SPACETIME AND GEOMETRY An Introduction to General Relativity Sean Carroll University of Chicago San Francisco Boston New York Capetown Hong Kong London Madrid Mexico City ‘Montresl Munich Paris Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto‘Acquisitions Editor: Adam Black Project Editor: Nancy Benton ‘Text Designer: Leslie Galen Cover Designer: Blakeley Kim Marketing Manager: Christy Lawrence ‘Manufacturing Coordinator: Vivian McDougal Project Coordination and Flectronic Page Makeup: Integre Technical Publishing Co., Ine Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, In. publishing as Addison Wesley, 1301 Sansome St, San Francisco, CA 94111. Allsighs reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission shouldbe obiined fro the publisher prior to any robibited reproduction, storage in aretieval system, or transmission in any form or by any ‘means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permissions) t0 use ‘material fom this work, please submit a writen request to Pearson Education, Ine, Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave, Gleview, IL. 60025. Carroll, Sean ISBN 0-8053-8732-3 (hardcover) A Ad Addison esi 23.45.6789 10 —MAL~06 05 04 03 wnewatw.convaw“For if each Star is little more a mathematical Point, located upon the Hemisphere of Heaven by Right Ascension and Declination, then all the Stars, taken together, tho’ innumerable, must like any other set of points, in turn represent some single gigantick Equation, to the mind of God as straightforward as, say, the Equation of a Sphere,—to us unreadable, incalculable. A lonely, uncompensated, perhaps even impossible Task,—yet some of us must ever be seeking, I suppose.” —Thomas Pynchon, Mason & DixonPreface General relativity is the most beautiful physical theory ever invented. It describes one of the most pervasive features of the world we experience—gravitation—in terms of an elegant mathematical structure—the differential geometry of curved spacetime—leading to unambiguous predictions that have received spectacular experimental confirmation, Consequences of general relativity, from the big bang to black holes, often get young people first interested in physics, and itis an unal- loyed joy to finally reach the point in one’s studies where these phenomena may be understood at a rigorous quantitative level. If you are contemplating reading this book, that point is here. In recent decades, general relativity (GR) has become an integral and indis- pensable part of modern physics. For a long time after it was proposed by Einstein in 1916, GR was counted as a shining achievement that lay somewhat outside the ‘mainstream of interesting research. Increasingly, however, contemporary students ina variety of specialties are finding it necessary to study Einstein's theory. In ad- dition to being an active research area in its own right, GR is part of the standard syllabus for anyone interested in astrophysics, cosmology, string theory, and even particle physics. This is not to slight the more pragmatic uses of GR, including the workings of the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite network. There is no shortage of books on GR, and many of them are excellent. Indeed, approximately thirty years ago witnessed the appearance of no fewer than three books in the subject, each of which has become a classic in its own right: those by Weinberg (1972), Misner, Thome, and Wheeler (1973), and Hawking and Ellis (1975). Each of these books is suffused with a strongly-held point of view advo- cated by the authors. This has led to a love-hate relationship between these works and their readers; in each case, it takes little effort to find students who will de- clare them to be the best textbook ever written, or other students who find them completely unpalatable. For the individuals in question, these judgments may very well be correct; there are many different ways to approach this subject. ‘The present book has a single purpose: to provide a clear introduction to gen- eral relativity, suitable for graduate students or advanced undergraduates. I have attempted to include enough material so that almost any one-semester introdue- tory course on GR can find the appropriate subjects covered in the text, but not too much more than that. In particular, I have tried to resist the temptation to write a comprehensive reference book. The only goal of this book is to teach you GR. An intentional effort has been made to prefer the conventional over the id- iosyncratic. If I can be accused of any particular ideological bias, it would be @ viiPreface tendency to think of general relativity as a field theory, a point of view that helps one to appreciate the connections among GR, particle physics, and string theory. ‘Atthe same time, there are a number of exciting astrophysical applications of GR (black holes, gravitational lensing, the production and detection of gravitational waves, the early universe, the late universe, the cosmological constant), and I have endeavored to include at least enough background discussion of these issues to prepare students to tackle the current literature. ‘The primary question facing any introductory treatment of general relativity is the level of mathematical rigor at which to operate, There is no uniquely proper solution, as different students will respond with different levels of understanding and enthusiasm to different approaches. Recognizing this, I have tried to pro- vide something for everyone. I have not shied away {rom detailed formalism, but have also attempted to include concrete examples and informal discussion of the concepts under consideration. Much of the most mathematical material has been relegated to the Appendices. Some of the material in the Appendices is actually an integral part of the course (for example, the discussion of conformal diagrams), but an individual reader or instructor can decide just when it is appropriate to delve into them; signposts are included in the body of the text. ‘Surprisingly, there are very few formal prerequisites for learning general rel- ativity; most of the material is developed as we go along. Certainly no prior ex- posure to Riemannian geometry is assumed, nor would it necessarily be helpful. It would be nice to have already studied some special relativity; although a dis cussion is included in Chapter I, its purpose is more to review the basics and and introduce some notation, rather than to provide a self-contained introduction. Be~ ‘yond that, some exposure to electromagnetism, Lagrangian mechanics, and linear algebra might be useful, but the essentials are included here. The structure of the book should be clear. The first chapter is a review of spe- cial relativity and basic tensor algebra, including a brief discussion of classical field theory. The next two chapters introduce manifolds and curvature in some detail; some motivational physics is included, but building a mathematical frame- work is the primary goal. General relativity proper is introduced in Chapter 4, along with some discussion of alternative theories. The next four chapters dis- cuss the three major applications of GR: black holes (two chapters), perturbation theory and gravitational waves, and cosmology. Each of these subjects has wit- nessed an explosion of research in recent years, so the discussions here will be necessarily introductory, but I have tried to emphasize issues of relevance to cur- rent work. These three applications can be covered in any order, although there are interdependencies highlighted in the (ext. Discussions of experimental tests are sprinkled through these chapters. Chapter 9 is a brief introduction to quan- tum field theory in curved spacetime; this is not a necessary part of a first look at GR, but has become increasingly important to work in quantum gravity and cosmology, and therefore deserves some mention. On the other hand, a few topics are scandalously neglected; the initial-value problem and cosmological perturba- tion theory come to mind, but there are others. Fortunately there is no shortage of other resources. The Appendices serve vatious purposes: There are discussions of