Chapter8

CreoleandEducationinHaiti
YvesDejean
[TobepublishedinTheHaitianCreoleLanguage:History,Structure,Use,andEducation.EditedbySpears,ArthurK.andCaroleM. BerotteJoseph.Publishers:LexingtonBooks/Rowman&Littlefield,Lanham,MD]

Introduction
Haitis1987constitutionmadeCreoleofficialalongwithFrenchandrecognizedthatCreoleisthe 1 languagethatallHaitianshaveincommon. ThisconstitutionandthepriorBernardReformof education,officiallybegunin1979,providedthefirstofficialbuttressesfortheuseofCreoleinHaitian schools.Thereform,promotingCreoleasalanguageofinstruction,wasintendedtoproducebroader educationalaccessandpedagogicalchangesinlinewithpromotingdevelopmentratherthan reproducingunderdevelopment(Hadjadj2000).ThereformhadCreoleusedasthelanguageof instructionduringthefirstfouryearsofschool;allliteracyskillsweretobetaughtusingCreole.French wastobetaughtorallyonlyasanobjectofinstruction,introducedduringthefirstyearofschool. TeachersweretobeginteachingwrittenFrenchinthethirdyear.Theaimwastoproducestudentswho werebalancedbilingualsbytheendofthefirsttenyearsofschooling(thefundamentalcycle). Thereformwassuspendedbythegovernmentfrom1982to1986,andthesuspensionwasthenextended ayearuntil1987.(Thegovernmenthadmadespuriousexcusesfordiscontinuingitssupportforthe reform.)InDecember1987,thereformactivitieswereofficiallybegunagain,underthesupervisionofthe restructuredNationalPedagogicalInstitute(IPNistheFrenchacronym).InMarch1998,agovernment decreemadeofficialthecurriculaoftheFormalBasicSchool,aprogramformodernizingeducation.This decreeprovidedaddedlegalbasisforeducationalreformbyorderingprogressiveimplementationofthe FormalBasicSchoolprograminallHaitianschools(Hadjadj2000). Theresultshavebeenfarfromsatisfactory,toputitmildly:reformshavebeenundertakenhalfheartedly atbest.Thegovernmenthasnotreallybeenbehindtheeffort.Teacherandprincipaltraininginuseofthe newprogramislacking.Theprincipalsofprivateschools(83percentofthetotal)havedraggedtheirfeet. Additionalfactorsintheabysmalresultshavebeen(1)theinstabilityinthegovernmentandministries, (2)thetotalabsenceinmostschoolsofsupportinstitutions(librariesandlaboratories)andmaterials,not tomention(3)inadequatestaffing.Makingmattersevenworseisthat(4)thegovernmentsabotaged educationalmodernizationfrom19751986(Hadjadj2000). Tobesure,therewasaspurtofeffortsfrom1991to1995topushthereform,withgradualbutlimited progress.Thisoutcomewasdueto(1)thelackofresources,(2)theabsenceofarealnationaldebateon modernizingschools,(3)theinertiaoffieldagentssupposedtoimplementthereform,and(4)theopposi tionofparentstotheuseofCreoleininstruction(Hadjadj2000). Inthischapter,myaimistorevisitsomeofthemajorissuesthatIhavebeenconcernedwiththroughout mycareerasalinguist.TheyrelatetoCreoleasalanguageanditsuseineducation.Someoftheseissues provideacontextforunderstandingthefateoftheBernardReform.(OneducationinHaiti,seealso Dejean2006.)Irevisittheseissuesbecausemanyofthepoints,althoughmadebefore,require restatement:currentdebatesmusttakethemintoaccountfortheretobeafullyrationalediscussionof Creolevisviseducationalquestions,andmoregenerally,sociopoliticalandeconomicones.Onesection ofthischapterdealswithwhatCreoleshouldbecalled;thetwoprimarycandidatesareCreoleand Haitian.AlthoughnotasweightyanissuesociopoliticallyandeconomicallyassomeoftheothersItreat, itis,nevertheless,onethatIfeelstronglyaboutandtakethisopportunitytoairmythoughtsonceagain.

AnAmericanVisitorinHaiti
OneTuesdayinPortauPrince,October10,2000,ataroundoneoclockintheafternoon,asIwalkedfromthe PalomagasstationtomyresidenceacrossfromCarrefoursopenairmarketplace,Iwasoverwhelmedbytheflowof studentscomingoutoftheareaschools,particularlytheJuvnatdesFrresduSacrCoeur.ThatdayIprobably crossedpathswithathousandchildrenandaccompanyingadults.Baskinginthisjoyousimmersion,Ilingeredat JuvnatsgatesforsometimeandimaginedameetingbetweenanAmericanvisitorandanEnglishspeaking Haitianteacher.AsIlistenedtothehumofhundredsofvoices,astreamofhumanswiththeirstreamsofwords,I imaginedadialoguebetweenthevisitorandtheteacher: A.Idreallyliketoknowwhatthesechildrenaresaying.ToobadtheydontspeakEnglish. T.Toobadyoudontspeaktheirlanguage. A.True.IdospeaksomeFrench.IdontthinktheyrespeakingFrenchthough.Whatlanguagearetheyspeaking? T.TheyrespeakingCreole.EveryHaitianspeaksCreole. A.ArethechildrentaughtinCreole? T.No,theyretaughtinFrench. A.WhyarenttheytaughtinCreole?DoallthesechildrenspeakFrenchtoo? T.No,theyrelearningFrenchatschool. A.DothesechildrensparentsspeakFrench? T.Onlysomeofthem. A.Whatpercentagewouldyousay? T.Idsaybarelytenpercent. A.Youmeantotellmethatninetypercentoftheparentsofthislargegroupofchildrenwerelookingatrightnow dontspeakFrenchfluently? T.TheparentsdontspeakFrenchatall. A.ThenIsupposeninetypercentofthekidsImlookingatrightnowdidntspeakFrenchatallwhentheyentered primaryschool. T.Thatsright. A.Isthistrueonlyofthisneighborhood,Carrefour? T.No,ithappenseverywhereinHaiti.SomelinguistsYvesDejean,forexamplebelievethatoutofeighttonine millionHaitiansonlytwoorthreepercentspeakFrenchproficiently. A.DotheseschoolchildrenthenbecomeproficientinFrenchafterafewyearsofschooling,after,say,fourorfive years? T.Ivebeenteachinghighschoolforfifteenyears,butinallhonestyIdhavetosaythat,evenaftertenyearsof schooling,agreatmajorityofthesestudentsdontspeakFrenchproficiently.Andthatopinionissharedbymostof Haitis(certified)teachers. A.DotheyknowatleasthowtoreadFrench?

T.Intheory.AlmostallofthemreadFrenchatvariouslevels. A.So,theyunderstandwellwhatswritteninFrenchbooks,magazines,newspapers,advertisements,brochures, directions,etc. T.Idontthinkso,atleastnotmostofthem. A.Buthowdoyoudefineknowinghowtoread?WhereImfrom,weclassifyasilliterate(unabletoread)those whodontpassacomprehensionexambasedonatextwritteninEnglish,ifEnglishistheirfirstlanguage.Thetext isonethatallEnglishspeakingninthgradersshouldunderstandverywellafterarelativelyshortperiodofsilent reading. T.Bythisstandard,mostofourstudentsandformerstudentswouldntpassaFrenchexamunlesstheyvelearned boththetextandadetailedexplanationbyheart. A.SowhydontyougivethemtextswritteninCreole? T.TheydontknowhowtoreadCreole.IdontknowhowtoreadCreole. A.DoyouspeakCreolefluently? T.Ofcourse.IvebeenspeakingCreoleeversinceIlearnedtotalk,justlikeeveryonebornandraisedinHaiti. A.AndyoucanspeakandreadEnglish.YoucanunderstandanarticleaboutHaitiintheNewYorkTimes,the WashingtonPost,theBostonGlobe,andtheMiamiHerald? T.AndwheneverIhaveachanceIreadwhatspublishedaboutHaitiinLeMonde,LeMondeDiplomatique,La Croix,LeFigaro,andevenParisMatch. A.ButwhydontyoulearntoreadCreole? T.Itsdifficult.Andtheresnoorthography. A.Imstunned.BeforecomingtoHaiti,IcheckedwithoneofmyfriendswhodlivedinPortauPrinceforfifteen years.HeshowedmethreeEnglishCreoledictionariespublishedintheUnitedStatedalongwithsomeotherbooks. TherewasevenacollectionofpoemsbyagreatHaitianwriterwhodiedinMiami. T.FelixMorisseauLeroy,theauthorofDiakout[diakout,writteninthePressoirOrthographyforCreole,isa largestrawbagwithastrap;spelleddyakoutintheofficial,orthography]. A.HeshowedmeaCreoleeditionoftheBible,whichwaspublished,Ibelievein1999.Allthesebookswerewritten inanorthographythatmyfriendtoldmehasbeenofficiallyinusesince1980. T.Ah?Inanycase,Frenchistheofficiallanguageofinstructionhere. A.Anddoyougetgoodresults? T.Unfortunately,no.Thesuccessratefornationalhighschoolexamshasbeenacatastropheformanyyearsvery low,between20and30percent.Reallysad. A.Haitischildrenaretrulyunfortunate.IdontthinkIwouldhavebeenabletoearnmyhighschooldiploma,my B.A.,andmyMastersinElectronicsifIdbeentaughtinGermanorSpanishfromchildhoodinsteadofinmyown language. T.Imluckytobeamongaselectfew.IspeakFrenchfluentlyandIcanreadinthreemajorlanguages:French, English,andSpanish.

A.Ithinkwehaveaverydifferentunderstandingofinstruction,education,readingcomprehensionandtheultimate purposeoflifelonginstructionforall. MenandwomenteachinginAmericanschoolsenjoybyfarabettereconomicsituationthaninstructorsin Haiti.Ofcourse,theconditionsaredifferent.Theproblemsarenotidentical.However,intelligenceand brainfunctionsforallchildrenandadultsarethesameeverywhere.Thereisnorealreadingwithout comprehension.Thesimpledecodingofwordsisamechanicalandminoraspectofreadingactivity.All oftheworldsknowledgeableteacherscanonlyagreewiththebasicideasexpressedbySuperintendent RogerC.Cuevas,oftheMiamiDadeCountyschoolsystem,intheMiamiHerald,ideaspresumingthat textswillbereadwhenwritteninalanguageperfectlyunderstoodandmasteredbyyoungstudent readersatalllevels.Onlythosewhoarecompletelymisledbyanabsurdschoolsystemwouldfailto recognizethisbasicfactthatanyknowledgethatisacquiredorallyorthroughwritingisacquired throughalinguisticsystemthatonealreadyknows.

CreoleoranotherName
SomewritersonCreolefeelthelanguageshouldbecalledHaitianratherthanCreole,forexample FreemanintheprefacetoFreemanandLaguerre(1996,vii).ItshouldfirstbeobservedthatCreolehas beenusedfor250yearsbyallCreole,French,English,andSpanishspeakerswhohavelivedinthe westernpartoftheisland,namedHispaniolabythefirstEuropeanconquerors(1492). (ThecountrywasnamedSaintDominguebytheFrenchwhenitwascededtothembySpainin1697and renamedHaitibythefoundersoftheHaitiannation,afterindependenceonJanuary1,1804.) Freemanmighthavedonebetterjustifyinghisterminologicaldecisionbymakingreferencetooneof Saussuresprinciples:thelinguisticsignisarbitrary(Saussure1959,100).Forindeed,hisnaming recommendationisarbitrary.AccordingtoSaussuresprinciple,thereisnoprincipled,ornonarbitrary, relationshipbetweenaseriesofsoundsthatweutterandtheirmeaning.(Qualification:Thisisforthe mostparttrue,buttheredoexistinalllanguages,though,alimitednumberofprincipledsoundmeaning correspondences.Thisphenomenonisreferredtoasiconicity.) ThepointthatIwillargueisthatthereisnoreasontochangethenameofthecreolelanguagespokenin Haiti,despitethefactthatthelanguageofItalyiscalledItalian;thelanguageofFrance,French;the languageofTurkey,Turkish;andsoforth.Matchingofthenameofacountryslanguagewiththename ofthecountrydoesoccurinmanycasesbutnotall.TheAmericasarefullofexceptions.Thelanguageof theU.S.iscalledEnglish.Canadahastwoofficiallanguages,calledEnglishandFrench.Theofficial,most widelyspokenlanguageofMexicoisnotMexicanbutSpanish.InEurope,BelgiansspeakFlemishand French,andtheSwissspeakGerman,French,Italian,andotherlanguages,noneofthemcalledSwiss.In Africa,MoroccansspeakArabic(andBerber);inGhana,anumberoflanguages,noneofwhichiscalled Ghanaian;andsoforth,allaroundtheworld. Furthermore,paceFreeman,thereisnoconsiderationofdignitythatwouldcompelHaitianstoname theirlanguageHaitianinsteadofCreole,andtherearecertainlynotestimonialsfromHaitiansclaiming embarrassmentorshameduetothenameoftheirlanguage.Moreover,thetermCreoleinnowaysuffers fromvaguenesssinceeverybodyknowswhatlanguageisbeingreferredto.Thereisnodysfunctionor confusion,evenconsideringotherFrenchrelatedcreolespeakingsocietieswherethelanguageiscalled CreoleMartiniqueandGuadeloupe,forexample.WhenpeopleinthesesocietiessayCreole,theyknow whatlanguagetheyarereferringto;and,theycancertainlyclarifyifnecessary,justasonecanclarify,for example,whetheroneistalkingaboutacertainkindofEnglishAmericanEnglish,BritishEnglish,or AustralianEnglish.Vaguenessisanonissue.Peoplearesmarterthanthat. Observeadditionallythatitisonethingforspecialists,suchaslinguistsandcreolistlinguistsmore specifically,toprefertousecountrynamesforcreolelanguages,i.e.,Haitian,Martinican,Jamaican,St. Lucian,etc.Specialiststypicallyhavetheirownspecializedterminology.Itisanotherthingto

recommendthatlaypeopledoasspecialists,or,evenmoreimportantly,thatthespeakersofthelanguage themselves,inthiscaseHaitians,followtheleadofspecialists.Specialistshavetheirownneedsandtheir ownchannelsofcommunication,andthisistypicalinthesciencesandalsoinyouraveragenonscientific academicdiscipline.Consequently,theseargumentsinfavorofchangingthenameofCreoletobaseiton thenameofthecountry,Haiti,failuponcloserinspection.

WhoSpeaksFrench?
ToassertthatHaitiisaFrenchspeakingcountryistoplayontheconfusioncreatedbyFrenchbeingan officiallanguage.(CreolewasmadeacoofficiallanguagebyArticle5ofthe1987constitution.)Frenchis officialduetothecloutofafewmembersofthecountryselite(1918constitution,Article24;1987con stitution,Article5).Thisnotwithstanding,Creoleisthelanguageunderstoodandspokenbyeveryone bornandraisedinHaiti(betweeneightandninemillionpeople). TheveryfirstindividualwhograduatedwithalinguisticsdegreeinHaiti,whowasalsothefirstHaitian womantoearnadoctorate,SuzanneComhaireSylvain(18981975),madearelated,unsubstantiated assertion,writingthatAllHaitiansaremoreorlessbilingual(Sylvain1936,7).Thisclaimdistortsreal ity.Nodoubt,though,herfalseclaimledFerguson(1959)inhislandmarkwritingondiglossia,tochose Haitiasanexampleofadiglossiccountry,aclassificationcriticizedbyDejean(1979,1983a,1983b;see alsoZphirinthisvolume).(Diglossiareferstosocietiesinwhichthereisahigh,orelite,formal language,usedbythemajorinstitutionssuchasgovernmentandthemedia,andlearnedusuallyduring formaleducation.Thereexistsalsoalowlanguage,acquirednaturallybyvirtuallyeveryoneinthe processofacculturation,andusedprincipallyforinformalcommunicationinthecompanyoffriendsand family.Eachlanguageisusedinadistinctdomain,i.e.,rangeofsocialsituations.) TheintroductionofSylvainsbookclassifiesHaitiansintothreecategoriesofbilinguals.Thefirstisthe Haitianelite,oftenraisedinParis,whospeakaFrenchthatisverypurethoughsometimesabitstilted, buttheyalsospeakCreoleprivately.TheyspeakCreoletojokewiththeirspouses,theirchildren,and theirfriends.TheyspeakCreoletotheirservantsandotheremployees. NotethephraseoftenraisedinParis,whichlargelyexaggeratesthenumberofHaitiansraisedinParis. Fortheperiod1898,whenSuzanneSylvainwasborn,to1959,whenFergusonsclassicdiglossiaarticle waspublished,itwouldbegeneroustoestimatethatthenumberofHaitiansbroughtupinParisorelse whereinFrancewasthreethousand. Sylvaincontinueswithhersecondcategoryofbilinguals,theurbanmasses,generallyspeakingCreole. Shenotesthat,sincetheyhaveattendedelementaryschoolformanyyearsandareconstantlyincontact withpeoplespeakingCreoleandFrench,theycanalsoexpressthemselvesinFrenchiftheoccasion demands. Upuntil1941,sixyearsafterthepublicationofSylvainsbook,therateofschoolattendanceinHaitiwas byfarthelowestintheAmericas,andthelengthofprimaryschoolattendancewasextremelyshort (Dejean1975,1112;Dejean2006).Achildfromthemassesdidnothaveeasyaccesstoschoolsanddid notspendmuchtimethere.OnlyafewwereabletospeakFrenchalittle,andtheircontactwithmembers oftheelitedidnottakeplaceentirelyinFrenchifatall. Sylvain,completedherdiscussionwiththethirdcategoryofbilingual,thepeasant,whodoesnotspeak French,but,ifapersonofimportance,willspeakaveryrudimentaryFrench,morelikeCreolewith Frenchwordsandphrasesthrownin.MostoftheseadultsunderstandonlyafewsimpleFrenchphrases havingtodowithbusinessorreligion.Thetwelvetofourteenyearoldchildwhoattendsaruralschool hasonlyalimitedacademicvocabularythats/hewilllaterforget.Forthechildaswellastheparents, Creolewillbetheirsolemeansofcommunication.

KeepinmindthatthepeasantpopulationofHaitiin1935wasaround95percent.In1974,Georges Anglade(1974,50)estimatedat85.7percentthenumberofpeasantsolderthanfourteen.Onecould reasonablyestimatethatpeasantsformedabout95percentofthetotalHaitianpopulationfortyyearsbe foreAngladewrote. SylvainsclaimaboutpeasantsunderstandingafewsimpleFrenchphrasesrelatingtocommerceand religionwasnotbasedonpersonalobservationorresearchintheHaitiancountryside.Monsignor Kersuzan(1922,5)confirmedasmuchintalkingaboutteachingthecatechismtopooryounggirlsinthe cityofCapeHaitian.Henotedthatyearsofrepetitiondidnotinvolvelearning.Intheintroductiontohis Catchismecrole(Kersuzan1922,78),publishedwhenSuzanneSylvainwastwentyfouryearsold, Kersuzanhaddedicatedalmostanentirepagetoherfather,GeorgesSylvain,thenHaitisMinister PlenipotentiarytotheFrenchGovernment.KersuzanextolledtheelderSylvainsuseandloveofCreole andhisgreateloquenceinspeakingit.AmomentsreflectionwouldhaveconvincedGeorgesSylvains daughterthatmemorizingtheformulaicelementsofthecatechisminFrenchalongwithsongsand prayers,couldnotconvertmonolingualCreolespeakersintobilinguals,anymorethantheLatinliturgy oftheCatholicchurchcouldmakeLatinspeakersofthosebelieverswhoformorethanathousandyears wereexposedtoLatinmasses. Icanbeveryspecificandpointoutsimultaneouslyprovidingthereaderwithabriefimmersionin HaitianculturethatCreoleistheonlylanguagespokenandheardinthefollowingsituations: thefieldscultivatedbyHaitianpeasants(twothirdofthepopulation) ruralmarkets,bigandsmall,inthemountains,valleys,andplains urbanmarkets,includingthoseinPetionvilleandPortauPrince,citieswithrelatively highnumbersofbilinguals vodousanctuariesandalltheprivatehomeswhereceremoniesareheldinhonorofvodou spirits(lwainCreole) pilgrimagesites,largeandsmall,frequentedbythosewhoservethelwa(vodouspirits) leavingprayermeetingsandreligiousceremoniesfromallreligiousvenues,whether ProtestantorCatholicorJehovahsWitnesses,withonlyafewexceptionsatmost leavingallschoolsattheendoftheday,publicandprivate,withveryfewexceptions allsportsvenuesstadiums,soccerfields,etc. allcockfightarenas(calledgagorgadyinCreole) allhomesinthecountrysideandmostinthetownsandcities,whenpeoplegatherfor wakes,funerals,andotherrelatedevents,suchaswhatHaitianscallthednyepriy(last prayer) partiesintownsandcitiestocelebratethelocalpatronsofCatholicchurches alltransportstations allservicestations alltheparadeswithraraandcarnival(madigra)bandsplaying allopenairpoliticalmeetings,heldatleastsince1986 allthebankblt(locationswhereprivatelotterytransactionsaremade) inallsmallprivatebusinesseswhereemployeeslearntradessuchasjewelrymaking,dry cleaning,butchery,baking,carpentry,barbering,shoerepair,tailoring,cooking, woodworking,metalworking,welding,clockrepairing,masonry,fishing,mattress making,mechanics,midwifery,madansara(peddlingasdonebywomen),andsoforth. TheonlyplacesinHaitiwhereFrenchistheonlylanguagespokenarecertainofficesoftheFrench embassyandthefrontofficeoftheLyceFranais.WhenteachersandcertainCatholicandProtestant ministers,andeverfewergovernmentbureaucrats,conductmonologuesinFrenchandmonologues theyareindeedthelistenerstalkamongthemselvesinCreole. Insum,Haitiansasagrouparenotevenmoreorlessbilingual.AllHaitiansspeakCreoleasanative language,andveryfewalsospeakFrenchanindividualsknowingafewFrenchwordsorphrasesdoes notcountinassessingwhetherHaitiisbilingual.Consequently,thecountryisnotbilingualinany meaningfulsense.SuzanneSylvainprovidedacompletelyinaccurateandinadequatesociolinguistic

descriptionofHaitislanguagesituationin1935,pavingthewayforerrorsthathavepersisteduntil today.

TheHaitianConstitutiononLanguage
Article5ofthe1987HaitianconstitutionstatescuriouslythatallHaitiansshareacommonlanguage, Creole,andthatCreoleandFrencharetheofficiallanguagesoftherepublic. Thearticlemakesthreepoints.Thefirstoneisasociolinguisticobservationwhoseimportancemustnot beunderestimated.Itisthepublicacknowledgementofanundeniablefact:thewholepopulationofHaiti speaksCreole.Thus,allHaitiansshareavehicleforlanguagecommunication.Thiscommonlinguistic vehiclemakespossibledirectandunmediatedcommunicationamongindividualsthroughoutHaiti.With Creole,anygivenHaitiancancommunicatewithanyotherHaitian.Thoseofallcreeds,religion,political affiliations,levelsofschooling,andtheoreticalorpracticalknowledgepossessintheirmindsthesame fundamentallinguisticsystemanditscomplexphonology,syntax,morphology,andsemantics. Implicitly,thefirstsentenceofArticle5impliesthatFrenchisnotameansofcommunicationavailableto allthesectorsofthepopulation. ThesecondpointisimpliedbythefactofacommonHaitianlanguage,Creole.Thispointisthat,French, firstdeclaredtheofficiallanguageinArticle24ofthe1918constitution,shouldnotbeusedintheconduct ofbusinessingovernmentalandotherimportantinstitutions.Creole,thelanguagespokenand understoodbyall,shouldbe.EveryonecanunderstandacleartextinCreole,intelligentlyreadbyothers. Inthethirdpointirrationalityemerges.Itiscompletelyunrelatedtowhatprecedesit,i.e.,theimportant observationcallingfortheofficializationofCreole,whichacknowledgesthatitis,forallHaitians,a communallinkthatcannotbeignored.TheilladviseddeclarationofFrenchasofficiallanguageinthe contextofArticle5,isunjustified.Itisnotevensupportedbythenobleconsiderationsinthe constitutionspreamble,forexample,itssocialjusticeobjective(paragraph2);protectingvalues, traditions,andthenationalvision(paragraph3);establishingdemocracy(paragraph4);thestrengthening ofnationalunityandtheeliminationofalldiscriminationbetweencityandcountrydwellers(paragraph 5);andpromotingtheconsultationandparticipationofthewholepopulationinimportantdecisions concerningtheentirenation(paragraph7). Tobesure,theproclamationofFrenchasofficiallanguagedoeshavesomesupportinthePreambleofthe constitution.Paragraph5concealsasubtlety,whetherintentionalornot,thatsetsthecourseforthe inclusionofFrenchinArticle5.Itstatesthattheeliminationofdiscriminationbetweenurbanandrural residentswilltakeplacewiththeacceptanceofthelanguagecommunities[notetheplural]andthe culturalcommunity[authorstranslation].Butonwhatbasiscanitbeclaimedthattherearetwo languagecommunities,onesituatedinthecountry,theotherinthecities?Itisbynomeansthecasethat thecitiesareFrenchspeakingandbilingual,whilethecountrysideisCreolespeakingandmonolingual.

TheUnitedNationsConventiononChildrensRights
CommonpracticesinHaitianschoolsareinflagrantviolationoftheUnitedNationsConventionof November20,1989,relatingtochildrensrights.ItwassignedbytheHaitiangovernmentonJanuary6, 1990,ratifiedbytheParliamentDecember23,1994,anddisseminatedintheMoniteur(whichrecords officialactions).TheconventionhastheforceoflawinthecountryaccordingtoArticle49,1ofthesaid Convention.(SeeUNICEF,Lesenfantsdabord[ChildrenFirst][Deschamps1990]).

Article19.1oftheConventionisaboutchildrenssafetyinthefamilyandintheirsocialandeducational environment.Itisabouttheirbeingfreeofphysicalcoercioninallitsformsabuse,cruelty,assault,and battery.ItiscommonknowledgethatinK12everywherethereisarbitrary,unjustifiable,dispropor tionate,andinhumanecorporalpunishment.

Articles12.1,13.1,14.1,19.1,and28.2havethegoalofprotectingchildrensfreedomofspeechand thoughtaswellassafeguardingtheirpsychologicalwellbeing.Articles17.d,29.1.c,30,and40.viprotect thelinguisticneedsandrightsofchildrenwhoaremembersoflinguisticminorities.Onemightaskwhere usingCreolefitsintoallofthesepunitivemeasurestakenagainstpupils. InaschoolinCarrefour,asymbol(symboleinHaitianhighschoolslang)ispassedontoahighschoolstudent. (Asymbolisatoken,oftenasmall,squarepieceofcardboard.)Hekeepssilentresolutelyandcarefully,watchinghis fellowstudentstocatcheventhemerestwhisperinCreolefallfromtheirlips,atwhichpointhepouncesonthe unfortunaterulebreakerandgiveshimthesymbol.Thegoalistoavoidbeingthebearerofthesymbolattheendof theweek,whentenblowsonthepalmofthehandwithahorsewhip(rigwazinCreole)willbemetedout.Theresult ofthistrulydespicablepracticeistocausestudentstospyonanddenounceoneanother,anditisemblematicofthe widespreaddisrespectshowntowardCreole. Ironicallythough,onSundayMay27,2001,atthatsameschool,theprincipalspeaksonlyCreoleforan hourandahalfataconferencewithnearlyahundredparents.Indoingso,hedoesnolessthanthe MinistryofNationalEducation[MinistryofNationalEducation,Youth,andSports;Frenchacronym MENJS]inmakingannouncementsinCreoleontheradio.Iwitnessedthis,forexample,fromWednesday April18toFridayApril27,2001,onRadioQuisqueya,whenaprogramcalledLeklpoutouttimoun (SchoolforAllChildren)aired,whichattemptstorecruitschoolagechildrennotregisteredinschool. AllofthepotentialrecruitsaremonolingualCreolespeakersofmonolingualCreolespeakingparentsand communities,foraschoolsystemthatwillwastetheirintelligencewithoutpityfromkindergartentothe endofhighschoolthroughidolatrousworshipoftheFrenchlanguage.

LanguageAcquisition
Thehardcore,trulybilingualminorityinHaiti,lessthan10percent,donotlearnFrench,beginningas youngchildren.TheyacquireFrench,alongwithCreole,frominfancy.Inotherwords,theirknowledge ofFrenchandCreoleistheresultofnaturallanguageacquisition,theacquisitionofalanguagebegin ningininfancyaspartandparceloftheacculturation/socializationprocess,throughroutineinteraction withcaregivers,family,andfriends.Naturallanguageacquisitionleadstoonesbecominganative speaker. Wecancontrastthisacquisitionprocesstoartificiallanguageacquisition(onanalogywithnaturalvs. 2 artificiallanguages ),whichhardlyeverleadstonativelikeproficiency.Artificialacquisitionoccurs throughinstruction,usuallyinschool,orthroughselfteaching.Naturalacquisitionbilingualsarefullyat homeinbothFrenchandCreole.TheyacquiretheHaitiansociolectofFrench.Alllocalvarietiesof French,asofotherlanguages,differfromoneanothergeographically;and,thisisexpectedandmost easilyseenonthelevelofvocabulary.Forexample,inHaitianFrenchonesaysmango(mango)where FrenchspeakersinFrancesaymangue;inHaitianFrenchonesaysfigue(banana),inFrancebanane. Aswithallhumans,everyone,eventhosewith(nonsevere)cognitivehandicapsacquireFrench(and Creole)naturallyifexposedtoitfrominfancyintherangeofsocialcontextsfornaturalacquisition. Naturallanguageacquisitionisspontaneousandeffortless,proceedingwithoutselfconsciousnessonthe partoftheacquirer. Artificiallearning,ontheotherhand,isnormallytediousanddoesnotresultinfullacquisition.Onlya fewespeciallytalentedorhighlyeducatedindividualsacquireasecondlanguagewithanythingeven approachingthemasteryofanativespeaker. ThefailureinHaitiofteachingFrenchandteachinginFrenchiswidelyattributedtofaultymethodology. TheBernardReformstirredupfalsehopes,foronething,byadvocatingteachingFrenchasaforeign language,withoutmakingadequateuseofpedagogicalinsightsalreadygainedfromforeignlanguage teachingaroundtheworld.

Thesupportersandimplementersofthereformwouldhavedonewelltoconsidertheexperiencesofthe ScandinaviancountriesandTheNetherlands,whereforeignlanguageteachinghasbeenverysuccessful. Thesecountriesneverbasedcognitivedevelopmentandtheacquisitionofknowledgeontheprior acquisitionofaforeignlanguage.Itisunderstoodthatchildrenwillbeintroducedintheirearly educationtosubjectmatterintheirnativelanguage,andthatthenativelanguagewillcontinuetobetheir primaryonethroughouttheirlives.Theyarenotexpectedtoadoptaforeign,worldlanguagesuchas Englishastheirprimaryone,buttouseitastheirsecondarylanguageinordertoaccessadvanced educationandotherresourcesmadeavailablebythoseworldlanguages. ThefundamentalflawintheBernardReform,asIhavepointedoutpreviously(Dejean2006:237ff),is thatitcallsforthefirstfouryearsofschoolinginCreole;however,fromthenonCreoleandFrenchareto befullyonthesamefootinginstudentslearning.Allstudentsaresupposedtohavetwolanguagesaftera fewyearsofbilingualinstruction.ThepositionofthereformisthatthecountrymustspeakFrenchand thatthiswilloccurasaresultofschoolsproducingbilinguals.ThekeyhereisthatCreole,thenative language,isnotintendedtocontinue(afterthesefirstfouryearsandthefollowingonesduringwhich studentslearnFrench)astheprimarylanguageandprimaryvehicleofinstruction.Theerrorisin believingthatHaitihastheresources,educationalorother,toproduceonamasslevelanyoutcomeeven approachingcompetenceinFrench,inadditiontocompetenceinCreole.

Orthography:AwarenessandAdequacy
SinceBeaulieu(1939),McConnellandSwan(1945),Pressoir(1947),thenonexistenceofanofficialCreole orthographyandthepresumednegativeattitudesofthepeopletowardonehavebeenusedtoavoid confrontingtheissueofestablishingCreoleasthelanguageofinstructionintheschools.(On orthography,seealsoDejean1980;SchieffelinandDoucet1998;andFaraclasandSpearsinthisvolume.) Thus,totakeoneexample,Valdmansdiscussiondealswithpopularthinkingaboutorthographybut doesnotadequatelytakeHaitiandebatesintoaccount;and,whatismore,itraisessomeirrelevantissues. (Imightnoteinpassingthatthefollowingquotationreiteratesandcondensesideasputforwardby Pressoir[1947,66]andrepeatedbyBerry[1958,741],Smalley[196415,23],Pompilus[1973,26],and Frre[1974,25].) SinceCreoleisalanguageviewedasinferior,..itmustfirstbedeterminedwhetherits speakersfeelitisworthyofhavinganorthography...itseemsthatallthemembersofthe community,includingmonolingualCreolespeakersinHaiti,feelthatanyorthographyusedto writeCreoleshouldbealignedwiththeorthographyofFrench,theprestigelanguageandthe officiallanguage.Ofcourse,itremainstobedeterminedwhetherthispositiongoesagainst economicneedsandthesocioculturalandpoliticalrealitiesofthecountry[authorsemphasis andtranslation](Valdman1978,110). ThereareseveralproblemswithValdmanscomments,enumeratedasfollows: 1. Creolesinferiorstatusimpliesnothingwithregardtotheopinionsofthemonolingual massesvisviswhetherCreoleisworthyofhavinganorthographyorwhetherany orthographyusedtowriteCreoleshouldbealignedwiththeorthographyofFrench,if indeedtheyhaveanyopinionabouttheseparticularissues. 2. Nowhereinthefivethousandsixhundredyearhistoryofwritingisthereanexampleof thecreationofawritingsystemasaconsequenceofthemassesofthepopulation believingtheirlanguagewasworthyofbeingwritten.Beliefsofworthiness,then,are notreallyrelevant. 3. Totalilliterates,formingthevastmajorityofthemonolingualCreolespeakersofHaiti, havenothadthewherewithaltoformanopinionaboutthevalueofCreoleorthography, completelyunknowntothem,ascomparedtoaFrenchorthography,ofwhichtheyknow virtuallynothing. 4. TheminorityofmonolingualCreolespeakers,thosehardlyeducatedinFrenchlanguage schoolsandunabletospeakFrench,donothavethebackgroundfordeveloping

sensitivitytoandpositionsonorthographicalquestions. Thehistoryofwritingworldwidedoesnotrevealanydecisiononchoiceoforthography madebyanentirelanguagecommunity,throughreferendumoranyothermeans. 6. Thereisnoempiricalbackupforthecommentsonattitudestowardorthographyascribed tousersofFrenchorthography. 7. Thereisnobasisformakingthecasethateventhemajorityofthehighlyeducated, FrenchspeakingminorityinHaitihavethebackgroundtomakeintelligentdecisions aboutorthography. 8. Themajorityofspeakersofalanguagedonotevenworryaboutquestionsoforthography. 9. TheconcernsandfearsaboutorthographyonthepartofthetinynumberofHaitians havingthem(i.e.,whoarenotlanguagescholars),couldeasilybedescribedas overwhelminglyirrational,resultingfromtheireducationalindoctrination. Thus,therealpointstobemadeaboutorthographicawarenessarethat(1)thereislittleofitinany population,(2)nonspecialistsideasaboutpossibleorthographiesaregenerallybasedonlinguistic prejudicesandare,therefore,notinaccordwiththebesttechnicalsolutionstoorthographicproblems, and(3)ifnonspecialistsideasaboutorgthographiesarefollowedwhichcanindeedhappenfor sociopoliticalreasonstheresultsmaywellnotbeanoptimallyefficientorrationalorthography. Valdmanhimselfgivesrecognitiontothislastpoint. 5. Somemightarguethat,indeed,theofficialHaitianorthographyresultingfromtheeffortsofIPN (NationalPedagogicalInstitute)doesmakeabowtowardFrenchprestigebyusingou(twoletters)to representtheonesound/u/(inboot)insteadofjustoneletter,andbyusingnafteravoweltosignal vowelnasalization,e.g.Creolegason(boy),whichendsinanasalizedvowel.Nevertheless,especiallyin viewofregionalandsocialvariationinCreole,onecouldarguethatalldecisionsmadeincreatingthe officialCreoleorthographycanbejustifiedbyphonologicalanddialectologicalprinciples.

Creole,InternationalCommunication,andEconomicDevelopment
AnoftenheardobjectiontotheexclusiveorprimaryuseofCreoleasthelanguageofinstructioninHaiti inelementaryandhighschools(letalonecolleges)isthedangerofregionalandinternationalisolation stemmingfromcontinuedhighlylimitedbilingualismandnearuniversalmonolingualism.Thereare thosewhoindignantlyarguethatwedonothavetherighttodepriveourfellowcitizensofan internationallanguagelikeFrench.Thisobjectionisnave,tosaytheleast.Howcanyoudeprivesomeone ofsomethingtheyneverhad?Howcanyoudepriveabaldheadedpersonofhair,orstealamillion dollarsfromsomebodywhohasonlyonehundreddollars? Somesociolinguistsargue,forexampleNadineDutcher(1995,6),thatCreolespeakingpopulationsneed supportfromanotherlanguageofwidercommunication.However,thefundamentalobservationtomake abouthumancommunicationisthatitisaboveallanactivityofindividualscommunicatingwithone anotheratspecificpointsintime,limitedbyfactorsoftimeandspace.TheAmericanpeople,forinstance, donottalktotheRussianpeople.OnlyafewindividualsintheU.S.whospeakEnglishandRussian fluentlytalkdirectlytootherindividualsinRussia,thosewhoarealsofluentinRussianandEnglish. ThenumberofHaitianstodayspeakingsomeforeignlanguagewouldbesufficienttoensure communicationbetween,notonlyacountrytwentytimeslargerandmorepopulatedthanHaiti,butalso allthenationsoftheworld.TheoverwhelmingmajorityofAmericans,SaudiArabians,Haitians, Mexicans,Italians,Japanesenameanynationalitywhowillliveforty,fifty,orseventyyearsbeyond thepresent,willhaveneithertheneednortheabilitytounderstandandspeakalanguageotherthan theirown.Thus,theideaofmakingallormostHaitiansbilingualisnotonlysociallyandeconomically impracticalbutalsounnecessary. Smith(1999,181),BbelGislerandHurbon(1975,129)report,andchallenge,anopinionoftenexpressed bysomeHaitian,otherCaribbean,andWesternintellectualsthatoneofthereasonsforHaitis

underdevelopmentisthemasseslackingalanguageofwidercommunication,thevehicleofsocialand humanprogressthatisFrench. Thebasicproblemwiththisopinionisitspromotionoftheideathatanypeopleslevelofdevelopment canbeattributed,atleastpartially,totheinherentpropertiesofthelanguagetheyspeak.Thisview impliesthatsomelanguagespossessinandofthemselvestraitsthatfosterorproducedevelopment,with theimplicationthatotherlanguagesdonot. ThisunwarrantedopinionwouldleadustobelievethatJapanhadnotexperiencedmoderneconomic developmentin1800becausetheJapaneselanguageofthattimewassomehowfundamentallydifferent fromtheJapaneseofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,whenJapanseconomicdevelopmentcum industrializationwasbegunandrealized,totheextentthatJapanwasabletodefeatanindustrialized EuropeanpowerintheRussoJapaneseWarof1904. SubscribingtothisfalseopinionwouldleadustobelievethatifonlytheslavesoftheAmericasinthe U.S.,Brazil,andelsewhere,excludingHaitihadspokenHaitianCreole,theytoowouldhavebeenable tolaunchapermanentlysuccessfulslaveledrevolution. ThephenomenonofLanguageis,ofcourse,essentialforvirtuallyallhigherlevelhumanactivities,but notthepossessionofaparticularlanguage.Allhumanlanguagesareequalinthattheyallpossessthe sameexpressivepotential.Anylanguagecanbedevelopedtoserveadequatelyforanylanguagerelated taskhumanscaretoengagein.Somehumansaremoreinterestedinkinshipthannuclearphysics,for historicalandecologicalreasons;and,theydeveloptheirlanguageaccordingly.Somearemoreinterested incamelsthanmushroomsanddeveloptheirlanguagesaccordingly.

Conclusion
ThemassivefailureofgeneraleducationinHaitiisanunavoidableresultofthefailureofalmostall schools(seeTouillotLvy,thisvolumeonanexception)tousetheonlylanguageknowntothe overwhelmingmajorityofthepopulation:Creole.Withoutamajorchangeininstructionallanguage practice,asopposedtotheory,theHaitianeducationalsystemremainscondemnedtofailure.True,there areothercausesofthewidespreadfailure:thegovernmentslackofcommitmentofadequateresources foreducationandthegovernmentsgrosslyinsufficientcommitmenttoeducationalreformitself. However,evenwiththeeliminationofthelasttwocauses,thereisnoreasontoexpectsignificantim provementwithoutthewidespreaduseofpupilsmothertongueininstruction. Inconclusion,anydiscussionofCreoleinHaitianeducationandinHaitiansocietygenerallyshouldtake forgrantedthefollowingbasicpoints: 1. HaitiisneitheraFrenchspeakingcountrynoratrulybilingualcountryinanymeaningful sense:onlyaverysmallminorityofHaitianscouldreasonablybecalledbilingualinCreoleand French,notappreciablymorethanfivepercent. 2. Merelyrecitingwordsaloudfromatextwithoutunderstandingthemisnotreading,which assumescomprehension.Evenaftermanyyearsofschooling,themajorityofHaitianchildrendo notunderstandthemeaningofthesentencestheymanagetoreadinFrench. 3. Alanguagecannotbyitselfpreventitsspeakersfromgainingaccesstoknowledge.The argumentthatinstructioninFrench,oranyworldlanguage,isrequiredforaccesstoknowledge inthemodernworldisnotbasedonfacts. 4. MonolingualCreolespeakingHaitianchildrenhavetherighttodeveloptheircognitiveskills andacquirealltypesofknowledgeinCreole,withouthavingtowaituntiltheylearnFrench, especiallysincetheoverwhelmingmajorityofthemneverdolearnFrench. 5. Thespontaneousacquisition,duringchildhood,ofoneormorenativelanguagesisa fundamentallydifferentprocessfromlearningoneormoreforeignlanguages.Thecreationof massbilingualismthroughformaleducationinaforeignlanguageisundocumentedinhuman historybilingualismyes,butnotmassbilingualism(Dejean1999).Consequently,itisnotjustby

accidentthateducationisprovidedinchildrensnativelanguageinmostsocietiesworldwide.

Notes
1.ThischapterrevisitsandelaboratesthemainpointsofDejean(2003). 2.Secondlanguageacquisitionscholarsnormallyspeakofguidedorinstructedacquisition insteadofartificialacquisition.Ihopemyanalogicaltermswillbehelpfulforreaders.

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