Triangle

Square

Pentagon

Hexagon

Heptagon

Octagon

Nonagon

Decagon

Hendecagon

Dodecagon

These shapes are known as regular polygons. A polygon is a many sided shape with straight sides. To be a regular polygon all the sides and angles must be the same.

Triangles
A triangle has three sides and three angles The three angles always add to 180

Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

There are three special names given to triangles that tell how many sides (or angles) are equal. There can be 3, 2 or no equal sides/angles:

Equilateral Triangle
Three equal sides Three equal angles, always 60

Isosceles Triangle
Two equal sides Two equal angles

Scalene Triangle
No equal sides No equal angles

What Type of Angle?

Triangles can also have names that tell you what type of angle is inside:

Acute Triangle
All angles are less than 90

Right Triangle
Has a right angle (90)

Obtuse Triangle
Has an angle more than 90

Combining the Names

Sometimes a triangle will have two names, for example:

Right Isosceles Triangle

Has a right angle (90), and also two equal angles Can you guess what the equal angles are?

Area
The area is half of the base times height. "b" is the distance along the base "h" is the height (measured at right angles to the base)

Area = b h
The formula works for all triangles. Note: another way of writing the formula is bh/2

Example: What is the area of this triangle?

(Note: 12 is the height, not the length of the left-hand side) Height = h = 12 Base = b = 20

Area = b h = 20 12 = 120

Quadrilaterals
Quadrilateral just means "four sides" (quad means four, lateral means side). Any four-sided shape is a Quadrilateral. But the sides have to be straight, and it has to be2-dimensional.

Properties
Four sides (or edges) Four vertices (or corners). The interior angles add up to 360 degrees:

Try drawing a quadrilateral, and measure the angles. They should add to 360

types of Quadrilaterals
There are special types of quadrilateral:

Some types are also included in the definition of other types! For example a square, rhombus and rectangleare also parallelograms. See below for more details. Let us look at each type in turn:

The Rectangle

means "right angle" and show equal sides

A rectangle is a four-sided shape where every angle is a right angle (90). Also opposite sides are parallel and of equal length.

Area of a Rectangle
The Area is the width times the height:

Area = w h Example: A rectangle is 6 m wide and 3 m high, what is its Area?

Area = 6 m 3 m = 18 m2

Perimeter of a Rectangle
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges.

The Perimeter is 2 times the (width + height):

Perimeter = 2(w+h) Example: A rectangle has a width of 12 cm, and a height of 5 cm, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 2 (12 cm + 5 cm) = 2 17 cm = 34 cm

Diagonals of a Rectangle
A rectangle has two diagonals, they are equal in length and intersect in the middle.

The Diagonal is the square root of (width squared + height squared):

Diagonal "d" = (w2 + h2) Example: A rectangle has a width of 12 cm, and a height of 5 cm, what is the length of a diagonal?
Diagonal Length = (5 + 12 ) = (25 + 144) = 169 = 13 cm
2 2

The Rhombus

A rhombus is a four-sided shape where all sides have equal length. Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal.

Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in second figure) of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.

All sides have equal length

Opposite sides are parallel, and opposite angles are equal (it is a Parallelogram).

The altitude is the distance at right angles to two sides

And the diagonals "p" and "q" of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.

Area of a Rhombus

The Area can be calculated by: the altitude times the side length:

Area = altitude s

the side length squared (s2) times the sine of angle A (or angle B):

Area = s2 sin(A)

Area = s2 sin(B)

by multiplying the lengths of the diagonals and then dividing by 2:

Area = (p q)/2

Example: A rhombus has diagonals of 6 m and 8 m, what is its Area?

Area = (6 m 8 m)/2 = 24 m2

Perimeter of a Rhombus
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges.

The Perimeter is 4 times "s" (the side length) because all sides are equal in length:

Perimeter = 4s Example: A rhombus has a side length of 12 cm, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 4 12 cm = 48 cm

Is a Square a Rhombus?
Yes, because a square is just a rhombus where the angles are all right angles.

The Square

means "right angle" show equal sides

A square has equal sides and every angle is a right angle (90)

Also opposite sides are parallel. A square also fits the definition of a rectangle (all angles are 90), and a rhombus (all sides are equal length).

All sides are equal in length

Each internal angle is 90

Opposite sides are parallel (so it is a Parallelogram).

Area of a Square
The Area is the side length squared:

Area = a2 = a a Example: A square has a side length of 6 m, what is its Area?

Area = 6 m 6 m = 36 m2 The Area is also half of the diagonal squared:

Area = d2/2

Perimeter of a Square
The Perimeter is the distance around the edge.

The Perimeter is 4 times the side length:

Perimeter = 4a Example: A square has a side length of 12 cm, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 4 12 cm = 48 cm

Diagonals of a Square
A square has two diagonals, they are equal in length and intersect in the middle.

The Diagonal is the side length times the square root of 2:

Diagonal "d" = a 2 Example: A square has a side length of 5 m, what is the length of a diagonal?
Diagonal Length = a 2 = 5 1.41421... = 7.071 m (to 3 decimals)

The Parallelogram

A parallelogram's opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. Also opposite angles are equal (angles "a" are the same, and angles "b" are the same)

NOTE: Squares, Rectangles and Rhombuses are all Parallelograms!

Example:
parallelogram with: all sides equal and angles "a" and "b" as right angles

I is a square!

10

Opposite sides are parallel

Opposite sides are equal in length

Opposite angles are equal (angles "a" are the same, and angles "b" are the same) Angles "a" and "b" add up to 180, so they are supplementary angles.

NOTE: Squares, Rectangles and Rhombuses are all Parallelograms! Example:

A parallelogram where angles "a" and "b" are right angles is a rectangle!

Area of a Parallelogram
The Area is the base times the height:

Area = b h
(h is at right angles to b)

Example: A parallelogram has a base of 6 m and is 3 m high, what is its Area?

Area = 6 m 3 m = 18 m2

Perimeter of a Parallelogram
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges.

The Perimeter is 2 times the (base + side length):

Perimeter = 2(b+s)

Example: A parallelogram has a base of 12 cm and a side length of 6 cm, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 2 (12 cm + 6 cm) = 2 18 cm = 36 cm

11

Diagonals of a Parallelogram
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. In other words the diagonals intersect each other at the half-way point.

The Trapezoid (UK: Trapezium)

Trapezoid

Isosceles Trapezoid

A trapezoid (called a trapezium in the UK) has a pair of opposite sides parallel. It is called an Isosceles trapezoid if the sides that aren't parallel are equal in length and both angles coming from a parallel side are equal, as shown. A trapezium (UK: trapezoid) is a quadrilateral with NO parallel sides: Trapezoid US: a pair of parallel sides UK: NO parallel sides Trapezium NO parallel sides a pair of parallel sides

A pair of parallel sides

Called an Isosceles trapezoid when the sides that aren't parallel are equal in length and both angles coming from a parallel side are equal.

12

Called a "Trapezium" in the UK

The parallel sides are the "bases" The other two sides are the "legs" The distance (at right angles) from one base to the other is called the "altitude"

Area of a Trapezoid
The Area is the average of the two base lengths times the altitude:

a+b Area = 2 h

Example: A trapezoid's two bases are 6 m and 4m, and it is 3m high. What is its Area?
Area = (6 m + 4 m)/2 3 m = 5 m 3 m = 15 m2 If you can draw your Trapezoid, try the Area of Polygon by Drawing tool.)

Perimeter of a Trapezoid
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges.

The Perimeter is the sum of all side lengths:

Perimeter = a+b+c+d

Example: A trapezoid has side length of 5 cm, 12 cm, 4 cm and 15 cm, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 5 cm + 12 cm + 4 cm + 15 cm = 36 cm

13

Median of a Trapezoid
The median (also called a midline or midsegment) is a line segment half-way between the two bases.

a+b
The median's length is the average of the two base lengths: m =

You can calculate the area when you know the median, it is just the median times the height:

Area = mh

Trapezium
A trapezium (UK: trapezoid) is a quadrilateral with NO parallel sides. The US and UK have their definitions swapped over, like this: Trapezoid US: a pair of parallel sides UK: NO parallel sides Trapezium NO parallel sides a pair of parallel sides

The Kite

14

Hey, it looks like a kite. It has two pairs of sides. Each pair is made up of adjacent sides that are equal in length. The angles are equal where the pairs meet. Diagonals (dashed lines) meet at a right angle, and one of the diagonal bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.

... and that's it for the special quadrilaterals.

Two pairs of sides

Each pair is made up of adjacent sides (they meet) that are equal in length.

The angles are equal where the two pairs meet.

Diagonals (dashed lines) cross at right angles, and one of the diagonals bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.

Area of a Kite
The Area is found by multiplying the lengths of the diagonals and then dividing by 2:

pq Area = 2

Example: A kite has diagonals of 3 cm and 5 cm, what is its Area?

Area = (3 cm 5 cm)/2 = 7.5 cm2 If you can draw your Kite, try the Area of Polygon by Drawing tool.)

Perimeter of a Kite
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges.

15

The Perimeter is 2 times (side length a + side length b):

Perimeter = 2(a + b)

Example: A kite has side lengths of 12 m and 10m, what is its Perimeter?
Perimeter = 2 (12 m + 10 m) = 2 22 m = 44 m

Rhombus and Square

When all sides have equal length the Kite will also be a Rhombus. When all the angles are also 90 the Kite will be a Square.

Perimeter
Perimeter is the distance around a two-dimensional shape. Example 1: the perimeter of this rectangle is 7+3+7+3 = 20

Example 2: the perimeter of this regular pentagon is 3+3+3+3+3 = 53 = 15

16

The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference:

What is Area?

Area of Simple Shapes

There are special formulas for certain shapes:

Example: What is the area of this rectangle?

The formula is:

Area = w h
w = width h = height The width is 5, and the height is 3, so we know w = 5 and h = 3. So:

Area = 5 3 = 15
Read Area of Plane Shapes for more information.

Area of Difficult Shapes

You can sometimes break a shape up into two or more simpler shapes:

Example: What is the area of this Shape?

17

Let's break the area into two parts:

Part A is a square:

Area of A = a2 = 20m 20m = 400m2

Part B is a triangle. Viewed sideways it has a base of 20m and a height of 14m.

Area of B = b h = 20m 14m = 140m2

So the total area is:

Area = Area of A + Area of B = 400m2 + 140m2 = 540m2

Irregular Quadrilaterals
The only regular quadrilateral is a square. So all other quadrilaterals are irregular.

The "Family Tree" Chart

Quadrilateral definitions are inclusive.

Example: a square is also a rectangle.

So we include a square in the definition of a rectangle. (We don't say "A rectangle has all 90 angles, except if it is a square") This may seem odd because in daily life we think of a square as not being a rectangle ... but in mathematics itis.

18

Using the chart below you can answer such questions as: Is a Square a type of Rectangle? (Yes) Is a Rectangle a type of Kite? (No)

Complex Quadrilaterals
Oh Yes! when two sides cross over, you call it a "Complex" or "Self-Intersecting" quadrilateral like these:

19

They still have 4 sides, but two sides cross over.

Polygon
A quadrilateral is a polygon. In fact it is a 4-sided polygon, just like a triangle is a 3-sided polygon, a pentagon is a 5-sided polygon, and so on.

Other Names
A quadrilateral can sometimes be called: a Quadrangle ("four angles"), so it sounds like "triangle" a Tetragon ("four and polygon"), so it sounds like "pentagon",

"hexagon", etc.

Pentagon
A pentagon has 5 straight sides. The shape must also be closed (all the lines connect up):

Pentagon (straight sides)

Not a Pentagon (has a curve)

Not a Pentagon (open, not closed)

Properties
A regular pentagon has: Interior Angles of 108 Exterior Angles of 72 Area of approximately 1.7204774 s2 (where s=side length)

20

Hexagon
Properties
A regular hexagon has: Interior Angles of 120 Exterior Angles of 60 Area = (1.53) s2 , or approximately 2.5980762 s2 (where s=side length)

Properties of Regular Polygons

Polygon
A polygon is a plane shape (two-dimensional) with straight sides. Examples include triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons and so on.

Regular
A "Regular Polygon" has: all sides equal and all angles equal. Otherwise it is irregular. Regular Pentagon Irregular Pentagon

Here we will be looking at Regular Polygons only.

Properties
So what can we know about regular polygons? First of all, we can work out angles.

Exterior Angle
The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a shape,

21

and a line extended from the next side.

All the Exterior Angles of a polygon add up to 360, so:

Each exterior angle must be 360/n

(where n is the number of sides)

Example: What is the exterior angle of a regular octagon?

An octagon has 8 sides, so:

Exterior angle = 360/n = 360/8 = 45

Interior Angles
The Interior Angle and Exterior Angle are measured from the same line, so theyadd up to 180.

Interior Angle = 180 - Exterior Angle

We know the Exterior angle = 360/n, so:

Interior Angle = 180 - 360/n

Which can be rearranged like this: Interior Angle = 180 - 360/n = (n 180 / n) - (2 180 / n) = (n-2) 180/n So we also have this:

Interior Angle = (n-2) 180 / n

Example: What is the interior angle of a regular octagon?

22

A regular octagon has 8 sides, so: Exterior Angle = 360 / 8 = 45 Interior Angle = 180 - 45 = 135 Or we could use: Interior Angle = (n-2) 180 / n = (8-2) 180 / 8 = 6 180 / 8 = 135

Example: What is the interior and exterior angles of a regular hexagon?

A regular hexagon has 6 sides, so: Exterior Angle = 360 / 6 = 60 Interior Angle = 180 - 60 = 120

"Circumcircle, Incircle, Radius and Apothem ..."

Sounds quite musical if you repeat it a few times, but they are just the names of the "outer" and "inner" circles (and each radius) that can be drawn on a polygon like this:

The "outside" circle is called a circumcircle, and it connects all vertices (corner points) of the polygon. The "inside" circle is called an incircle and it just touches each side of the polygon at its midpoint. The radius of the circumcircle is also the radius of the polygon. The radius of the incircle is the apothem of the polygon.

(Not all polygons have those properties, but triangles and regular polygons do).

23

Breaking into Triangles

We can learn a lot about regular polygons by breaking them into triangles like this: Notice that: the "base" of the triangle is one side of the polygon. the "height" of the triangle is the "Apothem" of the polygon

Now, the area of a triangle is half of the base times height, so: Area of one triangle = base height / 2 = side apothem / 2

To get the area of the whole polygon, just add up the areas of all the little triangles ("n" of them): Area of Polygon = n side apothem / 2 And since the perimeter is all the sides = n side, we get:

Area of Polygon = perimeter apothem / 2

Diagonals of Polygons

A polygon's diagonals are line segments from one corner to another, but not the sides. The number of diagonals of an n-sided polygon is:

n(n - 3) / 2
Examples: a square has 4(4-3)/2 = 41/2 = 2 diagonals an octagon has 8(8-3)/2 = 85/2

24

= 20 diagonals. A triangle has no diagonals.

Area of Plane Shapes

Learn more about Area, or try the Area Calculator.

Triangle

Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Rectangle

Area = a2
a = length of side

Square

Parallelogram

Area = w h
w = width h = height Trapezoid (US) Trapezium (UK)

Area = b h
b = base h = vertical height Circle

Area = (a+b) h
h = vertical height

Area =

r2

Circumference = 2 r = radius Sector

Ellipse

Area =

ab

Area = r2
r = radius = angle in radians

Note: h is at right angles to b:

25

Circle
A circle is easy to make:

Draw a curve that is "radius" away from a central point.

And so:

All points are the same distance from the center.

Radius, Diameter and Circumference

The Radius is the distance from the center to the edge. The Diameter starts at one side of the circle, goes through the center and ends on the other side. The Circumference is the distance around the edge of the circle. And here is the really cool thing:

When you divide the circumference by the diameter you get 3.141592654... which is the number

(Pi)

Circumference =

Diameter

Example: You walk around a circle which has a diameter of 100m, how far have you walked?
26

Distance walked = Circumference = 100m = 314m (to the nearest m)

Also note that the Diameter is twice the Radius:

Diameter = 2 Radius
And so this is also true:

Circumference = 2 Remembering
The length of the words may help you remember: Radius is the shortest word Diameter is longer (and is 2 Radius) Circumference is the longest (and is

Radius

Diameter)

Area

The area of a circle is

times the radius squared, which is written:

A=

r2

Or, in terms of the Diameter:

A = (/4) D2

27

Example: What is the area of a circle with radius of 1.2 m ?

r2 A = 1.22 A = (1.2 1.2)

A= A = 3.14159... 1.44 = 4.52 (to 2 decimals) So here are the most common special names:

Lines
A line that goes from one point to another on the circle's circumference is called a Chord. If that line passes through the center it is called a Diameter. A line that "just touches" the circle as it passes by is called aTangent. And a part of the circumference is called an Arc.

Slices
There are two main "slices" of a circle The "pizza" slice is called a Sector. And the slice made by a chord is called a Segment.

28

Common Sectors
The Quadrant and Semicircle are two special types of Sector: Quarter of a circle is called a Quadrant. Half a circle is called a Semicircle.

Circle Sector and Segment

29

Slices
There are two main "slices" of a circle: The "pizza" slice is

called a Sector.
And the slice made

by a chord is called a Segment.

Area of a Sector You can work out the Area of a Sector by comparing its angle to the angle of a full circle. Note: I am using radians for the angles.
This is the reasoning: A circle has an angle of 2 and an Area of:

r2 So a Sector with an angle of (instead of 2) must have an area of: (/2) r2 Which can be simplified to: (/2) r2
Area of Sector =
Area of Sector = (

r2

(when

is in radians)
is in degrees)

/180) r2

(when

30

Arc Length
By the same reasoning, the arc length (of a Sector or Segment) is:

L=

(when

is in radians)

L = (

/180) r

(when is in degrees)

Area of Segment
The Area of a Segment is the area of a sector minus the triangular piece (shown in light blue here). There is a lengthy reason, but the result is a slight modification of the Sector formula:

Area of Segment = ( - sin

Area of Segment = ( (

) r2

(when

is in radians)

/180) - sin ) r2

(when is in degrees)

31

Circle Theorems
There are some interesting things about angles and circles that I want to share with you:

Inscribed Angle
First off, a definition: Inscribed Angle: an angle made from points sitting on the circle's circumference.

A and C are "end points" B is the "apex point"

Inscribed Angle Theorems

An inscibed angle

a is half of the central angle 2a

(Called the Angle at the Center Theorem) And (keeping the endpoints fixed) ... ... the angle

a is always the same, no matter where it is on the circumference:

32

Angle a is the same.

(Called the Angles Subtended by Same Arc Theorem)

Example: What is the size of Angle POQ? (O is circle's center)

Angle POQ = 2 Angle PRQ = 2 62 = 124

Example: What is the size of Angle CBX?

Angle ADB = 32 equals Angle ACB. And Angle ACB equals Angle XCB. So in triangle BXC we know Angle BXC = 85, and Angle XCB = 32 Now use angles of a triangle add to 180 :

Angle CBX + Angle BXC + Angle XCB = 180 Angle CBX + 85 + 32 = 180 Angle CBX = 63

Angle in a Semicircle
An angle inscribed in a semicircle is always a right angle:

33

(The end points are either end of a circle's diameter, the apex point can be anywhere on the circumference.)

Why? Because: The inscibed angle

90 is half of the central angle 180

(Using "Angle at the Center Theorem" above)

Another Good Reason Why It Works

We could also rotate the shape around 180 to make a rectangle! It is a rectangle, because all sides are parallel, and both diagonals are equal. And so its internal angles are all right angles (90).

So there you go! No matter where that angle is on the circumference, it is always 90

Example: What is the size of Angle BAC?

34

The Angle in the Semicircle Theorem tells us that Angle ACB = 90 Now use angles of a triangle add to 180 to find Angle BAC:

Angle BAC + 55 + 90 = 180 Angle BAC = 35

Cyclic Quadrilateral
A "Cyclic" Quadrilateral has every vertex on a circle's circumference:

A Cyclic Quadrilateral's opposite angles add to 180: a + c = 180 b + d = 180

Example: What is the size of Angle WXY?

Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add to 180

Angle WZY + Angle WXY = 180 69 + Angle WXY = 180 Angle WXY = 111

35

Tangent Angle
A tangent is a line that just touches a circle at one point. It always forms a right angle with the circle's radius as shown here.

Radians
We can measure Angles in Radians. 1 Radian is about 57.2958 degrees.

Does 57.2958... degrees seem a strange value? Maybe degrees are strange as the Radian is a pure measure based on the Radius of the circle.

Radian: the angle made by taking the radius and wrapping it along the edge of a circle:

Radians and Degrees

As shown in the animation above: So There are

radians in a half circle

And also 180 in a half circle

radians = 180

So 1 radian = 180/ = 57.2958 (approximately)

Congruent Angles have the same angle (in degrees or radians). That is all.

36

These angles are congruent. They don't have to point in the same direction. They don't have to be on similar sized lines. Just the same angle.

Pairs of Angles
When parallel lines get crossed by another line (which is called aTransversal), you can see that many angles are the same, as in this example: These angles can be made into pairs of angles which have special names.

Some of those special pairs of angles can be used to test if lines really are parallel: If Any Pair Of ...
Corresponding Angles are equal, or Alternate Interior Angles are equal, or Alternate Exterior Angles are equal, or Consecutive Interior Angles add up to 180 Example:

a=e c=f b=g d + f = 180

... then the lines are Parallel

37

Transversals
A Transversal is a line that crosses at least two other lines.
The red line is the transversal in each example:

Transversal crossing two lines

this Transversal crosses two parallel lines

... and this one cuts across three lines

Triangles Contain 180

In a triangle, the three angles always add to 180:

A + B + C = 180

Supplementary Angles
Two Angles are Supplementary if they add up to 180 degrees.

These two angles (140 and 40) are Supplementary Angles, because they add up to 180. Notice that together they make a straight angle.

38

But the angles don't have to be together. These two are supplementary because 60 + 120 = 180

Complementary vs Supplementary
A related idea is Complementary Angles, they add up to 90 How can you remember which is which? Easy! Think:

"C" of Complementary stands for "Corner" (a Right Angle), and "S" of Supplementary stands for "Straight" (180 degrees is a straight line)

You could also think "Supplement" (like a Vitamin Supplement) is something extra, so it it bigger.

Complementary Angles
Two Angles are Complementary if they add up to 90 degrees (a Right Angle).

These two angles (40 and 50) areComplementary Angles, because they add up to 90. Notice that together they make a right angle.

But the angles don't have to be together. These two are complementary because 27 + 63 = 90

39

Angles Around a Point

Angles around a point will always add up to 360 degrees.

The angles above all add to 360

53 + 80 + 140 + 87 = 360

Angles On One Side of A Straight Line

Angles on one side of a straight line will always add to 180 degrees.
If a line is split into 2 and you know one angle you can always find the other one.

Interior Angle
An Interior Angle is an angle inside a shape.

Note: When you add up the Interior Angle and Exterior Angle you get a straight line, 180. (See Supplementary Angles)

40

Exterior Angle
The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a shape, and a line extended from the next side.

Note: When you add up the Interior Angle and Exterior Angle you get a straight line, 180. (See Supplementary Angles)

Interior Angles of Polygons

An Interior Angle is an angle inside a shape.

Triangles
The Interior Angles of a Triangle add up to 180

90 + 60 + 30 = 180
It works for this triangle!

80 + 70 + 30 = 180
Let's tilt a line by 10 ... It still works, because one angle went up by

41

10, but the other went down by 10

Quadrilaterals (Squares, etc)

(A Quadrilateral is any shape with 4 sides)

90 + 90 + 90 + 90 = 360
A Square adds up to 360

80 + 100 + 90 + 90 = 360
Let's tilt a line by 10 ... still adds up to 360!

The Interior Angles of a Quadrilateral add up to 360

Because there are Two Triangles in a Square

... and for this square they add up to 360 ... because the square can be made from two triangles!

The interior angles in this triangle add up to 180 (90+45+45=180)

42

Pentagon
A pentagon has 5 sides, and can be made from three triangles, so you know what ... ... its interior angles add up to 3 180 = 540 And if it is a regular pentagon (all angles the same), then each angle is 540 / 5 = 108 (Exercise: make sure each triangle here adds up to 180, and check that the pentagon's interior angles add up to 540)

The Interior Angles of a Pentagon add up to 540

The General Rule

Each time we add a side (triangle to quadrilateral, quadrilateral to pentagon, etc), we add another 180 to the total: If it is a Regular Polygon (all sides are equal, all angles are equal)

Shape

Sides

Sum of Interior Angles

Shape

Each Angle

Triangle

180

60

Quadrilateral

360

90

Pentagon

540

108

Hexagon

720

120

Heptagon (or Septagon)

900

128.57...

43

Octagon

1080

135

...

...

..

...

...

Any Polygon

(n-2) 180

(n-2) 180 / n

So the general rule is:

Sum of Interior Angles = (n-2) 180 Each Angle (of a Regular Polygon) = (n-2) 180 / n
Perhaps an example will help:

Example: What about a Regular Decagon (10 sides) ?

Sum of Interior Angles (n-2) 180 = = (10-2)180 = 8180 = 1440

And it is a Regular Decagon so: Each interior angle = 1440/10 = 144

Exterior Angles of Polygons

The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a shape, and a line extended from the next side.

Note: when you add up the Interior Angle and Exterior Angle you get a straight line, 180. (See Supplementary Angles)

Polygons
A Polygon is any flat shape with straight sides

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The Exterior Angles of a Polygon add up to 360

In other words the exterior angles add up to one full revolution (Exercise: try this with a square, then with some interesting polygon you invent yourself.)

Note: This rule only works for simple polygons

Here is another way to think about it: Each lines changes direction until you eventually get back to the start:

Pythagoras' Theorem
t is called "Pythagoras' Theorem" and can be written in one short equation:

a2 + b2 = c2

Note: c is the longest side of the triangle a and b are the other two sides

List of the First Few

Here is a list of the first few Pythagorean Triples: (3,4,5) (11,60,61) (5,12,13) (12,35,37) (7,24,25) (13,84,85) (8,15,17) (15,112,113) (9,40,41) (16,63,65)

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(17,144,145) (23,264,265) (28,195,197) (33,544,545)

(19,180,181) (24,143,145) (29,420,421) (35,612,613)

(20,21,29) (25,312,313) (31,480,481) (36,77,85)

(20,99,101) (27,364,365) (32,255,257) (36,323,325)

(21,220,221) (28,45,53) (33,56,65) (37,684,685)

Pythagorean Triples
Examples of Pythagorean Triples are:

3, 4, 5

5, 12, 13

9, 40, 41

32 + 4 2 = 5 2 9 + 16 = 25

52 + 122 = 132 25 + 144 = 169

92 + 402 = 412 (try it yourself)

Properties
It can be observed that a Pythagorean Triple always consists of: all even numbers, or two odd numbers and an even number.

A Pythagorean Triple can never be made up of all odd numbers or two even numbers and one odd number. This is true because: (i) The square of an odd number is an odd number and the square of an even number is an even number. (ii) The sum of two even numbers is an even number and the sum of an odd number and an even number is in odd number.

Therefore, if one of a and b is odd and the other is even, c would have to be odd. Similarly, if both a and b are even, c would be an even number too!

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Constructing Pythagorean Triples

It is easy to construct sets of Pythagorean Triples. When m and n are any two positive integers (m < n): a = n2 - m2 b = 2nm c = n2 + m 2

Then, a, b, and c form a Pythagorean Triple.

Example: m=1 and n=2

a = 22 - 1 2 = 4 - 1 = 3 b=221=4 c = 22 + 12 = 5 Thus, we obtain the first Pythagorean Triple (3,4,5).

Similarly, when m=2 and n=3 we get the next Pythagorean Triple (5,12,13).

List of the First Few

(3,4,5) (11,60,61) (17,144,145) (23,264,265) (28,195,197) (33,544,545) (39,80,89) (44,117,125) (52,165,173) (60,221,229) (75,308,317) (87,416,425) (96,247,265) (108,725,733)

(5,12,13) (12,35,37) (19,180,181) (24,143,145) (29,420,421) (35,612,613) (39,760,761) (44,483,485) (52,675,677) (60,899,901) (76,357,365) (88,105,137) (100,621,629) (111,680,689)

(7,24,25) (13,84,85) (20,21,29) (25,312,313) (31,480,481) (36,77,85) (40,399,401) (48,55,73) (56,783,785) (65,72,97) (84,187,205) (92,525,533) (104,153,185) (115,252,277)

(8,15,17) (15,112,113) (20,99,101) (27,364,365) (32,255,257) (36,323,325) (41,840,841) (48,575,577) (57,176,185) (68,285,293) (84,437,445) (93,476,485) (105,208,233) (116,837,845)

(9,40,41) (16,63,65) (21,220,221) (28,45,53) (33,56,65) (37,684,685) (43,924,925) (51,140,149) (60,91,109) (69,260,269) (85,132,157) (95,168,193) (105,608,617) (119,120,169)

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(120,209,241) (132,475,493) (145,408,433) (161,240,289) (180,299,349) (200,609,641) (215,912,937) (228,325,397) (252,275,373) (276,493,565) (297,304,425) (319,360,481) (348,805,877) (385,552,673) (420,851,949) (455,528,697) (504,703,865) (615,728,953)

(120,391,409) (133,156,205) (152,345,377) (165,532,557) (184,513,545) (203,396,445) (216,713,745) (231,520,569) (259,660,709) (279,440,521) (300,589,661) (333,644,725) (364,627,725) (387,884,965) (429,460,629) (464,777,905) (533,756,925) (616,663,905)

(123,836,845) (135,352,377) (155,468,493) (168,425,457) (185,672,697) (204,253,325) (217,456,505) (232,825,857) (260,651,701) (280,351,449) (301,900,949) (336,377,505) (368,465,593) (396,403,565) (429,700,821) (468,595,757) (540,629,829) (696,697,985)

(124,957,965) (136,273,305) (156,667,685) (168,775,793) (189,340,389) (205,828,853) (220,459,509) (240,551,601) (261,380,461) (280,759,809) (308,435,533) (336,527,625) (369,800,881) (400,561,689) (432,665,793) (473,864,985) (555,572,797)

(129,920,929) (140,171,221) (160,231,281) (175,288,337) (195,748,773) (207,224,305) (225,272,353) (248,945,977) (273,736,785) (287,816,865) (315,572,653) (341,420,541) (372,925,997) (407,624,745) (451,780,901) (481,600,769) (580,741,941)

Prisms
A prism has the same cross section all along its length !

Volume of a Prism
he Volume of a prism is simply the area of one end times the length of the prism

Volume = Area Length

Example: What is the volume of a prism whose ends have an area of 25 in2 and which is 12 in long:

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Answer: Volume = 25 in2 12 in = 300 in3

Triangular Pyramid
riangular Pyramid Facts
Notice these interesting things: It has 4 Faces The 3 Side Faces are Triangles The Base is also a Triangle It has 4 Vertices (corner points) It has 6 Edges It is also a Tetrahedron

And for reference: Volume = /3 [Base Area] Height Surface Area (when all side faces are the same): 1 = [Base Area] + /2 Perimeter [Side Length]
1

Square Pyramid
Square Pyramid Facts
Notice these interesting things:

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It has 5 Faces The 4 Side Faces are Triangles The Base is a Square It has 5 Vertices (corner points) It has 8 Edges

And for reference: Surface Area = [Base Area] + 1 /2 Perimeter [Slant Length] Volume = 1/3 [Base Area] Height

Pentagonal Pyramid
Pentagonal Pyramid Facts
Notice these interesting things: It has 6 Faces The 5 Side Faces are Triangles The Base is a Pentagon It has 6 Vertices (corner points) It has 10 Edges

And for reference: Volume = 1/3 [Base Area] Height Surface Area (when all side faces are the same): = [Base Area] + 1/2 Perimeter [Side Length]

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Area and Volume

The Volume of a Pyramid

/3 [Base Area] Height

The Surface Area of a Pyramid

When all side faces are the same: [Base Area] + 1/2 Perimeter [Slant Length]

When side faces are different: [Base Area] + [Lateral Area]

Sphere
Sphere Facts Notice these interesting things: It is perfectly symmetrical It has no edges or vertices (corners) It is not a polyhedron All points on the surface are the same distance from the center

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And for reference: Surface Area = 4 r2 Volume = (4/3)

r3

Torus
Torus Facts Notice these interesting things: It can be made by revolving a small circle along a line made by another circle. It has no edges or vertices It is not a polyhedron

And for reference: Surface Area = 4 2 R r Volume = 2

2 R r2

Note: Area and volume formulas only work when the torus has a hole!

Cylinder
Cylinder Facts
Notice these interesting things: It has a flat base and a flat top The base is the same as the top, and also in-between It has one curved side

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Because it has a curved surface it is not a polyhedron.

And for reference: Surface Area = 2 r (r+h) Surface Area of One End = r2 Surface Area of Side = 2 r h

Volume = r2 h

Cone
Cone Facts Notice these interesting things: It has a flat base It has one curved side Because it has a curved surface it is not a polyhedron.

And for reference: Surface Area of Base = Surface Area of Side = or Surface Area of Side =

r2 rs r (r2+h2)

Volume =

r2 (h/3)
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Volume of a Cone vs Cylinder

The volume formulas for cones and cylinders are very similar:

The volume of a cylinder is: The volume of a cone is:

r2 h r2 (h/3)

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