Tank Manufacturing Factory

Heavy Industries Taxila

Speed Control Of DC Motor

 
Team Leader:
Group Supervisor:
Nisar Ahmed Rana
Maj Aabis Raza Group Members:

 M Shaban
Bilal Mushtaq
Department of Electrical Engineering
Muhammad Mohsin
HITEC University Taxila
 8/22/2009
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Acknowledgement
First of all, we will thank our Allah, The Most Beneficent The Most Merciful who made us able to
complete this project.

No words are sufficient to express our gratitude to our loving parents for their exemplary patience,
understanding and cooperation during the preparation of this book.

Those at Tank manufacturing factory, who had, contributed a great amount of time, talent and effort to
move this project through its many phases in order To Design The Circuit For Controlling Speed Of Shunt
Type 22kW DC Motor as you see it, include but are not limited to MD Tank factories, Maj. Abbis Raza
and AFM Abdul Sittar. Without the help of staff of Tank manufacturing factories, we would probably be
___ well; we don’t want to think about that…

In completion of this project, we depend on expert input from our project adviser, MAJ. ABBIS RAZA
who guided us in each step to make our project a better one.

We hope that you will find the circuit designed by us better than that of electronic circuit implemented
by Chinese experts earlier, because we had used latest technology including Digital Display which will
show the Speed of DC Motor.

Thanks again to all of you.

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TO OUR GREAT NATIONAL HERO

DR. A. Q. KHAN

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Table of Content
1 Heavy Industries Taxila 4

2 Introduction 7

2.1 Background 8

2.2 Scope 8

2.3 Recommendation 9

2.4 Procedure 9

2.4.1 Circuit Designing 9

2.4.2 Programming of MCU 10

2.4.3 CCP Features of PIC 16F873 10

2.4.4 Circuit Simulation 11

2.4.5 Printed Circuit Board 12

2.4.6 Practical Implementation and Troubleshooting 12

3 Circuit Explanation 13

3.1 Control Voltage Input Circuit 14

3.2 Motor Derive Circuit 14

3.3 Clock Generator Circuit 14

3.4 LED Displaying Circuit 15

3.5 Power Supply Circuit 15

4 Parts Explanation 16

4.1 PIC16F873 MCU 16

4.2 3-Terminal Regulator 16

4.3 Transistor for MOSFET Derive 16

4.4 Power MOSFET 16

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4.5 Zener Diode 16

4.6 Diode Bridge Rectifier (W005G) 17

4.7 Resonator 17

4.8 Speed Control Rheostat 17

5 Printed Circuit Board 18

6 DC Motor 19

6.1 Magnetism 19

6.2 Magnetic Propulsion within a motor 21

6.3 Producing Mechanical Force 22

6.4 General Construction of DC Machine 22

6.5 Four Pole DC Motor 22

6.5.1 Armature Core or Stack 22

6.5.2 Armature Winding 23

6.5.3 Field Pole 23

6.5.4 Field coils 23

6.5.5 Yoke 23

6.5.6 Commutator 23

6.5.7 Brush and Brush Holders 23

6.5.8 Interpoles 23

6.5.9 Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings 24

6.5.10 Back end Front end 24

6.6 Shunt Wound - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve 24

6.7 Compound Wound - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve 24

6.8 Series Wound - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve 24

6.9 Permanent Magnet - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve 25

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6.10 Brush Shifting 25

6.11 Speed Torque Curve 26

6.12 Speed Regulation 26

6.13 Motor Starting 26

6.14 Losses 27

6.14.1 Friction and Windage 27

6.14.2 Armature Copper Losses 27

6.14.3 Field Copper Losses 27

6.14.4 Core Losses 27

6.15 Efficiency 27

6.16 Horse Power Basics 27

7 Conclusion 29

8 Appendices 30

8.1 Appendix A 30

8.2 Appendix B 33

8.3 Appendix C 35

8.4 Appendix D 36

9 References 38

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1 Heavy Industries Taxila

Heavy Industries Taxila is the backbone of Pakistan's engineering industry for the Pakistan Armed
Forces, being a combination of multiple industries that has grown into a large military complex since
1980. It consists of six major production units and their support facilities, staffed by over 6500 highly
skilled personnel. About 30% of the 6500 employees are uniformed military personnel.

HIT has facilities for overhaul, rebuild and progressive manufacturing of main battle tanks (MBT),
armored recovery vehicles (ARV), armored personnel carriers (APC) and other armored vehicles of both
eastern and western armored vehicles. HIT has developed and currently manufactures the Al-Khalid
MBT.

Heavy Industries Taxila comprises various defense factories and facilities:

Heavy Rebuild Factory T-Series

It rebuilds and modernizes Tanks/Armored Recovery Vehicles of Chinese and Eastern European origin.
With its vast experience and expertise, the factory has contributed immensely in achieving self-reliance
with high quality and cost effective products exceeding productivity beyond its designated capacity.

Heavy Rebuild Factory M-Series

Heavy Rebuild Factory (M-Series) has the expertise of carrying out quality rebuild of tracked vehicles of
US origin. The experience acquired over the last decade is reflected in the standards achieved. The
factory specializes in M113 Series vehicles, which are given new life after rebuild strictly in accordance
with OEM specifications.

APC Factory
The most famous of the M113 Family of vehicles are manufactured in this factory using state-of-the-art
CNC machines CAD/CAM system and manufacturing technology unique in the world on MIG and TIG
aluminum welding, radiographic inspection, chemical cleaning, coating and painting according to
military specifications.

Gun Factory
The Gun factory has the capability of machining barrels ranging from 105 mm to 203 mm caliber. It has a
longstanding experience in the manufacture of 105mm gun barrels for upgraded T-59 & T-69 tanks from
steel of very high quality using Electro Slag Refining. Each barrel is auto-frottage and subjected to high
precision work on state of the art machines.

Tank Factory
A modern outfit with latest tank manufacturing facilities which includes seven axis CNC machines for
heavy duty flexible machining operations and a complete infrastructure for hull and turret manufacture.

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Development, Engineering Support and Components Manufacture (DESCOM)

This production facility has been established to provide engineering support to all the factories of HIT.
Equipped with CNC machines, it undertakes manufacture of components, assemblies, tools, dies, gauges
and arranges development of spare parts through the vendor industry. It also provides repair and
maintenance support to machinery and equipment installed in HIT.

Evaluation, Training and Research Organization (ETRO)

This is a supporting organization which undertakes Quality Assurance of finished product of HIT ably
assisted with modern quality assurance laboratories which test physical and chemical properties of
production materials, Calibration facilities are available to ensure accuracy of tools and gauges used in
rebuild and manufacturing processes.

Research and Development (R&D)

HIT has undertaken R&D projects on required basis wherein it has carried out successful R&D in the
following areas:

 Tank design

 Tank modernization

 Infantry fighting vehicles

 Tank fire-control systems

[1]

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2 Introduction
Of late, solid state circuits using semiconductor diodes, transistors (MOSFET) and thyristors
have become very popular for controlling the speed of AC as well as DC motors and are
progressively replacing the traditional electric power control circuits based on thyratrons,
ignitrons, mercury arc rectifier, magnetic amplifier and motor generator sets etc. As
compared to electrical and electromechanical speed control system, the electronic methods
have higher accuracy, greater reliability, quick response and also higher efficiency as there
are no I2R loses and moving parts. Moreover, full four quadrant speed control is possible to
meet precise high speed standards.

All electronic speed control circuits control the speed of motor by adjusting either

i. Voltage applied to the motor armature or

ii. The field current or

iii. Both of them

DC motors can run from DC supply if available or from AC supply after it has been converted
into DC supply with the help of rectifier which can be either half wave or full wave and
either controlled by varying conduction angle of the thyristors used or uncontrolled.

As stated above, the average output voltage of a thyristors controlled rectifier can be
changed by changing its conduction angle and hence the armature voltage of the DC motor
can be adjusted to control its speed.

When runs on a DC supply the armature DC voltage can be changed with the help of
thyristors chopper circuit which can be made to interrupt DC supply at different rates to give
different average values of DC voltage.

MOSFET are used to control the average DC power delivered to the motor by using Pulse
Width Modulation technique. The PWM waveform will be generated from MCU and then
after amplification is applied to the base of MOSFET. It will control the field current of motor
to control its speed.[2]

2.1 Background
We were required to do a project during our internship in Tank Manufacturing factory. We
have visited different shops and decided to make an electronic speed control for DC motor.

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The main reason behind it was we have just studied DC motors in our Electrical Machinery
course in 4th semester. Also the electronic speed controls which are already in use have
older technology. We decided to make an electronic speed control by using a
microcontroller. We also wanted to show the speed of motor on the LCD screen and also
make some emergency protection switches. Due to our limited knowledge we were not able
to complete all the proposed tasks but we have tried our best to complete them.

2.2 Scope
The characteristics of a shunt-wound motor give it very good speed regulation, and it is
classified as a constant speed motor, even though the speed does slightly decrease as
load is increased. Shunt-wound motors are used in industrial and automotive applications
where precise control of speed and torque are required.

DC motors are widely used in industry in Robots, CNC Machines, Drilling Motors,
helicopters; Food processors and grinders spin blades and Toaster ovens, tanks, heavy
machinery, vehicles etc. They are also used in fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric
cars, locomotives and conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an
electric motor spins an irregular figure with more area on one side of the axle than the
other, causing it to appear to be moving up and down

Sometimes the speed of the dc machines e.g. universal motors tend to go to destructive
speeds, these speed may damage the equipment so speed control system is used in them.

Speed control is used to set a desired torque to speed ratio for a desired load.

2.3 Recommendation
We have made the speed control system of a DC motor by using PWM pulse width
modulation. There are some recommendations about the control system that are described
briefly:

 This circuit is so simple as compared to the previous one so it’s easy to dig out the
error in the circuit.

 The circuit is programmed by using the micro controller so there is more accuracy in
this circuit.

 Previous circuits were very large and complex and this circuit is too simple to
understand.

 Many DC motors are used in industry so we need their control system so it’s good to
use this circuit because it’s more accurate and reliable.
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 In previous switch there was no protection i.e. when the speed increases from the
required there was no switching off system but in this circuit we have the system
that when the speed will increase from the required speed the circuit will control it.

2.4 Procedure
The whole project was divided into four portions:

 Circuit Designing

 Programming of MCU

 Circuit Simulation

 PCB Designing

 Practical Implementation and Troubleshooting

2.4.1 Circuit Designing

We have consulted some books, searched on the internet, consulted with our teachers and
discussed with our group supervisor. We have chosen different techniques but they were
rejected due to their drawbacks. One of the main techniques was voltage chopper which
chop the DC voltage into a required average voltage. Its average value can be adjusted by
switching frequency for on time and off time of chopping MOSFET.

Another technique which can be implanted was the voltage controlled rectifier. It uses a
three phase rectifier circuit implemented by using SCR. The firing angle of the SCR can be set
by changing voltage at the gate terminal of SCR. When the voltage is increased SCR is fired
at low input AC voltage when the voltage is decreased the SCR is fired at higher input AC
voltage. So the average output voltage can be adjusted by changing the firing angle of SCR.

Finally we have decided to use voltage controlled rectifier to control the speed of the motor.

2.4.2 Programming of MCU

Programming code of MCU is given in the Appendix it is also given in the CD as a soft copy.

2.4.3 CCP feature of PIC16F873

CCP is the initial of Capture/Compare/PWM (Pulse Width Modulation).

 Capture: this is the function to capture the 16 bits value of timer1 register when an
event occurs on pin RC2/CCP1. This can be used for the measurement of the period
time of the signal like the frequency counter and so on.

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 Compare: this is the function to compare constantly the 16 bits value of timer1
register against the CCPR1 register value. This is convenient when it makes
interruption occur periodically.

 PWM: this is the function to make a periodic pulse generate. This function is used to
control an external circuit with changing pulse duration (Duty).

The timer resource of the capture and compare is timer1 and the timer resource of
PWM is timer2.

CCP1 and CCP2 can be worked at the same time. However, because they are using
the same timer resources, the interaction occurs.

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CCP1 CCP2 Interaction of two CCP modules

Same TMR1 time-base.

Capture Capture
The captured time value is different but it can be used at the same time.

Timer1 is cleared by compare operation.

Capture Compare
So, it's better not to use the capture of CCP1.

Capture PWM None.

Timer1 is cleared by compare operation.

Compare Capture
So, it's better not to use the capture of CCP2.

Timer1 is cleared by either compare operation.

Compare Compare
So, it isn't possible to use at the same time.

Compare PWM None.

PWM Capture None.

PWM Compare None.

PWM PWM The PWMs will have the same frequency and update rate.

CCP1 register is comprised of two 8 bits registers: CCPR1L for low byte and CCPR1H for high
byte. The CCP1CON register controls the operation of CCP1. The special event trigger is
generated by compare match and will reset Timer1.

CCP2 register is comprised of two 8 bits registers: CCPR2L for low byte and CCPR2H for high
byte. The CCP2CON register controls the operation of CCP2. The special event trigger is
generated by compare match and will reset Timer1 and start an A/D conversion if the A/D
modules are enabled.

2.4.4 Circuit Simulation

A verity of software is available for simulation. We have used Proteus ISIS Schematic
Capture because its library offers a wide range of components. It also has animated motors
and LCD. It provides real time simulation of circuits. It also offers microcontroller simulation
and some latest features. The software and Simulation files of all the circuits used are
available in CD attached with the report.

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2.4.5 PCB Designing

Express PCB and Proteus ARES PCB Layout are tom main software to design PCB Layout. We
have used ARES PCB Layout provided by Proteus to design the PCBs for our circuit. The PCB
files and the software are provided in the attached CD.

2.4.6 Practical Implementation and Troubleshooting

Due to the shortage of time we were not able to practically implement and test the circuit.

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3 Circuits Explanation

Figure-3.1 Schematic Capture of Speed Control Circuit (Available in CD)

3.1

3.2 Control voltage input circuit

This is the circuit which inputs the control voltage which was created by the turning of the
motor in PIC. The input voltage to PIC is converted by A/D converter. Changed voltage is
used for the PWM function of the CCP to control the motor drive. At the circuit this time, a
small motor is used as the generator to detect the number of rotations of the motor. The
input voltage (the control voltage) to PIC is changed by the fluctuation of the number of
rotations of the motor. The other way can be used to detect the number of rotations of the
motor. It is needed to change control voltage to proportional to the number of rotations of
the motor. PIC controls the drive electric current of the motor for the control voltage to
become a regulation value. When the revolution of the motor slows down, i.e. control
voltage goes down, the drive electric current of the motor is increased and number of
rotations is raised. When the control voltage reaches a regulation value, an drive electric
current at the point is held. Oppositely, when the number of rotations of the motor is high,
i.e. the control voltage is high, the drive electric current of the motor is reduced and number
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of rotations is lowered. When the control voltage reaches a regulation value, an drive
electric current at the point is held.

DB1 is used to make not conscious of the polarity of the motor. When never making a
mistake in the connection, to use isn't necessary. When the voltage of the motor for the
speed detection is small, it is better not to put.

D1 is used to protect PIC when the voltage of the detection motor is high. C1 is to make
bypass the noise of the detection motor. VR1 is the variable resistor to set the number of
rotations of the main motor. The input voltage of PIC becomes low when bringing VR1 close
to the side 1 and PIC increases the drive electric current of the motor. That is, the revolution
of the motor rises. The input voltage of PIC becomes high when bringing VR1 close to the
side 3 and PIC reduces the drive electric current of the motor. That is, the revolution of the
motor slows down.

3.3 Motor drive circuit

The PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) function of PIC is used for the electric current control to
drive a motor.PWM can change the duty of the pulse to output into CCP1 by the data. When
the time which is made the H level of the pulse of CCP1 is short, the time of ON (the L level)
becomes long in TR2. That is, the drive electric current of the motor increases. Oppositely,
when the H level time of the pulse of CCP1 is long, the ON time of TR2 becomes short and
the drive electric current of the motor decreases.

The duty of the pulse of CCP1 is controlled in the voltage (the control voltage) which was
taken in with the control voltage input circuit. When the control voltage is higher than the
regulation value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made long and the number of
rotations of the motor is lowered. When the control voltage is lower than the regulation
value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made short and the number of rotations of the
motor is raised.

I used N-channel MOS FET for the drive of the motor. The P-channel MOS FET can be used,
too. In the case, the duty control of the CCP1 pulse becomes opposite. It becomes low-
speed when the H level of the pulse is short and when long, it becomes high-speed. The way
of connecting between the motor and the FET becomes opposite. In this case, the power of
the transistor for the FET drive should be connected with the source terminal of P-FET.

Because the output of the motor which was used this time is big, there is a gravity that the
motor for the speed detection breaks. Therefore, an electric current is suppressed by the
resistor to have put in series.

3.4 Clock generator circuit

We are using 10-MHz resonator.

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There is not directly relation but it is related with the taking-in period with control voltage,
the period of the motor driving pulse to the number of rotations of the motor.

3.5 LED displaying circuit

LEDs are made to light up to monitor the drive situation of the motor. 3 bits of higher ranks
of the control data of PWM are used for the lighting-up of LEDs. In the condition that a
motor isn't driven, all LEDs are turned off. The number of the lighting-up is increased in the
order from LED1 as the drive electric current increases. When the motor is in the maximum
drive condition, all LEDs become lighting-up condition.

At the equipment this time, the LED of the bar type with seven LEDs is used. The circuit can
control eight LEDs. However, at the equipment this time, LED1 isn't used and seven LEDs
from LED2 to LED8 are used. An LED is lit up when RBx is H level.

3.6 Power supply circuit

3 terminal regulator is used to get the operating voltage for PIC.

The about 70-mA electric current flows when seven LEDs are lit up at the same time. I used
a 1 A-type regulator for the safety.[3]

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4 Parts Explanation
4.1 PIC16F873 MCU
PIC16F873 MCU is used. The control of the drive
electric current of the motor is done using the
PWM function of the CCP. The voltage according
to the number of rotations of the motor is taken
in to the analog-to-digital converter and has the
control of the drive electric current. This time, it is
using a motor for the speed detection. Also, LEDs
for the monitor are lit up to know the situation of the motor drive.

Data sheet for PIC16F873 is given in Appendix.

4.2 3 terminal regulator

This regulator is used to make the stable power of +5 V. Eight LEDs for the monitor
sometimes light up at the same time.(This time, it is seven) So, when using a 100 mA-type
regulator, little leeway occurs. This time, a 1A type is used for the safety.

4.3 Transistor for MOSFET drive

This transistor is used to drive MOS FET by the output of PIC. It is converting the output of
PIC (0V to 5V) into the voltage to control an MOSFET (0V to 12V).

4.4 Power MOSFET

This is N channel MOS FET. The maximum continuous drain current is 60A. It can afford up
to 228A pulsating current. When the FET is in the ON condition, the resistance between
drain and source is 4 milli-ohm. So, the electric power loss when the 10-A electric current
flows in the ON condition is 0.4 W.

The datasheet for Power MOSFET is given in Appendix.

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4.5 Zener Diode

The voltage which is applied to the terminal of PIC is a maximum of +5V.
This diode prevents the destruction of PIC when the speed detection
voltage of the motor exceeds 5V. When more than +5V voltage be
applied never from outside, it is unnecessary.

4.6 Diode Bridge for speed detection voltage polarity

protection
We put the silicon diode bridge not to be in the problem even if it connected
the pole of the motor for the speed detection oppositely. When never making a mistake in
the connection, it is unnecessary.

4.7 Resonator
We have used a 10MH Crystal to produce resonance frequency. When changing the
frequency of resonator, the value with all kinds on the software must be changed.

4.8 Speed Control Rheostat

We have used a speed control rheostat to control the speed of the motor. It becomes low-
speed when turning to the left and it becomes high-speed when turning to the right.

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5 Printed Circuit Board

PCB layout of the circuit was made in ARES by Proteus. A copy of the PCB file and software is
included in the CD.

A 3D layout of the PCB generated by ARES is also given below.

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6 DC Motor
It has been said that if the Ancient Romans, with their advanced civilization and knowledge of the
sciences, had been able to develop a steam motor, the course of history would have been much
different. The development of the electric motor in modern times has indicated the truth in this theory.
The development of the electric motor has given us the most efficient and effective means to do work
known to man. Because of the electric motor we have been able to greatly reduce the painstaking toil of
man's survival and have been able to build a civilization which is now reaching to the stars. The electric
motor is a simple device in principle. It converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Over the years,
electric motors have changed substantially in design; however the basic principles have remained the
same.

6.1 Magnetism
We all know that a permanent magnet will attract and hold metal objects when the object is
near or in contact with the magnet. The permanent magnet is able to do this because of its
inherent magnetic force which is referred to as a "magnetic field".

Figure-6.1 The lines of flux of a magnetic field travel from the N-pole to the S-pole.

These lines of flux help us to visualize the magnetic field of any magnet even though they
only represent invisible phenomena. The number of lines of flux varies from one magnetic
field to another. The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the number of lines of flux
which are drawn to represent the magnetic field. The lines of flux are drawn with a direction
indicated since we should visualize these lines and the magnetic field they represent as
having a distinct movement from N-pole to S-pole as shown in Figure-6.1. Another but

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similar type of magnetic field is produced around an electrical conductor when an electric
current is passed through the conductor as shown in Figure6.2

Figure-6.2 The flow of electrical current in a conductor sets up concentric lines of magnetic
flux around the conductor.

These lines of flux define the magnetic field and are in the form of concentric circles around
the wire. Some of you may remember the old "Left Hand Rule" as shown in Figure-6.2. The
rule states that if you point the thumb of your left hand in the direction of the current, your
fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field.

Figure-6.3 The magnetic lines around a current carrying conductor leave from the N-pole and
re-enter at the S-pole.

When the wire is shaped into a coil as shown in Figure-6.3, all the individual flux lines
produced by each section of wire join together to form one large magnetic field around the
total coil. As with the permanent magnet, these flux lines leave the north of the coil and re-

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enter the coil at its south pole. The magnetic field of a wire coil is much greater and more
localized than the magnetic field around the plain conductor before being formed into a coil.
This magnetic field around the coil can be strengthened even more by placing a core of iron
or similar metal in the center of the core. The metal core presents less resistance to the lines
of flux than the air, thereby causing the field strength to increase.

6.2 Magnetic Propulsion Within A Motor

The basic principle of all motors can easily be shown using two electromagnets and a
permanent magnet. Current is passed through coil no. 1 in such a direction that a north pole
is established and through coil no. 2 in such a direction that a south pole is established. A
permanent magnet with a north and South Pole is the moving part of this simple motor. In
Figure 5-a, the north pole of the permanent magnet is opposite the North Pole of the
electromagnet. Similarly, the south poles are opposite each other. Like magnetic poles repel
each other, causing the movable permanent magnet to begin to turn. After it turns part way
around, the force of attraction between the unlike poles becomes strong enough to keep
the permanent magnet rotating. The rotating magnet continues to turn until the unlike
poles are lined up. At this point the rotor would normally stop because of the attraction
between the unlike poles. (Figure-2.4 B)

If, however, the direction of currents in the electromagnetic coils was suddenly reversed,
thereby reversing the polarity of the two coils, then the poles would again be opposites and
repel each other. (Figure-2.4 C). The movable permanent magnet would then continue to
rotate. If the current direction in the electromagnetic coils was changed every time the
magnet turned 180 degrees or halfway around, then the magnet would continue to rotate.
This simple device is a motor in its simplest form. An actual motor is more complex than the
simple device shown above, but the principle is the same.

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6.3 Producing Mechanical Force

As in the generator, the motor has a definite relationship between the direction of the
magnetic flux, the direction of motion of the conductor or force, and the direction of the
applied voltage or current.

Since the motor is the reverse of the generator, Fleming's left hand rule can be used. If the
thumb and first two fingers of the left hand are extended at right angles to one another, the
thumb will indicate the direction of motion, the forefinger will indicate the direction of the
magnetic field, and the middle finger will indicate the direction of current. In either the
motor or generator, if the directions of any two factors are known, the third can be easily
determined.

6.4 General Construction of DC Machines

A typical DC generator or motor usually consists of:

1. An armature core

2. An air gap

3. Poles

4. A yoke

5. An armature winding

6. A field winding

7. Brushes

8. A commutator

9. A frame

10. End bells

11. Bearings

12. Brush supports

13. A shaft

Figure-2.5 Four Pole DC Motor

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6.5 Four Pole DC Motor

6.5.1 Armature Core or Stack
The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel laminations stamped from sheet steel
with a blanking die. Slots are punched in the lamination with a slot die. Sometimes these
two operations are done as one. The laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded
together.

6.5.2 Armature Winding

The armature winding is the winding, which fits in the armature slots and is eventually
connected to the commutator. It either generates or receives the voltage depending on
whether the unit is a generator or motor. The armature winding usually consists of copper
wire, either round or rectangular and is insulated from the armature stack.

6.5.3 Field Poles

The pole cores can be made from solid steel castings or from laminations. At the air gap, the
pole usually fans out into what is known as a pole head or pole shoe. This is done to reduce
the reluctance of the air gap. Normally the field coils are formed and placed on the pole
cores and then the whole assembly is mounted to the yoke.

6.5.4 Field Coils

The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set up the magnetic
fields in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire are insulated from the poles.
The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the armature winding) or series
windings (in series with the armature winding) or a combination of both.

6.5.5 Yoke
The yoke is a circular steel ring, which supports the field, poles mechanically and provides
the necessary magnetic path between the poles. The yoke can be solid or laminated. In
many DC machines, the yoke also serves as the frame.

6.5.6 Commutator
The commutator is the mechanical rectifier, which changes the AC voltage of the rotating
conductors to DC voltage. It consists of a number of segments normally equal to the number
of slots. The segments or commutator bars are made of silver bearing copper and are
separated from each other by mica insulation.

6.5.7 Brushes and Brush Holders

Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the external circuit. There are many
types of brushes. A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in shape. The
brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact with the commutator. Each brush
usually has a flexible copper shunt or pigtail, which extends to the lead wires. Often, the
entire brush assembly is insulated from the frame and is made movable as a unit about the
commutator to allow for adjustment.

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6.5.8 Interpoles
Interpoles are similar to the main field poles and located on the yoke between the main
field poles. They have windings in series with the armature winding. Interpoles have the
function of reducing the armature reaction effect in the
commutating zone. They eliminate the need to shift the
brush assembly.

6.5.9 Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings

The frame and end bells are usually steel, aluminum or
magnesium castings used to enclose and support the
basic machine parts. The armature is mounted on a steel
shaft, which is supported between two bearings. The
bearings are sleeve, ball or roller type. They are normally
lubricated by grease or oil.

6.5.10 Back End, Front End

The load end of the motor is the Back End. The opposite
load end, most often the commutator end, is the Front
End of the motor.

6.6 Shunt Wound - DC Operation Typical

Speed - Torque Curve
Shunt wound motors, with the armature shunted across
the field, offer relatively flat speed-torque
characteristics. Combined with inherently controlled no-
load speed, this provides good speed regulation over
wide load ranges. While the starting torque is
comparatively lower than the other DC winding types,
shunt wound motors offer simplified control for
reversing service.

6.7 Compound Wound - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve

Compound wound (stabilized shunt) motors utilize a field winding in series with the
armature in addition to the shunt field to obtain a compromise in performance between a
series and shunt type motor. This type offers a combination of good starting torque and
speed stability. Standard compounding is about 12%. Heavier compounding of up to 40 to
50% can be supplied for special high starting torque applications, such as hoists and cranes.

6.8 Series Wound - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve

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Series wound motors have the armature connected in series with the field. While it offers
very high starting torque and good torque output per ampere, the series motor has poor
speed regulation. Speed of DC series motors is generally limited to 5000 rpm and below.
Series motors should be avoided in applications where they are likely to lose their load
because of their tendency to "run away" under no-load conditions. These are generally used
on crane and hoist applications.

6.9 Permanent Magnet - DC Operation Typical Speed - Torque Curve

Permanent magnet motors have no wound field and a
conventional wound armature with commutator and
brushes. This motor has excellent starting torques, with
speed regulation not as good as compound motors.
However, the speed regulation can be improved with
various designs, with corresponding lower rated torques
for a given frame. Because of permanent field, motor
losses is less with better operating efficiencies. These
motors can be dynamically braked and reversed at some
low armature voltage (10%) but should not be plug
reversed with full armature voltage. Reversing current
can be no higher than the locked armature current.

6.10 Brush Shifting

One method of reducing the arcing due to non-linear commutation is to shift the brushes
away from the geometrical neutral position. Then commutation will occur when the
applicable coil is under the influence of a weak magnetic field that will generate a voltage in
the coil, which opposes the induced voltage due to current change. Therefore, this new
voltage will assist rather than hinder the current reversal. In a generator, it is necessary to
shift the brushes forward in the direction of rotation for good commutation. This is true
because the current flow through the conductors is in the same direction as the voltage and,
it commutation is delayed until the coil sides are under the
next pole, it will be assisted by the current reversing voltage.
In a motor, it is necessary to shift the brushes against the
direction of rotation because current flow is in opposition to
the induced voltage. The amount of shift necessary depends
on the load so a given shift will not be satisfactory for all
loads. One effect of shifting brushes is that a
demagnetization component of armature reaction is
introduced. In other words, when the brushes are shifted,
the armature reaction will not only distort the main field
flux but it will also directly oppose the main field. This will

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result in a reduction of the field flux. Another effect is that if the brushes are shifted far
enough, it is possible to reduce the number of effective turns because there will be voltages
in opposition to each other between two brushes.

6.11 Speed Torque Curves

Speed torque curves for the three forms of excitation are shown in Figures given above. In a
shunt excited motor, the change in speed is slight and, therefore, it is considered a constant
speed motor. Also, the field flux is nearly constant in a shunt motor and the torque varies
almost directly with armature current.

In a series motor the drop in speed with increased torque is much greater. This is due to the
fact that the field flux increases with increased current, thus tending to prevent the
reduction in back EMF that is being caused by the reduction in speed. The field flux varies in
a series motor and the torque varies as the square of the armature current until saturation
is reached. Upon reaching saturation, the curve tends to approach the straight line trend of
the shunt motor. The no load speed of a series motor is usually too high for safety and,
therefore, it should never be operated without sufficient load.

A compound motor has a speed torque characteristic which lies between a shunt and series
motor.

6.12 Speed Regulation

Speed regulation is the change in speed with the change in load torque, other conditions
being constant. A motor has good regulation if the change between the no load speed and
full load speed is small.

A shunt motor has good speed regulation while a series motor has poor speed regulation.
For some applications such as cranes or hoists, the series motor has an advantage since it
results in the more deliberate movement of heavier loads. Also, the slowing down of the
series motor is better for heavy starting loads. However, for many applications the shunt
motor is preferred.

6.13 Motor Starting

When the armature is not rotating, the back EMF is zero and the total applied voltage is
available for sending current through the armature. Since the armature resistance is low, an
enormous current would flow if voltage were applied under this condition. Therefore, it is
necessary to insert an additional resistance in series with the armature until a satisfactory
speed is reached where the back EMF will take over to limit the current input.

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6.14 Losses
6.14.1 Friction and Windage
These losses include bearing friction, brush friction, and windage. They are also known as
mechanical losses. They are constant at a given speed but vary with changes in speed.
Power losses due to friction increase as the square of the speed and those due to windage
increase as the cube of the speed.

6.14.2 Armature Copper Losses

These are the I2 R losses of the armature circuit, which includes the armature winding,
commutator, and brushes. They vary directly with the resistance and as the square of the
currents.

6.14.3 Field Copper Losses

These are the I2 R losses of the field circuit which can include the shunt field winding, series
field winding, interpole windings and any shunts used in connection with these windings.
They vary directly with the resistance and as the square of the currents.

6.14.4 Core Losses

These are the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature. With the continual change
of direction of flux in the armature iron, an expenditure of energy is required to carry the
iron through a complete hysteresis loop. This is the hysteresis loss. Also since the iron is a
conductor and revolving in a magnetic field, a voltage will be generated. This, in turn, will
result in small circulating currents known as eddy currents. If a solid core were used for the
armature, the eddy current losses would be high. They are reduced by using thin
laminations, which are insulated from each other. Hysteresis and eddy current losses vary
with flux density and speed.

6.15 Efficiency
For generations or motors, the efficiency is equal to the output divided by the input.
However, in a generator, the input is mechanical while the output is electrical. In a motor
the opposite is true, therefore:

6.16 Horsepower Basics

In 18th century England, coal was feeding the industrial revolution and Thomas Newcomen
invented a steam driven engine that was used to pump water from coal mines. It was a Scott

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however, by the name of James Watt, who in 1769 improved the steam engine making it
truly workable and practical. In his attempt to sell his new steam engines, the first question
coal mine owners asked was "can your engine out work one of my horses?" Watt didn't
know since he didn't know how much work a horse could do. To find out, Watt and his
partner bought a few average size horses and measured their work. They found that the
average horse worked at the rate of 22,000 foot pounds per minute. Watt decided, for some
unknown reason, to add 50% to this figure and rate the average horse at 33,000 foot
pounds per minute.

What's important is that there is now a system in place for measuring the rate of doing
work. And there is a unit of power, horsepower.

If steam engines had been developed someplace else in the world, where the horse was not
the beast of burden, we might be rating motors in oxen power or camel power. Today,
motors are also rated in Watts output.

Horsepower as defined by Watt is the same for AC and DC motors, gasoline engines, dog
sleds, etc.

Horsepower and Electric Motors

Formulae to calculate power of electric motors in HP:

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7 Conclusion
Our internship project was that to design a speed control circuit for a DC Motor. The simulations
indicate that this circuit is very easy to implement, in this circuit. Fewer components are used due to
which troubleshooting is made easy. As MCU is used in this circuit so it is more precise, accurate and
reliable.

That’s why this circuit is clearly the better design. This design requires minimal cost to implement the
circuit, it is relatively easy to debug and its maintenance is easy due to simple and short design. In
addition, it is cheaper to build and more durable.

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8 Appendices
Appendix A
Programming Code of MCU
include p16f873.inc

__config _hs_osc & _wdt_off & _pwrte_on & _lvp_off

errorlevel -302 ;Suppress bank warning

;**************** Label Definition ********************

speed equ d'8' ;Reference speed (5x8/256=0.156V)

change equ d'1' ;Change value (2mV/ms)

led equ h'20' ;LED control data save area

;**************** Program Start ***********************

org 0 ;Reset Vector

goto init

org 4 ;Interrupt Vector

goto int

;**************** Initial Process *********************

init

;*** Port initialization

bsf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank1

movlw b'00000001' ;AN0 to input mode

movwf trisa ;Set TRISA register

clrf trisb ;Set TRISB to uotput mode

clrf trisc ;Set TRISC to output mode

bcf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank0

;*** A/D converter initialization

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movlw b'10000001' ;ADCS=10 CHS=AN0 ADON=ON

movwf adcon0 ;Set ADCON0 register

bsf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank1

movlw b'00001110' ;ADFM=0 PCFG=1110

movwf adcon1 ;Set ADCON1 register

bcf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank0

;*** PWM initialization

clrf tmr2 ;Clear TMR2 register

movlw b'11111111' ;Max duty (low speed)

movwf ccpr1l ;Set CCPR1L register

bsf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank1

movlw d'255' ;Period=1638.4usec(610Hz)

movwf pr2 ;Set PR2 register

bcf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank0

movlw b'00000110' ;Pst=1:1 TMR2=ON Pre=1:16

movwf t2con ;Set T2CON register

movlw b'00001100' ;CCP1XY=0 CCP1M=1100(PWM)

movwf ccp1con ;Set CCP1CON register

;*** Compare mode initialization

clrf tmr1h ;Clear TMR1H register

clrf tmr1l ;Clear TMR1L register

movlw h'61' ;H'61A8'=25000

movwf ccpr2h ;Set CCPR2H register

movlw h'a8' ;25000*0.4usec = 10msec

movwf ccpr2l ;Set CCPR2L register

movlw b'00000001' ;Pre=1:1 TMR1=Int TMR1=ON

movwf t1con ;Set T1CON register

movlw b'00001011' ;CCP2M=1011(Compare)

movwf ccp2con ;Set CCP2CON register

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;*** Interruption control

bsf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank1

movlw b'00000001' ;CCP2IE=Enable

movwf pie2 ;Set PIE2 register

bcf status,rp0 ;Change to Bank0

movlw b'11000000' ;GIE=ON PEIE=ON

movwf intcon ;Set INTCON register

wait

goto $ ;Interruption wait

;*************** Interruption Process *****************

int

clrf pir2 ;Clear interruption flag

ad_check

btfsc adcon0,go ;A/D convert end ?

goto ad_check ;No. Again

movfw adresh ;Read ADRESH register

sublw speed ;Ref speed - Detect speed

btfsc status,c ;Reference < Detect ?

goto check1 ;No. Jump to > or = check

;--- control to low speed ---

movfw ccpr1l ;Read CCPR1L register

addlw change ;Change value + CCPR1L

btfss status,c ;Overflow ?

movwf ccpr1l ;No. Write CCPR1L

goto led_cont ;Jump to LED control

check1

btfsc status,z ;Reference = Detect ?

goto led_cont ;Yes. Jump to LED control

;--- control to fast speed ---

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movlw change ;Set change value

subwf ccpr1l,f ;CCPR1L - Change value

btfsc status,c ;Underflow ?

goto led_cont ;Jump to LED control

clrf ccpr1l ;Set fastest speed

;**************** LED control Process ******************

led_cont

comf ccpr1l,w ;Complement CCPR1L bit

movwf led ;Save LED data

movlw b'00010000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led1 ;No.

movlw b'00000000' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led1 movlw b'00100000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led2 ;No.

movlw b'00000001' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led2 movlw b'01000000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led3 ;No.

movlw b'00000011' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led3 movlw b'01100000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

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btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led4 ;No.

movlw b'00000111' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led4 movlw b'10000000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led5 ;No.

movlw b'00001111' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led5 movlw b'10100000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led6 ;No.

movlw b'00011111' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led6 movlw b'11000000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led7 ;No.

movlw b'00111111' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led7 movlw b'11100000' ;Set compare data

subwf led,w ;LED - data

btfsc status,c ;Under ?

goto led8 ;No.

movlw b'01111111' ;Set LED control data

goto int_end ;Jump to interrupt end

led8 movlw b'11111111' ;Set LED control data

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;************ END of Interruption Process **************

int_end

movwf portb ;Set PROTB

retfie

;********************************************************

; END of DC motor speed controller

;********************************************************

End

Appendix B
PIC16F87XA Data Sheet
28 Pin Enhanced Flash Microcontrollers

High-Performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single-word instructions to learn

All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle

Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input DC – 200 ns instruction cycle

Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM), Up to

256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory

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Pinout compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers

Peripheral Features

Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep via external
crystal/clock

Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler

Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules

Capture is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 12.5 ns

Compare is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 200 ns

PWM max. Resolution is 10-bit

Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™

Master mode) and I2C™(Master/Slave)

Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address detection

Parallel Slave Port (PSP) – 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only)

Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

Analog Features
10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)

Brown-out Reset (BOR)

Analog Comparator module with:

Two analog comparators

Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module

Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage reference

Comparator outputs are externally accessible

Special Microcontroller Features

100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical

1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory typical

Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years

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Self-reprogrammable under software control

In-Circuit Serial Programming™(ICSP™) via two pins

Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming

Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation

Programmable code protection

Power saving Sleep mode

Selectable oscillator options

In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

CMOS Technology
Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology

Fully static design

Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V)

Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges

Low-power consumption

Appendix C
MOSFET FA57SA50LC Data Sheet

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Appendix D
Bridge Rectifier 2W005G Datasheet

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9 References
[1]Web: http://www.wikipedia.org

[2] Book “Electrical Technology” by “BL Theraja” and “AK Theraja”, 23rd Edition, Volume 1

[3] Article: “Reliance Basic Motor Theory”, By “Baldor Electric Company”

Some Other Resources

Book: “Electronic Devices” by “Thomas L Floyd”, 4th Edition

Web: http://downloads.labcenter.co.uk

Web: http://www.google.com

Web: http://www.images.google.com

Web: http://www.alldatasheets.com

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