Abstract

Solar energy is an abundant and renewable energy source. The annual solar energy incident at the ground in India is about 20,000 times the current electrical energy consumption. The use of solar energy in India has been very limited. The average daily solar energy incident in India is 5 kWh/m 2 day and hence energy must be collected over large areas resulting in high initial capital investment; it is also an intermittent energy source. Hence solar energy systems must incorporate storage in order to take care of energy needs during nights and on cloudy days. This results in further increase in the capital cost of such systems. Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.[1] Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), both in Spain. The 200 MW Golmud Solar Park in China, is the worlds largest photovoltaic plant. I tried my best to get knowledge about concentrating collector. I hope that I have excited enough in the report of my seminar.

VIKAS GURJAR EE08062

INDEX [Link]. TOPIC PAGE NO.

Introduction

Concentrating collectors

Types of concentrating collectors 3.1. Parabolic trough system 3.2. Parabolic dish system 3.3. Power tower system 3.4. Stationary concentrating solar collectors

Working principles of concentrating collectors 4.1. Trough Systems 4.2. Dish Systems 4.3. Central Receiver Systems

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Economic and Environmental Consideration

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Conclusion

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References

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LIST OF FIGURE [Link].

3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4

FIGURE NAME
Crossection of parabolic trough Parabolic trough system One Axis Tracking Parabolic Trough with Axis Oriented E-W Two Axis Tracking Concentrator

PAGE NO.
6 7 7 8

3.1.5 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 4.1.1 4.2.1 4.3.1

Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines

8 9 9 11 12 12 13 14 15 16

Crossection of parabolic dish Parabolic dish collector with a mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point Solar dish stirling engine Power tower system Heliostats Power tower system with heliostats Parabolic trough with mirrored parabolic troughs Combination of parabolic dish system The process of molten salt storage

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and numerous industrial heat requirements, flat plate collectors generally cannot provide carrier fluids at temperatures sufficiently elevated to be effective. They may be used as first-stage heat input devices; the temperature of the carrier fluid is then boosted by other conventional heating means. Alternatively, more complex and expensive concentrating collectors can be used. These are devices that optically reflect and focus incident solar energy onto a small receiving area. As a result of this concentration, the intensity of the solar energy is magnified, and the temperatures that can be achieved at the receiver (called the "target") can approach several hundred or even several thousand degrees Celsius. The concentrators must move to track the sun if they are to perform effectively [1]. A solar thermal collector is a solar collector designed to collect heat by absorbing sunlight. The term is applied to solar hot water panels, but may also be used to denote more complex installations such as solar parabolic, solar trough and solar towers or simpler installations such as solar air heat. The more complex collectors are generally used in solar power plants where solar heat is used to generate electricity by heating water to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. The simpler collectors are typically used for supplemental space heating in residential and commercial buildings. A collector is a device for converting the energy in solar radiation into a more usable or storable form. The energy in sunlight is in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The solar energy striking the Earth's surface depends on weather conditions, as well as location and orientation of the surface, but overall, it averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies with the surface directly perpendicular to the sun's rays. Solar collectors fall into two general categories: non-concentrating and concentrating. In the nonconcentrating type, the collector area (i.e. the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs the [Link] plate and evacuated tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space heating, domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller. Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this are used almost exclusively in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics.

CHAPTER 2 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area and focus it onto a small absorber area. These collectors can provide high temperatures more efficiently than flatplate collectors, since the absorption surface area is much smaller. However, diffused sky radiation cannot be focused onto the absorber. Most concentrating collectors require mechanical equipment that constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps the absorber at the point of focus. Therefore; there are many types of concentrating collectors [2]. Solar energy is an abundant and renewable energy source. The annual solar energy incident at the ground in India is about 20,000 times the current electrical energy consumption. The use of solar energy in India has been very limited. The average daily solar energy incident in India is 5 kWh/m 2 day and hence energy must be collected over large areas resulting in high initial capital investment; it is also an intermittent energy source. Hence solar energy systems must incorporate storage in order to take care of energy needs during nights and on cloudy days. This results in further increase in the capital cost of such [Link] power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.[1]

CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR

There are four basic types of concentrating collectors: Parabolic trough system Parabolic dish Power tower Stationary concentrating collectors

3.1 Parabolic trough system

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter u. The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the trough. Sometimes a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat loss [3]. This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic reflector is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe, placed at the focal point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to the boilers in the power station. Their shapes are like letter u as shown figure 3.1.1 below.

Figure 3.1.1 Crossection of parabolic trough [4].

The parabolic trough sytem is shown in the figure 3.1.2 below.

Figure 3.1.2 Parabolic trough system [3]. Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis tracking. The below figure 3.1.3 shows one axis tracking parabolic trough with axis oriented E-W.

Figure 3.1.3 One Axis Tracking Parabolic Trough with Axis Oriented E-W [8].

The below figure 3.1.4 shows two axis tracking concentrator.

Figure 3.1.4 Two Axis Tracking Concentrator [8]. Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and produce steam for generating electricity. In California, multi-megawatt power plants were built using parabolic troughs combined with gas turbines [3]. Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines is shown figure 3.1.5 below.

Figure 3.1.5 Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines [4].

Cost projections for trough technology are higher than those for power towers and dish/engine systems due in large part to the lower solar concentration and hence lower temperatures and [Link] with long operating experience, continued technology improvements, and operating and maintenance cost reductions, troughs are the least expensive, most reliable solar thermal power production technology for near-term [4].

3.2 Parabolic dish systems

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker [3]. The below figure 3.2.1 shows crossection of parabolic dish.

Figure 3.2.1 Crossection of parabolic dish [4]. The Parabolic dish collector is shown in the below figure 3.2.2.

Figure 3.2.2 Parabolic dish collector with a mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point [3].
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A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to electricity in the small-power capacity range [3]. A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to electricity in the small-power capacity range [3]. It is the most powerful type of collector which concentrates sunlight at a single, focal point, via one or more parabolic dishesarranged in a similar fashion to a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants. There are two key phenomena to understand in order to comprehend the design of a parabolic dish. One is that the shape of a parabola is defined such that incoming rays which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. The second key is that the light rays from the sun arriving at the Earth's surface are almost completely parallel. So if the dish can be aligned with its axis pointing at the sun, almost all of the incoming radiation will be reflected towards the focal point of the dishmost losses are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect reflection. Losses due to atmosphere between the dish and its focal point are minimal, as the dish is generally designed specifically to be small enough that this factor is insignificant on a clear, sunny day. Compare this though with some other designs, and you will see that this could be an important factor, and if the local weather is hazy, or foggy, it may reduce the efficiency of a parabolic dish significantly. In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo, is placed at the focus of the dish, which absorbs the heat of the incident solar radiation, and converts it into electricity. Engines currently under consideration include Stirling and Brayton cycle engines. Several prototype dish/engine systems, ranging in size from 7 to 25 kW have been deployed in various locations in the USA. High optical efficiency and low start up losses make dish/engine systems the most efficient of all solar technologies. A Stirling engine/parabolic dish system holds the worlds record for converting sunlight into electricity. In 1984, a 29% net efficiency was measured at Rancho Mirage, California [4].

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The below figure 3.2.3 shows the solar dish stirling engine.

Figure 3.2.3 Solar dish stirling engine [9].

3.3 Power tower system

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below. A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large absorber located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is power generation in a system called the power tower [3]. A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path across the sky. The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high tower. A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where temperatures well above 1000C can be reached. High-pressure steam is generated to produce electricity [3]. Heliostats are mirrors that track the sun and reflect the sunlight onto a central receiving point. Most heliostat solar power systems consist of arrays of heliostats. If the mirrors are inexpensive enough then they can collect solar energy at a cost that is less expensive and with higher efficiency than flat plate collectors. The arrays of heliostats concentrate the energy on a relatively small collection point that, though more expensive per ft than flat plate collectors, are smaller and thus the total cost is lower.
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If used for the collection of heat the temperatures can be quite high, over 600F. If used to generate electricity the cost of the precious solar cells are only a fraction of the cost of cells in flat plate systems. The Power tower system is shown in the figure 3.3.1 below.

Figure 3.3.1 Power tower system [4]. Heliostats are shown in the figure 3.3.2 below.

Figure 3.3.2 Heliostats [4].

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The power tower system with heliostats is shown in the figure 3.3.3 below.

Figure 3.3.3 Power tower system with heliostats [4].

3.4 Stationary concentrating solar collectors

Stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors for directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a wide acceptance angle. The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates the need for a sun tracker. This class of collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors, flat plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors, and solar cooker. Development of the first two collectors has been done in Sweden. Solar cookers are used throughout the world, especially in the developing countries [3].

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CHAPTER 4 WORKING PRINCIPLES OF CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

Unlike solar (photovoltaic) cells, which use light to produce electricity, concentrating solar power systems generate electricity with heat. Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to concentrate and focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver, similar to a boiler tube. The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat. The heat is then transported to a steam generator or engine where it is converted into electricity. There are three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic troughs, dish/engine systems, and central receiver [Link] technologies can be used to generate electricity for a variety of applications, ranging from remote power systems as small as a few kilowatts (kW) up to grid connected applications of 200-350 megawatts (MW) or more. A concentrating solar power system that produces 350 MW of electricity displaces the energy equivalent of 2.3 million barrels of oil [5].

4.1 Trough Systems

These solar collectors use mirrored parabolic troughs to focus the sun's energy to a fluid-carrying receiver tube located at the focal point of a parabolically curved trough reflector [5].The energy from the sun sent to the tube heats oil flowing through the tube, and the heat energy is then used to generate electricity in a conventional steam generator. Many troughs placed in parallel rows are called a "collector field." The troughs in the field are all aligned along a northsouth axis so they can track the sun from east to west during the day, ensuring that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes. Individual trough systems currently can generate about 80 MW of electricity. It is shown in the figure 4.1.1 below.

Figure 4.1.1 Parabolic trough with mirrored parabolic troughs [10]

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Trough designs can incorporate thermal storage-setting aside the heat transfer fluid in its hot phase allowing for electricity generation several hours into the evening. Currently, all parabolic trough plants are "hybrids," meaning they use fossil fuels to supplement the solar output during periods of low solar radiation. Typically, a natural gas-fired heat or a gas steam boiler/reheater is used. Troughs also can be integrated with existing coal-fired plants [5]. 4.2 Dish Systems Dish systems use dish-shaped parabolic mirrors as reflectors to concentrate and focus the sun's rays onto a receiver, which is mounted above the dish at the dish center. A dish/engine system is a stand alone unit composed primarily of a collector, a receiver, and an engine. It works by collecting and concentrating the sun's energy with a dishshaped surface onto a receiver that absorbs the energy and transfers it to the engine. The engine then converts that energy to heat. The heat is then converted to mechanical power, in a manner similar to conventional engines, by compressing the working fluid when it is cold, heating the compressed working fluid, and then expanding it through a turbine or with a piston to produce mechanical power. An electric generator or alternator converts the mechanical power into electrical power. Each dish produces 5 to 50 kW of electricity and can be used independently or linked together to increase generating capacity. A 250-kW plant composed of ten 25-kW dish/engine systems requires less than an acre of land. Dish/engine systems are not commercially available yet, although ongoing demonstrations indicate good potential. Individual dish/engine systems currently can generate about 25 kW of electricity. More capacity is possible by connecting dishes together. These systems can be combined with natural gas, and the resulting hybrid provides continuous power generation [5]. The figure 4.2.1 shows the combination of parabolic dish system

Figure 4.2.1 Combination of parabolic dish system [4].

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4.3. Central Receiver Systems Central receivers (or power towers) use thousands of individual sun-tracking mirrors called "heliostats" to reflect solar energy onto a receiver located on top of tall tower. The receiver collects the sun's heat in a heat-transfer fluid (molten salt) that flows through the receiver. The salt's heat energy is then used to make steam to generate electricity in a conventional steam generator, located at the foot of the tower. The molten salt storage system retains heat efficiently, so it can be stored for hours or even days before being used to generate electricity [5]. In this system, molten-salt is pumped from a cold tank at 288 deg.C and cycled through the receiver where it is heated to 565 deg.C and returned to a hot tank. The hot salt can then be used to generate electricity when needed. Current designs allow storage ranging from 3 to 13 hours [4]. Figure 4.3.1 shows the process of molten salt storage

Figure 4.3.1 The process of molten salt storage [11].

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CHAPTER 5 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The most important factor driving the solar energy system design process is whether the energy it produces is economical. Although there are factors other than economics that enter into a decision of when to use solar energy; i.e. no pollution, no greenhouse gas generation, security of the energy resource etc., design decisions are almost exclusively dominated by the levelized energy cost. This or some similar economic parameter, gives the expected cost of the energy produced by the solar energy system, averaged over the lifetime of the system. Commercial applications from a few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts are now feasible, and plants totaling 354 MW have been in operation in California since the 1980s. Plants can function in dispatchable, grid-connected markets or in distributed, stand-alone applications. They are suitable for fossil-hybrid operation or can include cost-effective storage to meet dispatchability requirements. They can operate worldwide in regions having high beam-normal insolation, including large areas of the southwestern United States, and Central and South America, Africa, Australia, China, India, the Mediterranean region, and the Middle East, . Commercial solar plants have achieved levelized energy costs of about 12-15/kWh, and the potential for cost reduction are expected to ultimately lead to costs as low as 5/kWh [6].

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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS
Concentrating solar power technology for electricity generation is ready for the market. Various types of single and dual-purpose plants have been analysed and tested in the field. In addition, experience has been gained from the first commercial installations in use worldwide since the beginning of the 1980s. Solar thermal power plants will, within the next decade, provide a significant contribution to an efficient, economical and environmentally benign energy supply both in large-scale gridconnected dispatchable markets and remote or modular distributed markets. Parabolic and Fresnel troughs, central receivers and parabolic dishes will be installed for solar/fossil hybrid and solar-only power plant operation. In parallel, decentralised process heat for industrial applications will be provided by low-cost concentrated collectors. Following a subsidised introduction phase in green markets, electricity costs will decrease from 14 to 18 Euro cents per kilowatt hour presently in Southern Europe towards 5 to 6 Euro cents per kilowatt hour in the near future at good sites in the countries of the Earths sunbelt. After that, there will be no further additional cost in the emission reduction by CSP. This, and the vast potential for bulk electricity generation, moves the goal of longterm stabilisation of the global climate into a realistic range. Moreover, the problem of sustainable water resources and development in arid regions is addressed in an excellent way, making use of highly efficient, solar powered co-generation systems. However, during the introduction phase, strong political and financial support from the responsible authorities is still required, and many barriers must be overcome [7].

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REFERENCES
[1][Link] [2][Link] [3][Link] [4][Link] [5][Link] [6][Link] [7][Link] [8][Link] [9][Link] solar/ optics html [10][Link] heating html [11][Link] [12][Link]

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