and users into se-
curity domains (e.g., untrusted external networks, external
service providers, or various internal user systems);
ƒ Establish appropriate access requirements within and be-
tween each security domain;
ƒ Implement appropriate technological controls to meet those
access requirements consistently; and
ƒ Monitor cross-domain access for security policy violations and
anomalous activity.

Network security requires effective implementation of several control mechanisms to

adequately secure access to systems and data. Financial institutions must evaluate and
appropriately implement those controls relative to the complexity of their network. Many
institutions have increasingly complex and dynamic networks stemming from the growth
of distributed computing.
Security personnel and network administrators have related but distinct responsibilities
for ensuring secure network access across a diverse deployment of interconnecting net-
work servers, file servers, routers, gateways, and local and remote client workstations.
Security personnel typically lead or assist in the development of policies, standards, and
procedures, and monitor compliance. They also lead or assist in incident-response ef-
forts. Network administrators implement the policies, standards, and procedures in their
day-to-day operational role.
Internally, networks can host or provide centralized access to mission-critical applica-
tions and information, making secure access an organizational priority. Externally, net-
works integrate institution and third-party applications that grant customers and insiders
access to their financial information and Web-based services. Financial institutions that
fail to restrict access properly expose themselves to increased operational, reputation, and
legal risk from threats including the theft of customer information, data alteration, system
misuse, or denial-of-service attacks.
Computer networks often extend connectivity far beyond the financial institution and its
data center. Networks provide system access and connectivity between business units,
affiliates, TSPs, business partners, customers, and the public. This increased connectivity

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requires additional controls to segregate and restrict access between various groups and
information users.
An effective approach to securing a large network involves dividing the network into
logical security domains. A logical security domain is a distinct part of a network with
security policies that differ from other domains, and perimeter controls enforcing access
at a network level. The differences may be far broader than network controls, encom-
passing personnel, host, and other issues.
Before establishing security domains, financial institutions should map and configure the
network to identify and control all access points. Network configuration considerations
could include the following actions:
ƒ Identifying the various applications and systems accessed via the network,
ƒ Identifying all access points to the network including various telecommu-
nications channels (e.g., wireless, Ethernet, frame relay, dedicated lines,
remote dial-up access, extranets, Internet),
ƒ Mapping the internal and external connectivity between various network
segments,
ƒ Defining minimum access requirements for network services (i.e., most
often referenced as a network services access policy), and
ƒ Determining the most appropriate network configuration to ensure ade-
quate security and performance.
With a clear understanding of network connectivity, the financial institution can avoid
introducing security vulnerabilities by minimizing access to less-trusted domains and
employing encryption for less secure connections. Institutions can then determine the
most effective deployment of protocols, filtering routers, firewalls, gateways, proxy serv-
ers, and/or physical isolation to restrict access. Some applications and business processes
may require complete segregation from the corporate network (e.g., no connectivity be-
tween corporate network and wire transfer system). Others may restrict access by placing
the services that must be accessed by each zone in their own security domain, commonly
called a DMZ.
Security domains are bounded by perimeters. Typical perimeter controls include fire-
walls that operate at different network layers, malicious code prevention, outbound filter-
ing, intrusion detection and prevention devices, and controls over infrastructure services
such as DNS. The perimeter controls may exist on separate devices or be combined or
consolidated on one or more devices. Consolidation on a single device could improve
security by reducing administrative overhead. However, consolidation may increase risk
through a reduced ability to perform certain functions and the existence of a single point
of failure.
Additionally, devices that combine prevention and detection present unique risks. Tradi-
tionally, if a prevention device fails, the detection device may alert on any resulting mali-
cious activity. If the detection device fails, the prevention device still may function. If

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both functions are on the same device, and the device fails, the otherwise protected part
of the institution’s network may be exposed.

Firewalls
A firewall 18 is a collection of components (computers, routers, and software) that mediate
access between different security domains. All traffic between the security domains must
pass through the firewall, regardless of the direction of the flow. Since the firewall
serves as an access control point for traffic between security domains, they are ideally
situated to inspect and block traffic and coordinate activities with network intrusion de-
tection systems (IDSs).
Financial institutions have four primary firewall types from which to choose: packet fil-
tering, stateful inspection, proxy servers, and application-level firewalls. Any product
may have characteristics of one or more firewall types. The selection of firewall type is
dependent on many characteristics of the security zone, such as the amount of traffic, the
sensitivity of the systems and data, and applications. Additionally, consideration should
be given to the ease of firewall administration, degree of firewall monitoring support
through automated logging and log analysis, and the capability to provide alerts for ab-
normal activity.
Typically, firewalls block or allow traffic based on rules configured by the administrator.
Rulesets can be static or dynamic. A static ruleset is an unchanging statement to be ap-
plied to packet header, such as blocking all incoming traffic with certain source ad-
dresses. A dynamic ruleset often is the result of coordinating a firewall and an IDS. For
example, an IDS that alerts on malicious activity may send a message to the firewall to
block the incoming IP address. The firewall, after ensuring the IP is not on a “white
list” 19 , creates a rule to block the IP. After a specified period of time the rule expires and
traffic is once again allowed from that IP.
Firewalls are subject to failure. When firewalls fail, they typically should fail closed,
blocking all traffic, rather than failing open and allowing all traffic to pass.

Packet Filter Firewalls

Packet filter firewalls evaluate the headers of each incoming and outgoing packet to en-
sure it has a valid internal address, originates from a permitted external address, connects
to an authorized protocol or service, and contains valid basic header instructions. If the
packet does not match the pre-defined policy for allowed traffic, then the firewall drops
the packet. Packet filters generally do not analyze the packet contents beyond the header

18
For additional firewall explanations, see NIST Special Publication 800-41, “Guidelines on Firewalls and Fire-
wall Policy.”
19
A whitelist contains the IP addresses that should always be allowed. Whitelists are important to guard against
a denial of service resulting from an attacker using the IP of a service provider or other critical network connec-
tion.

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information. Many routers contain access control lists (ACLs) that allow for packet-
filtering capabilities.
Dynamic packet filtering incorporates stateful inspection 20 primarily for performance
benefits. Before re-examining every packet, the firewall checks each packet as it arrives
to determine whether it is part of an existing connection. If it verifies that the packet be-
longs to an established connection, then it forwards the packet without subjecting it to the
firewall ruleset.
Weaknesses associated with packet filtering firewalls include the following:
ƒ The system is unable to prevent attacks that exploit application-specific
vulnerabilities and functions because the packet filter does not examine
packet contents.
ƒ Logging functionality is limited to the same information used to make ac-
cess control decisions.
ƒ Most do not support advanced user authentication schemes.
ƒ Firewalls are generally vulnerable to attacks and exploitation that take ad-
vantage of vulnerabilities in network protocols.
ƒ The firewalls are easy to misconfigure, which allows traffic to pass that
should be blocked.
Packet filtering offers less security, but faster performance than application-level fire-
walls. The former are appropriate in high-speed environments where logging and user
authentication with network resources are not as important. They also are useful in en-
forcing security zones at the network level. Packet filter firewalls are also commonly
used in small office/home office (SOHO) systems and default operating system firewalls.
Institutions internally hosting Internet-accessible services should consider implementing
additional firewall components that include application-level screening.

Stateful Inspection Firewalls

Stateful inspection firewalls are packet filters that monitor the state of the TCP connec-
tion. Each TCP session starts with an initial “handshake” communicated through TCP
flags in the header information. When a connection is established the firewall adds the
connection information to a table. The firewall can then compare future packets to the
connection or state table. This essentially verifies that inbound traffic is in response to
requests initiated from inside the firewall.

Proxy Server Firewalls

Proxy servers act as an intermediary between internal and external IP addresses and block
direct access to the internal network. Essentially, they rewrite packet headers to substi-

20
A technique that essentially verifies that inbound traffic is in response to requests initiated from inside the
firewall.

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tute the IP of the proxy server for the IP of the internal machine and forward packets to
and from the internal and external machines. Due to that limited capability, proxy servers
are commonly employed behind other firewall devices. The primary firewall receives all
traffic, determines which application is being targeted, and hands off the traffic to the ap-
propriate proxy server. Common proxy servers are the domain name server (DNS), Web
server (HTTP), and mail (SMTP) server. Proxy servers frequently cache requests and
responses, providing potential performance benefits.
Additionally, proxy servers provide another layer of access control by segregating the
flow of Internet traffic to support additional authentication and logging capability, as well
as content filtering. Web and e-mail proxy servers, for example, are capable of filtering
for potential malicious code and application-specific commands (see “Malicious Code”).
They may implement anti-virus and anti-spam filtering, disallow connections to poten-
tially malicious servers, and disallow the downloading of files in accordance with the in-
stitution’s security policy.
Proxy servers are increasing in importance as protocols are tunneled through other proto-
cols. For example, a protocol-aware proxy may be designed to allow Web server re-
quests to port 80 of an external Web server, but disallow other protocols encapsulated in
the port 80 requests.

Application-Level Firewalls
Application-level firewalls perform application-level screening, typically including the
filtering capabilities of packet filter firewalls with additional validation of the packet con-
tent based on the application. Application-level firewalls capture and compare packets to
state information in the connection tables. Unlike a packet filter firewall, an application-
level firewall continues to examine each packet after the initial connection is established
for specific application or services such as telnet, FTP, HTTP, SMTP, etc. The applica-
tion-level firewall can provide additional screening of the packet payload for commands,
protocols, packet length, authorization, content, or invalid headers. Application level
firewalls provide the strongest level of security, but are slower and require greater exper-
tise to administer properly.
The primary disadvantages of application-level firewalls are as follows:
ƒ The time required to read and interpret each packet slows network traffic.
Traffic of certain types may have to be split off before the application-
level firewall and passed through different access controls.
ƒ Any particular firewall may provide only limited support for new network
applications and protocols. They also simply may allow traffic from those
applications and protocols to go through the firewall.

Firewall Services and Configuration

Firewalls may provide some additional services:

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ƒ Network address translation (NAT)—NAT readdresses outbound packets

to mask the internal IP addresses of the network. Untrusted networks see
a different host IP address from the actual internal address. NAT allows
an institution to hide the topology and address schemes of its trusted net-
work from untrusted networks.
ƒ Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP)—DHCP assigns IP ad-
dresses to machines that will be subject to the security controls of the
firewall.
ƒ Virtual Private Network (VPN) gateways—A VPN gateway provides an
encrypted tunnel between a remote external gateway and the internal net-
work. Placing VPN capability on the firewall and the remote gateway
protects information from disclosure between the gateways but not from
the gateway to the terminating machines. Placement on the firewall, how-
ever, allows the firewall to inspect the traffic and perform access control,
logging, and malicious code scanning.
One common firewall implementation in financial institutions hosting Internet applica-
tions is a DMZ, which is a neutral Internet accessible zone typically separated by two
firewalls. One firewall is between the institution’s private network and the DMZ and
then another firewall is between the DMZ and the outside public network. The DMZ
constitutes one logical security domain, the outside public network is another security
domain, and the institution’s internal network may be composed of one or more addi-
tional logical security domains. An adequate and effectively managed firewall can en-
sure that an institution’s computer systems are not directly accessible to any on the Inter-
net.

Firewall Policy
A firewall policy states management’s expectations for how the firewall should function
and is a component of the overall security policy. It should establish rules for traffic
coming into and going out of the security domain and how the firewall will be managed
and updated. Therefore, it is a type of security policy for the firewall and forms the basis
for the firewall rules. The firewall selection and the firewall policy should stem from the
ongoing security risk assessment process. Accordingly, management needs to update the
firewall policy as the institution's security needs and the risks change. At a minimum, the
policy should address
ƒ Firewall topology and architecture,
ƒ Type of firewall(s) being utilized,
ƒ Physical placement of the firewall components,
ƒ Monitoring firewall traffic,
ƒ Permissible traffic (generally based on the premise that all traffic not ex-
pressly allowed is denied, detailing which applications can traverse the
firewall and under what exact circumstances such activities can take
place),

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ƒ Firewall updating,
ƒ Coordination with security monitoring and intrusion response mecha-
nisms,
ƒ Responsibility for monitoring and enforcing the firewall policy,
ƒ Protocols and applications permitted,
ƒ Regular auditing of a firewall’s configuration and testing of the firewall’s
effectiveness, and
ƒ Contingency planning.
Financial institutions should also appropriately train, manage, and monitor their staffs to
ensure the firewall policy is implemented properly. Alternatively, institutions can out-
source the firewall management while ensuring that the outsourcer complies with the in-
stitution’s specific firewall policy.
Firewalls are an essential control for a financial institution with an Internet connection
and provide a means of protection against a variety of attacks. Firewalls should not be
relied upon, however, to provide full protection from attacks. Institutions should com-
plement firewalls with strong security policies and a range of other controls. In fact,
firewalls are potentially vulnerable to attacks including
ƒ Spoofing trusted IP addresses,
ƒ Denial of service by overloading the firewall with excessive requests or
malformed packets,
ƒ Sniffing of data that is being transmitted outside the network,
ƒ Hostile code embedded in legitimate HTTP, SMTP, or other traffic that
meet all firewall rules,
ƒ Attacks on unpatched vulnerabilities in the firewall hardware or software,
ƒ Attacks through flaws in the firewall design providing relatively easy ac-
cess to data or services residing on firewall or proxy servers, and
ƒ Attacks against computers and communications used for remote admini-
stration.
Financial institutions can reduce their vulnerability to these attacks through network con-
figuration and design, sound implementation of its firewall architecture that includes mul-
tiple filter points, active firewall monitoring and management, and integrated security
monitoring. In many cases, additional access controls within the operating system or ap-
plication will provide an additional means of defense.
Given the importance of firewalls as a means of access control, good practices include
ƒ Hardening the firewall by removing all unnecessary services and appro-
priately patching, enhancing, and maintaining all software on the firewall
unit (see “Systems Development, Acquisition, and Maintenance”);
ƒ Restricting network mapping capabilities through the firewall, primarily
by blocking inbound ICMP (Internet Control Messaging Protocol) traffic;

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ƒ Using a ruleset that disallows all inbound and outbound traffic that is not
specifically allowed;
ƒ Using NAT and split DNS to hide internal system names and addresses
from external networks (split DNS uses two domain name servers, one to
communicate outside the network, and the other to offer services inside
the network);
ƒ Using proxy connections for outbound HTTP connections;
ƒ Filtering malicious code;
ƒ Backing up firewalls to internal media and not backing up the firewall to
servers on protected networks;
ƒ Logging activity, with daily administrator review (see “Logging and Data
Collection”);
ƒ Using security monitoring devices and practices to monitor actions on the
firewall and to monitor communications allowed through the firewall (see
“Security Monitoring”);
ƒ Administering the firewall using encrypted communications and strong
authentication, accessing the firewall only from secure devices, and moni-
toring all administrative access;
ƒ Limiting administrative access to few individuals; and
ƒ Making changes only through well-administered change control proce-
dures.

Malicious Code Filtering

Perimeters may contain proxy firewalls or other servers that act as a control point for
Web browsing, e-mail, P2P, and other communications. Those firewalls and servers fre-
quently are used to enforce the institution’s security policy over incoming communica-
tions. Enforcement is through anti-virus, anti-spyware, and anti-spam filtering, the
blocking of downloading of executable files, and other actions. To the extent that filter-
ing is done on a signature basis, frequent updating of the signatures may be required.

Outbound Filtering
Perimeter servers also serve to inspect outbound communications for compliance with the
institution’s security policy. Perimeter routers and firewalls can be configured to enforce
policies that forbid the origination of outbound communications from certain computers.
Additionally, proxy servers could be configured to identify and block customer data and
other data that should not be transmitted outside the security domain.

Network Intrusion Prevention Systems

Network Intrusion Prevention Systems (nIPS) are an access control mechanism that allow
or disallow access based on an analysis of packet headers and packet payloads. They are
similar to firewalls because they are located in the communications line, compare activity

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to preconfigured or preprogrammed decisions of what packets to pass or drop, and re-

spond with pre-configured actions. The IPS units generally detect security events in a
manner similar to IDS units (See “Activity Monitoring” in the Security Monitoring sec-
tion of this booklet) and are subject to the same limitations. After detection, however, the
IPS unit may take actions beyond simple alerting to potential malicious activity and log-
ging of packets. For example, the IPS unit may block traffic flows from the offending
host. The ability to sever communications can be useful when the activity can clearly be
identified as malicious. When the activity cannot be clearly identified, for example where
a false positive may exist, IDS-like alerting commonly is preferable to blocking.
Although IPS units are access control devices, many implement a security model that is
different from firewalls. Firewalls typically allow only the traffic necessary for business
purposes, or only “known good” traffic. IPS units typically are configured to disallow
traffic that triggers signatures, or “known bad” traffic, while allowing all else. However,
IPS units can be configured to more closely mimic a device that allows only “known
good” traffic.
IPS units also contain a “white list” of IP addresses that should never be blocked. The
list helps ensure that an attacker cannot achieve a denial of service by spoofing the IP of a
critical host.

Quarantine
Quarantining a device protects the network from potentially malicious code or actions.
Typically, a device connecting to a security domain is queried for conformance to the
domain’s security policy. If the device does not conform, it is placed in a restricted part
of the network until it does conform. For example, if the patch level is not current, the
device is not allowed into the security domain until the appropriate patches are
downloaded and installed.

DNS Placement
Effective protection of the institution’s DNS servers is critical to maintaining the security
of the institution’s communications. Much of the protection is provided by host security
(See the “Systems Development, Acquisition, and Maintenance” section of this booklet).
However, the placement of the DNS also is an important factor. The optimal placement
is split DNS, where one firewalled DNS server serves public domain information to the
outside and does not perform recursive queries, and a second DNS server, in an internal
security domain and not the DMZ, performs recursive queries for internal users.

Wireless Issues
Wireless networks are difficult to secure because they do not have a well-defined perime-
ter or well-defined access points. Unlike wired networks, unauthorized monitoring and
denial of service attacks can be performed without a physical wire connection. Addition-
ally, unauthorized devices can potentially connect to the network, perform man-in-the-

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middle attacks, or connect to other wireless devices. To mitigate those risks, wireless
networks rely on extensive use of encryption to authenticate users and devices and to
shield communications. If a financial institution uses a wireless network, it should care-
fully evaluate the risk and implement appropriate additional controls. Examples of addi-
tional controls may include one or more of the following:
ƒ Treating wireless networks as untrusted networks, allowing access through
protective devices similar to those used to shield the internal network from
the Internet environment;
ƒ Using end-to-end encryption in addition to the encryption provided by the
wireless connection;
ƒ Using strong authentication and configuration controls at the access point
and on all clients;
ƒ Using an application server and dumb terminals;
ƒ Shielding the area in which the wireless LAN operates to protect against
stray emissions and signal interference; and
ƒ Monitoring and responding to unauthorized wireless access points and cli-
ents.

OPERATING SYSTEM ACCESS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should secure access to the operating systems
of all system components by
ƒ Securing access to system utilities,
ƒ Restricting and monitoring privileged access,
ƒ Logging and monitoring user or program access to sensitive
resources and alerting on security events,
ƒ Updating the operating systems with security patches, and
ƒ Securing the devices that can access the operating system
through physical and logical means.

Financial institutions must control access to system software within the various network
clients and servers as well as stand-alone systems. System software includes the operat-
ing system and system utilities. The computer operating system manages all of the other
applications running on the computer. Common operating systems include IBM zOS,
OS/400, AIX, LINUX, various versions of Microsoft Windows, and Sun Solaris. Secu-
rity administrators and IT auditors need to understand the common vulnerabilities and
appropriate mitigation strategies for their operating systems. Application programs and
data files interface through the operating system. System utilities are programs that per-
form repetitive functions such as creating, deleting, changing, or copying files. System

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utilities also could include numerous types of system management software that can sup-
plement operating system functionality by supporting common system tasks such as secu-
rity, system monitoring, or transaction processing.
System software can provide high-level access to data and data processing. Unauthorized
access could result in significant financial and operational losses. Financial institutions
should restrict privileged access to sensitive operating systems. While many operating
systems have integrated access control software, third-party security software also is
available. In the case of many mainframe systems, these programs are essential to ensure
effective access control and can often integrate the security management of both the op-
erating system and the applications. Network security software can allow institutions to
improve the effectiveness of the administration and security policy compliance for a large
number of servers often spanning multiple operating system environments. The critical
aspects for access control software, whether included in the operating system or addi-
tional security software, are that management has the capability to
ƒ Restrict access to sensitive or critical system resources or processes and
have the capability, depending on the sensitivity, to extend protection at
the program, file, record, or field level.
ƒ Log user or program access to sensitive system resources including files,
programs, processes, or operating system parameters.
ƒ Filter logs for potential security events and provide adequate reporting and
alerting capabilities.
Additional operating system access controls include the following actions:
ƒ Ensure system administrators and security professionals have adequate
expertise to securely configure and manage the operating system.
ƒ Ensure effective authentication methods are used to restrict system access
to both users and applications.
ƒ Activate and utilize operating system security and logging capabilities and
supplement with additional security software where supported by the risk
assessment process.
ƒ Restrict operating system access to specific terminals in physically secure
and monitored locations.
ƒ Lock or remove external drives from system consoles or terminals residing
outside physically secure locations.
ƒ Restrict and log access to system utilities, especially those with data alter-
ing capabilities.
ƒ Restrict access to operating system parameters.
ƒ Prohibit remote access to sensitive operating system functions, where fea-
sible, and at a minimum require strong authentication and encrypted ses-
sions before allowing remote support.

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ƒ Limit the number of employees with access to sensitive operating systems

and grant only the minimum level of access required to perform routine
responsibilities.
ƒ Segregate operating system access, where possible, to limit full or root-
level access to the system.
ƒ Monitor operating system access by user, terminal, date, and time of ac-
cess.
ƒ Update operating systems with security patches and using appropriate
change control mechanisms. (See “Systems Development, Acquisition,
and Maintenance.”)

APPLICATION ACCESS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should control access to applications by
ƒ Using authentication and authorization controls appropriately
robust for the risk of the application,
ƒ Monitoring access rights to ensure they are the minimum re-
quired for the user’s current business needs,
ƒ Using time-of-day limitations on access as appropriate,
ƒ Logging access and security events, and
ƒ Using software that enables rapid analysis of user activities.

Sensitive or mission-critical applications should incorporate appropriate access controls

that restrict which application functions are available to users and other applications. The
most commonly referenced applications from an examination perspective support the in-
formation processing needs of the various business lines. These computer applications
allow authorized users or other applications to interface with the related database. Effec-
tive application access control can enforce both segregation of duties and dual control.
Access rights to sensitive or critical applications and their databases should ensure that
employees or applications have the minimum level of access required to perform their
business functions. Effective application access control involves a partnership between
the security administrators, the application programmers (including TSPs and vendors),
and the business owners.
Some security software programs will integrate access control for the operating system
and some applications. Such software is useful when applications do not have their own
access controls, and when the institution wants to rely on the security software instead of
the application’s access controls. Examples of such security software products for main-
frame computers include RACF, CA-ACF2, and CA-TopSecret. Institutions should un-

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derstand the functionality and vulnerabilities of their application access control solutions
and consider those issues in their risk assessment process.
Institution management should consider a number of issues regarding application access
control. Many of these issues also could apply to oversight of operating system access:
ƒ Implementing a robust authentication method consistent with the critical-
ity and sensitivity of the application. Historically, the majority of applica-
tions have relied solely on user IDs and passwords, but increasingly appli-
cations are using other forms of authentication. Multi-factor authentica-
tion, such as token and PKI-based systems coupled with a robust enroll-
ment process, can reduce the potential for unauthorized access.
ƒ Maintaining consistent processes for assigning new user access, changing
existing user access, and promptly removing access to departing employ-
ees.
ƒ Communicating and enforcing the responsibilities of programmers (in-
cluding TSPs and vendors), security administrators, and business line
owners for maintaining effective application-access control. Business line
managers are responsible for the security and privacy of the information
within their units. They are in the best position to judge the legitimate ac-
cess needs of their area and should be held accountable for doing so.
However, they require support in the form of adequate security capabili-
ties provided by the programmers or vendor and adequate direction and
support from security administrators.
ƒ Monitoring existing access rights to applications to help ensure that users
have the minimum access required for the current business need. Typi-
cally, business application owners must assume responsibility for deter-
mining the access rights assigned to their staff within the bounds of the
AUP. Regardless of the process for assigning access, business application
owners should periodically review and approve the application access as-
signed to their staff.
ƒ Setting time-of-day or terminal limitations for some applications or for the
more sensitive functions within an application. The nature of some appli-
cations requires limiting the location and number of workstations with ac-
cess. These restrictions can support the implementation of tighter physical
access controls.
ƒ Logging access and events (see “Log Transmission, Normalization, Stor-
age, and Protection” in the Activity Monitoring section of this booklet).
ƒ Easing the administrative burden of managing access rights by utilizing
software that supports group profiles. Some financial institutions manage
access rights individually and this approach often leads to inappropriate
access levels. By grouping employees with similar access requirements
under a common access profile (e.g., tellers, loan operations, etc.), busi-
ness application owners and security administrators can better assign and
oversee access rights. For example, a teller performing a two-week rota-
tion as a proof operator does not need year-round access to perform both
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jobs. With group profiles, security administrators can quickly reassign the
employee from a teller profile to a proof operator profile. Note that group
profiles are used only to manage access rights; accountability for system
use is maintained through individuals being assigned their own unique
identifiers and authenticators.

REMOTE ACCESS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should secure remote access to and from their
systems by
ƒ Disabling remote communications if no business need exists,
ƒ Tightly controlling access through management approvals
and subsequent audits,
ƒ Implementing robust controls over configurations at both
ends of the remote connection to prevent potential malicious
use,
ƒ Logging and monitoring all remote access communications,
ƒ Securing remote access devices, and
ƒ Using strong authentication and encryption to secure com-
munications.

Many financial institutions provide employees, vendors, and others with access to the in-
stitution’s network and computing resources through external connections. Those con-
nections are typically established through modems, the Internet, or private communica-
tions lines. The access may be necessary to remotely support the institution’s systems or
to support institution operations at remote locations. In some cases, remote access is re-
quired periodically by vendors to make emergency program fixes or to support a system.
Remote access to a financial institution’s systems provides an attacker with the opportu-
nity to subvert the institution’s systems from outside the physical security perimeter. Ac-
cordingly, management should establish policies restricting remote access and be aware
of all remote-access devices attached to their systems. These devices should be strictly
controlled. Good controls for remote access include the following actions:
ƒ Disallow remote access by policy and practice unless a compelling busi-
ness justification exists.
ƒ Require management approval for remote access.
ƒ Regularly review remote access approvals and rescind those that no longer
have a compelling business justification.
ƒ Appropriately configure remote access devices.

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ƒ Appropriately secure remote access devices against malware (see “Mali-

cious Code Prevention”).
ƒ Appropriately and in a timely manner patch, update, and maintain all soft-
ware on remote access devices.
ƒ Use encryption to protect communications between the access device and
the institution and to protect sensitive data residing on the access device.
ƒ Periodically audit the access device configurations and patch levels.
ƒ Use VLANs, network segments, directories, and other techniques to re-
strict remote access to authorized network areas and applications within
the institution.
ƒ Log remote access communications, analyze them in a timely manner, and
follow up on anomalies.
ƒ Centralize modem and Internet access to provide a consistent authentica-
tion process, and to subject the inbound and outbound network traffic to
appropriate perimeter protections and network monitoring.
ƒ Log and monitor the date, time, user, user location, duration, and purpose
for all remote access.
ƒ Require a two-factor authentication process for remote access (e.g., PIN-
based token card with a one-time random password generator, or token-
based PKI).
ƒ Implement controls consistent with the sensitivity of remote use. For ex-
ample, remote use to administer sensitive systems or databases may in-
clude the following controls:
- Restrict the use of the access device by policy and configuration;
- Require two-factor user authentication;
- Require authentication of the access device;
- Ascertain the trustworthiness of the access device before granting ac-
cess;
- Log and review all activities (e.g. keystrokes).
ƒ If remote access is through modems:
- Require an operator to leave the modems unplugged or disabled by de-
fault, to enable modems only for specific and authorized external re-
quests, and disable the modem immediately when the requested purpose
is completed.
- Configure modems not to answer inbound calls, if modems are for out-
bound use only.
- Use automated callback features so the modems only call one number
(although this is subject to call forwarding schemes).
- Install a modem bank where the outside number to the modems uses a
different prefix than internal numbers and does not respond to incoming
calls.

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PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION

Action Summary
Financial institutions should define physical security zones and im-
plement appropriate preventative and detective controls in each
zone to protect against the risks of
ƒ Physical penetration by malicious or unauthorized people,
ƒ Damage from environmental contaminants, and
ƒ Electronic penetration through active or passive electronic
emissions.

The confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information can be impaired through

physical access and damage or destruction to physical components. Conceptually, those
physical security risks are mitigated through zone-oriented implementations. Zones are
physical areas with differing physical security requirements. The security requirements
of each zone are a function of the sensitivity of the data contained or accessible through
the zone and the information technology components in the zone. For instance, data cen-
ters may be in the highest security zone, and branches may be in a much lower security
zone. Different security zones can exist within the same structure. Routers and servers
in a branch, for instance, may be protected to a greater degree than customer service ter-
minals. Computers and telecommunications equipment within an operations center will
have a higher security zone than I/O operations, with the media used by that equipment
stored at yet a higher zone.
The requirements for each zone should be determined through the risk assessment. The
risk assessment should include, but is not limited to, the following threats:
ƒ Aircraft crashes
ƒ Chemical effects
ƒ Dust
ƒ Electrical supply interference
ƒ Electromagnetic radiation
ƒ Explosives
ƒ Fire
ƒ Smoke
ƒ Theft/Destruction
ƒ Vibration/Earthquake
ƒ Water

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ƒ Criminals
ƒ Terrorism
ƒ Political issues (e.g. strikes, disruptions)
ƒ Any other threats applicable based on the entity’s unique geographical lo-
cation, building configuration, neighboring entities, etc.

DATA CENTER SECURITY

When selecting a site for the most important information systems components, one major
objective is to limit the risk of exposure from internal and external sources. The selection
process should include a review of the surrounding area to determine if it is relatively
safe from exposure to fire, flood, explosion, or similar environmental hazards. Outside
intruders can be deterred through the use of guards, fences, barriers, surveillance equip-
ment, or other similar devices. Since access to key information system hardware and
software should be limited, doors and windows must be secure. Additionally, the loca-
tion should not be identified or advertised by signage or other indicators.
Detection devices, where applicable, should be utilized to prevent theft and safeguard the
equipment. They should provide continuous coverage. Detection devices have two pur-
poses—to alarm when a response is necessary and to support subsequent forensics. The
alarm capability is useful only when a response will occur.
Some intruder detection devices available include
ƒ Switches that activate an alarm when an electrical circuit is broken;
ƒ Light and laser beams, ultraviolet beams and sound or vibration detectors
that are invisible to the intruder, and ultrasonic and radar devices that de-
tect movement in a room; and
ƒ Closed-circuit television that allows visual observation and recording of
actions.
Risks from environmental threats can be addressed through devices such as halon gas and
halon replacements, smoke alarms, raised flooring, and heat sensors.
Physical security devices frequently need preventive maintenance to function properly.
Maintenance logs are one control the institution can use to determine whether the devices
are appropriately maintained. Periodic testing of the devices provides assurance that they
are operating correctly.
Security guards should be properly instructed about their duties. The employees who ac-
cess secured areas should have proper identification and authorization to enter the area.
All visitors should sign in and wear proper IDs so that they can be identified easily. Se-
curity guards should be trained to restrict the removal of assets from the premises and to
record the identity of anyone removing assets. Consideration should be given to imple-

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menting a specific and formal authorization process for the removal of hardware and soft-
ware from premises.
The following security zones should have access restricted to a need basis:
ƒ Operations center
ƒ Uninterrupted power supply
ƒ Telecommunications equipment
ƒ Media library

CABINET AND VAULT SECURITY

Protective containers are designed to meet either fire-resistant or burglar-resistant stan-
dards. Labels describing expected tolerance levels are usually attached to safes and vault
doors. An institution should select the tolerance level based on the sensitivity and impor-
tance of the information being protected.

PHYSICAL SECURITY IN DISTRIBUTED IT ENVIRONMENTS

Hardware and software located in a user department are often less secure than that lo-
cated in a computer room. Distributed hardware and software environments (e.g., local
area networks or LANs) that offer a full range of applications for small financial institu-
tions as well as larger organizations are commonly housed throughout the organization,
without special environmental controls or raised flooring. In such situations, physical
security precautions are often less sophisticated than those found in large data centers,
and overall building security becomes more important. Internal control procedures are
necessary for all hardware and software deployed in distributed, and less secure, envi-
ronments. The level of security surrounding any hardware and software should depend
on the sensitivity of the data that can be accessed, the significance of applications proc-
essed, the cost of the equipment, and the availability of backup equipment.
Because of their portability and location in distributed environments, personal computers
(PCs) often are prime targets for theft and misuse. The location of PCs and the sensitiv-
ity of the data and systems they access determine the extent of physical security required.
For PCs in unrestricted areas such as a branch lobby, a counter or divider may provide
the only barrier to public access. In these cases, institutions should consider securing PCs
to workstations, locking or removing disk drives and unnecessary physical ports, and us-
ing screensaver passwords or automatic timeouts. Employees also should have only the
access to PCs and data they need to perform their job. The sensitivity of the data proc-
essed or accessed by the computer usually dictates the level of control required. The ef-
fectiveness of security measures depends on employee awareness and enforcement of
these controls.
An advantage of PCs is that they can operate in an office environment, providing flexible
and informal operations. However, as with larger systems, PCs are sensitive to environ-

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mental factors such as smoke, dust, heat, humidity, food particles, and liquids. Because
they are not usually located within a secure area, policies should be adapted to provide
protection from ordinary contaminants.
Other environmental problems to guard against include electrical power surges and static
electricity. The electrical power supply in an office environment is sufficient for a PC’s
requirements. However, periodic fluctuations in power (surges) can cause equipment
damage or loss of data. PCs in environments that generate static electricity are suscepti-
ble to static electrical discharges that can cause damage to PC components or memory.
Physical security for distributed IT, particularly LANs that are usually PC-based, is
slightly different than for mainframe platforms. With a network there is often no central-
ized computer room. In addition, a network often extends beyond the local premises.
There are certain components that need physical security. These include the hardware
devices and the software and data that may be stored on the file servers, PCs, or remov-
able media (tapes and disks). As with more secure IT environments, physical network
security should prevent unauthorized personnel from accessing LAN devices or the
transmission of data. In the case of wire-transfer clients, more extensive physical secu-
rity is required.
Physical protection for networks as well as PCs includes power protection, physical
locks, and secure work areas enforced by security guards and authentication technologies
such as magnetic badge readers. Physical access to the network components (i.e., files,
applications, communications, etc.) should be limited to those who require access to per-
form their jobs. Network workstations or PCs should be password protected and moni-
tored for workstation activity.
Network wiring requires some form of protection since it does not have to be physically
penetrated for the data it carries to be revealed or contaminated. Examples of controls
include using a conduit to encase the wiring, avoiding routing through publicly accessible
areas, and avoiding routing networking cables in close proximity to power cables. The
type of wiring can also provide a degree of protection; signals over fiber, for instance, are
less susceptible to interception than signals over copper cable.
Network security also can be compromised through the capture of radio frequency emis-
sions. Frequency emissions are of two types, intentional and unintentional. Intentional
emissions are those broadcast, for instance, by a wireless network. Unintentional emis-
sions are the normally occurring radiation from monitors, keyboards, disk drives, and
other devices. Shielding is a primary control over emissions. The goal of shielding is to
confine a signal to a defined area. An example of shielding is the use of foil-backed
wallboard and window treatments. Once a signal is confined to a defined area, additional
controls can be implemented in that area to further minimize the risk that the signal will
be intercepted or changed.

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ENCRYPTION

Action Summary
Financial institutions should employ encryption to mitigate the risk
of disclosure or alteration of sensitive information in storage and
transit. Encryption implementations should include
ƒ Encryption strength sufficient to protect the information from
disclosure until such time as disclosure poses no material risk,
ƒ Effective key management practices,
ƒ Robust reliability, and
ƒ Appropriate protection of the encrypted communication’s
endpoints.

Encryption is used to secure communications and data storage, particularly authentication

credentials and the transmission of sensitive information. It can be used throughout a
technological environment, including the operating systems, middleware, applications,
file systems, and communications protocols.
Encryption can be used as a preventive control, a detective control, or both. As a preven-
tion control, encryption acts to protect data from disclosure to unauthorized parties. As a
detective control, encryption is used to allow discovery of unauthorized changes to data
and to assign responsibility for data among authorized parties. When prevention and de-
tection are joined, encryption is a key control in ensuring confidentiality, data integrity,
and accountability.
Properly used, encryption can strengthen the security of an institution’s systems. Encryp-
tion also has the potential, however, to weaken other security aspects. For instance, en-
crypted data drastically lessens the effectiveness of any security mechanism that relies on
inspections of the data, such as anti-virus scanning and intrusion detection systems.
When encrypted communications are used, networks may have to be reconfigured to al-
low for adequate detection of malicious code and system intrusions.
Although necessary, encryption carries the risk of making data unavailable should any-
thing go wrong with data handling, key management, or the actual encryption. For ex-
ample, a loss of encryption keys or other failures in the encryption process can deny the
institution access to the encrypted data. The products used and administrative controls
should contain robust and effective controls to ensure reliability.
Financial institutions should employ an encryption strength sufficient to protect informa-
tion from disclosure until such time as the information’s disclosure poses no material
threat. For instance, authenticators should be encrypted at a strength sufficient to allow

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the institution time to detect and react to an authenticator theft before the attacker can de-
crypt the stolen authenticators.
Decisions regarding what data to encrypt and at what points to encrypt the data are typi-
cally based on the risk of disclosure and the costs and risks of encryption. The costs in-
clude potentially significant overhead costs on hosts and networks. Generally speaking,
authenticators are encrypted whether on public networks or on the financial institution’s
network. Sensitive information is also encrypted when passing over a public network and
also may be encrypted within the institution.
Encryption cannot guarantee data security. Even if encryption is properly implemented,
for example, a security breach at one of the endpoints of the communication can be used
to steal the data or allow an intruder to masquerade as a legitimate system user.

HOW ENCRYPTION WORKS

In general, encryption functions by taking data and a variable, called a “key” and process-
ing those items through a fixed algorithm to create the encrypted text. The strength of the
encrypted text is determined by the entropy, or degree of uncertainty, in the key and the
algorithm. Key length and key selection criteria are important determinants of entropy.
Greater key lengths generally indicate more possible keys. More important than key
length, however, is the potential limitation of possible keys posed by the key selection
criteria. For instance, a 128-bit key has much less than 128 bits of entropy if it is selected
from only certain letters or numbers. The full 128 bits of entropy will only be realized if
the key is randomly selected across the entire 128-bit range.
The encryption algorithm is also important. Creating a mathematical algorithm that does
not limit the entropy of the key and testing the algorithm to ensure its integrity are diffi-
cult. Since the strength of an algorithm is related to its ability to maximize entropy in-
stead of its secrecy, algorithms are generally made public and subject to peer review.
The more that the algorithm is tested by knowledgeable worldwide experts, the more the
algorithm can be trusted to perform as expected. Examples of public algorithms are AES,
DES and Triple DES, HSA-1, and RSA.

ENCRYPTION KEY MANAGEMENT

Since security is primarily based on the encryption keys, effective key management is
crucial. Effective key management systems are based on an agreed set of standards, pro-
cedures, and secure methods that address 21
ƒ Generating keys for different cryptographic systems and different applica-
tions;
ƒ Generating and obtaining public keys;

21
Source: ISO 17799, 10.3.5.2

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ƒ Distributing keys to intended users, including how keys should be acti-

vated when received;
ƒ Storing keys, including how authorized users obtain access to keys;
ƒ Changing or updating keys, including rules on when keys should be
changed and how this will be done;
ƒ Dealing with compromised keys;
ƒ Revoking keys and specifying how keys should be withdrawn or deacti-
vated;
ƒ Recovering keys that are lost or corrupted as part of business continuity
management;
ƒ Archiving keys;
ƒ Destroying keys;
ƒ Logging the auditing of key management-related activities; and
ƒ Instituting defined activation and deactivation dates, limiting the usage pe-
riod of keys.
Secure key management systems are characterized by the following precautions:
ƒ Key management is fully automated (e.g., personnel do not have the op-
portunity to expose a key or influence the key creation).
ƒ No key ever appears unencrypted.
ƒ Keys are randomly chosen from the entire key space, preferably by hard-
ware.
ƒ Key-encrypting keys are separate from data keys. No data ever appears in
clear text that was encrypted using a key-encrypting key. (A key-
encrypting key is used to encrypt other keys, securing them from disclo-
sure.)
ƒ All patterns in clear text are disguised before encrypting.
ƒ Keys with a long life are sparsely used. The more a key is used, the
greater the opportunity for an attacker to discover the key.
ƒ Keys are changed frequently. The cost of changing keys rises linearly
while the cost of attacking the keys rises exponentially. Therefore, all
other factors being equal, changing keys increases the effective key length
of an algorithm.
ƒ Keys that are transmitted are sent securely to well-authenticated parties.
ƒ Key-generating equipment is physically and logically secure from con-
struction through receipt, installation, operation, and removal from ser-
vice.

ENCRYPTION TYPES
Three types of encryption exist: the cryptographic hash, symmetric encryption, and
asymmetric encryption.

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A cryptographic hash reduces a variable-length input to a fixed-length output. The fixed-

length output is a unique cryptographic representation of the input. Hashes are used to
verify file and message integrity. For instance, if hashes are obtained from key operating
system binaries when the system is first installed, the hashes can be compared to subse-
quently obtained hashes to determine if any binaries were changed. Hashes are also used
to protect passwords from disclosure. A hash, by definition, is a one-way encryption. An
attacker who obtains the password cannot run the hash through an algorithm to decrypt
the password. However, the attacker can perform a dictionary attack, feeding all possible
password combinations through the algorithm and look for matching hashes, thereby de-
ducing the password. To protect against that attack, “salt,” or additional bits, are added
to the password before encryption. The addition of the bits means the attacker must in-
crease the dictionary to include all possible additional bits, thereby increasing the diffi-
culty of the attack.
Symmetric encryption is the use of the same key and algorithm by the creator and reader
of a file or message. The creator uses the key and algorithm to encrypt, and the reader
uses both to decrypt. Symmetric encryption relies on the secrecy of the key. If the key is
captured by an attacker, either when it is exchanged between the communicating parties,
or while one of the parties uses or stores the key, the attacker can use the key and the al-
gorithm to decrypt messages or to masquerade as a message creator.
Asymmetric encryption lessens the risk of key exposure by using two mathematically re-
lated keys, the private key and the public key. When one key is used to encrypt, only the
other key can decrypt. Therefore, only one key (the private key) must be kept secret.
The key that is exchanged (the public key) poses no risk if it becomes known. For in-
stance, if individual A has a private key and publishes the public key, individual B can
obtain the public key, encrypt a message to individual A, and send it. As long as individ-
ual A keeps his private key secure from discovery, only individual A will be able to de-
crypt the message.

EXAMPLES OF ENCRYPTION USES

Asymmetric encryption is the basis of public key infrastructure. In theory, PKI allows
two parties who do not know each other to authenticate each other and maintain the con-
fidentiality, integrity, and accountability for their messages. PKI rests on both communi-
cating parties having a public and a private key, and keeping their public keys registered
with a third party they both trust, called the certificate authority, or CA. The use of and
trust in the third party is a key element in the authentication that takes place. For exam-
ple, assume individual A wants to communicate with individual B. A first hashes the
message, and encrypts the hash with A’s private key. Then A obtains B’s public key
from the CA and encrypts the message and the hash with B’s public key. Obtaining B’s
public key from the trusted CA provides A assurance that the public key really belongs to
B and not someone else. Using B’s public key ensures that the message will only be able
to be read by B. When B receives the message, the process is reversed. B decrypts the

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message and hash with B’s private key, obtains A’s public key from the trusted CA, and
decrypts the hash again using A’s public key. At that point, B has the plain text of the
message and the hash performed by A. To determine whether the message was changed
in transit, B must re-perform the hashing of the message and compare the newly com-
puted hash to the one sent by A. If the new hash is the same as the one sent by A, B
knows that the message was not changed since the original hash was created (integrity).
Since B obtained A’s public key from the trusted CA and that key produced a matching
hash, B is assured that the message came from A and not someone else (authentication).
Various communication protocols use both symmetric and asymmetric encryption.
Transaction layer security (TLS), the successor to Secure Socket Layer (SSL) uses asym-
metric encryption for authentication, and symmetric encryption to protect the remainder
of the communications session. TLS can be used to secure electronic banking and other
transmissions between the institution and the customer. TLS may also be used to secure
e-mail, telnet, and FTP sessions. A wireless version of TLS is called WTLS, for wireless
transaction layer security.
IPSec is a complex aggregation of protocols that together provide authentication and con-
fidentiality services to individual IP packets. It can be used to create a VPN over the
Internet or other untrusted network, or between any two computers on a trusted network.
Since IPSec has many configuration options, and can provide authentication and encryp-
tion using different protocols, implementations between vendors and products may differ.
SSL and TLS are frequently used to establish encrypted tunnels between the financial
institution and Internet banking users. They are also used to provide a different type of
VPN than that provided by IPSec.
Secure Shell (SSH) is frequently used for remote server administration. SSH establishes
an encrypted tunnel between a SSH client and a server, as well as authentication services.
Encryption may also be used to protect data in storage. The implementation may encrypt
a file, a directory, a volume, or a disk.

MALICIOUS CODE PREVENTION

Action Summary
Financial institutions should protect against the risk of malicious
code by implementing appropriate controls at the host and net-
work level to prevent and detect malicious code, as well as en-
gage in appropriate user education.

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Malicious code is any program that acts in unexpected and potentially damaging ways.
Common types of malicious code are viruses, worms, Trojan horses, monitoring pro-
grams such as spyware, and cross-site scripts. The functions of each were once mutually
exclusive; however, developers combined functions to create more powerful malicious
code. Malicious code can
ƒ Replicate itself within a computer and transmit itself between computers.
ƒ Change, delete, or insert data, transmit data outside the institution, and in-
sert backdoors into institution systems.
ƒ Attack institutions at either the server or the client level.
ƒ Attack routers, switches, and other parts of the institution infrastructure.
Malicious code can also monitor users in many ways, such as logging keystrokes and
transmitting screenshots to the attacker.
Typically malicious code is mobile, using e-mail, Instant Messenger, and other peer-to-
peer (P2P) applications, or active content attached to Web pages as transmission mecha-
nisms. The code also can be hidden in programs that are downloaded from the Internet or
brought into the institution on diskette. At times, the malicious code can be created on
the institution’s systems either by intruders or by authorized users. The code can also be
introduced to a Web server in numerous ways, such as entering the code in a response
form on a Web page.
Malicious code does not have to be targeted at the institution to damage the institution’s
systems or steal the institution’s data. Most malicious code is general in application, po-
tentially affecting all Internet users with whatever operating system or application the
code needs to function.

CONTROLS TO PROTECT AGAINST MALICIOUS CODE

Typical controls to protect against malicious code use technology, policies and proce-
dures, and training, all applied in a layered manner from perimeters inward to hosts and
data. The controls are of the preventative and detective/corrective variety. Controls are
applied at the host, network, and user levels:

Host Level

ƒ Host hardening, including patch application and security-minded configu-

rations of the operating system (OS), browsers, and other network-aware
software.
ƒ Host IPS, including anti-virus, anti-spyware, and anti-rootkit 22 software.
An additional technology is software that limits applications calls to the
OS to the minimum necessary for the application to function.

22
Rootkits can enable the hiding and surreptitious execution of malicious code.

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ƒ Integrity checking software, combined with strict change controls and con-
figuration management.
ƒ Application of known-good configurations at boot-up.
ƒ Periodic auditing of host configurations, both manual and automated.

Network Level

ƒ Limiting the transfer of executable files through the perimeter.

ƒ IDS and IPS monitoring of incoming and outgoing network traffic, includ-
ing anti-virus, anti-spyware and signature and anomaly-based traffic moni-
tors.
ƒ Routing ACLs that limit incoming and outgoing connections as well as in-
ternal connections to those necessary for business purposes.
ƒ Proxy servers that inspect incoming and outgoing packets for indicators of
malicious code and block access to known or suspected malware distribu-
tion servers.
ƒ Filtering to protect against attacks such as cross-site scripting and SQL in-
jection.

User Level
ƒ User education in awareness, safe computing practices, indicators of mali-
cious code, and response actions.

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SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT, ACQUISITION, AND

MAINTENANCE

Action Summary
Financial institutions should ensure that systems are developed, ac-
quired, and maintained with appropriate security controls. The
steps include
ƒ Ensuring that systems are developed and implemented with
appropriate security features enabled;
ƒ Ensuring that software is trustworthy by implementing appro-
priate controls in the development process, reviewing source
code, reviewing the history and reputation of vendors and
third party developers, and implementing appropriate con-
trols outside of the software to mitigate the unacceptable
risks from any deficiencies;
ƒ Maintaining appropriately robust configuration management
and change control processes; and
ƒ Establishing an effective patch process.

Software is the most important building block in a financial institution’s technology in-
frastructure. Software should provide the security controls required by the institution, be
protected from inappropriate use, and be maintained at a required level of trustworthi-
ness.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT AND ACQUISITION

Financial institutions obtain software through self-development, contracted development,
the purchase of pre-written code, or variations of those development and acquisition ap-
proaches. The security issues associated with the approaches involve the security con-
trols built into the code and the trustworthiness of the code that is placed into the finan-
cial institution’s environment. The security features of the code can be assessed regard-
less of the means of development or acquisition. The trustworthiness of the code, how-
ever, is ascertained differently depending on the availability of information necessary to
perform an assessment.
Test data consisting of institution data or customer data frequently is used in development
tests or certifications. Appropriate risk mitigation techniques should be employed to pro-
tect that data from unauthorized disclosure. As a general principal, the risk of disclosure
should be no greater than in the production environment. Techniques to achieve that goal
can include altering the data so it is no longer identified with a customer and performing

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the test in an environment whose controls are as strong as those employed in the produc-
tion environment.

Security Control Requirements

Financial institutions should develop security control requirements for new systems, sys-
tem revisions, or new system acquisitions. Management will define the security control
requirements based on their risk assessment process evaluating the value of the informa-
tion at risk and the potential impact of unauthorized access or damage. Based on the
risks posed by the system, management may use a defined methodology for determining
security requirements, such as ISO 15408, the Common Criteria. 23 Management may
also refer to published, widely recognized industry standards as a baseline for establish-
ing their security requirements. For example, for externally facing Web applications the
Open Web Application Security Project (www.owasp.org) produces one commonly ac-
cepted guideline. A member of senior management should document acceptance of the
security requirements for each new system or system acquisition, acceptance of tests
against the requirements, and approval for implementing in a production environment.
Development projects should consider automated controls for incorporation into the ap-
plication and the need to determine supporting manual controls. Financial institutions
can implement appropriate security controls with greater cost effectiveness by designing
them into the original software rather than making subsequent changes after implementa-
tion.
The institution’s development, acquisition, and audit policies should include guidelines
describing the involvement of internal audit in development or acquisition activities as a
means of independently verifying the adequacy of the security requirements as they are
developed and implemented. For more information, refer to the “Development and Ac-
quisition” and “Audit” booklets in the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook.
Development environments should be appropriately secured as a part of the overall insti-
tution environment. Appropriate security generally is a function of the risks of informa-
tion exposure and the risks that unexpected capabilities will be incorporated into projects
delivered to the production environment. Monitoring of the development environment
can assist in assuring that the implemented controls are functioning properly.

Security Controls in Application Software

Application development should incorporate appropriate security controls, audit trails,
and activity logs. Typical application access controls are addressed in earlier sections.
Application security controls should also include validation controls for data entry and
data processing. Data entry validation controls include access controls over entry and
changes to data, error checks, review of suspicious or unusual data, and dual entry or ad-
ditional review and authorization for highly sensitive transactions or data. Data process-

23
See http://www.commoncriteriaportal.org

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ing controls include batch control totals, hash totals of data for comparison after process-
ing, identification of any changes made to data outside the application (e.g., data-altering
utilities), and job control checks to ensure programs run in correct sequence (see the
“Operations” booklet in the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook for additional considera-
tions).
Some applications will require the integration of additional authentication and encryption
controls to ensure integrity and confidentiality of the data. As customers and merchants
originate an increasing number of transactions, authentication and encryption become
increasingly important to ensure non-repudiation of transactions.
Remote access to applications by customers and others increases risks. Steps to mitigate
those risks include network, host, and application layer architecture considerations.
Network and host controls are necessary to mitigate the risk from potential flaws in ap-
plications. Software trustworthiness is an important component in that consideration.
Additionally, ongoing risk assessments should consider the adequacy of application level
controls in light of changing threat, network, and host environments.

Software Trustworthiness
Software can contain erroneous or intentional code that introduces covert channels, back-
doors, and other security risks into systems and applications. These hidden access points
can provide unauthorized access to systems or data, unauthorized communications capa-
bilities, and unauthorized abilities to change the software. Because those unauthorized
abilities can circumvent the financial institution’s control structure, financial institutions
should assess the trustworthiness of the software in their environments and implement
appropriate controls to mitigate any unacceptable risk. The additional controls can exist
at various levels, including the network, host, and application layers.
Assessment of both self-developed and purchased software should consider the develop-
ment process, the source code, and the history and reputation of the developers or ven-
dors. Generally speaking, software whose development process and source is available
to the institution can be more effectively evaluated than other software.

Development Process
The development process provides important indicators of code trustworthiness. The
primary indicators are the extent to which security is incorporated within development
and personnel processes, and the level of process maturity. Specific features include:
ƒ Establishment of security requirements, considering the current and ex-
pected threat, network, and host environments;
ƒ Establishment of functional requirements and acceptance criteria;
ƒ Use of secure coding standards;
ƒ Tests and reviews for compliance with security requirements;

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ƒ Background checks on employees and code development and testing proc-

esses;
ƒ Signed nondisclosure agreements to protect the financial institution’s
rights to source code and customer data as appropriate;
ƒ Restrictions on developer write-access to production source code and sys-
tems, and monitoring developer access to development systems; and,
ƒ Physical security over developer work areas, including restrictions on me-
dia taken to and from the work area.
Process maturity is an important indicator because mature processes result in a more con-
trolled code development. For a greater discussion of development processes, see the
“Development and Acquisition” booklet in the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook.

Source Code Review

Source code also provides indicators of code trustworthiness. Code that has been sub-
jected to independent security reviews is generally more trustworthy than code that has
not. Source code reviews can be automated or manual. Automated reviews typically
look for common coding errors that could have security implications, but can lack the
detail of a manual review. Manual reviews can be more detailed but may be unreliable
due to the tedious nature of the task and the varying capabilities of the reviewers. Taken
together, both automated and manual code review can mitigate some risk from coding
errors. However, source code reviews cannot protect against the introduction of unex-
pected and unauthorized capabilities in the compiling or other manipulation of code.

History and Reputation

Financial institutions that purchase pre-written software are frequently not provided the
opportunity to evaluate the development process or the source code of the software they
introduce into their environment. In such situations, the institutions rely on the proxy of
vendor history and reputation. History and reputation are also important when code is
developed by the institution’s employees. Important indicators include:
ƒ Vulnerability history of other software from the same source, including
earlier versions of the software under consideration by the financial insti-
tution;
ƒ Timeliness, thoroughness, and candidness of the response to security is-
sues; and
ƒ Quality and functionality of the corrective security patches.

Assessment Follow-up Actions

Should the assessment indicate the software is not sufficiently trustworthy to be imple-
mented in the current environment, additional controls may be implemented at the host or
network level. Those controls generally limit access to the software and the host, limit

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the software’s access to other host and network resources, monitor the software’s actions
on the host, or monitor network communications.

SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE
Financial institutions that introduce trustworthy systems into their environment should
ensure that the systems retain that trustworthiness over time.
Essential control elements are the development of appropriately hardened systems, usage
of standard builds, the appropriate updating of builds and deployed systems through
patch management, and the controlled introduction of changes into the institution’s envi-
ronment.

Hardening
Financial institutions use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software for operating sys-
tems and applications. COTS systems generally provide more functions than are required
for the specific purposes for which they are employed. For example, a default installation
of a server operating system may install mail, Web, and file-sharing services on a system
whose sole function is a DNS server. Unnecessary software and services represent a po-
tential security weakness. Their presence increases the potential number of discovered
and undiscovered vulnerabilities present in the system. Additionally, system administra-
tors may not install patches or monitor the unused software and services to the same de-
gree as operational software and services. Protection against those risks begins when the
systems are constructed and software installed through a process that is referred to as
hardening a system.
When deploying off-the-shelf software, management should harden the resulting system.
Hardening includes the following actions:
ƒ Determining the purpose of the system and minimum software and hard-
ware requirements;
ƒ Documenting the minimum hardware, software, and services to be in-
cluded on the system;
ƒ Installing the minimum hardware, software, and services necessary to
meet the requirements using a documented installation procedure;
ƒ Installing necessary patches;
ƒ Installing the most secure and up-to-date versions of applications;
ƒ Configuring privilege and access controls by first denying all, then grant-
ing back the minimum necessary to each user;
ƒ Configuring security settings as appropriate, enabling allowed activity,
and disallowing other activity;
ƒ Enabling logging;
ƒ Creating cryptographic hashes of key files;

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ƒ Archiving the configuration and checksums in secure storage prior to sys-

tem deployment;
ƒ Testing the system to ensure a secure configuration;
ƒ Using secure replication procedures for additional, identically configured
systems, making configuration changes on a case-by-case basis;
ƒ Changing all default passwords; and
ƒ Testing the resulting systems.
After deployment, COTS systems may need updating with current security patches. Ad-
ditionally, the systems should be periodically audited to ensure that the software present
on the systems is authorized and properly configured.

Standard Builds
Consistency in system configuration makes security easier to implement and maintain.
Standard builds allow one documented configuration to be applied to multiple computers
in a controlled manner. One financial institution may have many standard builds.
Through the use of standard builds, an institution simplifies
ƒ Hardware and software inventories
ƒ Updating and patching systems
ƒ Restoring systems in the event of a disaster or outage
ƒ Investigating anomalous activity
ƒ Auditing configurations for conformance with the approved configuration.
An institution may not be able to meet all of its requirements from its standard builds.
The use of a non-standard build is typically documented and approved, with appropriate
changes made to patch management and disaster recovery plans.

Patch Management
Software support should incorporate a process to update and patch operating system and
application software for new vulnerabilities. Frequently, security vulnerabilities are dis-
covered in operating systems and other software after deployment. Vendors often issue
software patches to correct those vulnerabilities. Financial institutions should have an
effective monitoring process to identify new vulnerabilities in their hardware and soft-
ware. Monitoring involves such actions as the receipt and analysis of vendor and gov-
ernmental alerts and security mailing lists. Once identified, secure installation of those
patches requires a process for obtaining, testing, and installing the patch.
All patches are not equally important. Financial institutions should have a process to
evaluate the patches against the threat and network environment and to prioritize patch
application across classes of computers. Should the institution decide not to apply an
otherwise important patch to any particular computer, the decision should be documented

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with appropriate conforming changes made to inventory records and disaster recovery
plans.
Patches make direct changes to the software and configuration of each system to which
they are applied. They may degrade system performance, introduce new vulnerabilities,
or reintroduce old vulnerabilities. The following actions can help ensure patches do not
compromise the security of systems:
ƒ Obtain the patch from a known, trusted source
ƒ Verify the integrity of the patch through such means as comparisons of
cryptographic hashes to ensure the patch obtained is the correct, unaltered
patch
ƒ Apply the patch to an isolated test system and verify that the patch (1) is
compatible with other software used on systems to which the patch will be
applied, (2) does not alter the system’s security posture in unexpected
ways, such as altering log settings, and (3) corrects the pertinent vulner-
ability
ƒ Plan the patch roll-out to appropriately mitigate the risks to changing sys-
tems and address non-standard systems or systems with unique configura-
tion considerations
ƒ Use the change control process to update production systems:
- Back up production systems prior to applying the patch
- Apply the patch to production systems using secure methods, and update
the cryptographic checksums of key files as well as that system’s soft-
ware archive
- Test the resulting system for known vulnerabilities
ƒ Update standard builds
ƒ Create and document an audit trail of all changes
ƒ Seek additional expertise as necessary to maintain a secure computing en-
vironment

Controlled Changes to the Environment

Financial institutions should have an effective process to introduce application and sys-
tem changes into their environments. The process should encompass developing, imple-
menting, and testing changes to both internally developed software and acquired soft-
ware. Weak procedures can corrupt applications and introduce new security vulnerabili-
ties. Control considerations relating to security include the following:
ƒ Restricting changes to authorized users;
ƒ Reviewing the impact changes will have on security controls;
ƒ Identifying all system components that are affected by the changes;
ƒ Ensuring the application or system owner has authorized changes in ad-
vance;

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ƒ Maintaining strict version control of all software updates; and

ƒ Maintaining an audit trail of all changes
Changes to operating systems may degrade the efficiency and effectiveness of applica-
tions that rely on the operating system for interfaces to the network, other applications, or
data. Generally, management should implement an operating system change control
process similar to the change control process used for application changes. In addition,
management should review application systems following operating system changes to
protect against a potential compromise of security or operational integrity. Isolated soft-
ware libraries should be used for the creation and maintenance of software. Typically,
separate libraries exist for development, test, and production.

PERSONNEL SECURITY

Action Summary
Financial institutions should mitigate the risks posed by internal users
by
ƒ Performing appropriate background checks and screening of
new employees;
ƒ Obtaining agreements covering confidentiality, nondisclo-
sure, and authorized use;
ƒ Using job descriptions, employment agreements and training
to increase accountability for security; and
ƒ Providing training to support awareness and policy compli-
ance.

Application owners grant legitimate users system access necessary to perform their du-
ties; security personnel enforce access rights in accordance with institution standards.
Because of their internal access levels and intimate knowledge of financial institution
processes, authorized users pose a potential threat to systems and data. Employees, con-
tractors, or third-party employees can exploit their legitimate computer access for mali-
cious, fraudulent, or economic reasons. Additionally, the degree of internal access
granted to some users increases the risk of accidental damage or loss of information and
systems. Risk exposures from internal users include
ƒ Altering data,
ƒ Deleting production and back-up data,
ƒ Disrupting systems,
ƒ Destroying systems,
ƒ Misusing systems for personal gain or to damage the institution,

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ƒ Holding data hostage, and

ƒ Stealing strategic or customer data for corporate espionage or fraud
schemes.

BACKGROUND CHECKS AND SCREENING

Financial institutions should have a process to verify job application information on all
new employees. The sensitivity of a particular job or access level may warrant additional
background and credit checks. Institutions should verify that contractors are subject to
similar screening procedures. Typically, the minimum verification considerations in-
clude
ƒ Character references;
ƒ Confirmation that the prospective employee was never convicted of a
criminal offense, as detailed in 12 USC 1829; 24
ƒ Confirmation of prior experience, academic record, and professional quali-
fications; and
ƒ Confirmation of identity from government issued identification.
After employment, managers should remain alert to changes in employees’ personal cir-
cumstances that could increase incentives for system misuse or fraud.

AGREEMENTS: CONFIDENTIALITY, NON-DISCLOSURE, AND

AUTHORIZED USE
Financial institutions should protect the confidentiality of information about their cus-
tomers and organization. A breach in confidentiality could disclose competitive informa-
tion, increase fraud risk, damage the institution’s reputation, violate customer privacy and
associated rights, and violate regulatory requirements. 25 Confidentiality agreements put
all parties on notice that the financial institution owns its information, expects strict con-
fidentiality, and prohibits information sharing outside of that required for legitimate busi-
ness needs. Management should obtain signed confidentiality agreements before grant-
ing new employees and contractors access to information technology systems.
Authorized-use agreements are discussed in the “Access Rights Administration” section
of this booklet.

24
Twelve USC 1829 prohibits an insured depository institution from allowing a person who has been convicted
of any criminal offense at the local, state, or Federal level, involving dishonesty or a breach of trust, or money
laundering, or has agreed to enter into a pretrial diversion or similar program in connection with a prosecution
for such offense, to participate directly or indirectly, in the conduct of the affairs of the institution.
25
Under the GLBA, a financial institution shall design its information security program to ensure the confidenti-
ality of customer information.

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JOB DESCRIPTIONS
Job descriptions, employment agreements, and policy awareness acknowledgements in-
crease accountability for security. Management can communicate general and specific
security roles and responsibilities for all employees within their job descriptions. Man-
agement should expect all employees, officers, and contractors to comply with security
and acceptable-use policies and protect the institution’s assets, including information.
The job descriptions for security personnel should describe the systems and processes
they will protect and the control processes for which they are responsible. Management
can take similar steps to ensure contractors and consultants understand their security re-
sponsibilities as well.

TRAINING
Financial institutions need to educate users regarding their security roles and responsibili-
ties. Training should support security awareness and strengthen compliance with security
policies, standards, and procedures. Ultimately, the behavior and priorities of senior
management heavily influence the level of employee awareness and policy compliance,
so training and the commitment to security should start with senior management. Train-
ing materials for desktop and workstation users would typically review the acceptable-
use policy and include issues like desktop security, log-on requirements, password ad-
ministration guidelines, etc. Training should also address social engineering and the
policies and procedures that protect against social engineering attacks. Many institutions
integrate a signed security awareness agreement along with periodic training and re-
fresher courses.

DATA SECURITY

Action Summary
Financial institutions should control and protect access to paper,
film and computer-based media to avoid loss or damage. Institu-
tions should
ƒ Establish and ensure compliance with policies for handling
and storing information,
ƒ Ensure safe and secure disposal of sensitive media, and
ƒ Secure information in transit or transmission to third parties.

The primary objective of information security is to protect the confidentiality, integrity,

and availability of the institution’s information assets. All of the controls discussed so
far, whether at the perimeters, network or host levels, or embodied in actions taken by

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people, contribute to the achievement of that objective. However, not all data in an insti-
tution require the same protections as other data, and not all data remain within the insti-
tution’s physical perimeter.

THEORY AND TOOLS

Data security theory seeks to establish uniform risk-based requirements for the protection
of data elements. To ensure that the protection is uniform within and outside of the insti-
tution, tools such as data classifications and protection profiles can be used. Data classi-
fication is the identification and organization of information according to its criticality
and sensitivity. The classification is linked to a protection profile. A protection profile is
a description of the protections that should be afforded to data in each classification. The
profile is used both to develop and assess controls within the institution and to develop
contractual controls and requirements for those outside the institution who may process,
store, or otherwise use that data.
Protection profiles are also useful when data is transported. That may occur, for exam-
ple, when back-up tapes are moved offsite, when a laptop is removed from the institution,
or whenever removable media is used to store the data. The profile should indicate when
logical controls such as encryption are necessary; describe the required controls; and ad-
dress the contractual, physical, and logical controls around transportation arrangements.
Protection profiles should also address the protection of the media that contains the in-
formation.
Over time, protection profiles should be reviewed and updated. The review and updating
should address new data storage technologies, new protective controls, new methods of
attack as they appear, and changes in data sensitivity.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Data classification and protection profiles are complex to implement when the network or
storage is viewed as a utility. Because of that complexity, some institutions treat all in-
formation at that level as if it were of the highest sensitivity and implement encryption as
a protective measure. The complexity in implementing data classification in other layers
or in other aspects of an institution’s operation may result in other risk mitigation proce-
dures being used. Adequacy is a function of the extent of risk mitigation, and not the
procedure or tool used to mitigate risk.
Policies regarding media handling, disposal, and transit should be implemented to enable
the use of protection profiles and otherwise mitigate risks to data. If protection profiles
are not used, the policies should accomplish the same goal as protection profiles, which is
to deliver the same degree of residual risk without regard to whether the information is in
transit or storage, who is directly controlling the data, or where the storage may be.

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Handling and Storage

IT management should ensure secure storage of media. Controls could include physical
and environmental controls such as fire and flood protection, limited access (e.g., physi-
cal locks, keypad, passwords, and biometrics), labeling, and logged access. Management
should establish access controls to limit access to media, while ensuring that all employ-
ees have authorization to access the minimum data required to perform their responsibili-
ties. More sensitive information such as system documentation, application source code,
and production transaction data should have more extensive controls to guard against al-
teration (e.g., integrity checkers, cryptographic hashes). Furthermore, policies should
minimize the distribution of sensitive information, including printouts that contain the
information. Periodically, the security staff, audit staff, and data owners should review
authorization levels and distribution lists to ensure they remain appropriate and current.
The storage of data in portable devices, such as laptops and PDAs, poses unique prob-
lems. Those devices may be removed from the institution and not protected by any
physical security arrangements. Additionally, the devices may be lost or stolen. Mitiga-
tion of those risks typically involves encryption of sensitive data, host-provided access
controls, homing beacons, and remote deletion capabilities. The latter two controls can
be Internet-based. Homing beacons send a message to the institution whenever they are
connected to a network and enable recovery of the device. Remote deletion uses a simi-
lar communication to the institution, and also enables a communication from the institu-
tion to the device that commands certain data to be deleted.

Disposal
Financial institutions need appropriate disposal procedures for both electronic and paper-
based media. Designating a single individual, department, or function to be responsible
for disposal facilitates accountability and promotes compliance with disposal policies.
Policies should prohibit employees from discarding media containing sensitive informa-
tion along with regular garbage to avoid accidental disclosure. Many institutions shred
paper-based media on site and others use collection and disposal services to ensure the
media is rendered unreadable and unlikely to be reconstructed. Institutions that contract
with third parties should use care in selecting vendors to ensure adequate employee back-
ground checks, controls, and experience. Contracts with third-party disposal firms should
address acceptable disposal procedures. The disposal of customer and consumer infor-
mation should meet the requirements of the 501(b) guidelines.
Computer-based media presents unique disposal problems, and policies and procedures
should comprehensively address all of the various types of electronic media in use. Re-
sidual data frequently remains on media after erasure. Since that data can be recovered,
additional disposal techniques should be applied to sensitive data. Physical destruction of
the media, for instance by subjecting a compact disk to microwaves, can make the data

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unrecoverable. Additionally, data can sometimes be destroyed after overwriting. 26

Overwriting may be preferred when the media will be re-used. Institutions should base
their disposal policies on the sensitivity of the information contained on the media and,
through policies, procedures, and training, ensure that the actions taken to securely dis-
pose of computer-based media adequately protect the data from the risks of reconstruc-
tion. Where practical, management should log the disposal of sensitive media, especially
computer-based media. Logs should record the party responsible for and performing dis-
posal, as well as the date, medial type, hardware serial number, and method of disposal.

Transit
Financial institutions should maintain the security of media while in transit or when
shared with third parties. Policies should include
ƒ Contractual requirements that incorporate necessary risk-based controls,
ƒ Restrictions on the carriers used and procedures to verify the identity of
couriers,
ƒ Requirements for appropriate packaging to protect the media from dam-
age,
ƒ Use of encryption for transmission or transport of sensitive information,
ƒ Tracking of shipments to provide early indications of loss or damage,
ƒ Security reviews or independent security reports of receiving companies,
and
ƒ Use of nondisclosure agreements between couriers and third parties.
Financial institutions should address the security of their back-up tapes at all times, in-
cluding when the tapes are in transit from the data center to off-site storage.

26
Overwriting destroys data by replacing that data with new, random data. The replacement is accomplished by
writing the new data to the disk sectors that hold the data being destroyed. To be effective, overwriting may
have to be performed many times.

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SERVICE PROVIDER OVERSIGHT

Action Summary
Financial institutions should exercise their security responsibilities for
outsourced operations through
ƒ Appropriate due diligence in service provider research and
selection,
ƒ Contractual assurances regarding security responsibilities,
controls, and reporting,
ƒ Nondisclosure agreements regarding the institution’s systems
and data,
ƒ Independent review of the service provider’s security though
appropriate audits and tests, and
ƒ Coordination of incident response policies and contractual
notification requirements.

Many financial institutions outsource some aspect of their operations. Although out-
sourcing arrangements often provide a cost-effective means to support the institution’s
technology needs, the ultimate responsibility and risk rests with the institution. Financial
institutions are required under the 501(b) guidelines to ensure service providers have im-
plemented adequate security controls to safeguard customer information. The guidelines
require institutions to
ƒ Exercise appropriate due diligence in selecting service providers,
ƒ Require service providers by contract to implement appropriate security
controls to comply with the guidelines, and
ƒ Monitor service providers to confirm that they are maintaining those con-
trols when indicated by the institution’s risk assessment.
Financial institutions should implement these same precautions in all TSP relationships
based on the level of access to systems or data for safety and soundness reasons, in addi-
tion to the privacy requirements.
Financial institutions should evaluate the following security considerations when select-
ing a service provider:
ƒ Service provider references and experience,
ƒ Security expertise of TSP personnel,
ƒ Background checks on TSP personnel,
ƒ Contract assurances regarding security responsibilities and controls,
ƒ Nondisclosure agreements covering the institution’s systems and data,

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ƒ Ability to conduct audit coverage of security controls or obtain adequate

reports of security testing from independent third parties, and
ƒ Clear understanding of the provider’s security incidence response policy
and assurance that the provider will communicate security incidents
promptly to the institution when its systems or data were potentially com-
promised.
Financial institutions should ensure TSPs implement and maintain controls sufficient to
appropriately mitigate risk. In higher-risk relationships the institution by contract may
prescribe minimum control and reporting standards, obtain the right to require changes to
standards as external and internal environments change, and obtain access to the TSP for
institution or independent third-party evaluations of the TSP’s performance against the
standard. In lower risk relationships the institution may prescribe the use of standardized
reports, such as trust services reports or a Statement of Auditing Standards 70 (SAS 70)
report.

TRUST SERVICES
The American Institution of Certified Public Accountants created two trust services,
WebTrust and SysTrust, to address the risks and opportunities of information technology.
WebTrust reports provide assurance related to e-commerce systems. SysTrust reports
provide assurance on the reliability of systems. In each service, certified public account-
ants are engaged by the TSP to evaluate, test, and report on whether a system meets cer-
tain principles and associated evaluation criteria. One of those principles is security.
WebTrust and SysTrust reports differ from a SAS 70 report in many important respects.
The primary difference is that the evaluation criteria are uniform for all WebTrust and
SysTrust reports.
Institutions that consider using WebTrust and SysTrust reports as a part of their monitor-
ing of service provider performance should consider whether the review criteria for secu-
rity are sufficiently rigorous for the institution’s needs, whether the scope of the review is
adequate for the institution’s needs, and whether additional monitoring is required.
See the Third-Party Reviews of Technology Service Providers section of the FFIEC IT
Examination Handbook, “Audit” for more detailed information on this topic.

SAS 70 REPORTS
Frequently TSPs or user groups will contract with an accounting firm to report on internal
controls, including security, using SAS 70. SAS 70 is an auditing standard developed by
the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. SAS 70 focuses on controls and
control objectives. It allows for two types of reports. A SAS 70 Type I report gives the
service provider’s description of controls at a specific time, and an auditor’s report. The
auditor’s report will provide an opinion on whether the control description fairly presents

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the relevant aspects of the controls, and whether the controls were suitably designed for
their purpose.
A SAS 70 Type II report expands upon a Type I report by addressing whether the con-
trols were functioning. It provides a description of the auditor’s tests of the controls. It
also provides an expanded auditor’s report that addresses whether the controls that were
tested were operating with sufficient effectiveness to provide reasonable, but not abso-
lute, assurance that the control objectives were achieved during the specified period.
Financial institutions should carefully and critically evaluate whether a SAS 70 report
adequately supports their oversight responsibilities. The report may not provide a thor-
ough test of security controls and security monitoring unless requested by the TSP. It
may not address the effectiveness of the security process in continually mitigating chang-
ing risks. Additionally, the SAS 70 report may not address whether the TSP is meeting
the institution’s specific risk mitigation requirements. Therefore, the contracting over-
sight exercised by financial institutions may require additional tests, evaluations, and re-
ports to appropriately oversee the security program of the service provider. See the
Third-Party Reviews of Technology Service Providers section in the FFIEC IT Examina-
tion Handbook, “Audit” for more detailed information on this topic.

BUSINESS CONTINUITY CONSIDERATIONS

Action Summary
Financial institutions should consider
ƒ Identification of personnel with key security roles during a
continuity plan implementation, and training personnel in
those roles; and
ƒ Security needs for back-up sites and alternate communica-
tion networks.

Events that trigger the implementation of a business continuity plan may have significant
security implications. Depending on the event, some or all of the elements of the security
environment may change. Different people may be involved in operations, at different
physical locations, using similar but different machines and software which may commu-
nicate over different communications lines. Different tradeoffs may exist between avail-
ability, integrity, confidentiality, and accountability, with a different appetite for risk on
the part of management.
Business continuity plans should be reviewed as an integral part of the security process.
Risk assessments should consider the changing risks that appear in business continuity
scenarios and the different security posture that may be established. Strategies should

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consider the different risk environment and the degree of risk mitigation necessary to pro-
tect the institution in the event the continuity plans must be implemented. The imple-
mentation should consider the training of appropriate personnel in their security roles,
and the implementation and updating of technologies and plans for back-up sites and
communications networks. These security considerations should be integrated with the
testing of business continuity plan implementations. For more information, see the
“Business Continuity Planning” booklet of the FFIEC IT Examination Handbook.

INSURANCE

Action Summary
Financial institutions should carefully evaluate the extent and avail-
ability of coverage in relation to the specific risks they are seeking to
mitigate.

Financial institutions use insurance coverage as an effective method to transfer risks from
themselves to insurance carriers. Coverage is increasingly available to cover risks from
security breaches or denial of service attacks. Several insurance companies offer e-
commerce insurance packages that can reimburse financial institutions for losses from
fraud, privacy breaches, system downtime, or incident response. When evaluating the
need for insurance to cover information security threats, financial institutions should un-
derstand the following points:
ƒ Insurance is not a substitute for an effective security program.
ƒ Traditional fidelity bond coverage may not protect from losses related to
security intrusions.
ƒ Availability, cost, and covered risks vary by insurance company.
ƒ Availability of new insurance products creates a more dynamic environ-
ment for these factors.
ƒ Insurance cannot adequately cover the reputation and compliance risk re-
lated to customer relationships and privacy.
ƒ Insurance companies typically require companies to certify that certain se-
curity practices are in place.
Insurance coverage is rapidly evolving to meet the growing number of security-related
threats. Coverage varies by insurance company, but currently available insurance prod-
ucts may include coverage for the following risks:
ƒ Vandalism of financial institution Web sites;
ƒ Denial-of-service attacks;
ƒ Loss of income;
ƒ Computer extortion associated with threats of attack or disclosure of data;
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ƒ Theft of confidential information;

ƒ Privacy violations;
ƒ Litigation (breach of contract);
ƒ Destruction or manipulation of data (including viruses);
ƒ Fraudulent electronic signatures on loan agreements;
ƒ Fraudulent instructions through e-mail;
ƒ Third-party risk from companies responsible for security of financial insti-
tution systems or information;
ƒ Insiders who exceed system authorization; and
ƒ Incident response costs related to the use of negotiators, public relations
consultants, security and computer forensic consultants, programmers, re-
placement systems, etc.
Financial institutions can attempt to insure against these risks through existing blanket
bond insurance coverage added on to existing policies in order to address specific threats.
It is important that financial institutions understand the extent of coverage and the re-
quirements governing the reimbursement of claims. For example, financial institutions
should understand the extent of coverage available in the event of security breaches at a
third-party service provider. In such a case, the institution may want to consider contrac-
tual requirements that require service providers to maintain adequate insurance to cover
security incidents.
When considering supplemental insurance coverage for security incidents, the institution
should assess the specific threats in light of the impact these incidents will have on its
financial, operational, and reputation risk profiles. Obviously, when a financial institu-
tion contracts for additional coverage, it should ensure that it is aware of and prepared to
comply with any required security controls both at inception of the coverage and over the
term of the policy.

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SECURITY MONITORING

Action Summary
Financial institutions should gain assurance of the adequacy of
their risk mitigation strategy and implementation by
ƒ Monitoring network and host activity to identify policy viola-
tions and anomalous behavior;
ƒ Monitoring host and network condition to identify unauthor-
ized configuration and other conditions which increase the
risk of intrusion or other security events;
ƒ Analyzing the results of monitoring to accurately and quickly
identify, classify, escalate, report, and guide responses to se-
curity events; and
ƒ Responding to intrusions and other security events and weak-
nesses to appropriately mitigate the risk to the institution and
its customers, and to restore the institution’s systems.

Security monitoring focuses on the activities and condition of network traffic and net-
work hosts. Activity monitoring is primarily performed to assess policy compliance,
identify non-compliance with the institution’s policies, and identify intrusions and sup-
port an effective intrusion response. Because activity monitoring is typically an opera-
tional procedure performed over time, it is capable of providing continual assurance.
Monitoring of condition is typically performed in periodic testing. The assurance pro-
vided by condition monitoring can relate to the absence of an intrusion, the compliance
with authorized configurations, and the overall resistance to intrusions. Condition moni-
toring does not provide continual assurance, but relates to the point in time of the test.
Risk drives the degree of monitoring. In general, risk increases with system accessibility
and the sensitivity of data and processes. For example, a high-risk system is one that is
remotely accessible and allows direct access to funds, fund transfer mechanisms, or sensi-
tive customer data. Information-only Web sites that are not connected to any internal in-
stitution system or transaction-capable service are lower-risk systems. Information sys-
tems that exhibit high risks should be subject to more rigorous monitoring than low-risk
systems.
A financial institution’s security monitoring should, commensurate with the risk, be able
to identify control failures before a security incident occurs, detect an intrusion or other
security incident in sufficient time to enable an effective and timely response, and support
post-event forensics activities.

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ARCHITECTURE ISSUES
Financial institution networks should be designed to support effective monitoring. De-
sign considerations include
ƒ Network traffic policies that address the allowed communications between
computers or groups of computers,
ƒ Security domains that implement the policies,
ƒ Sensor placement to identify policy violations and anomalous traffic,
ƒ The nature and extent of logging,
ƒ Log storage and protection, and
ƒ Ability to implement additional sensors on an ad hoc basis.

ACTIVITY MONITORING
Activity monitoring consists of host and network data gathering, and analysis. Host data
is gathered and recorded in logs and includes performance and system events of security
significance. Host performance is important to identify anomalous behavior that may
indicate an intrusion. Security events are important both for the identification of anoma-
lous behavior and for enforcing accountability. Examples of security events include oper-
ating system access, privileged access, creation of privileged accounts, configuration
changes, and application access. Privileged access may be subject to keystroke re-
cording. Sensitive applications should have their own logging of significant events.
Host activity recording is typically limited by the abilities of the operating system and
application.
Network data gathering is enabled by sensors that typically are placed at control points
within the network. For example, a sensor could record traffic that is allowed through a
firewall into the DMZ, and another sensor could record traffic between the DMZ and the
internal network. As another example, a sensor could be placed on a switch that controls
a subnet on the internal network and record all activity into and out of the subnet.
Network data gathering is governed by the nature of network traffic. The activity re-
corded can range from parts of headers to full packet content. Packet header information
supports traffic analysis and provides such details as the endpoints, length, and nature of
network communication. Packet header recording is useful even when packet contents
are encrypted. Full packet content provides the exact communications traversing the
network in addition to supporting traffic analysis. Full packet content recording allows
for a more complete analysis, but entails additional collection, storage, and retrieval
costs.
Many types of network sensors exist. Sensors built into some popular routers record ac-
tivity from packet headers. Host-based sniffer software can be used on a device that does
not have an IP address. Some sensors are honeypots, or hosts configured to respond to
network communications similar to other hosts, but exist only for the purpose of captur-

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ing communications. Other sensors contain logic that performs part of the analysis task,
alerting on the similarity between observed traffic and preconfigured rules or patterns.
Those sensors are known as “Intrusion Detection Systems.”

NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS

Network intrusion detection systems (nIDS) combine the detection and logging of poten-
tial attacks with pre-defined response actions. These systems use one of two detection
methodologies, signature and anomaly detection. For response, the nIDS can perform
one of several actions according to its configuration. A passive nIDS could be config-
ured to notify institution personnel, log the attack identification, and log packets related
to the possible attack. A reactive IDS adds the capability to interact with the firewall to
block communications from the user or IP address associated with the potential attack.
Conceptually, the reactive IDS is very similar to an intrusion prevention system (IPS),
discussed in the “Access Control” section of this booklet.
To use a nIDS effectively, an institution should have a sound understanding of the detec-
tion capability and the effect of placement, tuning, and other network defenses on the de-
tection capability.
The signature-based detection methodology reads network packets and compares the con-
tent of the packets against signatures, or unique characteristics, of known attacks. When
a match is recognized between current readings and a signature, the nIDS generates an
alert.
Signatures may take several forms. The simplest form is the URL submitted to a Web
server, where certain references, such as cmd.exe, are indicators of an attack. The nature
of traffic to and from a server can also serve as a signature. An example is the length of a
session and amount of traffic passed.
A weakness in the signature-based detection method is that a signature must exist for an
alert to be generated. Signatures are written to either capture known exploits, or access to
suspected vulnerabilities. Vulnerability-based detection is generally broader based, alert-
ing on many exploits for the same vulnerability and potentially alerting on exploits that
are not yet known. Exploit-based signatures, however, are based on specific exploits and
may not alert when a new or previously unknown exploit is attempted.
Attacks that generate different signatures from what the institution includes in its nIDS
will not be detected. This problem can be particularly acute if the institution does not
continually update its signatures to reflect lessons learned from attacks on itself and oth-
ers, as well as developments in attack tool technologies. It can also pose problems when
the signatures only address known attacks. Another weakness is in the capacity of the
nIDS to read traffic. If the nIDS falls behind in reading network traffic, traffic may be

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allowed to bypass the nIDS. 27 That traffic may contain attacks that would otherwise
cause the nIDS to issue an alert.
The anomaly-based detection method generally detects deviations from a baseline. The
baseline can be either protocol-based, or behavior-based. The protocol-based baseline
detects differences between the detected packets for a given protocol and the Internet’s
RFCs (Requests for Comment) pertaining to that protocol. For example, a header field
could exceed the RFC-established expected size.
The behavior-based anomaly detection method creates a statistical profile of normal ac-
tivity on the host or network. Normal activity generally is measured based on the volume
of traffic, protocols in use, and connection patterns between various devices. Boundaries
for activity are established based on that profile. When current activity exceeds the
boundaries, an alert is generated. Weaknesses in this system involve the ability of the
system to accurately model activity, the relationship between valid activity in the period
being modeled and valid activity in future periods, and the potential for malicious activity
to take place while the modeling is performed. This method is best employed in envi-
ronments with predictable, stable activity.
Anomaly detection can be an effective supplement to signature-based methods by signal-
ing attacks for which no signature yet exists. Proper placement of nIDS sensors 28 is a
strategic decision determined by the information the institution is trying to obtain.
Placement outside the firewall will deliver IDS alarms related to all attacks, even those
that are blocked by the firewall. With this information, an institution can develop a pic-
ture of potential adversaries and their expertise based on the probes they issue against the
network.
Because the placement is meant to gain intelligence on attackers rather than to alert on
attacks, tuning generally makes the nIDS less sensitive than if it is placed inside the fire-
wall. A nIDS outside the firewall will generally alert on the greatest number of unsuc-
cessful attacks. nIDS monitoring behind the firewall is meant to detect and alert on hos-
tile intrusions. Multiple nIDS units can be used, with placement determined by the ex-
pected attack paths to sensitive data. Generally speaking, the closer the nIDS is to sensi-
tive data, the more important the tuning, monitoring, and response to nIDS alerts. The
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recommends network intrusion
detection systems “at any location where network traffic from external entities is allowed
to enter controlled or private networks.” 29
“Tuning” refers to the creation of signatures and alert filters that can distinguish between
normal network traffic and potentially malicious traffic. Tuning also involves creating
and implementing different alerting and logging actions based on the severity of the per-

27
IDS units that have a traffic rating, such as gigabit IDS, may allow traffic to bypass when traffic reaches a
fraction of their rating.
28
The sensor gathers information for analysis by the detection engine.
29
NIST Special Publication 800-41

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ceived attack. Proper tuning is essential to both reliable detection of attacks and the ena-
bling of a priority-based response. Tuning of some signature-based units for any particu-
lar network may take an extended period of time and involve extensive analysis of ex-
pected traffic. If a nIDS is not properly tuned, the volume of alerts it generates may de-
grade the intrusion identification and response capability.
Switched networks pose a problem for network IDS. Switches ordinarily do not broad-
cast traffic to all ports, and a nIDS may need to see all traffic to be effective. When
switches do not have a port that receives all traffic, the financial institution may have to
alter their network to include a hub or other device to allow the IDS to monitor traffic.
Encryption poses a potential limitation for a nIDS. If traffic is encrypted, the nIDS’s ef-
fectiveness may be limited to anomaly detection based on unencrypted header informa-
tion. This limitation can by overcome by decrypting packets within the IDS at rates
commensurate with the flow of traffic. Decryption is a device-specific feature that is not
incorporated into all nIDS units.
All nIDS detection methods result in false positives (alerts where no attack exists) and
false negatives (no alert when an attack does take place). While false negatives are obvi-
ously a concern, false positives can also hinder detection. When security personnel are
overwhelmed with the number of false positives, they may look at the nIDS reports with
less vigor, allowing real attacks to be reported by the nIDS but not researched or acted
upon. Additionally, they may tune the nIDS to reduce the number of false positives,
which may increase the number of false negatives. Risk-based testing is necessary to en-
sure the detection capability is adequate.

HONEYPOTS
A honeypot is a network device that the institution uses to attract attackers to a harmless
and monitored area of the network. Honeypots have three key advantages over network
and host IDSs. Since the honeypot’s only function is to be attacked, any network traffic
to or from the honeypot potentially signals an intrusion. Monitoring that traffic is simpler
than monitoring all traffic passing a network IDS. Honeypots also collect very little data,
and all of that data is highly relevant. Network IDSs gather vast amounts of traffic which
must be analyzed, sometimes manually, to generate a complete picture of an attack. Fi-
nally, unlike an IDS, a honeypot does not pass packets without inspection when under a
heavy traffic load.
Honeypots have two key disadvantages. First, they are ineffective unless they are at-
tacked. Consequently, organizations that use honeypots for detection usually make the
honeypot look attractive to an attacker. Attractiveness may be in the name of the device,
its apparent capabilities, or in its connectivity. Since honeypots are ineffective unless
they are attacked, they are typically used to supplement other intrusion detection capabili-
ties.

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The second key disadvantage is that honeypots introduce the risk of being compromised
without triggering an alarm, thereby becoming staging grounds for attacks on other de-
vices. The level of risk is dependent on the degree of monitoring, capabilities of the
honeypot, and its connectivity. For instance, a honeypot that is not rigorously monitored,
that has excellent connectivity to the rest of the institution’s network, and that has varied
and easy-to-compromise services presents a high risk to the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of the institution’s systems and data. On the other hand, a honeypot that is
rigorously monitored and whose sole capability is to log connections and issue bogus re-
sponses to the attacker, while signaling outside the system to the administrator, demon-
strates much lower risk.

HOST INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS

Host intrusion detection systems (hIDS) also use signature-based and anomaly-based
methods. Popular hIDSs include anti-virus and anti-spyware programs (See the “Mali-
cious Code Prevention” section of this booklet), as well as file integrity checkers.
A file integrity checker creates a hash of key binaries, and periodically compares a newly
generated hash against the original hash. Any mismatch signals a change to the binary, a
change that could be the result of an intrusion. Successful operation of this method in-
volves protection of the original binaries from change or deletion and protection of the
host that compares the hashes. If attackers can substitute a new hash for the original, an
attack may not be identified. Similarly, if an attacker can alter the host performing the
comparison so that it will report no change in the hash, an attack may not be identified.
An anomaly-based method monitors the application program calls to the operating sys-
tem for unexpected or unwanted behavior, such as a Web server calling a command line
interface, and alerts when unexpected calls are made.
Attackers can defeat host-based IDS systems using kernel modules. A kernel module is
software that attaches itself to the operating system kernel. From there, it can redirect
and alter communications and processing, hiding files, processes, registry keys, and other
information. With the proper kernel module, an attacker can force a comparison of
hashes to always report a match and provide the same cryptographic fingerprint of a file,
even after the source file was altered. Kernel modules can also hide the use of the appli-
cation program interfaces. Detection of kernel modules can be extremely difficult. De-
tection is typically performed through another kernel module or applications that look for
anomalies left behind when the kernel module is installed.
Some host-based IDS units address the difficulty of performing intrusion detection on
encrypted traffic. Those units position their sensors between the decryption of the IP
packet and the execution of any commands by the host. This host-based intrusion detec-
tion method is particularly appropriate for Internet banking servers and other servers that
communicate over an encrypted channel. Kernel modules, however, can defeat these
host-based IDS units.

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Host-based intrusion detection systems are recommended by the NIST for all mission-
critical systems, even those that should not allow external access. 30

LOG TRANSMISSION, NORMALIZATION, STORAGE, AND

PROTECTION
Network and host activities typically are recorded on the host and sent across the network
to a central logging facility. The data that arrives at the logging facility is in the format
of the software that recorded the activity. The logging facility may process the logging
data into a common format. That process is called normalization. Normalized data fre-
quently enables timely and effective log analysis.
Log files are critical to the successful investigation and prosecution of security incidents
and can potentially contain sensitive information. Intruders will often attempt to conceal
any unauthorized access by editing or deleting log files. Therefore, institutions should
strictly control and monitor access to log files whether on the host or in a centralized log-
ging facility. Some considerations for securing the integrity of log files include
ƒ Encrypting log files that contain sensitive data or that are transmitting over
the network;
ƒ Ensuring adequate storage capacity to avoid gaps in data gathering;
ƒ Securing back-up and disposal of log files;
ƒ Logging the data to a separate, isolated computer;
ƒ Logging the data to write-only media like a write-once/read-many
(WORM) disk or drive; and
ƒ Setting logging parameters to disallow any modification to previously
written data.

CONDITION MONITORING
Condition monitoring tools include self-assessments, metrics, and independent tests.

SELF ASSESSMENTS
Self-assessments are useful in providing a warning flag to line management so problems
can be addressed before they arise in testing reports. Self-assessments may be performed
by operations personnel or by vendors under the direction of those at the institution who
are responsible for the systems being assessed. Self-assessments may use tools and tech-
niques similar to independently performed audits and penetration tests, and include:
ƒ Assessing conformance to policies and procedures, including service pro-
vider oversight;
ƒ Scanning for technical vulnerabilities;

30
NIST Special Publication 800-41.

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ƒ Verifying that device and network configurations are authorized and

changes are properly processed;
ƒ Verifying that information is stored only where authorized;
ƒ Reviewing the adequacy of the risk assessment and monitoring plans; and
ƒ Reviewing test results.

METRICS
Metrics can be used to measure security policy implementation, the effectiveness and ef-
ficiency of security services delivery, and the impact of security events on business proc-
esses. The measurement of security characteristics can allow management to increase
control and drive improvements to the security process.
Metrics may not measure conformance to policy directly. Policies frequently are general
statements that lack the specificity necessary for measurement. Metrics generally are
formed to measure conformance to the standards and procedures that are used to imple-
ment policies. Those standards may be developed by the institution, developed or recog-
nized by the financial institution industry (e.g. BITS), or developed or recognized for
business in general. An example of the third is ISO 17799.
The adoption of standards, however, does not mean that a metrics system can or should
be instituted. Metrics are best used in mature security processes, when
ƒ Information measures are quantifiable and readily obtainable, and
ƒ Processes are repeatable.
The degree to which a security metrics program mitigates risk is a function of the com-
prehensiveness and accuracy of the measurements and the analysis and use of those
measurements. The measurements should be sufficient to justify security decisions that
affect the institution’s security posture, allocate resources to security-related tasks, and
provide a basis for security-related reports.

INDEPENDENT TESTS
Independent tests include penetration tests, audits, and assessments. Independence pro-
vides credibility to the test results. To be considered independent, testing personnel
should not be responsible for the design, installation, maintenance, and operation of the
tested system, or the policies and procedures that guide its operation. The reports gener-
ated from the tests should be prepared by individuals who also are independent of the de-
sign, installation, maintenance, and operation of the tested system.
Penetration tests, audits, and assessments can use the same set of tools in their method-
ologies. The nature of the tests, however, is decidedly different. Additionally, the defini-
tions of penetration test and assessment, in particular, are not universally held and have
changed over time.

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Penetration Tests. A penetration test subjects a system to the real-world attacks selected
and conducted by the testing personnel. The benefit of a penetration test is that it identi-
fies the extent to which a system can be compromised before the attack is identified and
assesses the response mechanism’s effectiveness. Because a penetration test seldom is a
comprehensive test of the system’s security, it should be combined with other monitoring
to validate the effectiveness of the security process.
Audits. Auditing compares current practices against a set of standards. Industry groups
or institution management may create those standards. Institution management is respon-
sible for demonstrating that the standards it adopts are appropriate for the institution.
Assessments. An assessment is a study to locate security vulnerabilities and identify cor-
rective actions. An assessment differs from an audit by not having a set of standards to
test against. It differs from a penetration test by providing the tester with full access to
the systems being tested. Assessments may be focused on the security process or the in-
formation system. They may also focus on different aspects of the information system,
such as one or more hosts or networks.

Key Factors
Management is responsible for considering the following key factors in developing and
implementing independent tests:
Personnel. Technical testing is frequently only as good as the personnel performing and
supervising the test. Management is responsible for reviewing the qualifications of the
testing personnel to satisfy itself that the capabilities of the testing personnel are adequate
to support the test objectives.
Scope. The tests and methods utilized should be sufficient to validate the effectiveness of
the security process in identifying and appropriately controlling security risks.
Notifications. Management is responsible for considering whom to inform within the in-
stitution about the timing and nature of the tests. The need for protection of institution
systems and the potential for disruptive false alarms must be balanced against the need to
test personnel reactions to unexpected activities.
Data Integrity, Confidentiality, and Availability. Management is responsible for care-
fully controlling information security tests to limit the risks to data integrity, confidential-
ity, and system availability. Because testing may uncover nonpublic customer informa-
tion, appropriate safeguards to protect the information must be in place. Contracts with
third parties to provide testing services should require that the third parties implement
appropriate measures to meet the objectives of the 501(b) guidelines. Management is
responsible for ensuring that employee and contract personnel who perform the tests or
have access to the test results have passed appropriate background checks, and that con-
tract personnel are appropriately bonded. Because certain tests may pose more risk to
system availability than other tests, management is responsible for considering whether to

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require the personnel performing those tests to maintain logs of their testing actions.
Those logs can be helpful should the systems react in an unexpected manner.
Confidentiality of Test Plans and Data. Since knowledge of test planning and results
may facilitate a security breach, institutions should carefully limit the distribution of their
testing information. Management is responsible for clearly identifying the individuals
responsible for protecting the data and providing guidance for that protection, while mak-
ing the results available in a useable form to those who are responsible for following up
on the tests. Management also should consider requiring contractors to sign nondisclosure
agreements and to return to the institution information they obtained in their testing.
Frequency. The frequency of testing should be determined by the institution’s risk as-
sessment. High-risk systems should be subject to an independent test at least once a year.
Additionally, firewall policies and other policies addressing access control between the
financial institution’s network and other networks should be audited and verified at least
quarterly. 31 Factors that may increase the frequency of testing include the extent of
changes to network configuration, significant changes in potential attacker profiles and
techniques, and the results of other testing.
Proxy Testing. Independent testing of a proxy system is generally not effective in vali-
dating the effectiveness of a security process. Proxy testing, by its nature, does not test
the operational system’s policies and procedures, or its integration with other systems. It
also does not test the reaction of personnel to unusual events. Proxy testing may be the
best choice, however, when management is unable to test the operational system without
creating excessive risk.

ANALYSIS AND RESPONSE

The analysis and response to activity and condition monitoring is performed differently in
financial institutions of different size and complexity. Smaller and less complex institu-
tions may assign operational personnel to the analysis and response function. Larger and
more complex institutions may maintain a security response center that receives and ana-
lyzes the data flows as activity occurs. Additionally, institutions of all sizes may out-
source various aspects of the analysis and response function, such as activity monitoring.
Outsourcing does not relieve the institution of the responsibility for ensuring that control
failures are identified before a security incident occurs, an intrusion or other security in-
cident is detected in sufficient time to enable an effective and timely response, and post-
event forensics activities are supported.

31
The quarterly auditing and verification need not be by an independent source. See NIST Special Publication
800–41.

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SECURITY INCIDENTS
An internal security response center serves as a central location for the analysis and in-
vestigation of potential security incidents. To serve in that role, the security response
center should consider, evaluate, and respond to both external threats and internal vulner-
abilities. Sources of external threat information include industry information sharing and
analysis centers (ISACs), Infraguard, mailing lists, and commercial reporting services.
Internal vulnerability information is available from condition reporting and activity moni-
toring. Security response centers should be able to access all relevant internal vulnerabil-
ity information in a read-only manner. That data may reside in centralized log reposito-
ries, on the devices that perform the logging, and in results of self-assessments and inde-
pendent tests. Security response centers also should have available tools to analyze the
logs and to perform ad hoc activity monitoring. Other additional and useful data sources
are reports of anomalies in both network and host performance and the end-user experi-
ence. The latter relates both to internal users as well as contractors and customers who
use the institution’s systems.
Because the identification of incidents requires monitoring and management, response
centers frequently use SIM (security information management) tools to assist in the data
collection, analysis, classification, and reporting of activities related to security incidents.
The security response center should be governed by policies and procedures that address
security incidents:
ƒ Monitoring policies should enable adequate continual and ad-hoc monitor-
ing of communications and the use of the results of monitoring in subse-
quent legal procedures. The responsibility and authority of security per-
sonnel and system administrators for monitoring should be established,
and the tools used should be reviewed and approved by appropriate man-
agement with appropriate conditions for use.
ƒ Classification policies should be sufficiently clear to enable timely classi-
fication of incidents into different levels of severity. Response and report-
ing levels should be commensurate with the severity levels.
ƒ Escalation policies should address when different personnel within the or-
ganization will be contacted about the incident, and the responsibility
those personnel have in incident analysis and response.
ƒ Reporting policies should address internal and external reporting, includ-
ing coordination with service providers and reporting to industry ISACs.
Additionally, a policy should address who is empowered to declare an incident to be an
intrusion.
The effectiveness of a security incident response center also is a function of the training
and expertise of the security analysts. A financial institution should ensure that its ana-
lysts are sufficiently trained to appropriately analyze network and host activity and to use
the monitoring and analysis tools made available to them.

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INTRUSION RESPONSE
The goal of intrusion response is to minimize damage to the institution and its customers
through containment of the intrusion, the restoration of systems, and providing assistance
to customers.
The response primarily involves people rather than technologies. The quality of intrusion
response is a function of the institution’s culture, policies and procedures, and training.
Preparation determines the success of any intrusion response. This involves defining the
policies and procedures that guide the response, assigning responsibilities to individuals,
providing appropriate training, formalizing information flows, and selecting, installing,
and understanding the tools used in the response effort. Key considerations that directly
affect the institution’s policies and procedures include the following:
ƒ How to balance concerns regarding availability, confidentiality, and integ-
rity for devices and data of different sensitivities. This consideration is a
key driver for a containment strategy and may involve legal and liability
considerations. An institution may decide that some systems must be dis-
connected or shut down at the first sign of intrusion, while others must be
left on line.
ƒ When and under what circumstances to invoke the intrusion response ac-
tivities, and how to ensure that the proper personnel are notified and avail-
able.
ƒ How to control the frequently powerful intrusion identification and re-
sponse tools.
ƒ When to involve outside experts and how to ensure the proper expertise
will be available when needed. This consideration addresses both the con-
tainment and the restoration strategy.
ƒ When and under what circumstances to notify and involve regulators, cus-
tomers, and law enforcement. This consideration drives certain monitor-
ing decisions, decisions regarding evidence-gathering and preservation,
and communications considerations.
ƒ Which personnel have authority to perform what actions in containment of
the intrusion and restoration of the systems. This consideration affects the
internal communications strategy, the commitment of personnel, and pro-
cedures that escalate involvement and decisions within the organization.
ƒ How and what to communicate outside the organization, whether to law
enforcement, supervisory agencies, customers, service providers, potential
victims, and others. This consideration drives the communication strategy
and is a key component in mitigating reputation risk.
ƒ How to document and maintain the evidence, decisions, and actions taken.
ƒ What criteria must be met before compromised services, equipment, and
software are returned to the network.

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ƒ How to learn from the intrusion and use those lessons to improve the insti-
tution’s security.
ƒ How and when to prepare and file a Suspicious Activities Report (SAR).
Successful implementation of any response policy and procedure requires the assignment
of responsibilities and training. Some organizations formalize the response program with
the creation of a computer security incident response team (CSIRT). The CSIRT is typi-
cally tasked with performing, coordinating, and supporting responses to security inci-
dents. Due to the wide range of technical and nontechnical issues that are posed by an
intrusion, typical CSIRT membership includes individuals with a wide range of back-
grounds and expertise, from many different areas within the institution. Those areas in-
clude management, legal, public relations, as well as information technology. Other or-
ganizations may outsource some of the CSIRT functions, such as forensic examinations.
When CSIRT functions are outsourced, institutions should ensure that the service pro-
vider follows the institution’s policies and maintains the confidentiality of data.
Institutions should assess the adequacy of their preparations through testing.
While containment strategies between institutions can vary, they typically contain the fol-
lowing broad elements:
ƒ Isolation of compromised systems, or enhanced monitoring of intruder ac-
tivities;
ƒ Search for additional compromised systems;
ƒ Collection and preservation of evidence; and
ƒ Communication with effected parties, the primary regulator, and law en-
forcement.
Restoration strategies should address the following:
ƒ Elimination of an intruder’s means of access;
ƒ Restoration of systems, programs and data to known good state;
ƒ Filing of a SAR (guidelines for filing are included in individual agency
guidance), and
ƒ Initiation of customer notification and assistance activities consistent with
interagency guidance.

OUTSOURCED SYSTEMS
Management is responsible for ensuring the protection of institution and customer data,
even when that data is transmitted, processed, stored, or disposed of by a service pro-
vider. Service providers should have appropriate security monitoring based on the risk to
their organization, their customer institutions, and the institution’s customers. Accord-
ingly, management and auditors evaluating TSPs should use the guidance in this booklet
in performing initial due diligence, constructing contracts, and exercising ongoing over-
sight or audit responsibilities. Where indicated by the institution’s risk assessment, man-

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agement is responsible for monitoring the service provider’s activities through review of
timely audits and test results or other equivalent evaluations.

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SECURITY PROCESS MONITORING

AND UPDATING

Action Summary
Financial institutions should continuously gather and analyze infor-
mation regarding new threats and vulnerabilities, actual attacks on
the institution or others, and the effectiveness of the existing secu-
rity controls. They should then use that information to update the
risk assessment, strategy, and implemented controls.

A static security program provides a false sense of security and will become increasingly
ineffective over time. Monitoring and updating the security program is an important part
of the ongoing cyclical security process. Financial institutions should treat security as
dynamic with active monitoring; prompt, ongoing risk assessment; and appropriate up-
dates to controls. Institutions should continuously gather and analyze information regard-
ing new threats and vulnerabilities, actual attacks on the institution or others, and the ef-
fectiveness of the existing security controls. They should use that information to update
the risk assessment, strategy, and implemented controls. Updating the security program
begins with the identification of the potential need to alter aspects of the security program
and then recycles through the security process steps of risk assessment, strategy, imple-
mentation, and testing.

MONITORING
Effective monitoring of threats includes both non-technical and technical sources. Non-
technical sources include organizational changes, business process changes, new business
locations, increased sensitivity of information, or new products and services. Technical
sources include new systems, new service providers, and increased access. Security per-
sonnel and financial institution management must remain alert to emerging threats and
vulnerabilities. This effort could include the following security activities:
ƒ Senior management support for strong security policy awareness and
compliance. Management and employees must remain alert to operational
changes that could affect security and actively communicate issues with
security personnel. Business line managers must have responsibility and
accountability for maintaining the security of their personnel, systems, fa-
cilities, and information.
ƒ Security personnel should monitor the information technology environ-
ment and review performance reports to identify trends, new threats, or

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control deficiencies. Specific activities could include reviewing security

and activity logs, investigating operational anomalies, and routinely re-
viewing system and application access levels.
ƒ Security personnel and system owners should monitor external sources for
new technical and non-technical vulnerabilities and develop appropriate
mitigation solutions to address them. Examples include many controls
discussed elsewhere in this booklet, including
- Establishing an effective process that monitors for vulnerabilities
in hardware and software and establishes a process to install and
test security patches,
- Maintaining up-to-date anti-virus definitions and intrusion detec-
tion attack definitions, and
- Providing effective oversight of service providers and vendors to
identify and react to new security issues.
ƒ Senior management should require periodic self-assessments to provide an
ongoing assessment of policy adequacy and compliance and ensure
prompt corrective action of significant deficiencies.

UPDATING
Financial institutions should evaluate the information gathered to determine the extent of
any required adjustments to the various components of their security program. The insti-
tution will need to consider the scope, impact, and urgency of any new or changing threat
or vulnerability. Depending on the nature of changing environment, the institution will
need to reassess the risk and make changes to its security process (e.g., the security strat-
egy, the controls implementation, or the security monitoring requirements).
Institution management confronts routine security issues and events on a regular basis. In
many cases, the issues are relatively isolated and may be addressed through an informal
or targeted risk assessment embedded within an existing security control process. For
example, the institution might assess the risk of a new operating system vulnerability be-
fore testing and installing the patch. More systemic events like mergers, acquisitions,
new systems, or system conversions, however, warrant a more extensive security risk as-
sessment. Regardless of the scope, the potential impact and the urgency of the risk expo-
sure will dictate when and how controls are changed.

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APPENDIX A: EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

EXAMINATION OBJECTIVE: Assess the quantity of risk and the effectiveness

of the institution’s risk management processes as they relate to the security measures in-
stituted to ensure confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and to instill
accountability for actions taken on the institution’s systems. The objectives and proce-
dures are divided into Tier 1 and Tier II:
ƒ Tier I assesses an institution’s process for identifying and managing risks.
ƒ Tier II provides additional verification where risk warrants it.
Tier I and Tier II are intended to be a tool set examiners will use when selecting examina-
tion procedures for their particular examination. Examiners should use these procedures
as necessary to support examination objectives.

TIER I PROCEDURES
Objective 1: Determine the appropriate scope for the examination.

1. Review past reports for outstanding issues or previous problems. Consider

• Regulatory reports of examination
• Internal and external audit reports
• Independent security tests
• Regulatory, audit, and security reports from service providers
2. Review management’s response to issues raised at the last examination. Con-
sider
• Adequacy and timing of corrective action
• Resolution of root causes rather than just specific issues
• Existence of any outstanding issues
3. Interview management and review examination information to identify changes
to the technology infrastructure or new products and services that might increase
the institution’s risk from information security issues. Consider
• Products or services delivered to either internal or external users
• Network topology including changes to configuration or components
• Hardware and software listings
• Loss or addition of key personnel
• Technology service providers and software vendor listings
• Changes to internal business processes

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• Key management changes

• Internal reorganizations
4. Determine the existence of new threats and vulnerabilities to the institution’s
information security. Consider
• Changes in technology employed by the institution
• Threats identified by institution staff
• Known threats identified by information sharing and analysis organizations and
other non-profit and commercial organizations.
• Vulnerabilities raised in security testing reports

Q UANTITY OF RISK
Objective 2: Determine the complexity of the institution’s information secu-
rity environment.

1. Review the degree of reliance on service providers for information processing

and technology support including security management. Review evidence that
service providers of information processing and technology participate in an ap-
propriate industry Information Sharing and Analysis Center (ISAC).
2. Identify unique products and services and any required third-party access re-
quirements.
3. Determine the extent of network connectivity internally and externally, and the
boundaries and functions of security domains.
4. Identify the systems that have recently undergone significant change, such as
new hardware, software, configurations, and connectivity. Correlate the
changed systems with the business processes they support, the extent of cus-
tomer data available to those processes, and the role of those processes in funds
transfers.
5. Evaluate management’s ability to control security risks given the frequency of
changes to the computing environment.
6. Evaluate security maintenance requirements and extent of historical security is-
sues with installed hardware/software.
7. Identify whether external standards are used as a basis for the security program,
and the extent to which management tailors the standards to the financial institu-
tions’ specific circumstances.
8. Determine the size and quality of the institution’s security staff. Consider
• Appropriate security training and certification
• Adequacy of staffing levels and impact of any turnover

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• Extent of background investigations

• Available time to perform security responsibilities

Q UALITY OF RISK M ANAGEMENT

Objective 3: Determine the adequacy of the risk assessment process.

1. Review the risk assessment to determine whether the institution has character-
ized its system properly and assessed the risks to information assets. Consider
whether the institution has:
• Identified and ranked information assets (e.g., data, systems, physical locations)
according to a rigorous and consistent methodology that considers the risks to
customer non-public information as well as the risks to the institution,
• Identified all reasonably foreseeable threats to the financial institution assets,
• Analyzed its technical and organizational vulnerabilities, and
• Considered the potential effect of a security breach on customers as well as the
institution.
2. Determine whether the risk assessment provides adequate support for the secu-
rity strategy, controls, and monitoring that the financial institution has imple-
mented.
3. Evaluate the risk assessment process for the effectiveness of the following key
practices:
• Multidisciplinary and knowledge-based approach
• Systematic and centrally controlled
• Integrated process
• Accountable activities
• Documented
• Knowledge enhancing
• Regularly updated
4. Identify whether the institution effectively updates the risk assessment prior to
making system changes, implementing new products or services, or confronting
new external conditions that would affect the risk analysis. Identify whether, in
the absence of the above factors, the risk assessment is reviewed at least once a
year.

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Objective 4: Evaluate the adequacy of security policies and standards rela-

tive to the risk to the institution.

1. Review security policies and standards to ensure that they sufficiently address
the following areas when considering the risks identified by the institution. If
policy validation is necessary, consider performing Tier II procedures.
• Authentication and Authorization
- Acceptable-use policy that dictates the appropriate use of the institu-
tion’s technology including hardware, software, networks, and tele-
communications.
- Administration of access rights at enrollment, when duties change,
and at employee separation.
- Appropriate authentication mechanisms including token-based sys-
tems, digital certificates, or biometric controls and related enrollment
and maintenance processes as well as database security.
• Network Access
- Security domains
- Perimeter protections including firewalls, malicious code prevention,
outbound filtering, and security monitoring.
- Appropriate application access controls
- Remote access controls including wireless, VPN, modems, and
Internet-based
• Host Systems
- Secure configuration (hardening)
- Operating system access
- Application access and configuration
- Malicious code prevention
- Logging
- Monitoring and updating
• User Equipment
- Secure configuration (hardening)
- Operating system access
- Application access and configuration
- Malicious code prevention
- Logging
- Monitoring and updating
• Physical controls over access to hardware, software, storage media, paper re-
cords, and facilities

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• Encryption controls
• Malicious code prevention
• Software development and acquisition, including processes that evaluate the se-
curity features and software trustworthiness of code being developed or ac-
quired, as well as change control and configuration management.
• Personnel security
• Media handling procedures and restrictions, including procedures for securing,
transmitting and disposing of paper and electronic information
• Service provider oversight
• Business continuity
• Insurance

2. Evaluate the policies and standards against the following key actions:
• Implementing through ordinary means, such as system administration proce-
dures and acceptable-use policies;
• Enforcing with security tools and sanctions;
• Delineating the areas of responsibility for users, administrators, and managers;
• Communicating in a clear, understandable manner to all concerned;
• Obtaining employee certification that they have read and understood the policy;
• Providing flexibility to address changes in the environment; and
• Conducting annually a review and approval by the board of directors.

Objective 5: Evaluate the security-related controls embedded in vendor

management.

1. Evaluate the sufficiency of security-related due diligence in service provider re-

search and selection.
2. Evaluate the adequacy of contractual assurances regarding security responsibili-
ties, controls, and reporting.
3. Evaluate the appropriateness of nondisclosure agreements regarding the institu-
tion’s systems and data.
4. Determine that the scope, completeness, frequency, and timeliness of third-party
audits and tests of the service provider’s security are supported by the financial
institution’s risk assessment.
5. Evaluate the adequacy of incident response policies and contractual notification
requirements in light of the risk of the outsourced activity.

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Objective 6: Determine the adequacy of security monitoring.

1. Obtain an understanding of the institution’s monitoring plans and activities, in-

cluding both activity monitoring and condition monitoring.
2. Identify the organizational unit and personnel responsible for performing the
functions of a security response center.
3. Evaluate the adequacy of information used by the security response center. In-
formation should include external information on threats and vulnerabilities
(ISAC and other reports) and internal information related to controls and activi-
ties.
4. Obtain and evaluate the policies governing security response center functions,
including monitoring, classification, escalation, and reporting.
5. Evaluate the institution’s monitoring plans for appropriateness given the risks of
the institution’s environment.
6. Where metrics are used, evaluate the standards used for measurement, the in-
formation measures and repeatability of measured processes, and appropriate-
ness of the measurement scope.
7. Ensure that the institution utilizes sufficient expertise to perform its monitoring
and testing.
8. For independent tests, evaluate the degree of independence between the persons
testing security from the persons administering security.
9. Determine the timeliness of identification of vulnerabilities and anomalies, and
evaluate the adequacy and timing of corrective action.
10. Evaluate the institution’s policies and program for responding to unauthorized
access to customer information, considering guidance in Supplement A to the
Section 501(b) GLBA information security guidelines.
11. If the institution experienced unauthorized access to sensitive customer infor-
mation, determine that it:
• Conducted a prompt investigation to determine the likelihood the informa-
tion accessed has been or will be misused;
• Notified customers when the investigation determined misuse of sensitive
customer information has occurred or is reasonably possible;
• Delivered notification to customers, when warranted, by means the customer
can reasonably be expected to receive, for example, by telephone, mail, or
electronic mail; and
• Appropriately notified its primary federal regulator.

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Objective 7: Evaluate the effectiveness of enterprise-wide security admini-

stration.

1. Review board and committee minutes and reports to determine the level of sen-
ior management support of and commitment to security.
2. Determine whether management and department heads are adequately trained
and sufficiently accountable for the security of their personnel, information, and
systems.
3. Review security guidance and training provided to ensure awareness among em-
ployees and contractors, including annual certification that personnel understand
their responsibilities.
4. Determine whether security responsibilities are appropriately apportioned
among senior management, front-line management, IT staff, information secu-
rity professionals, and other staff, recognizing that some roles must be inde-
pendent from others.
5. Determine whether the individual or department responsible for ensuring com-
pliance with security policies has sufficient position and authority within the or-
ganization to implement the corrective action.
6. Evaluate the process used to monitor and enforce policy compliance (e.g., grant-
ing and revocation of user rights).
7. Evaluate the adequacy of automated tools to support secure configuration man-
agement, security monitoring, policy monitoring, enforcement, and reporting.
8. Evaluate management's ability to effectively control the pace of change to its
environment, including the process used to gain assurance that changes to be
made will not pose undue risk in a production environment. Consider the defini-
tion of security requirements for the changes, appropriateness of staff training,
quality of testing, and post-change monitoring.
9. Evaluate coordination of incident response policies and contractual notification
requirements.

C ONCLUSIONS
Objective 8: Discuss corrective action and communicate findings.

1. Determine the need to proceed to Tier II procedures for additional validation to

support conclusions related to any of the Tier I objectives.
2. Review your preliminary conclusions with the EIC regarding
• Violations of law, rulings, regulations,
• Significant issues warranting inclusion as matters requiring attention or recom-
mendations in the Report of Examination,

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• Potential impact of your conclusions on composite or component IT ratings, and

• Potential impact of your conclusions on the institution’s risk assessment.
3. Discuss your findings with management and obtain proposed corrective action
for significant deficiencies.
4. Document your conclusions in a memo to the EIC that provides report-ready
comments for all relevant sections of the Report of Examination and guidance to
future examiners.
5. Organize your work papers to ensure clear support for significant findings by
examination objective.

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TIER II OBJECTIVES AND PROCEDURES

The Tier II examination procedures for information security provide additional verifica-
tion procedures to evaluate the effectiveness of, and identify potential root causes for
weaknesses in, a financial institution’s security program. These procedures are designed
to assist in achieving examination objectives and may be used in their entirety or selec-
tively, depending upon the scope of the examination and the need for additional verifica-
tion. For instance, if additional verification is necessary for firewall practices, the exam-
iner may find it necessary to select some of the procedures from the authentication, net-
work security, host security, and physical security areas to create a customized examina-
tion procedure. Examiners should coordinate this coverage with other examiners to avoid
duplication of effort while including the security issues found in other workprograms.
The procedures provided below should not be construed as requirements for control im-
plementation. The selection of controls and control implementation should be guided by
the risks facing the institution's information system. Thus, the controls necessary for any
single institution or any given area of a given institution may differ from the specifics
that can be inferred from the following procedures.

A. A UTHENTICATION AND A CCESS C ONTROLS

Access Rights Administration

1. Evaluate the adequacy of policies and procedures for authentication and access
controls to manage effectively the risks to the financial institution.
• Evaluate the processes that management uses to define access rights and privi-
leges (e.g., software and/or hardware systems access) and determine if they are
based upon business need requirements.
• Review processes that assign rights and privileges and ensure that they take into
account and provide for adequate segregation of duties.
• Determine whether access rights are the minimum necessary for business pur-
poses. If greater access rights are permitted, determine why the condition exists
and identify any mitigating issues or compensating controls.
• Ensure that access to operating systems is based on either a need-to-use or an
event-by-event basis.
2. Determine whether the user registration and enrollment process
• Uniquely identifies the user,
• Verifies the need to use the system according to appropriate policy,
• Enforces a unique user ID,
• Assigns and records the proper security attributes (e.g., authorization),

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• Enforces the assignment or selection of an authenticator that agrees with the se-
curity policy,
• Securely distributes any initial shared secret authenticator or token, and
• Obtains acknowledgement from the user of acceptance of the terms of use.
3. Determine whether employee’s levels of online access (blocked, read-only, up-
date, override, etc.) match current job responsibilities.
4. Determine that administrator or root privilege access is appropriately monitored,
where appropriate.
• Management may choose to further categorize types of administrator/root ac-
cess based upon a risk assessment. Categorizing this type of access can be used
to identify and monitor higher-risk administrator and root access requests that
should be promptly reported.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness and timeliness with which changes in access control
privileges are implemented and the effectiveness of supporting policies and pro-
cedures.
• Review procedures and controls in place and determine whether access control
privileges are promptly eliminated when they are no longer needed. Include
former employees and temporary access for remote access and contract workers
in the review.
• Assess the procedures and controls in place to change, when appropriate, access
control privileges (e.g., changes in job responsibility and promotion).
• Determine whether access rights expire after a predetermined period of inactiv-
ity.
• Review and assess the effectiveness of a formal review process to periodically
review the access rights to assure all access rights are proper. Determine
whether necessary changes made as a result of that review.
6. Determine that, where appropriate and feasible, programs do not run with
greater access to other resources than necessary. Programs to consider include
application programs, network administration programs (e.g., Domain Name
System), and other programs.
7. Compare the access control rules establishment and assignment processes to the
access control policy for consistency.
8. Determine whether users are aware of the authorized uses of the system.
• Do internal users receive a copy of the authorized-use policy, appropriate train-
ing, and signify understanding and agreement before usage rights are granted?
• Is contractor usage appropriately detailed and controlled through the contract?
• Do customers and Web site visitors either explicitly agree to usage terms or are
provided a disclosure, as appropriate?

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Authentication
1. Determine whether the financial institution has removed or reset default profiles
and passwords from new systems and equipment.
2. Determine whether access to system administrator level is adequately controlled
and monitored.
3. Evaluate whether the authentication method selected and implemented is appro-
priately supported by a risk assessment.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of password and shared-secret administration for em-
ployees and customers considering the complexity of the processing environ-
ment and type of information accessed. Consider
• Confidentiality of passwords and shared secrets (whether only known to the
employee/customer);
• Maintenance of confidentiality through reset procedures;
• The frequency of required changes (for applications, the user should make any
changes from the initial password issued on enrollment without any other user’s
intervention);
• Password composition in terms of length and type of characters (new or
changed passwords should result in a password whose strength and reuse agrees
with the security policy);
• The strength of shared secret authentication mechanisms;
• Restrictions on duplicate shared secrets among users (no restrictions should ex-
ist); and
• The extent of authorized access (e.g., privileged access, single sign-on systems).
5. Determine whether all authenticators (e.g., passwords, shared secrets) are pro-
tected while in storage and during transmission to prevent disclosure.
• Identify processes and areas where authentication information may be available
in clear text and evaluate the effectiveness of compensating risk management
controls.
• Identify the encryption used and whether one-way hashes are employed to se-
cure the clear text from anyone, authorized or unauthorized, who accesses the
authenticator storage area.
6. Determine whether passwords are stored on any machine that is directly or eas-
ily accessible from outside the institution, and if passwords are stored in pro-
grams on machines which query customer information databases. Evaluate the
appropriateness of such storage and the associated protective mechanisms.

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7. Determine whether unauthorized attempts to access authentication mechanisms

(e.g., password storage location) are appropriately investigated. Attacks on
shared-secret mechanisms, for instance, could involve multiple log-in attempts
using the same username and multiple passwords or multiple usernames and the
same password.
8. Determine whether authentication error feedback (i.e., reporting failure to suc-
cessfully log-in) during the authentication process provides prospective attack-
ers clues that may allow them to hone their attack. If so, obtain and evaluate a
justification for such feedback.
9. Determine whether adequate controls exist to protect against replay attacks and
hijacking.
10. Determine whether token-based authentication mechanisms adequately protect
against token tampering, provide for the unique identification of the token
holder, and employ an adequate number of authentication factors.
11. Determine whether PKI-based authentication mechanisms
• Securely issue and update keys,
• Securely unlock the secret key,
• Provide for expiration of keys at an appropriate time period,
• Ensure the certificate is valid before acceptance,
• Update the list of revoked certificates at an appropriate frequency,
• Employ appropriate measures to protect private and root keys, and
• Appropriately log use of the root key.
12. Determine that biometric systems
• Have an adequately strong and reliable enrollment process,
• Adequately protect against the presentation of forged credentials (e.g. address
replay attacks), and
• Are appropriately tuned for false accepts/false rejects.
13. Determine whether appropriate device and session authentication takes place,
particularly for remote and wireless machines.
14. Review authenticator reissuance and reset procedures. Determine whether con-
trols adequately mitigate risks from
• Social engineering,
• Errors in the identification of the user, and
• Inability to re-issue on a large scale in the event of a mass compromise.

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B. N ETWORK S ECURITY
1. Evaluate the adequacy and accuracy of the network architecture.
• Obtain a schematic overview of the financial institution’s network architecture.
• Review procedures for maintaining current information, including inventory re-
porting of how new hardware are added and old hardware is removed.
• Review audit and security reports that assess the accuracy of network architec-
ture schematics and identify unreported systems.
2. Evaluate controls that are in place to install new or change existing network in-
frastructure and to prevent unauthorized connections to the financial institu-
tion’s network.
• Review network architecture policies and procedures to establish new, or
change existing, network connections and equipment.
• Identify controls used to prevent unauthorized deployment of network connec-
tions and equipment.
• Review the effectiveness and timeliness of controls used to prevent and report
unauthorized network connections and equipment.
3. Evaluate controls over the management of remote equipment.
4. Determine whether effective procedures and practices are in place to secure
network services, utilities, and diagnostic ports, consistent with the overall risk
assessment.
5. Determine whether external servers are appropriately isolated through placement
in demilitarized zones (DMZs), with supporting servers on DMZs separate from
external networks, public servers, and internal networks.
6. Determine whether appropriate segregation exists between the responsibility for
networks and the responsibility for computer operations.
7. Determine whether network users are authenticated, and that the type and nature
of the authentication (user and machine) is supported by the risk assessment.
Access should only be provided where specific authorization occurs.
8. Determine that, where appropriate, authenticated users and devices are limited in
their ability to access system resources and to initiate transactions.
9. Evaluate the appropriateness of technical controls mediating access between se-
curity domains. Consider
• Firewall topology and architecture;
• Type(s) of firewall(s) being utilized;
• Physical placement of firewall components;

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• Monitoring of firewall traffic;

• Firewall updating;
• Responsibility for monitoring and updating firewall policy;
• Placement and monitoring of network monitoring and protection devices, in-
cluding intrusion detection system (IDS) and intrusion prevention system (IPS)
functionality; and
• Contingency planning
10. Determine whether firewall and routing controls are in place and updated as
needs warrant.
• Identify personnel responsible for defining and setting firewall rulesets and
routing controls.
• Review procedures for updating and changing rulesets and routing controls.
• Confirm that the ruleset is based on the premise that all traffic that is not ex-
pressly allowed is denied, and that the firewall’s capabilities for identifying and
blocking traffic are effectively utilized.
• Confirm that network mapping through the firewall is disabled.
• Confirm that network address translation (NAT) and split DNS are used to hide
internal names and addresses from external users.
• Confirm that malicious code is effectively filtered.
• Confirm that firewalls are backed up to external media, and not to servers on
protected networks.
• Determine that firewalls and routers are subject to appropriate and functioning
host controls.
• Determine that firewalls and routers are securely administered.
• Confirm that routing tables are regularly reviewed for appropriateness on a
schedule commensurate with risk.
11. Determine whether network-based IDSs are properly coordinated with firewalls
(see “Security Monitoring” procedures).
12. Determine whether logs of security-related events and log analysis activities are
sufficient to affix accountability for network activities, as well as support intru-
sion forensics and IDS. Additionally, determine that adequate clock synchroni-
zation takes place.
13. Determine whether logs of security-related events are appropriately secured
against unauthorized access, change, and deletion for an adequate time period,
and that reporting to those logs is adequately protected.

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14. Determine whether appropriate filtering occurs for spoofed addresses, both
within the network and at external connections, covering network ingress and
egress.
15. Determine whether appropriate controls exist over the confidentiality and integ-
rity of data transmitted over the network (e.g. encryption, parity checks, mes-
sage authentication).
16. Determine whether appropriate notification is made of requirements for author-
ized use, through banners or other means.
17. Determine whether remote access devices and network access points for remote
equipment are appropriately controlled.
• Remote access is disabled by default, and enabled only by management authori-
zation.
• Management authorization is required for each user who accesses sensitive
components or data remotely.
• Authentication is of appropriate strength (e.g., two-factor for sensitive compo-
nents).
• Modems are authorized, configured, and managed to appropriately mitigate
risks.
• Appropriate logging and monitoring takes place.
• Remote access devices are appropriately secured and controlled by the institu-
tion.
18. Determine whether an appropriate archive of boot disks, distribution media, and
security patches exists.
19. Evaluate the appropriateness of techniques that detect and prevent the spread of
malicious code across the network.

C. H OST S ECURITY
1. Determine whether hosts are hardened through the removal of unnecessary soft-
ware and services, consistent with the needs identified in the risk assessment,
that configuration takes advantage of available object, device, and file access
controls, and that necessary software updates are applied.
2. Determine whether the configuration minimizes the functionality of programs,
scripts, and plug-ins to what is necessary and justifiable.
3. Determine whether adequate processes exist to apply host security updates, such
as patches and anti-virus signatures, and that such updating takes place.
4. Determine whether new hosts are prepared according to documented procedures
for secure configuration or replication, and that vulnerability testing takes place
prior to deployment.

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5. Determine whether remotely configurable hosts are configured for secure remote
administration.
6. Determine whether an appropriate process exists to authorize access to host sys-
tems and that authentication and authorization controls on the host appropriately
limit access to and control the access of authorized individuals.
7. Determine whether access to utilities on the host are appropriately restricted and
monitored.
8. Determine whether the host-based IDSs identified as necessary in the risk as-
sessment are properly installed and configured, that alerts go to appropriate in-
dividuals using an out-of-band communications mechanism, and that alerts are
followed up. (Coordinate with the procedures listed in “Security Monitoring.”)
9. Determine whether logs are sufficient to affix accountability for host activities
and to support intrusion forensics and IDS and are appropriately secured for a
sufficient time period.
10. Determine whether vulnerability testing takes place after each configuration
change.
11. Determine whether appropriate notification is made of authorized use, through
banners or other means.
12. Determine whether authoritative copies of host configuration and public server
content are maintained off line.
13. Determine whether an appropriate archive of boot disks, distribution media, and
security patches exists.
14. Determine whether adequate policies and procedure govern the destruction of
sensitive data on machines that are taken out of service.

D. U SER E QUIPMENT S ECURITY ( E . G . WORKSTATION, LAPTOP ,

HANDHELD )

1. Determine whether new user equipment is prepared according to documented

procedures for secure configuration or replication and that vulnerability testing
takes place prior to deployment.
2. Determine whether user equipment is configured either for secure remote ad-
ministration or for no remote administration.
3. Determine whether adequate inspection for, and removal of, unauthorized hard-
ware and software takes place.
4. Determine whether adequate policies and procedures exist to address the loss of
equipment, including laptops and other mobile devices. Such plans should en-
compass the potential loss of customer data and authentication devices.

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5. Determine whether adequate policies and procedures govern the destruction of

sensitive data on machines that are taken out of service and that those policies
and procedures are consistently followed by appropriately trained personnel.
6. Determine whether appropriate user equipment is deactivated after a period of
inactivity through screen saver passwords, server time-outs, powering down, or
other means.
7. Determine whether systems are appropriately protected against malicious soft-
ware such as Trojan horses, viruses, and worms.

E. P HYSICAL S ECURITY
1. Determine whether physical security for information technology assets is coor-
dinated with other security functions.
2. Determine whether sensitive data in both electronic and paper form is ade-
quately controlled physically through creation, processing, storage, mainte-
nance, and disposal.
3. Determine whether
• Authorization for physical access to critical or sensitive information-processing
facilities is granted according to an appropriate process;
• Authorizations are enforceable by appropriate preventive, detective, and correc-
tive controls; and
• Authorizations can be revoked in a practical and timely manner.
4. Determine whether information processing and communications devices and
transmissions are appropriately protected against physical attacks perpetrated by
individuals or groups, as well as against environmental damage and improper
maintenance. Consider the use of halon gas, computer encasing, smoke alarms,
raised flooring, heat sensors, notification sensors, and other protective and de-
tective devices.

F. P ERSONNEL S ECURITY
1. Determine whether the institution performs appropriate background checks on
its personnel during the hiring process and thereafter, according to the em-
ployee’s authority over the institution’s systems and information.
2. Determine whether the institution includes in its terms and conditions of em-
ployment the employee’s responsibilities for information security.
3. Determine whether the institution requires personnel with authority to access
customer information and confidential institution information to sign and abide
by confidentiality agreements.

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4. Determine whether the institution provides to its employees appropriate security

training covering the institution’s policies and procedures, on an appropriate
frequency and that institution employees certify periodically as to their under-
standing and awareness of the policy and procedures.
5. Determine whether employees have an available and reliable mechanism to
promptly report security incidents, weaknesses, and software malfunctions.
6. Determine whether an appropriate disciplinary process for security violations
exists and is functioning.

G. A PPLICATION S ECURITY
1. Determine whether software storage, including program source, object libraries,
and load modules, are appropriately secured against unauthorized access.
2. Determine whether user input is validated appropriately (e.g. character set,
length, etc).
3. Determine whether appropriate message authentication takes place.
4. Determine whether access to sensitive information and processes require appro-
priate authentication and verification of authorized use before access is granted.
5. Determine whether re-establishment of any session after interruption requires
normal user identification, authentication, and authorization.
6. Determine whether appropriate warning banners are displayed when applications
are accessed.
7. Determine whether appropriate logs are maintained and available to support in-
cident detection and response efforts.

H. S OFTWARE DEVELOPMENT AND A CQUISITION

1. Inquire about how security control requirements are determined for software,
whether internally developed or acquired from a vendor.
2. Determine whether management explicitly follows a recognized security stan-
dard development process, or adheres to widely recognized industry standards.
3. Determine whether the group or individual establishing security control re-
quirements has appropriate credentials, background, and/or training.
4. Evaluate whether the software acquired incorporates appropriate security con-
trols, audit trails, and activity logs and that appropriate and timely audit trail and
log reviews and alerts can take place.
5. Evaluate whether the software contains appropriate authentication and encryp-
tion.
6. Evaluate the adequacy of the change control process.

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7. Evaluate the appropriateness of software libraries and their access controls.

8. Inquire about the method used to test the newly developed or acquired software
for vulnerabilities.
• For manual source code reviews, inquire about standards used, the capabilities
of the reviewers, and the results of the reviews.
• If source code reviews are not performed, inquire about alternate actions taken
to test the software for covert channels, backdoors, and other security issues.
• Whether or not source code reviews are performed, evaluate the institution’s as-
sertions regarding the trustworthiness of the application and the appropriateness
of the network and host level controls mitigating application-level risk.
9. Evaluate the process used to ascertain software trustworthiness. Include in the
evaluation management’s consideration of the:
• Development process
- Establishment of security requirements
- Establishment of acceptance criterion
- Use of secure coding standards
- Compliance with security requirements
- Background checks on employees
- Code development and testing processes
- Signed non-disclosure agreements
- Restrictions on developer access to production source code
- Physical security over developer work areas
• Source code review
- Automated reviews
- Manual reviews
• Vendor or developer history and reputation
- Vulnerability history
- Timeliness, thoroughness, and candidness of the response to security is-
sues
- Quality and functionality of security patches
10. Evaluate the appropriateness of management’s response to assessments of soft-
ware trustworthiness:
• Host and network control evaluation
• Additional host and network controls

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I. B USINESS C ONTINUITY—S ECURITY

1. Determine whether adequate physical security and access controls exist over
data back-ups and program libraries throughout their life cycle, including when
they are created, transmitted/taken to storage, stored, retrieved and loaded, and
destroyed.
• Review the risk assessment to identify key control points in a data set’s life cy-
cle.
• Verify controls are in place consistent with the level of risk presented.
2. Determine whether substitute processing facilities and systems undergo similar
testing as production facilities and systems.
3. Determine whether appropriate access controls and physical controls have been
considered and planned for the replicated production system and networks when
processing is transferred to a substitute facility.
4. Determine whether the security monitoring and intrusion response plan consid-
ers the resource availability and facility and systems changes that may exist
when substitute facilities are placed in use.
5. Evaluate the procedure for granting temporary access to personnel during the
implementation of contingency plans.
• Evaluate the extent to which back-up personnel have been assigned different
tasks when contingency planning scenarios are in effect and the need for differ-
ent levels of systems, operational, data and facilities access.
• Review the assignment of authentication and authorization credentials to see if
they are based upon primary job responsibilities or if they also include contin-
gency planning responsibilities. (If an employee is permanently assigned access
credentials to fill in for another employee who is on vacation or out the office,
this assignment would be a primary job responsibility.)

J. S ERVICE P ROVIDER O VERSIGHT —SECURITY

1. Determine whether contracts contain security requirements that at least meet the
objectives of the 501(b) guidelines and contain nondisclosure language regard-
ing specific requirements.
2. Determine whether the institution has assessed the service provider’s ability to
meet contractual security requirements.
3. Determine whether appropriate controls exist over the substitution of personnel
on the institution’s projects and services.
4. Determine whether appropriate security testing is required and performed on any
code, system, or service delivered under the contract.

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5. Determine whether appropriate reporting of security incidents is required under

the contract.
6. Determine whether institution oversight of third-party provider security controls
is adequate.
7. Determine whether any third party provider access to the institution’s system is
controlled according to “Authentication and Access Controls” and “Network Se-
curity” procedures.
8. Determine whether the contract requires secure remote communications, as ap-
propriate.
9. Determine whether the institution appropriately assessed the third party pro-
vider’s procedures for hiring and monitoring personnel who have access to the
institution’s systems and data.
10 Determine whether the third party service provider participates in an appropriate
industry ISAC.

K. E NCRYPTION
1. Review the information security risk assessment and identify those items and
areas classified as requiring encryption.
2. Evaluate the appropriateness of the criteria used to select the type of encryp-
tion/cryptographic algorithms.
• Consider if cryptographic algorithms are both publicly known and widely ac-
cepted (e.g. RSA, SHA, Triple DES, Blowfish, Twofish, etc.) or banking indus-
try standard algorithms.
• Note the basis for choosing key sizes (e.g., 40-bit, 128-bit) and key space.
• Identify management’s understanding of cryptography and expectations of how
it will be used to protect data.
3. Determine whether cryptographic key controls are adequate.
• Identify where cryptographic keys are stored.
• Review security where keys are stored and when they are used (e.g., in a hard-
ware module).
• Review cryptographic key distribution mechanisms to secure the keys against
unauthorized disclosure, theft, and diversion.
• Verify that two persons are required for a cryptographic key to be used, when
appropriate.
• Review audit and security reports that review the adequacy of cryptographic key
controls.

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4. Determine whether adequate provision is made for different cryptographic keys

for different uses and data.
5. Determine whether cryptographic keys expire and are replaced at appropriate
time intervals.
6. Determine whether appropriate provisions are made for the recovery of data
should a key be unusable.
7. Determine whether cryptographic keys are destroyed in a secure manner when
they are no longer required.

L. D ATA S ECURITY
1. Obtain an understanding of the data security strategy.
• Identify the financial institution’s approach to protecting data (e.g., protect all
data similarly, protect data based upon risk of loss).
• Obtain and review the risk assessment covering financial institution data. De-
termine whether the risk assessment classifies data sensitivity in a reasonable
manner and consistent with the financial institution’s strategic and business ob-
jectives.
• Consider whether policies and procedures address the protections for data that is
sent outside the institution.
• Identify processes to periodically review data sensitivity and update correspond-
ing risk assessments.
2. Verify that data is protected consistent with the financial institution’s risk as-
sessment.
• Identify controls used to protect data and determine if the data is protected
throughout its life cycle (i.e., creation, storage, maintenance, transmission, and
disposal) in a manner consistent with the risk assessment.
• Consider data security controls in effect at key stages such as data crea-
tion/acquisition, storage, transmission, maintenance, and destruction.
• Review audit and security review reports that summarize if data is protected
consistent with the risk assessment.
3. Determine whether individual and group access to data is based on business
needs.
4. Determine whether, where appropriate, the system securely links the receipt of
information with the originator of the information and other identifying informa-
tion, such as date, time, address, and other relevant factors.

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M. S ECURITY MONITORING
1. Identify the monitoring performed to identify non-compliance with institution
security policies and potential intrusions.
• Review the schematic of the information technology systems for common secu-
rity monitoring devices.
• Review security procedures for report monitoring to identify unauthorized or
unusual activities.
• Review management’s self-assessment and independent testing activities and
plans.
2. Determine whether users are appropriately notified regarding security monitor-
ing.
3. Determine whether the activity monitoring sensors identified as necessary in the
risk assessment process are properly installed and configured at appropriate lo-
cations.
4. Determine whether an appropriate firewall ruleset and routing controls are in
place and updated as needs warrant.
• Identify personnel responsible for defining and setting firewall rulesets and
routing controls.
• Review procedures for updating and changing rulesets and routing controls.
• Determine that appropriate filtering occurs for spoofed addresses, both within
the network and at external connections, covering network entry and exit.
5. Determine whether logs of security-related events are sufficient to support secu-
rity incident detection and response activities, and that logs of application, host,
and network activity can be readily correlated.
6. Determine whether logs of security-related events are appropriately secured
against unauthorized access, change, and deletion for an adequate time period,
and that reporting to those logs is adequately protected.
7. Determine whether logs are appropriately centralized and normalized, and that
controls are in place and functioning to prevent time gaps in logging.
8. Determine whether an appropriate process exists to authorize employee access to
security monitoring and event management systems and that authentication and
authorization controls appropriately limit access to and control the access of au-
thorized individuals.
9. Determine whether appropriate detection capabilities exist related to
• Network related anomalies, including
- Blocked outbound traffic

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- Unusual communications, including communicating hosts, times of day,

protocols, and other header-related anomalies
- Unusual or malicious packet payloads
• Host-related anomalies, including
- System resource usage and anomalies
- User related anomalies
- Operating and tool configuration anomalies
- File and data integrity problems
- Anti-virus, anti-spyware, and other malware identification alerts
- Unauthorized access
- Privileged access
10. Evaluate the institution’s self-assessment plan and activities, including
• Policies and procedures conformance
• Service provider oversight
• Vulnerability scanning
• Configuration verification
• Information storage
• Risk assessment and monitoring plan review
• Test reviews
11. Evaluate the use of metrics to measure
• Security policy implementation
• Security service delivery effectiveness and efficiency
• Security event impact on business processes
12. Evaluate independent tests, including penetration tests, audits, and assessments.
Consider:
• Personnel
• Scope
• Controls over data integrity, confidentiality, and availability
• Confidentiality of test plans and data
• Frequency
13. Determine that the functions of a security response center are appropriately
governed by implemented policies addressing
• Monitoring

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• Classification
• Escalation
• Reporting
• Intrusion declaration
14. Determine whether an intrusion response team
• Contains appropriate membership;
• Is available at all times;
• Has appropriate training to investigate and report findings;
• Has access to back-up data and systems, an inventory of all approved hardware
and software, and monitored access to systems (as appropriate);
• Has appropriate authority and timely access to decision makers for actions that
require higher approvals; and
• Have procedures for submitting appropriate incidents to the industry ISAC.
15. Evaluate the appropriateness of the security policy in addressing the review of
compromised systems. Consider
• Documentation of the roles, responsibilities and authority of employees and
contractors, and
• Conditions for the examination and analysis of data, systems, and networks.
16. Determine whether the information disclosure policy indicates what information
is shared with others, in what circumstances, and identifies the individual(s) who
have the authority to initiate disclosure beyond the stated policy.
17. Determine whether the information disclosure policy addresses the appropriate
regulatory reporting requirements.
18. Determine whether the security policy provides for a provable chain of custody
for the preservation of potential evidence through such mechanisms as a detailed
action and decision log indicating who made each entry.
19. Determine whether the policy requires all compromised systems to be restored
before reactivation, through either rebuilding with verified good media or verifi-
cation of software cryptographic checksums.
20. Determine whether all participants in security monitoring and intrusion response
are trained adequately in the detection and response policies, their roles, and the
procedures they should take to implement the policies.
21. Determine whether response policies and training appropriately address unau-
thorized disclosures of customer information, including
• Identifying the customer information and customers effected;

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• Protecting those customers through monitoring, closing, or freezing accounts;

• Notifying customers when warranted; and
• Appropriately notifying its primary federal regulator

22. Determine whether an effective process exists to respond in an appropriate and

timely manner to newly discovered vulnerabilities. Consider
• Assignment of responsibility
• Prioritization of work to be performed
• Appropriate funding
• Monitoring, and
• Follow-up activities

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APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY

ACL Access control list

Applet A small program that typically is transmitted with a Web page.

AUP An acceptable use policy. It documents permitted system uses and activities
for a specific user and the consequences of noncompliance.

Authentication The verification of identity by a system based on the presentation of unique

credentials to that system.

Authorization The process of giving access to parts of a system, typically based on the busi-
ness needs and the role of the individual within the business.

Cookie A message given by a Web server to a Web browser, stored by the Web
browser, and returned to the Web server when requested.

Dictionary attack Discovery of authenticators by encrypting likely authenticators and compar-

ing the actual encrypted authenticator with the newly encrypted possible au-
thenticators.

Encryption The conversion of information into a code or cipher.

Exploit A technique or code that uses a vulnerability to provide system access to the
attacker.

Full-duplex A communications channel that carries data in both directions.

FS/ISAC Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center

Hardening Decreasing the capability of a device to the minimum required for its intended
purpose.

Hash A fixed length cryptographic output of variables, such as a message, being

operated on by a formula or cryptographic algorithm.

Hijacking The use of an authenticated user’s communication session to communicate

with system components.

Host A computer that is accessed by a user from a remote location.

I/O Input/Output

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IPv6 Version 6 of the Internet Protocol

ISAC Information Sharing and Analysis Center

ISO International Organization for Standards

IDS Intrusion Detection System

IPS Intrusion Prevention System

Man-in-the-middle A man-in-the-middle attack places the attacker’s computer in the communica-

attack tion line between the server and the client. The attacker’s machine can moni-
tor and change communications.

Media Physical objects that store data, such as paper, hard disk drives, tapes, and
compact disks (CDs).

Non-repudiation Ensuring that a transferred message has been sent and received by the parties
claiming to have sent and received the message. Non-repudiation is a way to
guarantee that the sender of a message cannot later deny having sent the mes-
sage and that the recipient cannot deny having received the message.

P2P Peer-to-peer communication, the communications that travel from one user’s
computer to another user’s computer without being stored for later access on a
server. E-mail is not a P2P communication since it travels from the sender to
a server, and is retrieved by the recipient from the server. On-line chat, how-
ever, is a P2P communication since messages travel directly from one user to
another.

Patch Software code that replaces or updates other code. Frequently patches are
used to correct security flaws.

Port Either an endpoint to a logical connection or a physical connection to a com-

puter.

Protocol A format for transmitting data between devices.

Replay attack The interception of communications, such as an authentication communica-

tion, and subsequently impersonation of the sender by retransmitting the in-
tercepted communication.

Routing The process of moving information from its source to the destination.

Security event An event that compromises the confidentiality, integrity, availability, or ac-
countability of an information system.

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Server A computer or other device that manages a network service. An example is a

print server, a device that manages network printing.

Sniffing The passive interception of data transmissions.

Social engineering Obtaining information from individuals by trickery.

Spoofing A form of masquerading where a trusted IP address is used instead of the true
IP address as a means of gaining access to a computer system.

Stateful inspection A firewall inspection technique that examines the claimed purpose of a com-
munication for validity. For example, a communication claiming to respond
to a request is compared to a table of outstanding requests.

System resources Capabilities that can be accessed by a user or program either on the user’s
machine or across the network. Capabilities can be services, such as file or
print services, or devices, such as routers.

Trojan horse Malicious code that is hidden in software that has an apparently beneficial or
harmless use.

Utility A program used to configure or maintain systems, or to make changes to

stored or transmitted data.

Virus Malicious code that replicates itself within a computer.

VLAN Virtual local area network.

Vulnerability A flaw that allows a person to operate a computer system with authorization
in excess of that which the system owner specifically granted to him or her.

Warehouse attack The compromise of systems that store authenticators.

Worm Malicious code that infects computers across a network without user interven-
tion.

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APPENDIX C: LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND

GUIDANCE

LAWS

• 12 USC 1867(c): Bank Service Company Act

• 12 USC 1882: Bank Protection Act
• 15 USC 1681w: Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act
• 15 USC 6801 and 6805(b): Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act
• 18 USC 1030: Fraud and Related Activity in Connection with Computers

FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD

R EGULATIONS

• 12 CFR 208.61: Minimum Security Devices and Procedures

• 12 CFR 208.62: Reports of Suspicious Activities
• 12 CFR 208.63: Procedures for Monitoring Bank Secrecy Act Compliance
• 12 CFR 208, Appendix D-1: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Standards for
Safety and Soundness
• 12 CFR 208, Appendix D-2: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Se-
curity Standards (State Member Banks)
• 12 CFR 211.5 (l): Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Security Stan-
dards (Edge or agreement corporation)
• 12 CFR 211.24 (i): Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Security
Standards (uninsured state-licensed branch or agency of a foreign bank)
• 12 CFR 225 Appendix F: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Secu-
rity Standards (bank holding companies and their non-bank subsidiaries or affili-
ates (except brokers, dealers, persons providing insurance, in-vestment compa-
nies, and investment advisors))

G UIDANCE
• SR Letter 05-23 Interagency Guidance on Response Programs for Unauthorized
Access to Customer Information and Customer Notice (December 1, 2005)
• SR Letter 05-19 Interagency Guidance on Authentication in an Internet Banking
Environment (October 13, 2005)

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• SR Letter 04-17 FFIEC Guidance on the use of Free and Open Source Software
(December 6, 2004)
• SR Letter 04-14 FFIEC Brochure with Information on Internet "Phishing" (Oc-
tober 19, 2004)
• SR Letter 02–18: Section 312 of the USA Patriot Act—Due Diligence for Corre-
spondent and Private Banking Accounts (July 23, 2002)
• SR Letter 02–6: Information Sharing Pursuant to Section 314(b) of the USA Pa-
triot Act (March 14, 2002)
• SR Letter 01–15: Safeguarding Customer Information (May 31, 2001)
• SR Letter 01–11: Identity Theft and Pretext Calling (April 26, 2001)
• SR Letter 00–17: Guidance on the Risk Management of Outsourced Technology
Services (November 30, 2000)
• SR Letter 00–04: Outsourcing of Information and Transaction Processing (Febru-
ary 29, 2000)
• SR Letter 99–08: Uniform Rating System for Information Technology (March 31,
1999)
• SR Letter 97–32: Sound Practices Guidance for Information Security for Net-
works (December 4, 1997)

FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION

R EGULATIONS
• 12 CFR 326, subpart A: Minimum Security Procedures
• 12 CFR 326, subpart B: Procedures for Monitoring Bank Secrecy Act Compliance
• 12 CFR 332: Privacy of Consumer Financial Information
• 12 CFR 353: Suspicious Activity Reports
• 12 CFR 364, appendix A: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Standards for
Safety and Soundness
• 12 CFR 364, appendix B: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information Secu-
rity Standards

G UIDANCE
• FIL-103-2005: FFIEC Guidance Authentication in an Internet Banking Environ-
ment (October 12, 2005)
• FIL-66-2005: Spyware – Guidance on Mitigating Risks From Spyware (July 22,
2005)
• FIL-64-2005: “Pharming” – Guidance on How Financial Institutions can Protect
against Pharming Attacks (July 18, 2005)

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• FIL-59-2005: Identity Theft Study Supplement on “Account Hijacking Identity

Theft” (July 5, 2005)
• FIL-46-2005 Pre-Employment Background Screening: Guidance on Developing
an Effective Pre-Employment Background Screening Process
• FIL-27-2005: Final Guidance on Response Programs for Unauthorized Access to
Customer Information and Customer Notice (April 1, 2005)
• FIL-7-2005: Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003 Guidelines Re-
quiring the Proper Disposal of Customer Information (February 2, 2005)
• FIL-132-2004: Identity Theft Study on “Account Hijacking” Identity Theft and
Suggestions for Reducing Online Fraud (December 14, 2004)
• FIL-121-2004: Computer Software Due Diligence – Guidance on Developing an
Effective Software Evaluation Program to Assure Quality and Regulatory Com-
pliance
• FIL-114-2004: Risk Management of Free and Open Source Software FFIEC
Guidance
• FIL-103-2004: Interagency Informational Brochure on Internet “Phishing” Scams
(September 13, 2004)
• FIL-84-2004: Guidance on Instant Messaging (July 21, 2004)
• FIL-62-2004: Guidance on Developing and Effective Computer Virus Protection
Program (June 7, 2004)
• FIL-27-2004: Guidance on Safeguarding Customers Against E-Mail and Internet
Related Fraud Schemes (March 12, 2004)
• FIL-63-2003: Guidance on Identity Theft Response Programs (August 13, 2003)
• FIL-43-2003: Guidance on Developing an Effective Software Patch Management
Program (May 29, 2003)
• FIL–8–2002: Wireless Networks And Customer Access (February 1, 2002)
• FIL–69–2001: Authentication in an Electronic Banking Environment (August 24,
2001)
• FIL–68–2001: 501(b) Examination Guidance (August 24, 2001)
• FIL–39–2001: Guidance on Identity Theft and Pretext Calling (May 9, 2001)
• FIL–22–2001: Security Standards for Customer Information (March 14, 2001)
• FIL–77–2000: Bank Technology Bulletin: Protecting Internet Domain Names
(November 9, 2000)
• FIL–67–2000: Security Monitoring of Computer Networks (October 3, 2000)
• FIL–68–99: Risk Assessment Tools and Practices (July 7, 1999)
• FIL–98–98: Pretext Phone Calling (September 2, 1998)
• FIL–131–97: Security Risks Associated with the Internet (December 18, 1997)

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• FIL–124–97 Suspicious Activity Reporting (December 5, 1997)

• FIL–82–96: Risks Involving Client/Server Computer Systems (October 8, 1996)

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NATIONAL CREDIT UNION ADMINISTRATION

R EGULATIONS
• 12 CFR 721: Federal Credit Union Incidental Powers Activities
• 12 CFR 748: Security Program, Report of Crime and Catastrophic Act and Bank
Secrecy Act Compliance & Appendices
• 12 CFR 716: Privacy of Consumer Financial Information & Appendix
• 12 CFR 741: Requirements for Insurance

G UIDANCE
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 05-CU-20: Phishing Guidance for Credit Unions
and Their Members
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 05-CU-18: Guidance on Authentication in Inter-
net Banking Environment (November 2005)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 04-CU-12: Phishing Guidance for Credit Union
Members (September 2004)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 04-CU-06: E-Mail and Internet Related Fraudulent
Schemes Guidance (April 2004)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 04-CU-05: Fraudulent E-Mail Schemes (April
2004)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 03-CU-14: Computer Software Patch Manage-
ment (September 2003)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 03-CU-12 Fraudulent Newspaper Advertisements,
and Websites by Entities Claiming to be Credit Unions (August 2003)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 03-CU-08: Weblinking: Identifying Risks & Risk
Management Techniques (April 2003)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 03-CU-03 Wireless Technology (February 2003)
• NCUA Letter to Federal Credit Unions 02–FCU–11: Tips to Safely Conduct Fi-
nancial Transactions over the Internet—An NCUA Brochure for Credit Union
Members (July 2002)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 02–CU–13: Vendor Information Systems & Tech-
nology Reviews—Summary Results (July 2002)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 02–CU–08: Account Aggregation Services (April
2002)
• NCUA Letter to Federal Credit Unions 02–FCU–04: Weblinking Relationships
(March 2002)

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• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU-21: Disaster Recovery and Business Re-
sumption Contingency Plans (December 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–20: Due Diligence over Third–Party Ser-
vice Providers (November 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–12: E-Commerce Insurance Considera-
tions (October 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–09: Identity Theft and Pretext Calling
(September 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–11: Electronic Data Security Overview
(August 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–10: Authentication in an Electronic Bank-
ing Environment (August 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01-CU-04: Integrating Financial Services and
Emerging Technology (March 2001)
• NCUA Regulatory Alert 01–RA–03: Electronic Signatures in Global and National
Commerce Act (E-Sign Act) (March 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 01–CU–02: Privacy of Consumer Financial In-
formation (February 2001)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 00–CU–11: Risk Management of Outsourced
Technology Services (with Enclosure) (December 2000)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 00–CU–07: NCUA’s Information Systems &
Technology Examination Program (October 2000)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 00–CU–04: Suspicious Activity Reporting (see
section on “Computer Intrusion”) (July 2000)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 00–CU–02: Identity Theft Prevention (May 2000)
• NCUA Regulatory Alert 99–RA–3: Pretext Phone Calling by Account Informa-
tion Brokers (February 1999)
• NCUA Regulatory Alert 98–RA–4: Interagency Guidance on Electronic Financial
Services and Consumer Compliance (July 1998)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 97–CU–5: Interagency Statement on Retail On-
Line PC Banking (April 1997)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 97–CU–1: Automated Response System Controls
(January 1997)
• NCUA Letter to Credit Unions 109: Information Processing Issues (September
1989)

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OFFICE OF THE COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY

R EGULATIONS
• 12 CFR 21, subpart A: Minimum Security Devices and Procedures
• 12 CFR 21, subpart B: Reports of Suspicious Activities
• 12 CFR 21, subpart C: Procedures for Monitoring Bank Secrecy Act Compliance
• 12 CFR 30, appendix A: [Interagency] Guidelines Establishing Standards for
Safety and Soundness
• 12 CFR 30, appendix B: [Interagency] Guidelines Establishing Standards for In-
formation Security

G UIDANCE
• OCC Bulletin 2005-35: Authentication in an Internet Banking Environment (Oc-
tober 2005)
• OCC Bulletin 2005-24: Threats from Fraudulent Bank Web Sites: Risk Mitigation
and Response Guidance for Web Site Spoofing Incidents (July 2005)
• OCC Bulletin 2005-13: Response Programs for Unauthorized Access to Customer
Information and Customer Notice: Final Guidance (April 2005)
• OCC Bulletin 2005-1: Proper Disposal of Customer Information (January 2005)
• OCC Bulletin 2003-27: Suspicious Activity Report-Revised Form (June 2003)
• OCC Advisory 2003-10: Risk Management of Wireless Networks (December
2003)
• OCC Alert 2003-11: Customer Identity Theft: E-Mail-Related Fraud Threats
(September 2003)
• OCC Bulletin 2001–47: Third-Party Relationships (November 2001)
• OCC Bulletin 2001–35: Examination Procedures for Guidelines to Safeguard
Customer Information (July 2001)
• OCC Alert 2001–04: Network Security Vulnerabilities (April 2001)
• OCC Bulletin 2001–12: Bank-Provided Account Aggregation Services (February
2001)
• OCC Bulletin 2001–8: Guidelines Establishing Standards for Safeguarding Cus-
tomer Information (February 2001)
• OCC Alert 2000–9: Protecting Internet Addresses of National Banks (July 2000)
• OCC Bulletin 2000–19: Suspicious Activity Report (June 2000)
• OCC Bulletin 2000–14: Infrastructure Threats—Intrusion Risks (May 2000)
• OCC Alert 2000–1: Internet Security: Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (Feb-
ruary 2000)

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• OCC Bulletin 99–20: Certificate Authority Guidance (May 1999)

• OCC Bulletin 98–3: Technology Risk Management (February 1998)

OFFICE OF THRIFT SUPERVISION

R EGULATIONS
• 12 CFR Part 555: Electronic Operations
• 12 CFR 563.177: Procedures for Monitoring Bank Secrecy Act Compliance
• 12 CFR 563.180: Suspicious Activity Reports and Other Reports and Statements
• 12 CFR Part 568: Security Procedures Under the Bank Protection Act
• 12 CFR Part 570, Appendix A: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Standards for
Safety and Soundness
• 12 CFR Part 570, Appendix B: Interagency Guidelines Establishing Information
Security Standards
• 12 CFR Part 573: Privacy of Consumer Financial Information

G UIDANCE
• CEO Ltr 97:
-- Policy Statement on Privacy and Accuracy of Customer Information and
-- Interagency Pretext Phone Calling Memorandum (November 3, 1998)
• CEO Ltr 109: Transactional Web Sites (June 10, 1999)
• CEO Ltr 125: Privacy Rule (June 1, 2000) (transmits final rule for privacy of con-
sumer financial information)
• CEO Ltr 139: Identity Theft and Pretext Calling (May 4, 2001)
• CEO Ltr 155: Interagency Guidance: Privacy of Consumer Financial Information.
(February 11, 2002)
• CEO Ltr 193: ‘Phishing’ and E-mail Scams (March 8, 2004)
• CEO Ltr 214: Interagency Guidance on Response Programs for Unauthorized Ac-
cess to Customer Information and Customer Notice (March 30, 2005)
• CEO Ltr 228: Interagency Guidance on Authentication in an Internet Banking
Environment (October 12, 2005)
• CEO Ltr 231: Compliance Guide- Interagency Guidelines Establishing Informa-
tion Security Standards (December 14, 2005)
• CEO Ltr 237: Interagency Advisory on Influenza Pandemic Preparedness (March
15, 2006)
• Thrift Activities Handbook Section 341, Technology Risk Controls

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