Unit 1
DC Machines
DC Generators
Emf induced e = Em sinωt.
Maximum value of induced emf Em = Blbω
EMF induced in the DC generator Eg = ΦZNP/60 A volts
(lap winding: A=P; wave winding: A=2)
Number of conductors = number of slots x conductors/slot.
Number of conductors Z = 2T
Separately excited DC generator
Armature current Ia = Load current IL
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa - Vbrush
Generated emf Eg = V + IaRa + Vbrush
Self excited DC generators
Series generator:
Armature current Ia = Load current IL = field current Ise.
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa - IaRse - Vbrush
Generated emf Eg = V + Ia(Ra+Rse) + Vbrush
Shunt generator:
Armature current Ia = IL + Ish.
Shunt field current Ish = V / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa - Vbrush
Generated emf Eg = V + IaRa + Vbrush
Compound generator:
Long shunt compound generator
Armature current Ia = Ise = IL + Ish.
Shunt field current Ish = V / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa - IaRse - Vbrush
Generated emf Eg = V + Ia(Ra+Rse) + Vbrush
Short shunt compound generator
Series field current Ise = IL
Armature current Ia = Ish + Ise
Shunt field current Ish = (V + Ise Rse) / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa - IseRse - Vbrush
Generated emf Eg = V + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = V IL
DC Motors
Back emf Eb = ΦZNP/60 A volts
F = B I l Newtons
Separately excited DC motor
Armature current Ia = Line current IL
Terminal voltage V = Eb + IaRa + Vbrush
Generated emf Eb = V - IaRa - Vbrush
Self excited DC motor
Series motor:
Armature current Ia = Line current IL = field current Ise.
Terminal voltage V = Eb + IaRa + IaRse + Vbrush
Generated emf Eb = V - Ia(Ra+Rse) - Vbrush
Shunt motor:
Line current IL = Ia + Ish.
Shunt field current Ish = V / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eb + IaRa +Vbrush
Generated emf Eb = V - IaRa -Vbrush
Compound motor:
Long shunt compound motor
Armature current Ia = Ise
Line current IL = Ia + Ish.
Shunt field current Ish = V / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eb + IaRa + IaRse + Vbrush
Generated emf Eb = V - Ia(Ra+Rse) - Vbrush
Short shunt compound motor
Series field current Ise = IL
Line current IL = Ise = Ish + Ia
Shunt field current Ish = (V - IL Rse) / Rsh.
Terminal voltage V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Generated emf Eb = V - IaRa - IseRse - Vbrush
Angular velocity ω = 2ΠN / 60 rad/sec
Power developed P = Tω watts
Armature torque Ta = 0.159 Φ Ia PZ /A Nm
Armature torque Ta = Tsh + Tf
Shaft torque Tsh = 9.55 Pout / N Nm
Losses
Copper losses Pcu =Ia2 Ra
Series field copper losses Pse cu = I2se Rse
Shunt field copper losses Psh cu = I2sh Rsh
Iron loss = eddy current loss + hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss We = K B2m f2 t2 V2
Hysteresis loss Wh = ηB1.6m f V
Total loss = variable loss + constant loss
Variable loss = armature copper loss
Constant loss = shunt field copper loss + stray loss.
Mechanical loss = friction + windage loss
Brake test:
Torque developed by the motor T = (F1 ~ F2) x 9.81 x r Nm
Efficiency η = output power /input power x 100
Swinburne’s test:
Constant loss Pc = V Io – Iao2 Ra
No load armature current Iao = Io – Ish
Efficiency of machine as motor:
Input power Pin = V IL
Constant loss Pc = VIo – (Io – Ish)2 Ra
Armature copper loss Pcu = (IL – Ish)2 Ra
Total loss PT = Pc + Pcu
Output power = input power – total loss
Po = V IL - (Io – Ish)2 Ra - Pc
Efficiency η = (V IL - PT) / V IL x 100
Efficiency of machine as generator:
Output power Po = V IL
Constant loss Pc = VIo – (Io - Ish)2 Ra
Armature copper loss Pcu= (IL + Ish)2 Ra
Total loss PT = Pc + Pcu
Input power = output power + total loss
Efficiency η = V IL / (V IL + PT) x 100
B – Flux density in wb/m2 Vbrush – voltage drop at the contacts of the
b – Breadth of the coil in metres. brush.
l - Length of the coil in metres. IL – load current (generator) ;
Φ – Flux per pole in webers Line current (motor)
P – Number of poles Tf – lost torque in Nm.
Z – Total number of conductors in the K – Constant depending on material
armature. Bm – maximum flux density in Tesla
T – Number of turn per coil. f – Frequency of magnetic reversals in
Ra, Ia – resistance & current of the Hz
armature conductor. t – Thickness of laminations
Rse, Ise – resistance & current of series V – Volume of armature core in m3
field winding. η – Hysteresis coefficient
Rsh, Ish – resistance & current of shunt r – Radius of pulley
field winding. Io – no load input current
Unit 2
Transformers
RMS value of emf induced in the primary winding E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 volts
E1 = 4.44 f Bm A N1 volts
RMS value of emf induced in the secondary winding E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts
E2 = 4.44 f Bm A N2 volts
Transformation ratio K = E2 / E1 = N 2 / N 1 = I 1 / I 2
Voltage ratio E2 / E 1 = K
Current ratio I1 / I2 =K
Conditions:
N2 >N1 ; K>1 ; step up transformer
N2 <N1 ; K<1 ; step down transformer
N2 =N1 ; K=1 ; isolation transformer
Transformer on no-load:
Active component Iw = Io cosΦo
Reactive component Iμ = Io sinΦo
No-load primary current Io = √(Iw2 + Iμ2 )
No-load input power Po = V1 Io cosΦo
Transformer on load:
Primary current I1 = Io + I2
In primary side
Voltage drop across resistance = I1 R1
Voltage drop across reactance = j I1 X1
Primary voltage V1 = E1 + I1 Z1
In secondary side
Voltage drop across resistance = I2 R2
Voltage drop across reactance = j I2 X2
Secondary voltage V2 = E2 + I2 Z2
Secondary windings referred to primary:
Equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to primary R01= R1 + R2
Equivalent reactance of the transformer referred to primary X01= X1 + X2
Equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to primary Z01= √( R012 + X012 )
R2 = R2 / K2
X2 = X2 / K2
Primary windings referred to Secondary:
Equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to secondary R02= R1 + R2
Equivalent reactance of the transformer referred to secondary X02= X1 + X2
Equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to secondary Z02= √( R022 + X022 )
R1 = R1 K2
X1 = X1 K2
Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to Primary:
R2 = R2 / K2 X2 = X2 / K2 ZL = ZL / K2
I2 = I2 K Ro = V1 / Iw
V2 = V2 / K Xo = V1 / Iμ
Voltage regulation of the transformer:
% regulation = (V2(NL) - V2(L) ) / V2(NL) x 100
% regulation = (I1 R01 cosΦ ± I1 X01 sinΦ) / V1 x 100 (+ for lagging pf;
- for leading pf)
% regulation = (I1 R01) / V1 x 100 (unity pf)
Efficiency of a transformer:
Maximum efficiency = full load KVA x √(iron loss / full load copper loss)
Open circuit test:
No- load power factor cosΦo = Wo/ V1 Io
(Open circuit test gives no load loss Pi, Iw, Iμ, Ro, Xo: refer the formula already
mention above)
Short circuit test:
Total copper loss Pcu = I12 R1 + I12 R2 = I12 R01
Total impedance referred to primary Z01 = Vsc / I1
Total leakage reactance referred to primary X01= √( Z012 - R012 )
Short circuit power factor cosΦsc = Pcu / Vsc I1
(Short circuit test gives full load cu loss, R01 , X01 , cosΦsc )
Efficiency from OS & SC test:
Efficiency = (full load KVA x pf)/ ((full load KVA x pf) + Pi + Pcu)
For any load (n)
Efficiency = (n x full load KVA x pf)/ ((n x full load KVA x pf) + Pi + n2Pcu)
η all day = Kwh output in 24 hrs / Kwh input in 24 hrs
Bm – maximum flux density in the core in Tesla
f – Frequency of AC supply in Hz
Φm – maximum value of flux in the core in webers
A – area of the core in m2
N1, N2 – number of primary and secondary turns
E1, E2 – Emf induced in the primary and secondary in volts
cosΦo – no load power factor
V1, V2 – primary voltage & secondary voltage
I2 - load component of primary current
Z1, Z2- total impedance in the primary & secondary
Unit 3
Induction Motors
Three phase induction motor:
Phase voltage Vph = VL / √ 3 (star connection)
Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P
Slip speed = Ns – N
Slip s = (Ns - N) / Ns
% Slip = (Ns - N) / Ns x 100
Rotor frequency fr = s f
Rotor induced EMF E2r = s E2
Rotor reactance X2r = s X2
Rotor current I2r = s E2 / √( R22 + (sX2)2 )
Rotor power factor cosΦ2r = R2 / √( R22 + (sX2)2 )
Torque equation:
T = K s E22 R2 /√( R22 + (sX2)2 ) Nm
K = 3 / 2 Πns
Maximum torque Tmax = K E22/2X2
Losses:
Input power to the stator Pi = √ 3 VL IL cosΦ
Rotor input P2 = Pi - PSL
Rotor copper loss Pcu = 3 I22 R2
Mechanical power developed in the rotor Pm = P2 - Pcu
Rotor efficiency = rotor output / rotor input = Pm/ P2
Motor efficiency =
mechanical power output at shaft / Electrical power input to the stator = Po/ Pi
rotor input : mechanical power developed by rotor : rotor copper loss
P2 : Pm : Pcu = 1 : (1-s) : s
P2 / Pm = 1/ (1-s) ; Pm / Pcu = (1- s) / s ; Pcu / P2 = s
No-load current Io = √ (Iw2 + Iμ2 )
Ro = V1 / Iw
Xo = V1 / Iμ
Equivalent circuit referred to stator:
R2 = R2 / K2 E2 = E2 / K
2
X2 = X2 / K Ro = V1 / Iw
RL = RL / K2 Xo = V1 / Iμ
2 2
I2r = I2r K = Ks E2 / √( R2 + (sX2) )
Equivalent resistance referred to stator R01= R1 + R2 = R1 + R2 / K2
Equivalent reactance referred to stator X01= X1 + X2 = X1 + X2 / K2
Emf induced in the stator winding of the induction motor V = 2Πf T1Φ Kw
Cascade control:
Main motor alone: Ns = 120 f /P1
Auxiliary motor alone: Ns = 120 f /P2
Cumulative cascade connection: N = 120f / (P1 + P2)
Differential cascade connection: N = 120f / (P1 - P2) ; (P1 > P2)
Single phase induction motor:
Forward slip Sf = (Ns - N) / Ns
Backward slip Sb = (2 - s)
f – Supply frequency
P – Number of poles for which stator is wound
Ns – Synchronous speed in rpm
N – Rotor speed in rpm
ns - Rotor speed in rps = Ns /60
R2, X2 – rotor resistance and reactance per phase under standstill
R2, X2 - rotor resistance and reactance referred to stator
RL - load resistance referred to stator
K – Constant of proportionality
PSL - stator losses
Ro, Xo – no load resistance & reactance per phase.
T1 – number of turns in the primary
f- Frequency of the stator supply
Kw – winding factor
P1, P2 – number of poles in main motor & auxiliary motor
Unit 4
Synchronous & Special Machines
Frequency of induced emf f = PN /120 Hz
Pitch factor Kp = cos (α/2)
Distribution factor Kd = (sin (mβ/2)) / (m sin (β/2))
Angular displacement between the slots β = 180 / n
Emf equation of an alternator E= 4.44 Kp Kd f ΦT volts
Alternator on load:
Synchronous impedance / phase Zs = √( Ra2 + Xs2 )
Generated Emf per phase E = V + Ia (Ra + jXs) = V + Ia Zs
Voltage Regulation:
% Regulation = (Eo – V) / V x 100
Eo = √ (V + IRa)2 + (IXs)2 (unity pf)
Eo = √ (V cosΦ + IRa)2 + (V sinΦ ± IXs)2 (+ for lagging pf;
- for leading pf)
Stepper motor:
Step angle β = (Ns ~ N) / Ns . Nr x 360
β = 360 / m Nr (m – number of stator phases)
Resolution = number of steps/ revolution = 360 / β
N – Rotor speed in rpm
P – Number of rotor poles
m – Number of slots per pole per phase (Distribution factor)
n – Number of slots per pole
Φ – Flux per pole
T – Number of turns per phase
Ra – armature resistance
Xs – synchronous impedance
Eo, V – no load & full load rated terminal voltage per phase
Ia - armature current per phase
Ns, Nr – number of stator poles & rotor poles
I – full load current
