Layered Network

Models
2G1316 Data
Communications and
Computer Networks
2E1623 Data Links and
Local Area Networks
Illustrations in this material are collected from

Behrouz A Forouzan, Data Communications

and Networking, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill.
 Goals

• The terms protocol and system

architecture, as well as service and
application

• The ideas behind layered model for

communication systems

• Principles behind
ƒ Internet model (TCP/IP protocol suite)

ƒ ISO’s OSI model

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Communicating Systems

• Interoperability between different

vendors, products, etc
ƒ Solution: Standards

ƒ Two systems that follow the same

rules should function together
o Independent of vendor and realisation
method

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Standards
• Defined by public organizations (de juro) or by widespread use (de
facto)
ƒ Open standards
o Avaliable to everyone (but not necessarily for free)
o Everyone has the possibility to propose, criticize, and influence

• Standards organizations
ƒ ISO: International Organization for Standardization
ƒ IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
ƒ IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ƒ ANSI: American National Standards Institute
ƒ ETSI: European Telecommunications Standard Institute
ƒ ITU: International Telecommunication Union
o ITU-T: International Telecommunication Union—Telecommunication Standards
Sector

ƒ EIA: Electronic Industries Association

ƒ ...

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System Model

• Standardisation requires a model

of the system
ƒ What functions should be performed
o In what order

ƒ But the model should not limit how

the system can be realized
o Standardize “what”, not “how”!

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Layered Communication Models

• Communication systems are complex

ƒ Many different functions that interact with
each other

• Layering: divide the functions into

different layers

• A layer uses the services of another

layer to perform its tasks

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A Layered Model: Sending a Letter

• Layers are independent

ƒ Modify one without affecting the other 8
Protocols

• Rules for exchange of information

o Format (syntax)
o Meaning (semantics)

• Communications functions
o Coding
o Control algorithms
— Error control, flow control, congestion control, ...

o Security functions
o Timing
o Generally: distributed algorithms

• Examples of protocols:
ƒ IEEE 802.11 (WLAN), IP, TCP, HTTP, ...

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Services and Applications
• Service
ƒ What a network operator offers
to customers (subscribers)

• Application
ƒ What the customer uses
the service for

• Examples
ƒ Telephone connection
o Service: voice transmission
o Application: conversation between two parties

ƒ Computer communication via modem

o Service: same as above plus Internet connectivity
o Application: Web browsing, e-mail, file transfer, chat, etc

• Svenskt språkbruk: Tillämpning, användning och applikation används

synonymt

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Common Layered Network Models

The Internet model

and

OSI model

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Network Models

• System structure
o Protocol functions
o Interfaces between protocols
o Separation of functions into layers
o Technology
o Application areas
o Security and charging systems

• Examples
o Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
o Internet protocols, TCP/IP suite
o Global system for mobile communications (GSM)

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ISO’s OSI Model

• Open Systems
Interconnection
• Seven layer model
• Three key concepts
ƒ Service
ƒ Interface
ƒ Protocol
• Originates from early
80’s
ƒ Protocol stack was never
fully implemented and
deployed

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Internet Model

• Also known as TCP/IP protocol suite

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Communication Between Layers

• Peer-to-peer processes
ƒ Betwen protocols at the same layer in different
devices
ƒ Logical connection

• Interfaces between layers

ƒ Between adjacent layers in the same device
ƒ Data is transfered by passing data and network
information through layers
o down (sending) or up (receiving)
ƒ Communication takes place over well-defined
interfaces

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Communication Between Layers

• Two types of communication between layers

ƒ Peer-to-peer communication—same layer, different devices
ƒ Communication over interfaces between layers—different layers, same device

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Interfaces Between Layers

• The interface of a layer defines how the layer

above it can access it
• Each layer has its own format for the Protocol
Data Unit (PDU)
• A layer in the sending device may add more
protocol information to the data unit from the
layer above
ƒ Headers and trailers

• A layer in the receiving device may strip off

protocol information

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Data Exchange

• A layer in the sender adds protocol information to the data

ƒ Headers and trailers

• A layer in the receiver strips off protocol information

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Function of Layers

• Physical Layer

• Data Link Layer

• Network Layer

• Transport Layer

• Application Layer

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Physical Layer

• Transmission of bits between nodes

ƒ Wave guides (cables) for electrical and optical signals
ƒ Unguided medium (free space) for radio and optical signals

• Protocols
ƒ Physical connection between device and medium
o Mechanical and electrical interfaces
— Connectors, cables, voltage levels

o Transmission and reception of signals

— digital modulation, line coding

o Bit synchronization
— Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

• Standards, for example EIA RS-232, ITU-T SDH (ANSI

SONET)

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Data Link Layer—Hop-to-Hop

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Data Link Layer
• Transmission of frames between nodes
• Framing
ƒ Divides bit stream into larger data units, frames
o Ethernet frame up to 12,144 bits (1518 bytes), including
control information

• Flow control
ƒ Prevent receiver from being overrun
• Error control
ƒ Detect and (perhaps) retransmit damaged frames
• Access control
ƒ Which device may send on a shared link
• Addressing

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 Data Link Layer Frame Example

8-bit Header— Trailer— 8-bit

Data
flag address and control error control flag

• Flags
ƒ Bit sequence for frame synchronization
• Addresses
ƒ Source and destination
• Control
ƒ Sequence number
o Transmitted and expected
ƒ Link connect and disconnect
ƒ acknowledgements
• Trailer
ƒ Bit sequence for detecting bit errors

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Data Link Layer Standards

• Ethernet
ƒ Family of protocols
ƒ ”Ethernet” (10 Mb/s), ”Fast Ethernet” (100 Mb/s), ”Gigabit
Ethernet” (1 Gb/s)
• IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
• IETF: Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• IETF: Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
• ISO: High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)
o Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAP-B), ITU-T X.25
o Normal Response Mode (NRM), SDLC

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Network Layer—Source-to-Destination

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Network Layer

• Delivery of packets from source to destination

ƒ possibly across multiple links
• Addressing
ƒ ”Logical” addresses
ƒ Unique within the network
• Routing
ƒ Calculation of paths between pairs of nodes
• IETF: Internet Protocol (IP)

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Transport Layer—Process-to-Process

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Transport Layer

• Delivery between end users (processes)

ƒ Addressed by ports
ƒ Reliable (connections) or non-reliable (datagrams)
ƒ Flow control
ƒ Reactive traffic control (prevent congestion)
ƒ Error handling
ƒ Connection set-up and tear-down
• Segmentation and reassembly
• IETF: Transport Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram
Protocol (UDP)
• ISO: Transport Protocol Class 0 – 4

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Application Layer

• Provides services to the end user

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OSI Model Session and Presentation Layer

• Session layer
ƒ Dialogs
ƒ Multiplexing of data
streams

• Presentation layer
ƒ Application-independent
data representation
(syntax)

• Integrated into
application/transport
layers in Internet model

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Summary

• Concepts
ƒ Protocol and network model

ƒ Services and applications

• Why layered models

• Internet (TCP/IP) model

• OSI model

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Reading Instructions

• Behrouz A. Forouzan, ”Data Communications

and Networking,” third edition, McGraw-Hill.

ƒ 1 Introduction
o 1.4 Standards

ƒ 2 Network Models
o 2.1-2.3

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