System Software

Unit-4:Loaders and Linkers

This Chapter gives you
Basic Loader Functions Machine-Dependent Loader Features Machine-Independent Loader Features Loader Design Options Implementation Examples

3.0 Introduction
The Source Program written in assembly language or high level language will be converted to object program, which is in the machine language form for execution. This conversion either from assembler or from compiler , contains translated instructions and data values from the source program, or specifies addresses in primary memory where these items are to be loaded for execution. This contains the following three processes, and they are, Loading - which allocates memory location and brings the object program into memory for execution - (Loader) Linking- which combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the information needed to allow references between them - (Linker) Relocation - which modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different from the location originally specified - (Linking Loader)

3.1 Basic Loader Functions

A loader is a system program that performs the loading function. It brings object program into memory and starts its execution. The role of loader is as shown in the figure 3.1. In figure 3.1 translator may be assembler/complier, which generates the object program and later loaded to the memory by the loader for execution. In figure 3.2 the translator is specifically an assembler, which generates the object loaded, which becomes input to the loader. The figure 3.3 shows the role of both loader and linker.

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Source Program

Translator

Object Program

Loader

Object program ready for execution

Memory

Figure 3.1 : The Role of Loader

Source Program

Assembler

Object Program

Loader

Object program ready for execution

Memory Figure 3.2: The Role of Loader with Assembler

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Source Program

Assembler

Object Program

Linker Object program ready for execution

Executable Code

Loader

Memory Figure 3.3 : The Role of both Loader and Linker

3.3 Type of Loaders

The different types of loaders are, absolute loader, bootstrap loader, relocating loader (relative loader), and, direct linking loader. The following sections discuss the functions and design of all these types of loaders.

3.3.1 Absolute Loader

The operation of absolute loader is very simple. The object code is loaded to specified locations in the memory. At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin execution of the loaded program. The role of absolute loader is as shown in the figure 3.3.1. The advantage of absolute loader is simple and efficient. But the disadvantages are, the need for programmer to specify the actual address, and, difficult to use subroutine libraries.

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Object Program

1000 Absolute Loader Object program ready for execution 2000

Memory Figure 3.3.1: The Role of Absolute Loader The algorithm for this type of loader is given here. The object program and, the object program loaded into memory by the absolute loader are also shown. Each byte of assembled code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form. Easy to read by human beings. Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte. Most machine store object programs in a binary form, and we must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some of the program bytes to be interpreted as control characters. Begin read Header record verify program name and length read first Text record while record type is <> E do begin {if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation} move object code to specified location in memory read next object program record end jump to address specified in End record end

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3.3.2 A Simple Bootstrap Loader

When a computer is first turned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called bootstrap loader is executed. This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer -- usually an operating system. The bootstrap itself begins at address 0. It loads the OS starting address 0x80. No header record or control information, the object code is consecutive bytes of memory. The algorithm for the bootstrap loader is as follows Begin X=0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded Loop AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII character code to the value of the hexadecimal digit) save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S AGETC combine the value to form one byte A (A+S) store the value (in A) to the address in register X XX+1 End It uses a subroutine GETC, which is GETC Aread one character if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80 if A<48 then GETC A A-48 (0x30) if A<10 then return A A-7 return

3.4 Machine-Dependent Loader Features

Absolute loader is simple and efficient, but the scheme has potential disadvantages One of the most disadvantage is the programmer has to specify the actual starting address, from where the program to be loaded. This does not create difficulty, if one program to run, but not for several programs. Further it is difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently.

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System Software This needs the design and implementation of a more complex loader. The loader must provide program relocation and linking, as well as simple loading functions.

3.4.1 Relocation
The concept of program relocation is, the execution of the object program using any part of the available and sufficient memory. The object program is loaded into memory wherever there is room for it. The actual starting address of the object program is not known until load time. Relocation provides the efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when several independent programs are to be run together. It also supports the use of subroutine libraries efficiently. Loaders that allow for program relocation are called relocating loaders or relative loaders.

3.4.2 Methods for specifying relocation

Use of modification record and, use of relocation bit, are the methods available for specifying relocation. In the case of modification record, a modification record M is used in the object program to specify any relocation. In the case of use of relocation bit, each instruction is associated with one relocation bit and, these relocation bits in a Text record is gathered into bit masks. Modification records are used in complex machines and is also called Relocation and Linkage Directory (RLD) specification. The format of the modification record (M) is as follows. The object program with relocation by Modification records is also shown here. Modification record col 1: M col 2-7: relocation address col 8-9: length (halfbyte) col 10: flag (+/-) col 11-17: segment name HCOPY 000000 001077 T000000 1D17202D69202D481010364B105D3F2FEC032010 T00001D130F20160100030F200D4B10105D3E2003454F46 T001035 1DB410B400B4407510100033200857C003B850 T0010531D3B2FEA1340004F0000F1..53C003DF2008B850 T00070073B2FEF4F000005 M00000705+COPY M00001405+COPY PNSIT, Bangalore 7

System Software M00002705+COPY E000000

The relocation bit method is used for simple machines. Relocation bit is 0: no modification is necessary, and is 1: modification is needed. This is specified in the columns 10-12 of text record (T), the format of text record, along with relocation bits is as follows. Text record col 1: T col 2-7: starting address col 8-9: length (byte) col 10-12: relocation bits col 13-72: object code Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record (col:10-12 relocation bits), since each text record contains less than 12 words, unused words are set to 0, and, any value that is to be modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments. For absolute loader, there are no relocation bits column 10-69 contains object code. The object program with relocation by bit mask is as shown below. Observe FFC - means all ten words are to be modified and, E00 - means first three records are to be modified. HCOPY 000000 00107A T0000001EFFC1400334810390000362800303000153C0003 T00001E15E000C00364810610800334C0000000003000000 T0010391EFFC04003000003030103FD8105D280030... T0010570A 8001000364C0000F1001000 T00106119FE0040030E01079508039DC10792C0036... E000000

3.5 Program Linking

The Goal of program linking is to resolve the problems with external references (EXTREF) and external definitions (EXTDEF) from different control sections. EXTDEF (external definition) - The EXTDEF statement in a control section names symbols, called external symbols, that are defined in this (present) control section and may be used by other sections. ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND, LENGTH EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA

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System Software EXTREF (external reference) - The EXTREF statement names symbols used in this (present) control section and are defined elsewhere. ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC How to implement EXTDEF and EXTREF The assembler must include information in the object program that will cause the loader to insert proper values where they are required in the form of Define record (D) and, Refer record(R). Define record The format of the Define record (D) along with examples is as shown here. Col. 1 Col. 2-7 Col. 8-13 Col.14-73 D Name of external symbol defined in this control section Relative address within this control section (hexadecimal) Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols

Example records D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054 D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070 Refer record The format of the Refer record (R) along with examples is as shown here. Col. 1 Col. 2-7 Col. 8-73 R Name of external symbol referred to in this control section Name of other external reference symbols

Example records R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB Here are the three programs named as PROGA, PROGB and PROGC, which are separately assembled and each of which consists of a single control section. LISTA, ENDA in PROGA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGB and LISTC, ENDC in PROGC are external definitions in each of the control sections. Similarly LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC in PROGA, LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC in PROGB, and LISTA, ENDA, PNSIT, Bangalore 9

System Software LISTB, ENDB in PROGC, are external references. These sample programs given here are used to illustrate linking and relocation. The following figures give the sample programs and their corresponding object programs. Observe the object programs, which contain D and R records along with other records. 0000 PROGA START EXTDEF EXTREF .. . LDA +LDT LDX . . EQU EQU WORD WORD WORD WORD WORD END 0 LISTA, ENDA LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC LISTA LISTB+4 #ENDA-LISTA * * ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000014 ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6 ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 00003F ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000014 LISTB-LISTA FFFFC0 REF1 03201D 77100004 050014

0020 0023 0027 0040 0054 0054 0057 005A 005D 0060

REF1 REF2 REF3 LISTA ENDA REF4 REF5 REF6 REF7 REF8

0000

PROGB

0036 REF1 003A REF2 003D REF3 0060 0070 0070 0073 0076 0079 LISTB ENDB REF4 REF5 REF6 REF7

START EXTDEF EXTREF .. . +LDA LDT +LDX . . EQU EQU WORD WORD WORD WORD

0 LISTB, ENDB LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC LISTA LISTB+4 #ENDA-LISTA * * ENDA-LISTA+LISTC ENDC-LISTC-10 ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000000 FFFFF6 FFFFFF FFFFF0 10 03100000 772027 05100000

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0000

PROGC

0018 REF1 001C REF2 0020 REF3 0030 0042 0042 0045 0045 004B 004E LISTC ENDC REF4 REF5 REF6 REF7 REF8

START EXTDEF EXTREF .. .. +LDA +LDT +LDX . . EQU EQU WORD WORD WORD WORD WORD END

0 LISTC, ENDC LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB LISTA LISTB+4 #ENDA-LISTA * * ENDA-LISTA+LISTC ENDC-LISTC-10 ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) LISTB-LISTA 000030 000008 000011 000000 000000 03100000 77100004 05100000

H PROGA 000000 000063 D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054 R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC . . T 000020 0A 03201D 77100004 050014 . . T 000054 0F 000014 FFFF6 00003F 000014 FFFFC0 M000024 05+LISTB M000054 06+LISTC M000057 06+ENDC M000057 06 -LISTC M00005A06+ENDC M00005A06 -LISTC PNSIT, Bangalore 11

System Software M00005A06+PROGA M00005D06-ENDB M00005D06+LISTB M00006006+LISTB M00006006-PROGA E000020 H PROGB 000000 00007F D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070 R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC . T 000036 0B 03100000 772027 05100000 . T 000007 0F 000000 FFFFF6 FFFFFF FFFFF0 000060 M000037 05+LISTA M00003E 06+ENDA M00003E 06 -LISTA M000070 06 +ENDA M000070 06 -LISTA M000070 06 +LISTC M000073 06 +ENDC M000073 06 -LISTC M000073 06 +ENDC M000076 06 -LISTC M000076 06+LISTA M000079 06+ENDA M000079 06 -LISTA M00007C 06+PROGB M00007C 06-LISTA E H PROGC 000000 000051 D LISTC 000030 ENDC 000042 R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB . T 000018 0C 03100000 77100004 05100000 . T 000042 0F 000030 000008 000011 000000 000000 M000019 05+LISTA M00001D 06+LISTB M000021 06+ENDA M000021 06 -LISTA M000042 06+ENDA M000042 06 -LISTA M000042 06+PROGC M000048 06+LISTA PNSIT, Bangalore 12

System Software M00004B 06+ENDA M00004B 006-LISTA M00004B 06-ENDB M00004B 06+LISTB M00004E 06+LISTB M00004E 06-LISTA E The following figure shows these three programs as they might appear in memory after loading and linking. PROGA has been loaded starting at address 4000, with PROGB and PROGC immediately following.

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For example, the value for REF4 in PROGA is located at address 4054 (the beginning address of PROGA plus 0054, the relative address of REF4 within PROGA). The following figure shows the details of how this value is computed.

The initial value from the Text record T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0 is 000014. To this is added the address assigned to LISTC, which is 4112 (the beginning address of PROGC plus 30). The result is 004126. That is REF4 in PROGA is ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=4054-4040+4112=4126.

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System Software Similarly the load address for symbols LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040, LISTB: PROGB+0060=40C3 and LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112 Keeping these details work through the details of other references and values of these references are the same in each of the three programs.

3.6 Algorithm and Data structures for a Linking Loader

The algorithm for a linking loader is considerably more complicated than the absolute loader program, which is already given. The concept given in the program linking section is used for developing the algorithm for linking loader. The modification records are used for relocation so that the linking and relocation functions are performed using the same mechanism. Linking Loader uses two-passes logic. ESTAB (external symbol table) is the main data structure for a linking loader. Pass 1: Assign addresses to all external symbols Pass 2: Perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking ESTAB - ESTAB for the example (refer three programs PROGA PROGB and PROGC) given is as shown below. The ESTAB has four entries in it; they are name of the control section, the symbol appearing in the control section, its address and length of the control section.

Control section PROGA

Symbol

Address 4000

Length 63

LISTA ENDA PROGB LISTB ENDB PROGC LISTC ENDC PNSIT, Bangalore

4040 4054 4063 40C3 40D3 40E2 4112 4124 15 51 7F

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3.6.1 Program Logic for Pass 1

Pass 1 assign addresses to all external symbols. The variables & Data structures used during pass 1 are, PROGADDR (program load address) from OS, CSADDR (control section address), CSLTH (control section length) and ESTAB. The pass 1 processes the Define Record. The algorithm for Pass 1 of Linking Loader is given below.

3.6.2 Program Logic for Pass 2

Pass 2 of linking loader perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking. It uses modification record and lookup the symbol in ESTAB to obtain its addres. Finally it uses end record of a main program to obtain transfer address, which is a starting address needed for the execution of the program. The pass 2 process Text record and PNSIT, Bangalore 16

System Software Modification record of the object programs. The algorithm for Pass 2 of Linking Loader is given below.

3.6.3 Improve Efficiency, How?

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System Software The question here is can we improve the efficiency of the linking loader. Also observe that, even though we have defined Refer record (R), we havent made use of it. The efficiency can be improved by the use of local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol. For implementing this we assign a reference number to each external symbol in the Refer record. Then this reference number is used in Modification records instead of external symbols. 01 is assigned to control section name, and other numbers for external reference symbols. The object programs for PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are shown below, with above modification to Refer record ( Observe R records).

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Symbol and Addresses in PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are as shown below. These are the entries of ESTAB. The main advantage of reference number mechanism is that it avoids multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol during the loading of a control section

Ref No. 1 2 3 4 5

Symbol PROGA LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC

Address 4000 40C3 40D3 4112 4124

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Ref No. 1 2 3 4 5

Symbol PROGB LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC

Address 4063 4040 4054 4112 4124

R N ef o. 1 2 3 4 5

Sy bol m PR G O C L A IST E D N A L T IS B E D N B

A ddress 4063 4040 4054 40C 3 40D 3

3.7 Machine-independent Loader Features

Here we discuss some loader features that are not directly related to machine architecture and design. Automatic Library Search and Loader Options are such Machine-independent Loader Features.

3.7.1 Automatic Library Search

This feature allows a programmer to use standard subroutines without explicitly including them in the program to be loaded. The routines are automatically retrieved from a library as they are needed during linking. This allows programmer to use subroutines from one or more libraries. The subroutines called by the program being loaded are automatically fetched from the library, linked with the main program and loaded. The loader searches the library or libraries specified for routines that contain the definitions of these symbols in the main program.

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3.7.2 Loader Options

Loader options allow the user to specify options that modify the standard processing. The options may be specified in three different ways. They are, specified using a command language, specified as a part of job control language that is processed by the operating system, and an be specified using loader control statements in the source program. Here are the some examples of how option can be specified. INCLUDE program-name (library-name) - read the designated object program from a library DELETE csect-name delete the named control section from the set pf programs being loaded CHANGE name1, name2 - external symbol name1 to be changed to name2 wherever it appears in the object programs LIBRARY MYLIB search MYLIB library before standard libraries NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL no loading and linking of unneeded routines Here is one more example giving, how commands can be specified as a part of object file, and the respective changes are carried out by the loader. LIBRARY UTLIB INCLUDE READ (UTLIB) INCLUDE WRITE (UTLIB) DELETE RDREC, WRREC CHANGE RDREC, READ CHANGE WRREC, WRITE NOCALL SQRT, PLOT The commands are, use UTLIB ( say utility library), include READ and WRITE control sections from the library, delete the control sections RDREC and WRREC from the load, the change command causes all external references to the symbol RDREC to be changed to the symbol READ, similarly references to WRREC is changed to WRITE, finally, no call to the functions SQRT, PLOT, if they are used in the program.

3.8 Loader Design Options

There are some common alternatives for organizing the loading functions, including relocation and linking. Linking Loaders Perform all linking and relocation at PNSIT, Bangalore 22

System Software load time. The Other Alternatives are Linkage editors, which perform linking prior to load time and, Dynamic linking, in which linking function is performed at execution time

3.8.1 Linking Loaders

Object Program(s)

Library

Linking loader

Memory

The above diagram shows the processing of an object program using Linking Loader. The source program is first assembled or compiled, producing an object program. A linking loader performs all linking and loading operations, and loads the program into memory for execution.

3.8.2 Linkage Editors

The figure below shows the processing of an object program using Linkage editor. A linkage editor produces a linked version of the program often called a load module or an executable image which is written to a file or library for later execution. The linked program produced is generally in a form that is suitable for processing by a relocating loader. Some useful functions of Linkage editor are, an absolute object program can be created, if starting address is already known. New versions of the library can be included without changing the source program. Linkage editors can also be used to build packages of subroutines or other control sections that are generally used together. Linkage editors PNSIT, Bangalore 23

System Software often allow the user to specify that external references are not to be resolved by automatic library search linking will be done later by linking loader linkage editor + linking loader savings in space Object Program(s)

Library

Linkage Editor

Linked program

Relocating loader

Memory

3.8.3 Dynamic Linking

The scheme that postpones the linking functions until execution. A subroutine is loaded and linked to the rest of the program when it is first called usually called dynamic linking, dynamic loading or load on call. The advantages of dynamic linking are, it allow several executing programs to share one copy of a subroutine or library. In an object oriented system, dynamic linking makes it possible for one object to be shared by several programs. Dynamic linking provides the ability to load the routines only when

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System Software (and if) they are needed. The actual loading and linking can be accomplished using operating system service request.

3.8.4 Bootstrap Loaders

If the question, how is the loader itself loaded into the memory ? is asked, then the answer is, when computer is started with no program in memory, a program present in ROM ( absolute address) can be made executed may be OS itself or A Bootstrap loader, which in turn loads OS and prepares it for execution. The first record ( or records) is generally referred to as a bootstrap loader makes the OS to be loaded. Such a loader is added to the beginning of all object programs that are to be loaded into an empty and idle system.

3.9 Implementation Examples

This section contains brief description of loaders and linkers for actual computers . They are, MS-DOS Linker - Pentium architecture, SunOS Linkers - SPARC architecture, and, Cray MPP Linkers T3E architecture.

3.9.1 MS-DOS Linker

This explains some of the features of Microsoft MS-DOS linker, which is a linker for Pentium and other x86 systems. Most MS-DOS compilers and assemblers (MASM) produce object modules, and they are stored in .OBJ files. MS-DOS LINK is a linkage editor that combines one or more object modules to produce a complete executable program - .EXE file; this file is later executed for results. The following table illustrates the typical MS-DOS object module Record Types THEADR TYPDEF,PUBDEF, EXTDEF LNAMES, SEGDEF, GRPDEF LEDATA, LIDATA FIXUPP MODEND Description Translator Header External symbols and references Segment definition and grouping Translated instructions and data Relocation and linking information End of object module

THEADR specifies the name of the object module. MODEND specifies the end of the module. PUBDEF contains list of the external symbols (called public names). PNSIT, Bangalore 25

System Software EXTDEF contains list of external symbols referred in this module, but defined elsewhere. TYPDEF the data types are defined here. SEGDEF describes segments in the object module ( includes name, length, and alignment). GRPDEF includes how segments are combined into groups. LNAMES contains all segment and class names. LEDATA contains translated instructions and data. LIDATA has above in repeating pattern. Finally, FIXUPP is used to resolve external references.

3.9.2 SunOS Linkers

SunOS Linkers are developed for SPARC systems. SunOS provides two different linkers link-editor and run-time linker. Link-editor is invoked in the process of assembling or compiling a program produces a single output module one of the following types A relocatable object module suitable for further link-editing A static executable with all symbolic references bound and ready to run A dynamic executable in which some symbolic references may need to be bound at run time A shared object which provides services that can be, bound at run time to one ore more dynamic executables An object module contains one or more sections representing instructions and data area from the source program, relocation and linking information, external symbol table. Run-time linker uses dynamic linking approach. Run-time linker binds dynamic executables and shared objects at execution time. Performs relocation and linking operations to prepare the program for execution.

3.9.3 Cray MPP Linker

Cray MPP (massively parallel processing) Linker is developed for Cray T3E systems. A T3E system contains large number of parallel processing elements (PEs) Each PE has local memory and has access to remote memory (memory of other PEs). The processing is divided among PEs - contains shared data and private data. The loaded program gets copy of the executable code, its private data and its portion of the shared data. The MPP linker organizes blocks containing executable code, private data and shared data. The linker then writes an executable file that contains the relocated and linked blocks. The executable file also specifies the number of PEs required and other control information. The linker can create an executable file that is targeted for a fixed number of PEs, or one that allows the partition size to be chosen at run time. Latter type is called plastic executable. PNSIT, Bangalore 26

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