TEMPERATURE CONTROL

1. Control Loops Explained

Whatever the process or the parameter (temperature, flow, speed for example), the
principles of control are similar. Input and output signals are specified as appropriate
to the application, usually analog (e.g. thermocouples signal input, solid state output
power control) but these may be digital.
This chapter assumes temperature control with either a thermocouple or platinum
resistance thermometer input and a proportional control output.
Control of a process is achieved by means of a closed loop circuit (power fed to the
heater is regulated according to feedback obtained via the thermocouple) as opposed
to an open loop in the case of measurement only:
2. PID Explained
Only very control of temperature can be achieved by causing heater power to be simply
switched on and off according to an under or over temperature condition respectively.
Ultimately, the heater power will be regulated to achieve a desired system temperature
but refinement can be employed to enhance the control accuracy.
Such refinement is available in the form of proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative
(D) functions applied to the control loop. These functions, referred to as control
“terms” can be used in combination according to system requirements. The desired
temperature is usually referred to as the set-point (SP).
To achieve optimum temperature control whether using on-off, P, PD or PID
techniques, ensure that:
a) Adequate heater power is available (ideally control will be achieved with 50% power
applied!)
b) The temperature sensor, be it thermocouple or PRT, is located within reasonable
“thermal” distance of the heaters such that it will respond to changes in heater
temperature but will be representative of the load temperature (the “thing” being
heated).
c) Adequate “thermal mass” in the system to minimise its sensitivity to varying load
or ambient conditions.
d) Good thermal transfer between heaters and load.
e) The controller temperature range and sensor type are suitable – try to choose a
range that results in a mid-scale set-point.
Control Functions Simply Described
a) On – Off – Usually simplest and cheapest but control may be oscillatory. Best confined
to alarm functions only or when “thermostatic” type control is all that is required, but
this may be the most suitable means of control in some applications.

b) Proportional (P) – A form of anticipatory action which slows the temperature rise when
approaching set-point. Variations are more smoothly corrected but an offset will occur
(between set and achieved temperatures) as conditions very.
 Average heater power over a period of time is regulated and applied power is
proportional to the error between sensor temperature and set-point (usually by time
proportioning relay switching). The region over which power is thus varied is called the
Proportional Band (PB) it is usually defined as a percentage of full scale.
Offset is the deviation of the sensor temperature from the desired value (set-point).
This can be adjusted out manually by means of a potentiometer adjustment (Manual
reset) or automatically (Integral Action).

c) Proportional + Derivative (PD) – The Derivative term when combined with proportional
action improves control by sensing changes and correcting for them quickly. The
proportional is effectively intensified (its gain is increased) to achieve a quicker
response.
 PD action is commonly employed in general applications. Its use can help to minimise
or even eliminate overshoot on system start up, especially when an approach
(overshoot inhibition) feature is incorporated.
d) Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID)
Adding an integral term to PD control can provide automatic and continuous
elimination of any offset. Integral action operates in the steady state condition by
shifting the Proportional Band upscale or downscale until the system temperature and
set-point coincide.
e) Choosing P, PD or PID
Although superior control can be achieved in many cases with PID control action,
values of the PID terms inappropriate to the application can cause problems.
If an adequately powered system with good thermal response exists and the best
possible control accuracy is required, full PID control is recommended.
If somewhat less critical precision is demanded, the simpler PD action will suffice and
will suit a board range of applications.
If simple control is all that is required, for instance to improve upon thermostatic
switching, Proportional (P) or on-off action will suffice.
Adjustable PID Values?
If the controller specified offers adjustable PID values, the opportunity exists to
optimise or “tune” the control loop to achieve the best possible accuracy in each case.
Various tuning methods exist but the following technique provides a simple approach.
3. Optimising Control Terms (Tuning)
Fast Tune PID Control
All processes have some finite time delays and on-off control will result in start-up
temperature overshoot as shown.
 Firstly adjust P to minimum, D to off and I to off (or some very large value if not to off).
Full power is applied to the heaters and is switched off when the measured temperature
rises to set-point. The resultant overshoot T0 and the time taken to attain the maximum
overshoot t0 (mins), allow suitable P, I and D values to be calculated.

overshoot ° C(T 0 )
P= × 100percent
controller span, ° C
120t
D = 5 0 (seconds)

I = 4t 0 (minutes)

These or similar values should then be set on the controller and good result will be
achieved.
For critical processes there are alternative more precise methods for obtaining
optimum PID values. Such methods are more time consuming and Auto Tune
Techniques described below provide an attractive solution in most applications, simple
or complex.
Auto Tune PID Control
Auto tune controllers utilise PID terms and an “approach” feature which are all
optimised automatically. During the first process warm-up the controller familiarises
itself with the system dynamics and performs self-optimisation. No user adjustments
are required for PID values. Some instruments include an “approach” feature to
minimise or eliminate start-up overshoot, also automatically.
4. Control Outputs
Accurate and reliable energy regulation are essential for good control loop
performance if it is assumed that suitable PID values have been determined and
applied.
Depending on the method of applying energy to the process, for example electrical
energy to a resistive heating element, a suitable type of controller output arrangement
must be specified. In some cases, more than one output may be required (e.g. for multi-
zone heaters, heating-cooling applications)
Options most commonly available are:
Electromagnetic Relay, Typically rated 2, 5 or 10 Ampere contact.
Electronic relay (Solid State Relay or SSR) typically rated up to 3kW.
Thyristor Unit, usually rated from 3kW to 100kW.
Analogue dc control signals, usually 0-1V, 1-5V, 4-20mA and similar to operate
external energy regulation devices or converters (e.g. external thyristor units).
Valve Positioner, actuator drive for gas or oil fired burners.
Alarms and Safety
Whilst built-in alarms provide a convenient method of “policing” the process against
over or under temperature occurrence, they should never be relied upon for plant
safety. If there is any possibility that component or sensor failure could result in
heating power being permanently applied instead of regulated then a completely
independent over-temperature alarm should be utilised. In the event of excessive
temperature rise, such an alarm would remove energy from the process.