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Music Education and Student Self-Concept: A Review of Literature

Jeanne Wrasman Reynolds Pinellas County Schools

Introduction
There is tremendous interest in student self-concept in education today. Low selfesteem is believed to underlie a myriad of diverse problems such as academic underachievement, academic overachievement, drug addition, violent behavior, teenage pregnancy, and criminal behavior (Adler, Cohen, Houston, Manly, Wingert, & Wright, 1992). Sweeping educational reform movements such as multiculturalism and cooperative learning are motivated, at least in part, to improve student self-concept (Ames & Ames, 1978; Aronson, 1977; Hale-Benson, 1986; Johnson, 1981; Kirkland-Homes & Federlein, 1990; Slavin, 1982). As a result of this wide-spread interest, the body of educational research literature pertaining to self-concept has grown to vast proportions. Currently, there are over 10,000 scientific studies of self-esteem measured by more than 200 different tests (Adler, et al., 1992). The wealth of educational literature regarding self-concept contrasts sharply with the scarcity of research regarding music education and self-concept. The general education community's interest in self-concept should not be ignored by music educators. Students' willingness to participate in music programs might be influenced by their self-concepts or, at minimum, by their music self-concepts. Furthermore, when music programs become threatened in times of financial hardship, research investigating the relationship between music education and selfconcept may influence decisions regarding the continuation or termination of music programs. This article summarizes an extensive review of literature pertaining to the relationship between music education and self-concept (Reynolds, 1992). The literature review will be summarized by discussing representative research findings and describing the conclusions which were drawn based on the review. The discussion will be divided into five sections: (1) self-concept definitions, models, and measurement, (2) self-concept of music ability, (3) the relationship between general self-concept and music education, (4) implications of the existing research, and (5) recommendations for future research.

Literature selected for the review was limited to studies which specifically investigated the relationship between music education and student self-concept, or related literature which augmented these studies. The procedure used to identify studies for review involved several steps: (a) a review of music education journals, (b) a search of the ERIC data base using various combinations of pertinent descriptors regarding music and self-concept, self-esteem, attitude, etc., (c) a review of Dissertation Abstracts International, 1980-1992. (d) a review of bibliographies of the previously mentioned sources, and (e) a review of the entries and bibliographies found in the Encyclopedia of Educational Research (5th ed.) regarding music education, affective education, and motivation. Additionally, in order to augment this research, general educational psychology literature regarding self-concept of ability and beliefs about the causes of success and failure was selected for inclusion.

Self-Concept Models, Definitions, and Measurement

Many of the difficulties associated with self-concept research can be traced directly to the ambiguity of the term (Wylie, 1974). Complications emerge from the interchangeable use of such terms as self-esteem, self- worth, self-identity, selfacceptance, self-regard, and self-evaluation. In both casual and research contexts, self-concept and self-esteem are not differentiated very clearly. According to Byrne (1984), there is no "clear, concise, and universally accepted operational definition of SC [sic]" (p. 429). For purposes of this article, self- concept will be considered broadly to include the perception of oneself, including one's attitudes, knowledge, and feelings regarding abilities, appearance, and social relationships. Most researchers reject a strictly unidimensional construct of self-concept because it does not adequately explain behavior in a wide variety of settings. Scheirer & Kraut (1979) suggested that self-concept is a multi-faceted construct and cautioned against oversimplifying the term. They stated that "... self-concept should not be conceptualized as a simple,unitary phenomenon, but as a complex construct, having descriptive, evaluative, comparative, and affective aspects which can and should be discriminated" (p. 141). Marsh and Shavelson (1985) also conceived of self-concept as a multi-dimensional construct. They stated: We suspect that self-concepts in specific areas will provide better prediction of most external criterion [sic] than will broad measures of general self-concept, and we contend that the relationship between self-concept and other constructs cannot be adequately understood if the multidimensionality of self-concept is ignored. (p. 121) Researchers often distinguish between academic self-concept (reading, mathematics, general school concept) and non- academic areas such as social

prowess, physical abilities, physical appearance, peer relations, and parent relations (Marsh & O'Neill, 1984). Separating self-concept into constituent parts such as these indicates that how one perceives oneself in one situation does not transfer necessarily to another. There are several theoretical models of self-concept based on the premise that selfconcept is a multi-dimensional construct. One model which has particular relevance to music educators is the compensatory model proposed by Winne and Marx (1981). The compensatory model indicates that aspects of self-concept are related inversely rather than related proportionally or independently. Being highly competent in one area and feeling good about one's performance in that area offsets weaknesses in other areas. Winne and Marx found that students who did not excel academically tended to see themselves as more successful on the physical and social facets of self-concept. This finding seems to suggest the possibility that if one is a good musician, this musical area of expertise might contrast with, and could possibly make up for, a lack of athletic, academic, or social prowess. There is ample anecdotal evidence which suggests that some music teachers strongly believe that music classes give academically unsuccessful or athletically unsuccessful students a place to succeed (Reynolds, 1991). Because there is no consensus regarding the definition of self-concept, measurement instruments vary widely in their conceptual organization. In particular, there is tremendous diversity in the instruments used to measure selfconcept in studies which explore the relationship between music education and self-concept. One of the decisions investigators must make in designing measurement instruments is whether to use self-reports, behavioral measures, or some combination of both. Discrepancies between self-reports and observer reports challenge the popular notion that evaluations of self are merely the product of how others see us. Shrauger and Schoeneman (1979) reviewed studies investigating the relationship between self-reports and the judgment of others, and concluded that "there is no consistent agreement between people's self-perceptions and how they are actually viewed by others" (p. 549). In order to investigate the relationship between music education and self-concept, music educators often select major self-reporting instruments such as the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967), the Tennessee SelfConcept Scale (Fitts, 1965), or the Piers-Harris Children' Self-Concept Scale, (Piers, 1984) as well as observation and case study approaches. While the Tennessee Self-Concept scale and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory have been used widely by music educators, these general instruments do not include sections that measure music self- concept. There are, however, a limited number of instruments which have been designed to test music self- concept. The Self-

Concept in Music (SCIM) by Svengalis (1978) and the Self-Esteem of Music Ability Scale (SEMA) by Schmitt (1979), are instruments directed toward this end. The SCIM (Svengalis, 1978) includes 36 items, to which a subject is asked to respond either "yes" or "no". Fifteen of the 36 items are concerned with singing. Other questions deal with music memory, skill of reading and writing music,composition, and the student's perceptions of how others view his/her musical ability. Additionally, there are items which ask the student to estimate his/her ability to achieve musically. The SEMA (Schmitt, 1979) is a 43 item instrument designed for students aged 1015. In general, the statements pertain specifically to music ability as opposed to feelings of general self-worth. The items relate to self-confidence, musical skills and abilities, and feelings of acceptance and reinforcement from parents, teachers, and friends. The correlation between SEMA scores and participation in musical activities was .60. The relationship between self-concept and achievement is often debated. The common perception that there is a correlation between positive self-concept and achievement is not well established in the research literature. As attractive as this idea is, in a review of dissertations regarding self-concept and achievement, Scheirer & Kraut (1979) concluded, "The effects reported by these studies are strikingly simple to summarize: in no case were changes in achievement unambiguously associated with changes in self- concept" (p. 139). Eccles & Wigfield (1985) stated "field studies suggest that self-concept is not a very powerful determinant of achievement in and of itself" (p.190). Perhaps the difficulty associated with establishing a relationship between selfconcept and achievement is due to the terms themselves. Not only is the meaning of self- concept ambiguous, but also there is a lack of agreement regarding the definition of achievement. As a result, achievement and self-concept measurement instruments are limited by operational definitions of the terms and resulting test designs. These measurements also are influenced by the values held by a particular culture or society. Different individuals, cultures, and sub-cultures perceive achievement differently. For example, a stellar academic record or a reward for model citizenship may do little to enhance (or be the result of) a nonconformist's self-concept.

Self-Concept of Music Ability

The notion of a discrete music self-concept is compatible with the majority of multi-dimensional definitions and models previously discussed. In a multidimensional model, music self-concept would be a subset of general or global selfconcept. For example, in the compensatory model (Winne & Marx, 1981), music ability would be not only discrete from other abilities, but also might be developed

as a compensation for shortcomings in other areas. For instance, a good music selfconcept might make up for a poor athletic, academic, or social self- concept. Regardless of the definition or model of self-concept preferred, a student's concept of him/herself as a music student will influence classroom behavior and his/her motivation to participate in music activities (Austin, 1990). There is no shortage of anecdotal evidence supporting the conclusion that the poor music self-concept of many adults can be traced to negative early childhood experiences, such as being asked to be a "silent singer" or not being permitted to participate in a musical ensemble (McLendon, 1982). The shortage of literature which specifically addresses self-concept in music is enriched by research pertaining to the attributional theory of motivation, and literature regarding self-concept of ability (Bandura, 1977, 1986; Covington, 1984; Dweck, Goetz, & Strauss, 1980; Dweck & Henderson, 1989; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Weiner, 1986). Attribution theory (Weiner, 1979, 1986) indicates that students' perceptions of the reasons for success and failure determine future behaviors. Outcomes can be attributed to four causes: ability, effort, task difficulty, or luck. Ability and effort are considered to be internal attributes, while luck and task difficulty are considered to be external to the student. Ability and task difficulty are perceived as stable and unchangeable (at least in post-adolescents), while effort and luck are considered to be unstable and subject to change (Frieze & Weiner, 1971). For example, if a student attributes success to effort, he/she is likely to continue to persist when faced with a new challenge. Conversely, if success is attributed to luck, the student is not likely to make greater efforts in the future, nor is this successful outcome likely to influence the student's perceptions of his/her ability. Self-worth theory maintains that students who equate ability with achievement are more likely to be motivated by the desire to protect their own self-esteem than by the desire to master a task (Covington & Beery, 1976; Covington & Omelich, 1979; Covington, 1983; Covington, 1984; Covington & Omelich, 1985). Covington stated, "failure to maintain a sense of ability triggers shame and a loss of selfrespect" (1983, p.50) and that students feel that if they work hard and fail anyway, they lack ability (Covington 1983, 1984). However, if their failure is a result of a lack of effort, their ability status is uncertain and their self-worth can remain intact. In a situation that is likely to threaten a student's self-image, there is a very pronounced tendency to reduce effort. From this literature there are implications that students with high self-concepts of musical ability and expectations for success will respond persistently to a challenging musical task, whereas students with low self-concepts and low expectations for success will tend to give up on the same musical task (Weiner, 1986). Because music educators presumably are interested in encouraging students

to respond persistently to a musical task, the obvious question becomes, how do students develop a positive self-concept of music ability? The fact that self-concept is not well-defined for young children (Harter, 1982) suggests that self-concept of music ability is malleable in young children. Since self-concept is in the formative stages in young children (Coopersmith, 1967; Harter, 1982), early experiences may have a profound effect on students' music self-concepts. It appears that the time to influence students' self-concept of music ability is in the early years. Casual observations and anecdotal evidence indicate that a majority of very young children participate eagerly in musical activities. This may be due in part to the fact that effort is valued very highly by young children (Covington, 1983). Young children believe that effort increases ability, whereas older students tend to believe that intelligence, talent, and ability are stable traits, impervious to change through effort (Asmus, 1986; Covington, 1983). Asmus (1985) conducted a study of 118 sixth-grade students regarding student beliefs about the causes of success and failure in music. The majority of students selected ability and effort to be the major causes for success and failure in music. Whether a student was successful or unsuccessful did not appear to affect the attribution. The large numbers of effort attributions in general supported the theory that effort is valued in preadolescent children (Austin, 1990; Covington, 1983). Using Schmitt's (1979) Self-Esteem of Music Ability scale (SEMA), Austin (1990) found vast individual differences in 252 fifth- and sixth-grade students' beliefs about ability, skills, desire to perform, and recognition from others. Results indicated that music self-esteem was higher for females, and that music self-esteem scores proved to be a significant predictor of participation in out-of-school or inschool music activities. In an earlier study regarding the effect of music contest format on self- concept, motivation, achievement, and attitude in elementary band students, Austin (1988) found that self-concept in music was enhanced as a result of music contest participation. The researcher randomly assigned 44 fifth- and sixth-grade instrumentalists to a rated solo contest format or a comments-only format. Significant gains in self-concept were made by both groups as measured by the Self-Concept in Music (SCIM) test (Svengalis, 1978), yet only rated groups made gains in music achievement. Hedden (1982) investigated predictors of music achievement in 144 upper elementary general music students. He found that self-concept in music, as measured by the SCIM test (Svengalis, 1978), was a significant predictor of music achievement. Klinedinst (1989) conducted a study to examine the ability of 11 selected variables (including self-concept in music) to predict performance achievement, teacher

rating of musical achievement, and retention of beginning instrumentalists. The study involved 205 fifth-grade beginning instrumental music students. Self-concept in music, socio-economic status, reading achievement, scholastic ability, and math achievement were found to be valid predictors of student retention in the instrumental program. These studies suggest that music self-concept is related to student participation in music activities. Furthermore, there is limited evidence to suggest that music self-concept may be related to music achievement. To date, there has not been a significant body of research developed regarding specific music curriculum approaches and their effect on music self-concept. However, there has been some research conducted concerning the relationship between music attitude and curriculum approaches. Although music attitude is not synonymous with music self-concept, researchers have found that attitude, selfconcept, and musical background appear to be significantly related (Klinedinst, 1989; Svengalis, 1978). Pogonowksi's (1985) research regarding a process-oriented music curriculum suggests that students participating in this type of curriculum maintain positive attitudes about music class. A process-oriented curriculum encourages all students to participate actively by providing appropriate challenges involving singing, playing, composing, and listening. It is possible that students' self-concepts of music ability will be affected positively by this type of curriculum. However, in order to make that claim convincingly, further research is warranted. Among secondary school students there is an increase in the number of ability attributions regarding success and failure in music and a decrease in the number of effort attributions as grade level increases (Asmus, 1986; Covington, 1983). These findings corroborate Raynor's (1981) stages of career striving which indicate that in the early stages of striving a student is "becoming" and places greater importance on effort. When a student reaches Raynor's final stage of "having been," students and adults are more likely to indicate internal stable (ability) attributions in order to protect the ego (Covington, 1983). In a study involving 589 students in grades 4-12, Asmus (1986) found that 80% of the reasons cited for success and failure in music were attributed to internal causes (ability or effort). A greater number of stable (ability or task difficulty) attributions were cited for success while more luck attributions were cited for failure. Additionally, females cited more ability attributions than males. With age, the ability attributions increased while the effort attributions decreased. Asmus stated that the shift between effort-related and ability-related attributions occurs during the sixth and seventh grades, often the time teachers have difficulty keeping students involved with music. Chandler, Chiarella, and Auria (1988) surveyed 234 high school band participants and found that students who perceived success and satisfaction with their current

level of performance participated more readily in band challenges and attributed their success to natural musical ability, effort, or technical knowledge. Conversely, failure and lack of satisfaction resulted in fewer challenges and more external attributions. In addition to classroom experiences, it should be noted that societal beliefs potentially affect students' music self-concepts. Societal beliefs impact students' music self-concepts in at least two ways: (a) the degree of importance placed upon musical participation, and (b) gender association and music activities. In the United States, music does not enjoy the same status as other subjects in the school curriculum as evidenced by such documents as America, 2000: An Education Strategy (United States Department of Education, 1991). The requirements for music instruction do not equal other academic requirements (MENC, 1991). With such minimal demands placed upon students, there seems to be little imperative from the school to develop a good music self- concept in order to be academically or socially successful. Not only is music less valued than other subjects, but also in this society it is more acceptable for female students to excel in music. Hoffer (1992) stated that, "There has been a long tradition in America that males are supposed to be interested in sports and things like that, not in the arts" (p.720). Research suggests that female students have better attitudes toward music and more positive music self-concepts than male students (Austin, 1990; Haladyna & Thomas, 1979). It is possible that this is a reflection of the societal viewpoint that it is more acceptable for female students to excel in music.

The Relationship between General Self-Concept and Music Education

The popular notion that music has the power to influence general self-concept is firmly established in the educational community (Brandt, 1980; Martin, 1983; McLendon, 1982; Sarokon, 1986; Sunyak & Kaufman, 1983). There is no shortage of anecdotal evidence or philosophical statements describing the effect of music on self-concept. The Tanglewood Declaration states, "Music and other fine arts, largely nonverbal in nature, reach close to the social, psychological and physiological roots of man in his search for identity and self-realization" (Choate, 1968, p. 139). Research which addresses these beliefs falls into three broad categories: (a) music therapy, (b) educational practices, (c) classroom research projects. By definition, music therapy uses music to accomplish non- musical goals. One of these goals is the enhancement of self-concept. Research studies generated by the music therapy community often involve very specific, atypical populations. As a result, generalizing from these studies to wider populations may be problematic.

The results of music therapy research reports surveyed as part of this research are generally inconclusive. For example, Henderson (1983) conducted a study to determine the effect of 18 one-hour music therapy sessions on the self- esteem, awareness of mood in music, and group cohesion of 13 subjects diagnosed with adjustment reaction to adolescence. Subjects were assigned randomly to either an experimental or a control group. Control group subjects received no music therapy. From pre-test to post-test there were no significant changes in self-esteem for either the control or the experimental groups as measured by the Coopersmith SelfEsteem Inventory (1967). However, anecdotal accounts by the staff members indicated that subjects in the experimental group displayed increased confidence. Much of the therapy research, as well as some of the educational research, indicated that while traditional measurement instruments did not show any statistically significant changes in self-concept, researchers did observe changes in the subjects' behavior or attitudes (Henderson, 1983; Kivland 1986; Michel and Farrell, 1973, Morrison and Thomas, 1975; Perrine, 1989). This suggests that while a measurement instrument may be appropriate in one context, its use may be limited in other contexts where the researcher's self-concept construct does not match that of the instrument. Other possibilities are that behavioral changes that occur over relatively short periods of time are precursors of eventual self-concept changes not detected by traditional self-concept measurement instruments until much later. Educational practices often are built on the broad assumption that music enhances self-concept. This is illustrated not only in textbooks, but also in documents pertaining to state educational objectives (Kentucky Plan for Comprehensive Arts in Education, 1981; Montgomery County, 1980; Schumacher, 1981). Additionally, research literature addressing the "at risk" population of students, and descriptive studies regarding the effect of music education on student self-concept often are built on the assumption that music and/or the arts have the ability to enhance selfconcept (Barry, Taylor, Walls,& Wood, 1990; Mehuron, 1990; Sarokon, 1986; Smith, 1988). Draper and Gayle (1987) surveyed 108 early childhood education textbooks published between 1887-1982, with the majority published between 1973-1982. From these textbooks, the reasons cited for teaching music clustered into 10 categories. Several of these categories implied a connection between self-concept and music study. Eleven percent of the authors believed that music instruction helped a child to feel positively about him- or herself. The most commonly cited reason for teaching music, cited by 70% of the authors, was to provide an opportunity for self-expression and creative pleasure. Like Draper and Gayle (1987), Payne (1990) also investigated beliefs regarding the value of music education. In her dissertation study, Payne surveyed Ohio education personnel, including school superintendents, school board presidents, building

principals, and music teachers regarding the justification for music education. Music teachers and school superintendents put a higher value on statements regarding music as aesthetic education than did building principals and school board presidents. Instead, principals and school board presidents selected statements regarding the development of self-esteem as the most accurate statements in describing the value of music education. Several classroom studies have been undertaken which investigated the relationship between general self-concept and music education (Bragg, 1980; Ford, 1981; Greenberg, 1970; Lillemyr, 1983; Lukitsch, 1987; Murdock, 1991; Perrine, 1989; Whalen and Csikszentmihalyi, 1989). Although the results of much of this research are inconclusive, there are three studies which merit mention here. The first study describes a pilot project which investigated music attitudes, selfesteem, and socioeconomic status (Nolin and VanderArk, 1977). These researchers found that ninth-grade band and choir students had significantly higher self-esteem scores than non-music students as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967). This research project was important because Nolin and VanderArk suggested that economic status, music attitude, and self-esteem should be considered together. The findings of this study may provide some limited evidence that the set of circumstances associated with self-esteem development may be more complex than merely teaching music to students in school as compared with students not having school musical experience. (p. 42) The results of a subsequent study are particularly promising (VanderArk, Nolin, & Newman, 1980). This study investigated the relationships between music attitude, self- esteem, social status, and grade level in 5642 third-, fourth-, fifth- and sixthgrade students from 16 suburban, Midwestern elementary schools. Rather than investigate only linear relationships, the investigators chose a curvilinear analysis based on the premise that relationships between self-esteem, music attitude, and other variables could be more accurately represented this way. Findings suggested that: (a) there was a significant relationship between sex and self-esteem in predicting attitude toward music activities, (b) middle social status students had significantly higher attitudes toward music than did lower or high social status students, and perhaps most significantly, (c) results indicated that self-esteem, as measured by Coopersmiths's Self-Esteem Inventory (1967), accounted for a significant amount of variance in predicting attitude toward classroom music experiences. Hylton (1981) investigated the meaning of the high school choral singing experience. Although Hylton's research did not investigate self-concept specifically, his findings indicated that choral singing experiences might influence students' self-knowledge. Statements for a Likert-type assessment instrument were

developed from responses to open- ended questions collected in a pilot study. The instrument was administered to 673 high school students in 14 different performing groups. This study, in combination with the pilot study which preceded it, generated six broad categories which described the meaning of the choral experience. Of these six categories, at least three had some relationship to selfconcept (communicative, integrative, achievement). Additionally, the psychological dimension of this study directly related to self-concept because it dealt specifically with the development of the self. Hylton stated "...knowledge of self gained through musical experiences may lead to an enhanced self-concept and sense of worth" (p. 289). The following statements regarding the choral music experience were rated highly by participants: (1) to help me get to know myself better, (2) to feel more at ease, and (3) to help me be at peace with myself. It is possible that social factors involved in the music experience are responsible for much of the perceived gains in self-concept. Music provides an opportunity for students to participate on a social level through ensemble activities. These increased social opportunities possibly affect students' social self-concepts. At this time, there has not been much effort made to isolate the social factor in self-concept research regarding music students. However, Murdock (1991) found that music students differed significantly from non-music students regarding social selfconcept, although it was not possible to conclude this was the result of the choir experience alone. Hylton (1981) also found that social factors were a significant part of the choral experience.

Implications of the Existing Research

From the research reviewed, it is possible to draw several conclusions. There is evidence to suggest that self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct and that music self-concept can be measured separately from general self- concept. Music education may impact self-concept of music ability to a greater degree than it impacts general or global self-concept. Research regarding self-concept of ability is grounded more firmly than general self-concept research, perhaps because selfconcept of ability is more specific and easily defined than is general self-concept. Intervention procedures designed to raise children's confidence of their abilities in specific subject areas by insuring the acquisition of prerequisite skills can lead to achievement gains. Therefore, one is more likely to find a relationship between self-concept of music ability and music achievement than one is to find a relationship between general self-concept and music achievement. Literature regarding the relationship between general self- concept and music education is inconclusive. This may be the most important finding of this research. However, just as a not-guilty verdict in our judicial system does not reflect innocence, this lack of conclusive evidence does not guarantee that music education and development of self- concept are unrelated.

In roughly half of the music education and music therapy studies cited, there was no strong indication that music positively affected self-concept or that music students possessed better self-concepts than non-music students. These findings may have been the result of the small number of studies conducted in combination with the wide variety of self-concept definitions and measurement tools used in these studies. A greater number of similarly designed studies may yield more conclusive results. In spite of the lack of empirical data to support such beliefs regarding music and self-concept, descriptive literature describing the positive relationship between the arts (including music) and general self-concept continue to proliferate (Kalliopuska, 1989; Sarokon, 1986; Sunyak & Kaufman, 1983). Such literature suggests that there is a discrepancy between common perception and conclusive evidence. It appears there are four major reasons for this discrepancy. These are: (a) the lack of a single, universally agreed upon operational definition of self- concept, (b) the selection of inappropriate measurement instruments which do not necessarily measure changes stemming from experimental treatments, (c) inconsistencies between observed behavior and self-reports, and (d) research designs which fail to recognize music's potential to affect not only self-concept of music ability, but also other facets of self-concept, including social and emotional components as well. Additionally, the lack of conclusive evidence regarding music education and selfconcept may simply reflect the scarcity of research specifically related to this topic. Although inconclusive research results make it challenging to propose recommendations for the music classroom, such results do not suggest abandoning all activities which are thought to improve self-concept. Elementary music education, particularly in the early grades, is critically important to the development of music self-concept. Pogonowski's (1985) research regarding a process-oriented music curriculum suggests that this type of curriculum potentially could influence positively students' self- concepts. Curricular approaches and activities should be selected with this in mind. Although participation in group success can be a very positive experience for students, music classes which place tremendous emphasis on group achievement, rather than individual growth, do little to encourage individual effort or foster individual self-concept gains. Students in classes with a heavy emphasis on group achievement often are not evaluated on individual musical growth but rather on attendance and participation in group activities. Such evaluation may affect positively a student's social self- concept, but may have little effect on their selfconcept of music ability (Hylton, 1981). In order to impact individual students' self-concepts of music ability, music educators may wish to schedule opportunities for small group performance. Because small ensemble activities have been traditionally used for evaluative purposes only, and often have been reserved for students believed to be musically

gifted, generally, they are perceived negatively and evoke high anxiety. Such small ensemble activities should be structured to minimize anxiety so that students perceive the task positively and feel empowered to meet appropriate music challenges. Music classes should be structured to foster the belief that music ability is not a stable trait and can be developed through effort. At the secondary level, entry level non- auditioned classes should be provided in a variety of areas. Although general music classes are open to all students, in many secondary schools there are no general music classes offered. It is hard to imagine a high school where students would have severely limited access to English, math, science, or history classes. However, it is not difficult to find high schools where many students are unable to meet the requirements necessary to register for music performance classes. By being highly selective about the students they teach, music educators reinforce the idea that music ability is not subject to improvement through effort.

Recommendations for Future Research

The problems associated with self-concept research, including the definition and measurement of self-concept, initially might appear to be insurmountable. This is not to suggest that music educators abandon research in this area. Rather, in designing future research regarding student self- concept and music education, one must be aware of the difficulties inherent in the process. It is important to integrate findings from the educational and psychological fields in the design of future research regarding music education and self-concept. For example, widely used self-concept measures such as the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967) or the Tennessee Self-Concept (1965) scale may be of questionable value in short term pre- posttest designs or inappropriate for a wide variety of cultural settings. There are two recommended avenues for continued research regarding music education and student self-concept. The first is further investigation of self-concept of music ability. Suggested projects might include: (a) an investigation of the relationship between self-concept of music ability and specific curricular approaches, or (b) an investigation of the relationship between self-concept of music ability and participation in elective music activities at different developmental stages. A second area of research pertains to the more challenging area regarding the establishment of a connection between music education and general self-concept. Future research might include: (a) a longitudinal study comparing the self-concepts of non-music students with the self-concepts of music students, (b) an investigation of the effect of music instruction on social facets of self-concept measurement instruments, (c) an investigation regarding the relationships between self-concept

of music, music attitude, and general self-concept, and finally, (d) the development of qualitative research projects. A qualitative approach might circumvent difficulties associated with self-concept measurement. Furthermore, the holistic approach advocated by qualitative researchers indicates that self-concept might be studied more effectively by gathering a broad spectrum of data within the total context of a music classroom. Bresler and Stake (1992) stated that "Qualitative researchers can examine events that reflect latent as well as manifest learning" (p. 83). Neither self-concept nor the meaningfulness of music is translated easily into words. Some might argue that it is futile, perhaps even misguided, to attempt such a translation. As a result, the relationship between these two areas is interesting to discuss, yet frustrating to quantify. Cooperation between classroom teachers and researchers of differing fields may help in designing effective projects for future research. At this time, however, empirical evidence and anecdotal evidence continue to move in opposite directions. This is likely to continue until researchers can translate observations and perceptions regarding self-concept into quantitative measurements or until qualitative research is designed which breaks away from traditional conceptual frameworks.

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Lillemyr, O. F. (1983). Achievement motivation as a factor in self perceptions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Montreal, Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 237 418) Lukitsch, B. L. (1987). Effects of a positive self-concept approach on musical performance. Masters's Abstracts International, 27, 326. Marsh, H. W., & O'Neill, R. (1984). Self description questionnaire III: The construct validity of multidimensional self-concept ratings by late adolescents. Journal of Educational Measurement, 21, 153-174. Marsh, H. W., & Shavelson, R. J. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20, 111-121. Martin, M. (1983). Success teaching spelling with music. Academic Therapy, 18, 505-07. McLendon, G. H. (1982). When the class sang, I played thedrum. Music Educators Journal, 68(6), 36-37. Mehuron, T. A. (1990). Can performing arts bring the curtain down on poverty? Children Today, 19(5) 22-27. Michel, D. E., & Farrell, D. M. (1973). Music and self- esteem: Disadvantaged problem boys in an all black elementary school. Journal of Research in Music Education, 21, 80-84. Montgomery County Public Schools (1980). Arts activities bank for parents. Rockville, MD. Morrison, T. L., & Thomas, M. D. (1975). Self-esteem and classroom participation. The Journal of Educational Research, 68, 347-377. Murdock, M. C. (1991). An investigation of the relationship between seventh, tenth, and twelfth-graders' participation in school choir and their perceived levels of self-concept and social support. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of North Texas). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, 1248A. (University Microfilms No. 9128719) Music Educators National Conference (1991). FYI. MENC Soundpost, 7(3), 16-17. Nolin, W. H., & VanderArk, S. D. (1977). A pilot study of patterns of attitudes toward school music experiences, self-esteem, and socio-economic status in elementary and junior high students. Contributions to Music Education, 5, 31-46.

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Slavin, R. E. (1982). Cooperative learning: Student teams. What research says to the teacher. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 222 489) Smith, S. L. (1988). The role of the arts in the education of learning-disabled children. The Pointer, 32(3), 11- 16. Sunyak P., & Kaufman, M. (1983). One principal's fight for the arts. Principal, 62(5), 6-13. Svengalis, J. (1978). Music attitude and the preadolescentmale. Dissertation Abstracts International, 39, 4800A. (University Microfilms No. 79-02953) United States Department of Education. (1991). America 2000: An education strategy. Washington, DC. VanderArk, S. D., Nolin, W. H., & Newman I. (1980). Relationship between musical attitudes, self-esteem, social status, and grade level of elementary children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 62, 31-41. Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag. Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 3- 25. Whalen, S. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1989). A comparison of the self-image of talented teenagers with a normal adolescent population. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 131-147. Winne, P. H., & Marx, R. W. (1981). Convergent and discriminant validity in selfconcept measurement. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, CA. Wylie, R. C. (1974). The self-concept: A critical survey of pertinent research literature. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Mzik Eitimi ve renci Benlik Kavram: Literatr nceleme

Jeanne Wrasman Reynolds Pinellas County Okullar

Giri
Eitimde renci benlik kavram byk bir ilgi bugn yoktur. Dk benlik saygs gibi akademik baarszlk, akademik geildii, uyuturucu Ayrca, iddet davranlar, gen hamilelik ve su davran (Adler, Cohen, Houston, Manly, Wingert, & Wright, 1992) gibi eitli sorunlar saysz rol oynad dnlmektedir. Aronson, 1977;; Hale-Benson, 1986; Johnson, 1981; Kirklandevleri gibi ok kltrllk ve ibirlikli renme gibi Sprme eitim reform hareketleri rencinin benlik kavram (Ames ve Ames, 1978 iyiletirmek iin, en azndan ksmen, motive ve Federlein, 1990, Slavin, 1982). Bu yaygn ilginin bir sonucu olarak, benlik kavram ile ilgili eitim aratrmalar literatr vcuda byk oranlarda byd. u anda, 200'den fazla farkl test (Adler ve ark., 1992) ile llen benlik saygs 10.000 'den fazla bilimsel alma vardr. Benlik kavram ile ilgili eitim edebiyatnn zenginlii mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram ile ilgili aratrma ktl ile tezat. z-kavram genel eitimin toplumun ilgi mzik eitimcileri tarafndan gz ard edilmemelidir. Mzik programlarna katlmak iin renciler istekliliini kendi mzik z kavram, en azndan, kendi z kavramlar etkilenmi ya da olabilir. Ayrca, mzik programlar mali sknt zamanlarnda tehdit olunca, mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram arasndaki ilikiyi aratran aratrma mzik programlar devamna veya sona ermesine ilikin kararlarn etkileyebilir. Bu makalede literatr mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram (Reynolds, 1992) arasndaki iliki ile ilgili geni bir yorum zetlemektedir. Literatr taramas temsilcisi aratrma bulgularn tartmak ve yoruma gre izildi sonular aklayan tarafndan zetlenmitir. Tartma be blme ayrlmtr: (1) z-kavram tanmlar, modelleri ve lm, mzik yetenei (2) benlik kavram, (3) genel benlik kavram ve mzik eitimi arasndaki iliki, (4) etkileri mevcut aratrma ve gelecekteki aratrmalar iin (5) tavsiyeler. Inceleme iin seilmitir Edebiyat zellikle mzik eitimi ve renci benlik kavram, ya da bu almalar artar ilgili literatr arasndaki iliki aratrld almalar snrl kalmtr. (A) mzik eitimi dergilerin bir inceleme, (b) ERIC veri tabannn bir arama mzik ve benlik kavram ile ilgili olarak ilgili tantc eitli kombinasyonlar, benlik saygs, tutum kullanarak: eitli admlar dahil yorum iin almalar belirlemek iin kullanlan prosedr gibi, (c) Doktora Tezi bir inceleme International, 1980-1992 Abstracts. (D) Daha nce bahsedilen kaynaklar, ve mzik eitimi ile ilgili Eitim Aratrmalar (5th ed.), Duyusal eitim ve motivasyon Ansiklopedisi bulunan girdileri ve bibliyografyalar (e) Bir yorum bibliyografyalar bir yorum. Ayrca, bu aratrma artrmak amacyla, yetenek ve baar ve baarszlk nedenleri hakknda inanlar benlik kavram ile ilgili genel eitim psikoloji literatrnde eklenmesi iin seilmitir.

Self-Concept Modelleri, Tanmlar ve lm

Benlik kavram aratrma ile ilikili sorunlarn ou, terimin belirsizlii (Wylie, 1974) dorudan izlenebilmektedir. Komplikasyonlar benlik saygs, z-deer, z kimlik, kendini kabul, zsayg ve z-deerlendirme gibi terimlerin deitirilebilir kullanm ortaya kar. Rahat ve aratrma balamlarda her ikisinde de, benlik kavram ve benlik saygs ok aka ayrt edilmez. Byrne (1984) 'e gre, hayr "SC [sic] arasnda, net, zl ve evrensel olarak kabul edilen operasyonel tanm" (s. 429) bulunmaktadr. Bu makalenin amalar dorultusunda, benlik kavram genel olarak kiinin tutum, bilgi ve duygular ile ilgili yetenekleri, grnmn ve sosyal ilikiler de dahil olmak zere kendini alglamas, dahil etmek kabul edilecektir. Yeterince ayarlar ok eitli davranlar aklamak deildir, nk ou aratrmac benlik kavramnn kesinlikle tek boyutlu yap reddediyoruz. Scheirer & Kraut (1979) z-kavram ok ynl bir yap olduunu dndrmektedir ve vadeli basitletiriyorsun kar uyard. Onlar "... benlik kavram basit, niter bir fenomen olarak kavramsallatrd olmamal, ama karmak bir yap olarak ve ayrmclk gerektiini olabilir aklayc, deerlendirici karlatrmal ve duygusal ynleri olan" belirtmitir (s. 141). Marsh ve Shavelson (1985) da ok boyutlu bir yap olarak benlik kavram ve ortaya kmtr. Onlar syledi: Biz belirli alanlarda benlik kavramlarnn en d lt daha iyi ngr salayacaktr sanyorum [sic] daha benlik kavram genel geni tedbirler olacak ve biz benlik kavram ve dier yaplar arasndaki iliki yeterince anlalamaz olduunu iddia eer ok boyutluluk z-kavram gz ard edilir. (S. 121) Aratrmaclar genellikle z-kavram (okuma, matematik, genel okul kavram) ve sosyal yiitlii, fiziksel yetenekler, fiziksel grnm, akran ilikileri ve ebeveyn ilikileri (Marsh & O'Neill, 1984) gibi akademik olmayan alanlarda akademik ayrt. Bu gibi kurucu blme benlik kavram Ayrma tek tek ortamda kendisini nasl alglad baka ille aktarmak olmadn gsterir. Benlik kavram ok boyutlu bir yap olduunu ncl dayal z-kavram eitli teorik modelleri vardr. Mzik eitimcileri iin zel bir nemi vardr Bir model Winne ve Marx (1981) tarafndan nerilen telafi modelidir. Telafi modeli benlik kavram ynleri ters orantldr ziyade orantl ya da bamsz olarak ilikili olduunu gsterir. Bir alanda son derece yetkin olmak ve dier alanlarda bu alanda uzaklklar zayf bir performans hakknda iyi hissediyorum. Winne ve Marx excel vermedi rencilerin akademik benlik kavram fiziksel ve sosyal ynleriyle ilgili kendilerini daha baarl grme eiliminde olduunu buldu. Bu bulgu, bir iyi bir mzisyen olup olmadn, uzmanlk bu mzikal alanda kontrast ihtimali nermek gibi grnyor ve muhtemelen, atletik akademik veya sosyal cesaret eksiklii, telafi olabilir. Baz mzik retmenleri gl mzik dersleri akademik olarak baarsz veya atletik

baarsz rencilerin baarl bir yer (Reynolds, 1991) vermek inanyoruz dndrmektedir yeterli anekdot kant yoktur. Benlik kavramnn tanm ile ilgili bir uzla yoktur nk, l aletleri kendi kavramsal organizasyon ok byk farkllklar gsterir. zellikle, mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram arasndaki ilikiyi aratrmak almalarda benlik kavram lmek iin kullanlan aralarn muazzam bir eitlilik vardr. Aratrmaclar lm cihazlar tasarm yapmak gerekir kararlardan biri kendine raporlar, davransal tedbirler, ya da her ikisinin bir bileimi kullanmak olmaddr. Kendine raporlar ve gzlemci raporlar arasndaki farkllklar kendini deerlendirme sadece bakalarnn bizi nasl grdn bir rn olduu popler bir kavram meydan. Shrauger ve Schoeneman (1979) z-raporlar ve dierleri karar arasndaki ilikiyi aratran almalar gzden, ve (s. 549) "insanlarn benlik alglar arasnda ve nasl onlar aslnda bakalar tarafndan grntlenebilir hibir tutarl anlama var" sonucuna varmtr. Mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram arasndaki ilikiyi aratrmak amacyla, mzik eitimcileri genellikle Coopersmith Benlik Saygs Envanteri (Coopersmith, 1967), Tennessee Benlik Kavram lei (Fitts, 1965) gibi byk self-raporlama aralar semek veya Piers-Harris'in ocuklarda z Kavram lei (Piers, 1984) yan sra, gzlem ve vaka almas yaklamlar. Tennessee Benlik Kavram lei ve Coopersmith Benlik Saygs Envanteri mzik eitimcileri tarafndan yaygn olarak kullanlan olmasna karn, bu genel aralar bu blmleri iermez tedbir mzik benlik kavram. Mzik kendini kavram test etmek iin dizayn edilmi ara snrl sayda, ancak vardr.Svengalis (1978) ve Schmitt (1979) tarafndan Mzik Yetenek lei Benlik Saygs (SEMA) tarafndan Mzik Benlik Kavram (SCIM), bu amala doru ynlendirilir aralardr. SCIM (Svengalis, 1978), hangi bir konu ya "evet" veya "hayr" yant istenir 36 rn ierir. 36 rn Onbe ark ile ilgilidir. Dier sorular mzik hafzas, mzik okuma ve yazma becerisi, kompozisyon, ve dierleri onun / mzikal yetenei grntlemek nasl rencinin alglamalar ile anlama. Ayrca mzikal ulamak iin onun / onun yeteneklerini tahmin etmek rencinin sormak eler vardr. SEMA (Schmitt, 1979) 10-15 ya aras renciler iin tasarlanm 43 e aratr. Genel olarak, bu tablolar kendine deer genel duygular kart olarak mzik yetenek zellikle ilgilidir. rn zgven, mzikal beceri ve yeteneklerini, ve veliler, retmenler ve arkadalar kabul ve takviye duygular ile ilgilidir. SEMA puanlar ve mzik etkinliklerine katlma arasndaki korelasyon .60 oldu. Benlik kavram ve baar arasndaki iliki ou zaman tartmaldr. Benlik kavram pozitif ve baar arasnda bir iliki olduu ortak alg, aratrma literatrnde iyi kurulmu deildir. Bu fikir olarak ekici olarak, benlik kavram ve baar ile ilgili tezlerin bir yorumda, Scheirer & Kraut (1979) bu almada bildirilen etkilerini

zetleyerek arpc basit ", sonucuna varlmtr: hibir durumda aka ilikili baar deiiklikler vard z-kavram deiiklikleri "(s. 139). Eccles & Wigfield (1985) (s.190) "saha almalar benlik kavram ve kendisini baar ok gl bir belirleyici olmadn gstermektedir" belirtti. Belki benlik kavram ve baar arasnda bir iliki kurulmas ile ilgili zorluk asndan kendilerini kaynaklanmaktadr. Sadece belirsiz benlik kavramnn anlamn, ancak baar tanm ile ilgili anlama eksiklii de vardr. Sonu olarak, baar ve benlik kavram lm aletleri hkm ve sonu test tasarmlar operasyonel tanmlar ile snrldr. Bu lmler ayrca belirli bir kltr veya toplum tarafndan tutulan deerler etkilenir. Farkl bireyler, kltrler ve alt kltrler farkl baar alglarlar. rnein, bir yldz akademik kayt ya da model vatandalk iin bir dl, bir toplum kurallarna uymayan benlik kavram (sonucu veya olabilir) gelitirmek iin ok az yapabilirsiniz.

Mzik Yetenei z Kavram

Bir ayrk mzik benlik kavramnn kavram daha nce tartlan ok boyutlu tanm ve modellerin ounluu ile uyumludur. ok boyutlu modelde, mzik benlik kavram genel ya da benlik kavram kresel bir alt kmesi olacaktr. rnein, telafi modeli (Winne & Marks, 1981), mzik yetenei sadece ayrk dier yetenekleri gelen olurdu, ama ayn zamanda dier alanlarda eksiklikleri iin tazminat olarak gelimi olabilir. rnein, iyi bir mzik benlik kavram zayf atletik, akademik veya sosyal benlik kavram iin makyaj olabilir. Ne olursa olsun z-kavram tercih tanm veya modelin, bir mzik rencisi olarak onu / kendini bir rencinin kavram snf ii davranlarnn ve mzik faaliyetlerine katlmak iin onun / onu motivasyon (Austin, 1990) etkileyecektir. Kt mzik birok yetikin benlik kavram byle bir "sessiz arkc" olarak soruluyor ya da bir mzik topluluu katlmasna izin verilmemesini de olumsuz erken ocukluk deneyimleri iin izlenebilir sonucunu destekleyen anekdot kantlar hibir sknts yoktur (McLendon, 1982). zellikle mzik benlik kavram ele literatr sknts yetenei benlik kavram (Bandura, 1977, 1986 ile ilgili motivasyon ykleme kuram ile ilgili aratrma ve literatr ile zenginletirilmi; Covington, 1984; Dweck, Goetz, & Strauss, 1980; Dweck ve Henderson, 1989; Dweck ve Leggett, 1988, Weiner, 1986). Atf teorisi (Weiner, 1979, 1986), baar ve baarszlk gelecekteki davranlar belirlemek iin nedenleri olduunu rencilerin alglarn gsterir. Yetenek, aba, grev zorluu, ya da ans: ktlar drt nedenlere balanabilir.ans ve grev zorluu renciye harici olarak kabul edilirken Yetenek ve aba, isel nitelikleri olarak kabul edilir. aba ve ans istikrarsz ve (Frizi & Weiner, 1971) deiiklie tabi olarak kabul edilirken Yetenek ve grev zorluu, (en azndan post-ergen) istikrarl ve deimez olarak alglanmaktadr. Bir rencinin aba baarsn

znitelikleri rnein, eer, o / o yeni bir meydan okuma ile kar karya kalmaya devam eder muhtemeldir. Baar ans atfedilen Tersi durumda, rencinin gelecekte daha fazla aba olas deildir, ne de bu baarl sonu onun renci alglar / onun yeteneini etkilemesi muhtemeldir. Covington & Omelich, 1979;; Covington z-deer teorisi baar ile yeteneini eit rencilere bir grev ana arzusu (Covington & Beery, 1976 tarafndan daha kendi benlik saygs korumak arzusuyla motive olmas daha muhtemel olduunu savunuyor , 1983; Covington, 1984; Covington ve Omelich, 1985). Covington "yetenei bir anlamda korumak iin baarszlk utan ve z-sayg kaybn tetikler" dedi (1983, s.50) ve bu rencilerin ok almak ve yine baarsz olursa, onlar yetenei (Covington 1983, 1984) eksiklii olduunu hissediyorum . Onlarn hatas aba eksiklii bir sonucudur Ancak, yeteneklerini durumu belirsizdir ve z-deer bozulmadan kalabilir. Bir rencinin zeletiri tehdit etmesi muhtemel olan bir durumda, abay azaltmak iin ok belirgin bir eilim vardr. Bu literatr itibaren dk benlik kavramlar ve baar iin dk beklentileri ile rencilerin ayn mzikal vazgemek eiliminde olacaktr ise baar iin mzikal yetenek ve beklentileri yksek z kavramlar renciler, zorlu bir mzikal greve srarla cevap olaca etkileri vardr grev (Weiner, 1986). Mzik eitimcileri muhtemelen bir mzikal greve srarla yant tevik rencilerin ilgi olduundan, bariz soru olur, ne renciler mzik yeteneini benlik kavram olumlu geliiyor? Benlik kavram (Harter, 1982) Kk ocuklar iin iyi tanmlanm olmadn gerei mzik yetenei benlik kavram kk ocuklarda uysal gstermektedir. Benlik kavram gen ocuk (Coopersmith, 1967; Harter, 1982) oluum aamasnda olduundan, erken deneyimlerin renciler zerinde derin bir etkisi olabilir 'mzik kendine kavramlar. rencilerin z-kavram mzik yeteneini etkileme zaman ilk yllarda olduu grlmektedir. Gndelik gzlemler ve anekdot kantlar, ok gen ocuklarn ounluu mzik etkinliklerine heyecanla katlmak olduunu gstermektedir. Bu blm de aba gen ocuk (Covington, 1983) tarafndan ok ok deerli olmasndan kaynaklanyor olabilir. Yal renciler bu zeka, yetenek ve yetenek aba (; Covington, 1983 Asmus, 1986) ile deitirmek iin geirimsiz istikrarl zellikleri vardr inanmak eilimindedir, oysa Kk ocuklar, bu aba artar yetenei inanyorum. Asmus (1985) Mzik baar ve baarszlk nedenleri hakknda rencilere inan konusunda 118 altnc snf rencilerinin bir alma yrttk. rencilerin ounluu yetenei ve mzik baar ve baarszlk iin nemli nedenlerinden olmaya aba seilir. Bir rencinin baarl veya baarsz olup olmad atf etkiler grnmedi. Genel olarak aba atflar ok sayda aba (; Covington, 1983 Austin, 1990) ergenlik ncesi ocuklarda deerli olduunu teorisini desteklemitir.

Austin (1990), yetenek, beceri, gerekletirmek isteyen, ve dierleri tanma hakknda 252 beinci ve altnc snf rencilerinin inanlar byk bireysel farkllklar Schmitt'in (1979) Mzik Yetenek lek Benlik Saygs (SEMA) bulunamad kullanma. Sonular mzik benlik saygs kadnlarda daha yksek olduunu gstermitir, ve o mzii benlik saygsnn out-of-okul veya mzik etkinlikleri okul katlmn nemli bir belirleyicisi olduunu kantlad. Mzik yarmas benlik kavram zerine biimi, motivasyon, baar ve ilkretim bant rencilerin tutum etkileriyle ilgili daha nceki bir almada, Austin (1988) mzik benlik kavram mzik yarmas katlmn bir sonucu olarak gelimi olduu bulundu. Aratrmac rasgele bir puan yalnz yarma formatnda veya bir yorumsadece format 44 beinci ve altnc snf algclar atanr. Benlik kavram nemli kazanmlar Mzik Benlik Kavram (SCIM) testi (Svengalis, 1978) ile llen iki grup tarafndan yaplan, henz sadece puan gruplarna mzik baar kazand yaplmtr. Hedden (1982) 144 ilkokulun st genel mzik rencileri mzik baar faktrleri aratrlmtr. O kadar SCIM testi (Svengalis, 1978) ile llen mzik, z-kavram, bulundu mzik baarnn nemli bir belirleyicisi oldu. Klinedinst (1989) performans baars, mzikal baars retmen deerlendirmesi ve bandan enstrmanclar kalclk tahmin 11 Seilen deikenler (mzik benlik kavram dahil) yetenei incelemek iin bir alma yrttk.almada 205 beinci snf banda enstrmantal mzik rencileri dahil. Mzik, sosyo-ekonomik stat, okuma baars, skolastik yetenei ve matematik baars Self-kavram enstrmantal programna renci retansiyon geerli belirleyiciler olduu saptanmtr. Bu almalar mzik benlik kavram mzik faaliyetlerine renci katlm ile ilikili olduunu dndrmektedir. Dahas, z-kavram mzik ulalmasyla ilgili olabileceini mzik nermek snrl kant vardr. Bugne kadar, zel mzik mfredat yaklamlar ve mzik benlik kavram zerindeki etkileri ile ilgili olarak gelitirilen aratrma nemli bir vcut olmamtr. Ancak, mzik tutum ve mfredat yaklamlar arasndaki ilikiyi baz aratrmalar olmutur. Mzik tavr mzik benlik kavram ile e anlaml olmamasna ramen, aratrmaclar tutum, benlik kavram, ve mzikal arka plan (; Svengalis, 1978 Klinedinst, 1989) nemli lde ilikili olduunu ortaya koydular. Bir sre odakl mzik mfredatla ilgili Pogonowksi (1985) aratrma program bu tr katlan renciler mzik dersi ile ilgili olumlu tutum korumak dndrmektedir. Bir sre odakl mfredat btn renciler, ark ieren uygun zorluklarn salanmas oynarken, besteleme ve dinleyerek aktif olarak katlmaya tevik eder. Bu mzik yetenei rencilerin benlik kavramlarnn mfredat bu tr olumlu ynde etkileyeceini olasdr. Bununla birlikte, ikna edici bir ekilde iddia hale getirmek iin daha fazla aratrma garanti edilir.

Ortaretim rencileri arasnda snf dzeyi artar (; Covington, 1983 Asmus, 1986) gibi mzik ve aba atflar saysnda bir azalma baar ve baarszlk ile ilgili yetenei atflar saysnda bir art var. Bu bulgular bir rencinin abas erken dnemlerinde "olma" ve aba byk nem gstermektedir ki abas Kariyer Raynor (1981) aamalar dorulamtr. Bir rencinin Raynor nihai aamada ulatnda "having been," renciler ve yetikinler ego (Covington, 1983) korumak amacyla i stabil (yetenek) atflar gstermek iin olasl daha yksektir. Snflarda 4-12 589 rencilerin yer ald bir almada, Asmus (1986) mzik baar ve baarszlk iin belirtilen nedenlerle% 80 i nedenler (yetenek ve aba) atfedilen olduu bulundu. Daha fazla ans atflar baarszlk gsterdi iken kararl (yetenek veya grev zorluu) atflar daha fazla sayda baar sayld. Ayrca, kadnlarda erkeklere gre daha fazla yetenei yklemeler gsterdi. aba atflar azalrken ya ile, yetenei atflar artmtr.Asmus ou zaman retmenlerin zorluk mzikle karan rencilerin tutmak zorunda, altnc ve yedinci snflarda srasnda efor ile ilgili ve yetenei ile ilgili atflar arasndaki kayma oluur belirtti. Chandler, Chiarella ve Auria (1988) 234 lise grubu katlmclara anket ve performans mevcut dzeyi ile baar ve memnuniyeti alglanan rencilerin bandnda zorluklar kolaylkla daha katld ve doal mzikal yetenek, aba, ya da teknik bilgiye baar atfedilen bulundu . Tersine, baarszlk ve tatmin eksiklii az zorluklar ve daha fazla d yklemeler sonuland. Snf deneyimlere ek olarak, toplumsal inanlarn potansiyel rencilerin mzik z kavramlar etkili olduunu belirtmek gerekir. Toplumsal inanlarn etkisi rencilerin mzik benlik kavramlarnn en az iki yolu: mzik katlm ile yerletirilen nemi (a) derecesi, ve (b) cinsiyet dernek ve mzik etkinlikleri. An Eitim Stratejisi (Amerika Birleik Devletleri Eitim Bakanl, 1991): Amerika Birleik Devletleri, mzik Amerika, 2000 gibi belgeler ile kantland gibi okul mfredatnda dier konularda ayn durum zevk vermez. Mzik eitimi iin gereksinimleri eit dier akademik gereklilikleri (MenC, 1991) yok. rencilerin zerine yerletirilen gibi minimal talepleri ile, akademik veya sosyal baarl olmak iin iyi bir mzik benlik kavram gelitirmek iin okuldan biraz zorunluluk gibi grnyor. Sadece mzik az dier bireylere gre daha deerli, ama ayn zamanda bu toplumda bu mzik excel kz renciler iin daha kabul edilebilir. Hoffer (1992) (p.720) "erkek deil sanat, bu gibi spor ve mutlaka ilgi grecekleri Amerika'da uzun bir gelenek olmutur," belirtti. Aratrma Kz rencilerin erkek rencilere (; Haladyna & Thomas, 1979 Austin, 1990) daha mzie kar daha iyi tutum ve daha olumlu mzik benlik kavramlarnn sahip olduunu gstermektedir. Bu da mzik excel kz renciler iin daha kabul edilebilir olduu toplumsal bak asnn bir yansmas olmas mmkndr.

Genel Benlik Kavram ve Mzik Eitimi likisi

Mzik benlik kavram genel etkileme gcne sahip olduu popler bir kavram skca eitim topluluu (; Martin, 1983; McLendon, 1982; Sarokon, 1986; Sunyak & Kaufman, 1983 Brandt, 1980) kuruldu. Anekdot kant ya da benlik kavram zerindeki mziin etkisini aklayan felsefi tablolarn hibir sknts yoktur. Tanglewood Bildirge'nin, (Choate, 1968, s. 139) "Mzik ve doada byk lde szel olmayan dier gzel sanatlar, kimlik ve kendini gerekletirme aray insann sosyal, psikolojik ve fizyolojik kklerine yakn ular". (A) mzik terapisi, (b) eitim uygulamalar, (c) snf aratrma projeleri: bu inanlar ele Aratrma ana kategoriye ayrlr. Tanm olarak, mzik terapi olmayan mzikal hedeflere ulamak iin mzii kullanr. Bu hedeflerden biri benlik kavramnn gelitirmesidir. Mzik terapi topluluu tarafndan oluturulan Aratrma almalar genellikle ok zel, atipik poplasyonlar ierir. Sonu olarak, geni bir nfus iin bu almalarn genelletirme sorunlu olabilir. Bu aratrma kapsamnda incelenen mzik terapi aratrma raporlarnn sonular genellikle yetersizdir. rnein, Henderson (1983) ergenlik uyum reaksiyonu tans 13 denekten benlik saygs, mzik ruh bilincini ve grup uyumu zerine 18 saatlik mzik terapi seanslar etkisini belirlemek iin bir alma yrttk. Konular bir deney ya da kontrol grubu birine randomize edildi. Kontrol grubu deneklerin hibir mzik tedavisi ald. Son test, n test kaynaktan kontrol veya Coopersmith Benlik Saygs Envanteri (1967) tarafndan llen deney gruplar ya iin benlik saygs arasnda anlaml bir fark yoktu. Ancak, personel yeleri tarafndan anekdot hesaplar deney grubundaki deneklerin gvenin artmas grntlenir belirtti. Kivland; Kadar tedavisi aratrma, yan sra eitim ve aratrma gibi baz geleneksel lm aletleri benlik kavram herhangi bir istatistiksel olarak anlaml deiiklikler olmamtr ederken, aratrmaclar (Henderson, 1983 deneklerin davranlarn veya tutumlarn deiiklikler gzlemlediniz belirtti 1986; Michel ve Farrell, 1973, Morrison ve Thomas, 1975; Perrine, 1989). Bir lme arac bir balamda uygun olabilir Bu dndrmektedir, kullanm aratrmacnn benlik kavram yap enstrmann uymuyor baka balamlarda snrl olabilir. Dier olaslklar zaman nispeten ksa srelerde meydana davran deiiklikleri ok sonrasna kadar geleneksel z-kavram lm cihazlar ile tespit edilemeyen nihai benlik kavram deiikliklerin habercisi olduunu vardr. Eitim uygulamalarnn sk sk mzik benlik kavram artran geni varsaym zerine ina edilmitir. Bu sadece ders kitaplarnda deil, ayn zamanda eitim hedefleri (; Montgomery County, 1980; Schumacher, 1981 Eitim Kapsaml Sanat Kentucky Plan, 1981) ifade etmek ilikin belgeleri de gsterilmitir. Ayrca, rencinin benlik kavram zerindeki mzik eitiminin etkisi ile ilgili renci ve aklayc almalar "riskli" nfusa ynelik aratrma literatrnde sk sk mzik

ve / veya sanat (benlik kavram gelitirmek yeteneine sahip olduu varsaymna zerinde ina edilmitir Barry, Taylor, Duvarlar, & Wood, 1990; Mehuron, 1990; Sarokon, 1986; Smith, 1988). Draper ve Gayle (1987) 1973-1982 yllar arasnda yaynlanan ounluu ile 18871982 yllar arasnda yaynlanm 108 erken ocukluk eitimi ders kitaplar, anket. Bu ders kitaplarndan, nedenleri 10 kategoride toplanabilir mzik retimi iin gsterdi. Bu kategorilerin eitli benlik kavram ve mzik alma arasnda bir balant ima etti. Yazarlar Eleven yzde mzik eitimi hakknda olumlu hissetmek iin bir ocuk yardm inanyordu ona-veya kendini. Yazarlarn% 70 orannda gsterdi mzik eitimi iin en sk belirtilen neden, kendini ifade ve yaratc zevk iin bir frsat oldu. Draper ve Gayle (1987), Payne (1990) gibi, ayn zamanda mzik eitiminin deerine ilikin inanlar incelenmitir. Tez almasnda, Payne mzik eitimi gereke ile ilgili okul mdrleri, okul ynetim kurulu bakanlar, bina sorumlular ve mzik retmenleri de dahil olmak zere, Ohio eitim personelinin inceledi. Mzik retmenleri ve okul mdrleri mdrleri ve okul ynetim kurulu bakanlar bina yoktu daha estetik eitim olarak mzik ile ilgili ifadeleri zerine daha yksek bir deer koyun. Bunun yerine, okul mdrleri ve okul ynetim kurulu bakanlar mzik eitiminin deerini aklayan en doru ifadeler olarak benlik saygs geliimine ilikin ifadeler seilir. eitli snf almalar arasndaki iliki aratrld hangi stlenilen oyland genel benlik kavram ve mzik eitimi (Bragg, 1980; Ford, 1981; Greenberg, 1970; Lillemyr, 1983; Lukitsch, 1987; Murdock, 1991; Perrine, 1989; Whalen ve Csikszentmihalyi , 1989). Bu aratrma ok sonular yetersiz olmasna ramen, burada sz hak alma vardr. lk alma mzik tutumlar, benlik saygs ve sosyoekonomik durum (Nolin ve VanderArk, 1977) inceleyen bir pilot proje aklanr. Bu aratrmaclar dokuzuncu snf bant ve koro rencileri Coopersmith Benlik Saygs Envanteri (1967) tarafndan llen olmayan mzik rencilere gre anlaml dzeyde yksek benlik saygsnn olduunu buldu. Nolin ve VanderArk ekonomik durumu, mzik tutum ve benlik saygs birlikte ele alnmas gerektiini ileri srd, nk bu aratrma projesi nemliydi. Bu almann bulgular benlik saygs geliimi ile ilgili koullar kmesi rencilerin okulda mzik deneyimi olmamas ile karlatrldnda sadece okulda rencilere mzik eitimi daha karmak olabilir baz snrl kant salayabilir. (S. 42) Bir sonraki almann sonular zellikle (VanderArk, Nolin, ve Newman, 1980) umut vericidir. Bu almada mzik tutum, benlik saygs, sosyal stat, ve snf dzeyi ile ilikisi aratrld 5642 nc, drdnc, beinci ve 16 banliy, Ortabat

ilkretim okullar altnc snf rencileri. Sadece dorusal ilikileri aratrmak yerine, aratrmaclar benlik saygs, mzik tutum ve dier deikenler arasndaki ilikiler daha doru bu ekilde temsil edilebileceini ncl dayal bir erisel analizi seti. Bulgular nerdi: (a) orada mzik etkinliklerine kar tutum belirlemede cinsiyet ve benlik saygs arasnda anlaml bir ilikinin (b) orta sosyal stat rencilerden daha dk ya da yksek sosyal stat rencilere gre daha kar mzik anlaml tutum vard, ve belki de en anlaml, (c) sonular benlik saygs gibi Coopersmiths en Benlik Saygs Envanteri (1967) ile llen, snfta mzik deneyimleri kar tutum belirlemede varyansn nemli miktarda sorumlu olduunu gstermitir. Hylton (1981) lise koro ark deneyim anlam aratrlmtr. Hylton aratrma zellikle benlik kavram aratrmak deildi ramen, onun bulgular koro ark deneyimleri rencilerin z-bilgisine etkileyebilecek belirtti. Likert tipi deerlendirme arac iin Tablolar yantlar bir pilot almada toplanan ak ulu sorular iin gelitirilmitir. Arac 14 farkl performans gruplarnda 673 lise rencisine uygulanmtr. Bu alma, kendisinden nce pilot alma ile birlikte, koro deneyim anlam aklanan alt geni kategoriye oluturulur. Bu alt kategoride ki, en az benlik kavram (iletiimsel, btnletirici, baar) iin baz ilikileri vard. Ayrca, dorudan benlik kavram ile ilgili bu almann psikolojik boyutu, bu benlik geliimi ile zellikle ele nk. Hylton belirtilen "... kendini bilgisine bir benlik kavram gelimi ve deer duygusu neden olabilir mzikal yaantlar yoluyla kazanlan" (s. 289). Koral mzik deneyimi ile ilgili u ifadeler katlmclar tarafndan yksek puan edilmitir: (1), bana kendimi daha iyi tanmak iin yardm (2) daha rahat hissetmek iin, ve (3) Bana kendimle bark olmalarna yardmc olacak. Bu mzik deneyimi dahil sosyal faktrler benlik kavram iinde alglanan kazanmlar ok sorumlu olmas mmkndr. Mzik rencilerin topluluk faaliyetleri ile sosyal dzeyde katlabilmeleri iin bir frsat salar. Bu artan sosyal olanaklar muhtemelen rencilerin sosyal benlik kavramlarnn etkiler. Bu zamanda, mzik rencilere ilikin benlik kavram aratrmalarda sosyal faktr izole yaplan ok aba olmamtr. Ancak, Murdock (1991) bu koroda yalnz sonucu olduunu ileri srmek mmkn deildir olmasna ramen mzik rencileri, sosyal benlik kavram ile ilgili olmayan mzik rencileri anlaml farkllk bulundu. Hylton (1981) sosyal faktrlere de koro deneyiminin nemli bir paras olduunu grdk.

Mevcut Aratrma Etkileri

Yorumlar aratrma itibaren, birka sonular karmak mmkndr. Benlik kavram ok boyutlu bir yap olduunu ve mzik benlik kavram benlik kavram genel ayr llebilir nermek kant yoktur. Mzik eitimi genel ya da benlik kavram kresel etkileri daha byk derecede mzik yetenei benlik kavram etkileyebilir. Yetenek benlik kavram benlik kavram geneldir daha spesifik ve kolayca tanmlanabilir

olduu iin belki yetenei benlik kavram konusunda aratrma, daha sk genel benlik kavram aratrma daha topraklanr. nkoul becerilerin kazanlmas sigortalanmas belirli konu alanlarnda yeteneklerini ocuklarn gvenini ykseltmek iin tasarlanm mdahale prosedrleri baar kazan yol aabilir. Bu nedenle, birden mzik yetenei ve mzik baar z-kavram arasnda bir iliki bulmak iin olasl daha yksektir benlik kavram genel ve mzik baars arasnda bir iliki bulmak.

Genel benlik kavram ve mzik eitimi arasndaki iliki ile ilgili Edebiyat yetersizdir. Bu, aratrmann en nemli bulgusu olabilir. Ancak, yarg sisteminde bir susuz karar masumiyet yanstmyor gibi, kesin delil bu eksiklii bu mzik eitimi ve benlik kavramnn geliimi ilgisiz garanti etmez.

Mzik eitimi ve anlan mzik terapi almalar yaklak yarsnda, mzik olumlu benlik kavram ya da mzik rencileri olmayan mzik rencilere gre benlik kavramlarnn daha iyi sahip etkilenen dair hibir gl bir gsterge de yoktur. Bu bulgular, bu almalarda kullanlan benlik kavram tanmlar ve lm aralar eitli ile birlikte yrtlen almalar az sayda sonucu olabilir. Benzer ekilde tasarlanm almalarda daha fazla sayda daha kesin sonular dourabilir.

Sarokon, 1986;; Sunyak mzik ve benlik kavram, sanat (mzik dahil) ve (Kalliopuska, 1989 oalmaya devam benlik kavram genel arasndaki pozitif ilikiyi anlatan aklayc literatr ile ilgili bu inanlar destekleyen ampirik veri olmamasna ramen & Kaufman, 1983). Bu tr edebiyat ortak alg ve kesin delil arasnda bir eliki olduunu ileri srmektedir. Bu farklln drt ana nedeni vardr grnr. Bunlar: a tek, evrensel benlik kavram operasyonel tanm, kararlatrlan (b) deneysel tedaviler kaynaklanan l deiiklikleri zorunlu deilsiniz Uygunsuz l aletlerinin seimi, (c) gzlenen davranlar arasndaki tutarszlklar ve (a) eksiklii kendine raporlar, ve (d) mzik potansiyelini tanmak iin baarsz aratrma tasarmlar, mzik yetenei benlik kavram, ayn zamanda sosyal ve duygusal bileenleri de dahil olmak zere hem z-kavram dier bir yn, sadece etkiler. Ayrca, mzik eitiminin ve benlik kavram ile ilgili kesin bir kant olmamas sadece zellikle bu konuyla ilgili aratrma ktl yanstyor olabilir. Sonusuz aratrma sonular mzik derslii ynelik tavsiyelerde bulunmann zor bunu yapmak olsa da, bu tr sonular benlik kavram gelitirmek iin dnlen btn faaliyetleri terk nermiyoruz. zellikle erken snflarda lkretim mzik eitimi, mzik benlik kavramnn geliimi iin son derece nemlidir. Bir sre odakl mzik mfredatla ilgili Pogonowski (1985) aratrma program bu tip

potansiyel olumlu rencilerin z kavramlar etkileyebileceini dndrmektedir. Mfredat yaklamlar ve faaliyetleri bu dnce ile seilmelidir.

Grubunda baar katlm renci, grubun baars zerinde byk nem mzik dersleri yerine bireysel byme iin ok olumlu bir deneyim olmasna ramen, bireysel aba veya bakc bireyin benlik kavram kazan tevik iin pek yok. Grubunda baar zerine ar bir vurgu ile snflarndaki renciler genellikle bireysel mzikal byme zerine deil katlm ve grup etkinliklerine katlm deerlendirilmez. Byle deerlendirilmesi olumlu bir rencinin sosyal benlik kavram etkileyebilir, ancak mzik yeteneini kendi benlik kavram (Hylton, 1981) zerinde ok az etkiye sahip olabilir. Mzik yeteneini bireysel rencilerin z-kavram etkisi iin, mzik eitimcileri kk grup performans iin frsatlar planlamak isteyebilirsiniz. Kk topluluk faaliyetleri geleneksel olarak sadece deerlendirmeli amal kullanlm olan ve genellikle mzikal yetenekli olduuna inanlan renciler iin rezerve edilmi olmas nedeniyle, genel olarak, onlar olumsuz alglanan ve yksek anksiyete uyandrmak vardr. Byle kk bir topluluk etkinliklerinin, rencilerin olumlu grev alglarlar ve uygun mzik zorluklar karlamak iin glenmi hissediyorum bylece anksiyete azaltmak iin yaplandrlmaldr. Mzik dersleri mzik yetenei istikrarl bir zellik deildir ve aba ile gelitirilmitir olabilir inanc desteklemek iin yaplandrlmaldr. kinci aamada, balang olmayan auditioned snflar eitli alanlarda da salanmaldr. Genel mzik dersleri tm rencilere ak olmasna ramen, birok orta dereceli okullarda sunulan hibir genel mzik dersleri vardr. rencilerin ngilizce, matematik, fen veya tarih dersleri iin ciddi snrl eriim olurdu bir lise hayal etmek zor. Ancak, birok renci mzik performans snflar iin kayt iin gerekli ihtiyalarn karlamak iin veremiyoruz liseleri bulmak zor deildir. Okuttuklar renciler hakknda son derece seici davranarak, mzik eitimcileri mzik yetenei aba ile iyiletirme tabi olduu fikrini glendirmektedir Gelecek Aratrmalar in neriler Benlik kavramnn tanm ve lm dahil benlik kavram aratrma ile ilikili sorunlar, balangta almaz gibi grnebilir. Bu mzik eitimcileri bu alandaki aratrma terk nermek deildir. Aksine, rencinin benlik kavram ve mzik eitimi ile ilgili gelecekteki aratrma tasarm, tek bir sre iinde doal zorluklarn farknda olmaldr. Bu mzik eitimi ve benlik kavram ile ilgili gelecekteki aratrma tasarmnda eitim ve psikolojik alanlarda elde edilen bulgularn entegre etmek nemlidir. rnein, yaygn olarak Coopersmith Benlik Saygs Envanteri (1967) ya da

Tennessee Benlik Kavram (1965) lei ksa vadeli n-sontest tasarmlar pheli deeri olabilir ya da kltrel bir yelpazede Uygunsuz olarak benlik kavram nlemler kullanlr ayarlar. Mzik eitimi ve renci benlik kavram konusunda srekli aratrma iin nerilen iki caddeleri vardr. Ilk mzik yeteneini benlik kavramnn daha fazla aratrma olduunu. nerilen projeler unlar olabilir: farkl geliimsel mzik yetenei ve spesifik mfredat yaklamlar, ya da mzik yetenei ve semeli mzik faaliyetlerine katlm benlik kavram arasndaki iliki, (b), bir soruturma benlik kavram arasndaki iliki (a) soruturma aamalar.

Mzik eitimi ve z-kavram genelde arasnda bir balant kurulmas ile ilgili daha zorlu alanda aratrma ilgilidir ikinci bir alan. Gelecekteki aratrmalar ierebilir: (a) boylamsal bir alma mzik eitiminin etkisi (b) Bir soruturma benlik kavram lm cihazlar sosyal ynleriyle ilgili, mzik rencilerinin benlik kavramlarnn olmayan mzik rencilerinin benlik kavramlarnn karlatrlmas nihayet (c) mzik benlik kavram arasndaki ilikiler ile ilgili soruturma, mzik tutum ve benlik kavram genel, ve (d) nitel aratrma projelerinin gelitirilmesi. Nitel yaklam kendilik algs lm ile ilikili zorluklar amak olabilir. Ayrca, nitel aratrmaclar tarafndan savunulan btncl yaklam benlik kavram, bir mzik derslii toplam balamnda verilerin geni bir yelpazede bir araya getirerek daha etkili okudu olabileceini gsterir. Bresler ve Stake (1992) (s. 83) "Nitel aratrmaclar tezahr renme yan sra gizli yansyacaktr olaylar inceleyebilirsiniz" belirtti. Ne z-kavram ne mzik anlamllk kolayca szckleri tercme edilmitir. Baz tr bir eviri giriimi, bunun beyhude olduunu hatta belki yanl iddia edebilir. Sonu olarak, bu iki alan arasndaki iliki henz, dkmek iin sinir bozucu tartmak ilgin. Farkl alanlar ve snf retmenleri aratrmaclar arasndaki ibirlii gelecekteki aratrmalar iin etkili projeler tasarlanmasnda yardmc olabilir. Bu zamanda, ancak, ampirik kantlar ve anekdot kant zt ynlerde hareket devam ediyor. Bu aratrmaclar kantitatif lmler iine veya nitel aratrma geleneksel kavramsal ereveler uzak inemesini tasarlanmtr kadar benlik kavram ile ilgili gzlem ve izlenimleri evirebilir kadar devam etmesi muhtemeldir.