Environmental Sociology

Table of Contents Contents Pages Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................i Contents Pages .....................................................................................................................i Introduction ...............................................................................................................................iii Chapter One: Meaning and Historical Development of Environmental Sociology........................1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................1 1.2. Meaning and Significance of Environmental Sociology......................................................2 1.2.1. The meaning of Environment..........................................................2 1.2.2. The Meaning and Significance of Environmental Sociology............2 1.3. Subject matter of Environmental Sociology........................................................................6 1.3.1. Society- Environment interaction..................................................7 1.4. Historical Origin of Environmental Sociology.....................................................................8 1.5. Summary.............................................................................................................................13 1.6. Self Test Questions.........................................................................................................14 Chapter Two: Environmental Problems ....................................................................14 2.2. Nature of Environmental Problems..............................................................................15 2.3. Major Global and National Environmental Problems.......................................................19 2.3.1. Pollution.........................................................................................21 2.3.2. Global Warming.......................................................................22 2.3.3. Hazardous Wastes.......................................................................23 2.3.4. Stratospheric-ozone Depletion..................................................23 2.3.5. Land Degradation.........................................................................26 2.3.6. Loss of Biodiversity.......................................................................27 2.3.7. Climate Change and Desertification..............................................27 2.3.8. World Population Growth............................................................29 2.4. The roots Cause of Environmental problems.....................................................................29 2.5. Summary.............................................................................................................................34 2.6. Self Test Questions................................................................................................34 Chapter Three: Human and Nature Interaction...............................................................35 3.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................................35 3.2. Theoretical Explanation of Human and Nature Interaction...............................................37 3.2.1. Public versus Expert Perceptions of Risks.....................................44 3.3. Summary...........................................................................................................................46 3.4. Self-checking exercise........................................................................................................46 Chapter Four: Social Construction of Environmental Issues and Problems.................................47 4.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................47 Constructing Social Problems....................................................................................................48 The social construction of Environment....................................................................................49 4.4. Constructionism as an Analytic Tool..................................................................................52

Environmental Sociology

ii

4.5. Key Tasks/ Processes in the Social Construction of Environmental Problems..................56 Summary....................................................................................................................................57 Chapter Five: Sociological Perspectives on Environmental Problems..........................................58 5.1. Chapter Objectives..............................................................................................................58 5.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................59 5.3. Structural Functionalists Perspective.................................................................................60 5.4. The Conflict Perspective.....................................................................................................61 5.5. Ecofeminist Perspective ....................................................................................................63 5.7. Chapter Summary...............................................................................................................68 5.7. Self-checking exercises:......................................................................................................69 Chapter Six: Sustainable Development, Principles and Controversies.........................................70 6.1. Chapter objectives...............................................................................................................70 6.2. Sustainable Development: the concept ..............................................................................70 6.3. Controversies on Sustainable Development.......................................................................71 6.4. Discourses...........................................................................................................................73 6.4.1. The Contest Perspective................................................................73 6.4.2. The Astronauts Perspective..........................................................74 6.4.3. The Home Perspective...................................................................75 6.5. Areas of Sustainable Development.....................................................................................75 6.6. Issues within Sustainable Development..............................................................................76 6.7. Principles of Sustainable Development..............................................................................76 6.8. Environmental Sustainability..............................................................................................77 6.9. World Summit on Sustainable Development.....................................................................78 6.9.1. Progress on Sustainability so far...................................................78 6.10. Chapter summary..............................................................................................................79 6.11. Self-checking exercises.....................................................................................................80 Chapter Seven: Environmental Governance and Environmentalism.............................................80 7.1. Chapter objectives...............................................................................................................80 7.2. Introduction.........................................................................................................................81 7.3. Environmental Crime..........................................................................................................81 7.4. Categories of Environmental Harms...................................................................................82 7.5. Environmental Injustice or Racism.....................................................................................83 7.6. Strategies for Environment Conservation...........................................................................84 7.6.1. Environmental awareness.............................................................84 7.6.2. Environmental Pressure Groups....................................................86 7.7. Environmentalism...............................................................................................................86 7.8. Environmental Organizations and Conferences................................89 7.9. Chapter summary................................................................................................................90 7.10. Self-check Exercise...........................................................................................................90 Chapter Eight: Global Environmental Conventions and Treaties..................................................91 8.1. Chapter objectives...............................................................................................................91 8.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................91 8.3. Concise Summary of Global Conferences, Agreements and Convention on the Environment...............................................................................................................................93 8.4. Chapter Summary...............................................................................................................96 8.5. Self-check Exercise.............................................................................................................96

Environmental Sociology

iii

Chapter 9: Environmental Policy of Ethiopia ...............................................................................97 Chapter objectives......................................................................................................................97 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................97 9.3. Ethiopian environmental policy..........................................................................................98 Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................118 Self-checking Exercises..........................................................................................................118 References....................................................................................................................................119

Introduction This module is concerned with the course environmental sociology, a two credit hour course, given to third year sociology students, as it is clearly mentioned in the curriculum the department. This module has nine chapters. The first chapter is all about the meaning and historical development of

Environmental Sociology

iv

environmental sociology. It deals with how the course has been evolved out through the passage of time. The second chapter of the module is concerned with some major environmental problems, such as pollution of different types, global warming, climate change and desertification, hazardous waste, ozone depletion, land degradation, and loss of biodiversity whereas the third chapter addresses the relationship between human and nature. Chapter four focuses on the social construction of environmental problems; it explains how social problems and the concepts related with environment while chapter five is concentrated on sociological explanations on environmental problems including structural functionalism, conflict theory, ecofeminism, and symbolic intractionism. Similarly, chapter six addresses the issue of sustainable development which tries to treat such topics as the concept sustainable development, discourses, areas of sustainable development, issues within sustainable development, principles of sustainable development, and some wellmentioned world submits on sustainable development whilst chapter seven attempts to concentrates on environmental governance and environmentalism that takes account of environmental crime and harms, environmental injustice, strategies for environment conservation, and environmentalism. Dear learners, finally, chapter three of the module deals with sort summary of global conventions and treaties on environmental issues whereas the last chapter is all about the detail presentation of Ethiopian environmental policy. At the end of each chapter, a summary is given followed by self-checking exercise. In addition, all the references are presented at the end of the module.

Environmental Sociology

Chapter One: Meaning and Historical Development of Environmental Sociology Introduction Dear learners, this chapter introduce you with the introduction of the course environmental sociology, its meaning and definition, subject matter and historical origin of the course will be examined in this chapter.

Chapter Objective: After the completion of this chapter, you will able to: Define the term environment and environmental sociology, Discuss the origin and development of environmental sociology, Describe the focus area of environmental sociology, Explain the significance of taking the course for you

The course environmental sociology is designed to equip sociology students with the necessary knowledge and skill on environmental issue. (1) Environmental sociology studies environment-society interaction. Human being interacts with environment in various ways because environment is the sources of our basic needs and wellbeing. In their interaction with their physical environment, human beings affect the environment and in turn the environment also affects human being. In general, there is a reciprocal relationship between our social institutions and the physical environment. (2) The expression environmental sociology appeared for the first time in North America in 1971, although the idea of sociology of environment has been in the air for a long time. In 1976, American Sociological Association finally created an Environmental Sociology section.

Environmental Sociology

The relationship between society and the environment has generated much in the way of both action and analysis over the last thirty years. As local and global environments rapidly change, and as humans modify their behavior in relation to how and where they live, the importance of studying the interface between society and environment has likewise steadily grown. 1.2. Meaning and Significance of Environmental Sociology 1.2.1. The meaning of Environment What is environment? Give your own definition? The word environment is derived from an ancient French word environner meaning to encircle. Environment is our surrounding. This includes the living and the non-living things around us. The non-living components of environment are land, air and water. The living components are germs, plants, animals and people. Hence, environment is the physical, social, economic, political and cultural surroundings. All plants and animals adjust to the environment in which they are born and live. A change in any components of the environment may cause discomfort and affect normal life. That means different plants and animals are found in different environments suitable to them. Hence, any change in that environment may affect their living. 1.2.2. The Meaning and Significance of Environmental Sociology Dear learners, what do you think the rational of taking this course? Sociology is about understanding and dealing with social problems. It is concerned with defining whether or not an issue is indeed a social problem, rather than simply a personal trouble or a natural phenomenon, and why this is the case. It is also concerned with devising social policies and/or developing practical applied strategies that can be used to address social

Environmental Sociology

problems.

It means sociology is about putting things into context, about

challenging the status quo, and about making the world a better place. It is essentially about three important tasks: see, judge, and act. Broadly applying to surroundings, environment can include the aggregate of natural, social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or community. Environmental sociology is about translating these tasks into analysis and action around environmental issues. To illustrate this, we can consider the matter of drinking water. Sociologically, investigation of drinking water could proceed by looking at how water is managed and distributed, historically and in different cultural contexts. It could examine differences and similarities between societies in which drinking water is freely provided, and those in which it is sold for profit. It could compare the place of water in societies in which it is scarce, with those in which it is abundant, from the point of view of control, access and symbolic importance. Social differences in the use of water may be apparent within a society. So too, water may represent affluence for specific classes and castes, or for particular societies compared to others. Water, therefore, is integrally linked to certain kinds of social structures, social interactions and social processes of inclusion and exclusion. A distinction can also be made between a problem (unsafe drinking water) and a sociological problem (why or why not unsafe drinking water is considered a social problem). In some towns and cities, for example, poorquality drinking water is simply taken for granted, as no big deal. Residents may respond to the potential ill effects of the water by boiling it. Over time, they get so used to boiling their water that they dont even think twice about it. Thus they may never really challenge why it is that the water is so bad to begin with. In other places, water provision means something else. It is taken for granted by residents that water is, and ought to be, of good quality. Any

Environmental Sociology

negative change to water quality will be met with outrage and concerted public action to clean up the supply. In each of these cases, there may be unsafe drinking water. Sociology can help us discern why different people respond differently to what appears to be much the same problem. Environmental sociology is typically defined as the sociological study of societal-environmental interactions. It is the study of the reciprocal interactions between the physical environment, social organization, and social behavior. Within this approach, environment encompasses all physical and material bases of life in a scale ranging from the most micro level to the biosphere. Although the focus of the field is the relationship between society and environment in general, environmental sociologists typically place special emphasis on studying the social factors that cause environmental problems, the societal impacts of those problems, and efforts to solve the problems. In addition, considerable attention is paid to the social processes by which certain environmental conditions become socially defined as problems. Social Ecology Social ecology is associated with the ideas and works of Murray Bookchin, who had written on such matters from the 1950s until his death, and, from the 1960s, had combined these issues with revolutionary social anarchism. Social ecology locates the roots of the ecological crisis firmly in relations of domination between people. The domination of nature is seen as a product of domination within society, but this domination only reaches crisis proportions under capitalism. Owing to its inherently competitive nature, bourgeois society not only pits humans against each other, it also pits the mass of humanity against the natural world. Just as men are converted into commodities, so every aspect of nature is converted into a commodity, a resource to be manufactured and merchandised want only. In the words of Bookchin: the notion that man must dominate nature emerges directly from

Environmental Sociology

the domination of man by man. Social ecology claims that the environmental crisis is a result of the hierarchical organization of power and the authoritarian mentality rooted in the structures of our society. The Western ideology of dominating the natural world arises from these social relationships. The domination of nature by man stems from the very real domination of human by human". The core principle of social ecology is that ecological problems arise from deep-seated social problems. Ecological problems cannot be understood, much less resolved, without facing social issues. Social hierarchy and class legitimize our domination of the environment and underpin the consumer system. The root causes of environmental problems are such as trade for profit, industrial expansion, and the identification of "progress" with corporate self-interest." The alternative solution to this problem is society based on ecological principles; an organic unity in diversity, free of hierarchy and based on mutual respect for the interrelationship of all aspects of life. If we change human society, then our relationship with the rest of nature will become transformed. We can only overcome the ideology of dominating nature by creating of a society without hierarchical structures or economic classes. In place of the existing hierarchical and class system social ecology proposes an egalitarian society based on mutual aid, caring and communitarian values. People in this new society would appreciate that the interests of the collective are inseparable from those of each individual. Property would be shared and, ideally, belong to the community as a whole. In this "commune of communes" property would not belong to private producers or to a nationstate. This transformation is to be achieved through radical collective action and co-operative social movements. The process of eliminating all domination

Environmental Sociology

must begin: not only in the factory but also in the family, not only in the economy but also in the psyche, not only in the material conditions of life but also in the spiritual ones." Social ecology aims to replace our mentality of domination with an ethics of complementarities. Such an ethics reflects our true role which is to create a fuller, richer world for all beings. This ethics of complementarities has a spiritual dimension that is sometimes described by social ecologists as the "respiritization of the natural world" but is clearly not a call for a deistic theology. 1.3. Subject matter of Environmental Sociology Dear distance learners, what do you think the focus area of environmental sociology? Explain. Environmental Sociology is the sociological analysis of the interaction between nature and social systems. This includes individual beliefs and behaviors, technologies, systems and society. Likewise, the issues of sustainability, social wellbeing and the relationship between society and nature will be examined. Environmental Sociology investigates how social systems interact with ecosystems. The course emphasizes a critical social and ecological analysis of society and global influences upon the earth. The current paradigm (set of assumptions) regarding values, public policy and priorities in relationship to the environment will be analyzed. They include human progress, growth, no limits, scientific uncertainty, unrestricted consumption, corporate production and scientific and technological fixes to both social and environmental issues. Environmental Sociology draws on concepts and ways of thinking from a number of different disciplines including ecology, public health, history, philosophy and anthropology.

Environmental Sociology

The environment as a sociological topic intensified in the late 1960s and 1970s (first Earth Day) when a significant number of Americans were growing concerned about the environment, water quality, air quality, toxic chemicals, war and nuclear power. Sociologists responded to this change in public opinion by exploring the reasons why modern society has such destructive impacts on the environment and the modern worldwide scale of these impacts. The study of social and political movements that have arisen in response to mounting environmental problems is another major focus. Present concerns include the possible direction and compatibility or incompatibility of nature, technology, humanity, politics and health/well being. 1.3.1. Society- Environment interaction Throughout history humans have both affected, and been affected by, the natural world. While a good deal has been lost due to human actions, much of what is valued about the environment has been preserved and protected through human action. While many uncertainties remain, there is a realization that environmental problems are becoming more and more complex, especially as issues arise on a more global level, such as that of atmospheric pollution or global warming. Interactions between human society and the environment are constantly changing. The environment, while highly valued by most, is used and altered by a wide variety of people with many different interests and values. Difficulties remain on how best to ensure the protection of our environment and natural resources. There will always be tradeoffs and, many times, unanticipated or unintended consequences. However, a well-managed environment can provide goods and services that are both essential for our well being as well as for continued economic prosperity.

Environmental Sociology

The environment has become one of the most important issues of our time and will continue to be well into the future. The challenge is to find approaches to environmental management that give people the quality of life they seek while protecting the environmental systems that are also the foundations of our well being. 1.4. Historical Origin of Environmental Sociology Dear learners, environmental sociology is a new discipline emerged recently. What factors do you think are responsible for this? Explain.. Environmental sociology is a newly emerged discipline. Early sociologists pay little attention to the issue of environment. Environmental sociology emerged as a distinctive discipline in 1970s. In section one you learned about the subject matter of environmental sociology. In this section, you will learn about the origin and development of environmental sociology and the major contributors to the development of the discipline. The issue of environment in sociology is relatively a new phenomenon. It started late 1970s. Sociologists paid little/no attention to environment during the earlier emergence of sociology for the following reasons: Earlier sociologists were influenced with the Durkheimian traditional view of explaining social phenomena only in terms of other social facts. That means the cause of social facts must be sought in other social facts. However, what distinguishes environmental sociology from the mainstream sociology is that the former recognizes that biophysical as well as purely social variables affect social structure and social change while the latter doesnt. An aversion to earlier excess of biological and geographical to earlier determinism, had led sociologists to ignore the physical world in which humans live.

Environmental Sociology

The other reason was the emergence of sociology during an era of unprecedented growth and prosperity, fuelled by resource abundance and technological progress. Hence, the discipline had come to assume that the exceptional features of homo sapiens- language, technology, science and culture more generally made industrialized societies exempt from the constraints of nature. However, changing circumstances such as the 1973-4 energy crisis that faced the world necessitated shedding the blinkers imposed by the sectionalism and adopting an ecological paradigm or world view that acknowledges the ecosystem dependence of all human societies. To start with the history of environmental sociology, it is important to look at the original root of the discipline. Modern thought surrounding humanenvironment relations is traced back to Charles Darwin. Darwins concept of natural selection suggested that certain social characteristics played a key role in the survivability of groups in the natural environment. Although typically taken at the micro level, evolutionary principles, particularly adaptability, serve as a microcosm of human ecology. Sociology has traditionally made a distinction between humans and nature. Classical sociology was concerned primarily with humans as a part of systems. These systems were limited primarily to the social and economic sectors of human society. The emphasis was on something akin to soul searching; looking within for solutions that are available without. As Radcliff and Benton point out in Social Theory and the Environment, "The classical sociologies deriving from Weber and the German neo-Kantian tradition, and from Durkheim and French structuralism, establish (albeit by different theoretical moves) sharp nature/society dichotomies."(Radcliff & Micheal and Woodgate, 1997). It seems that the traditional sociologists paid scant attention to the range that the human habitat may take, and focused more

Environmental Sociology

10

squarely on man. Let's explore the views classical sociologists held on humans and their relation to their environment. Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of sociology. How he explained society and environment? Emile Durkheim was one of the founding fathers of sociology and was the first French sociologist. To Durkheim, men were creatures whose desires were unlimited. Unlike other animals, they are not satiated when their biological needs are fulfilled. "The more one has, the more one wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs." It follows from this natural insatiability of the human animal that his desires can only be held in check by external controls, that is, by societal control. Society imposes limits on human desires and constitutes "a regulative force [which] must play the same role for moral needs which the organism plays for physical needs." In well-regulated societies, social controls set limits on individual propensities so that each individual knows the eventual limit to his/her activity. Durkheim did distinguish the social realm from the psychic, biological and mineral realms, yet he saw society as a phenomenon of nature. This can be witnessed in many plant or animal settings, where associations are formed which enable the species to survive or flourish. Of the traditional approaches, Durkheim's does lend credence to the idea that environmental problems can be understood within the context of cultural production and reproduction. Durkheim's positivism and constructivism gave us the legacy of examining environmental problems as a science with observable consequences and socially constructed causes. Although Durkheim formulated an organismic theory of society where each organism must function in its own place and time in order for the whole to remain healthy, he neglected to bring the environment in which that work is

Environmental Sociology

11

being done into the picture. He did not however insist as his contemporaries did that nature was "socially produced". Durkheim introduced the notions of agency and structure to sociological theory; agency is defined as the power that humans have to operate independently of the constraining social structure. The structure itself is dependent on agency for its existence; it is comprised of such things as laws, conventions, and taboos and so on. An interesting result of Durkheim's theories of agency structure is that they can be subversively used to undermine the traditional lack of attention paid to environmental problems. Agency would seemingly allow us to either neglect or care for the environment as we so choose, but the social structure could dictate certain modes of action which can be oriented towards a conservationist perspective. Further, if the environment itself were to be seen as the governing structure within which humans must operate, with the laws of nature guiding human agency, it seems against (human) nature to destroy the very structure which supports our meager selves.

Max Weber How Max Weber described environment-society interaction? Max Weber would probably have rejected this idea of the environment as a determining structure; he was concerned primarily with humans as a system unto themselves, their being constituted the only social reality. He did not believe that sociologists (or any one else) could discover some overarching structure that was universal to humankind. Ironically, Weber devoted much of his academic life to describing the alienation of the capitalist worker, where human agency was largely overruled by the hierarchical structures of instrumental rationality and bureaucracy. This disenchantment stems from the separation of the workers not from their capabilities for the use of agency, but from their implicit rejection of nature in favor of capitalist

Environmental Sociology

12

business practices. The beauraucratic structure may stifle the workers, but the true distance is between the surrounding environment and their desk jobs. Some may posit that this separation of humans from their environment is a product of the technology that is being employed in these workplaces, as if technology were something alien or unnatural. We must remember however, that humans are inherently both a part of and a product of nature; how then can human constructs be unnatural? They are simply an extension of our natural ability to use tools and to communicate with one another. Weberian disenchantment is quite different, for it is the arbitrary construction of limits, punishments and rewards that make up the beauraucratic authority system. Is this really unlike the structure that we deploy against nature? Both are arbitrary, both possess too narrow a scope to assess all the complexities of a system and both impose control in a manner that tends to be destructive to the subject of the control. The worker becomes disenchanted; the environment becomes polluted. Karl Marx What is/are the cause(s) for environmental problems from Marxist

perspective? The most "green" of the early social theories; Marxist thought usually sees any society as a system of societal relations. This allows for an understanding that social production of goods depends on relations between individuals as well as between people and nature. Marx did make a distinction between nature and society, nature was what provided the raw materials with which the laborers made their living and fed their families. Marx saw science and society in rational terms, believing that science was a progressive and liberating force, one that would enable humankind to gain control over nature and therefore to better control their chosen path in life. According to Marx, the appropriations of natural resources in this manner were only possible in a specific social setting. He theorized that in the

Environmental Sociology

13

transformation of resources into goods for human consumption, humans themselves were transformed. Despite this, he thought that relations between humans and their environment was static, for they are both essentially social and common to each step of social existence. Therefore, the interactions between humans and their environment cannot provide a source of change in society; this can only occur between groups of people. Marxist ideology relies heavily on the idea that economic development under capitalism involves the creation of value as resources are transformed into commodities. The problem is, there cannot be creation without destruction. In order to create value, we must destroy and sully valuable natural resources; not valuable as commodities, but as a life sustaining matrix upon which we all rely. The value of natural resources must always be weighed against the long term consequences of their use. 1.5. Summary Environmental sociology, the study of relationship between human and nature undergone through three main stages in sociology, namely human and urban ecology (developed in 1920s and 1930s), environmental sociology (developed in 1970s and early 1980s) and ecosociology (since late 1980s). Environmental sociology is emerged as a discipline in 1970s. Little attention was given to the environment or the physical factors in the early emergence of sociology. Much attention was given to the study of social events in relation to other social events. However, this does not mean that classical sociologists couldnt offer due emphasis to environmental issues. Classical sociologists see environment as part of a system and change in part of the system result in change in the whole system. The environment is where we live or our surrounding. With the emergence of environmental sociology, environmental issues have got much emphasis in sociology. In other words, the scope of sociology is more expanded to include

Environmental Sociology

14

the interaction among physical factors and social events with emergence of environmental sociology. The main reason for expanding the scope of sociology to deal with the interaction between environment and society is that most of the social events or social problems that sociology concerns with are not only linked with other social factors but also they are directly or indirectly linked to the physical environment. Environmental sociology came into being to explore these issues. Environmental sociology is a branch of sociology that deals with society-environment interactions. It studies how the social forces (social institutions) affect the environment and how they are affected by the environment (physical factors) in which they exist. Environmental sociologists are also concerned with social factors that cause environmental problems, effects and their solutions. The discipline investigates how social factors cause environmental problems and how the physical factors promote or limit the growth and development of society. 1.6. Self Test Questions 1. What is environmental sociology? 2. Identify and discuss the basic factors for the emergence of environmental sociology? 3. Explain the rationale behind taking this course? 4. Discuss the classical ideas of Karl Marx and Emile Durkhiem on environment? Chapter Two: Environmental Problems Dear learners, this chapter introduce you with the issue of national and global environmental problems, its nature, causes and extent.
Objectives of the chapter: After the completion of this chapter, you will able to: Explain the nature of environmental problems Identify the major global and national environmental problems Identify the root causes of the problem

Environmental Sociology

15

2.1. Introduction It is obvious that an environmental problem is a global issue and it can be found in all areas of the world. Some affect the water, others affect the air, and still others affect the land and the animals. In this unit you will learn various environmental problems and the causes of these problems at national and international levels. Water has been polluted and trees cut down in an endless quest for timber or new pasture land. Precious topsoil that took millennia to make, blows away in the wind and is replaced with poisons to which mankind should never have been exposed. The crisp, clean air has been filled with dirt, filth and danger. Plants and animals that have evolved in patient process have been subjected to genetic engineering often across the species simply in the name of profit. In short, mankind had sought total control over the environment and with potentially disastrous results. 2.2. Nature of Environmental Problems Dear learners, what do you think environmental problem is given a serious attention than before? The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of people and their economic development throughout the world. Thus, a point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world to maintain the natural cycle of the environment. This is because within the environment there is dynamic interrelationship between the living form and physical environment. These relationships can

Environmental Sociology

16

be expressed as a natural cycle which provides a continuous circulation of the essential constituents necessary for life. This cycle mainly operates in a balanced state in an undisturbed natural environment; and as a matter of fact the balanced operation of this natural cycle is a fundamental condition to the continued existence and development of life on earth. Human beings should therefore maintain this balance with nature and act according to the law of nature. Otherwise, man will suffer from the results of his interference. It is this very condition that the World Charter for Nature reiterated. It states that mankind is a part of nature and life depends on the Uninterrupted functioning of natural system which ensures the supply of energy and nutrients. That is, lasting benefits from nature depend upon the maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems, and upon the diversity of life forms, which have been placed at jeopardy through excessive exploitation and habitat destruction by man. At this juncture, it is important to take notice of the fact that the environment, including the human competent, is complex and is not yet completely understood. We are part of that system: our actions affect the system and we are in turn affected by it. In spite of this, we do not have a full understanding either of the system or our interactions with it . This calls for putting in place an early warning system and a system of prioritizing risks, since resources to address risks are always limited; and often the damage to the environment are irreversible or even if reversible can be done only at excessive costs . In other words, many of the damages done to the environment may have long term effects or they may involve important synergism in the environment or may not be effectively reversible such that, the greatest danger is that human kind may set off unchecked degradation that will pass a point of no return, making it impossible to restore a healthy environment.

Environmental Sociology

17

The basis of the emphasis on human acts in environmental protection is the fact that, we are part of the environment and simultaneously we human beings have a capacity and capability not only to improve but also to destroy and destruct nature . For this reason, if we fail to safeguard the environment from being affected by our activities, there is a fear that : Large scale changes resulting from burgeoning human activity will, in relatively near future, alter fundamentally the terms of human existence and may even affect the possibility for human survival. From this stipulation, one can easily infer the fact that environmental danger could possibly jeopardize the very existence of the present generation as well as the future. The preamble of Tokyo Declaration on Financing Global Environment has succinctly put the inter-relationship and the danger posited in the following manner : Human future is at risk due to wasteful pattern of production and consumption in industrialized countries and pervasive poverty and population growth in developing countries which are primarily leading to the destruction of the earths ecological base. By implication, the Tokyo Declaration reveals that the current environmental problems are caused by factors related to unsustainable use of natural resources, and unprecedented growth of population and the cumulative effect of these environmental injuries would undoubtedly all living creatures on earth in jeopardy . So that, environmentalists are warning the world community that we have reached an alarming stage, thus we need to take serious measures of rescuing the quality of our environment to make it last

Environmental Sociology

18

long. In short, protecting and conserving the environment becomes a must case for the purpose of sustaining life on earth successfully now and in the future. Having the above facts, the interaction can be a healthy one, with human kind balancing what he takes from the natural environment with what the environment can afford to provide . Since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, however, human demands placed upon the earths resource have increased dramatically. Although the technological advancements have improved the sustenance capacity of the earth, many of these technologies have also placed added demands on the earths limited resources, thereby bringing us closer to the threshold of the capacity of the earth. Now-a-days, it is clear that the mad rat race among nations over the use of natural sources for development is increasingly jeopardizing the quality of the environment. The craze of these states resulted in over extraction of every bit of natural resources, and this unchecked exploitation of natural resource by man disturbed the delicate ecological balance between living and non-living components of the environment . For this very fact, time has reached when we are facing challenges to our intellect and wisdom for saving the humanity from extinction. To save humanity, therefore, everyone should notice that we human beings are at the heart of the search for sustainable development as our very survival depends on a very narrow range of environmental condition. And to this effect resource withdrawal, processing and re-use of the products have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any development plan. This approach unifies protection of the environment and development programs by formulating the concept of sustainable development in the following manner.

Environmental Sociology

19

In order to achieve sustainable development environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. This concept underlies the need to develop a holistic understanding of the relationship between the environment and the development process . If not, any social and economic development endeavors cannot continue into the future, at least, for two reasons . First, the malfunctioning of such unregulated actions will result in destroying the environmental conditions necessary for the continuation of the activity. And second, the adverse environmental effects resulting from such malfunctioning will cause massive or unacceptable damage to human health and life, and thereby disrupts the normal way of social interaction, peace and regularity of human life. 2.3. Major Global and National Environmental Problems Dear learners, list down the basic environmental problems that we faced at local, national and global level? To have a full picture of environmental problems, it is also noteworthy to take notice of environmental problems arising apart from development activities, which are deliberate actions aimed at destroying the human being and the environment. One of such deliberate acts is the indiscriminate bombardment of cities, towns and countryside areas in effect which renders the civilian population to a military target of a new form of warfareenvironmental warfare . In such a situation the irreparable alteration to the environment may threaten the entire population, and it is tantamount to a crime against humanity, perhaps to a greater extent than genocide which may be limited only to a given ethnic minority in a specified area . To avert this situation, we should not postpone our decision to resolve catastrophic disputes peacefully. If we wait too long, it would become

Environmental Sociology

20

impossible to have any opportunity to reconsider our acts . That is, if we cannot take immediate action, the facts will continue as : We are experiencing diseases today for hazards we did not control yesterday. What we do not take care of today will be there for our children to handle tomorrow. When we look at the scope of environmental damage, in the past, pollution and environmental degradation have obtained largely on the local level and hence their effects have been isolated in impact. Given the increasing global scale of environmental degradation and ever increasing volume of pollutants entering the environment, however, their effects are now being felt on regional and global levels . For this very fact, the problems of environmental degradation do concern all countries irrespective of their size, level of development or ideology. This is true because the oceanic world is an interconnected whole . So, no government or society can take the environment for granted and since it is a global problem it can be tackled only with the assistance and cooperation of all. Today, environmental problems are serious and imminent threats, which suggest a need for drastic or emergency action . This emanates from the magnitude of mans impact on his environment which necessitated a full scale reconsideration of the relationship between the environment and development programmes . In other words, the fact that human kind is now at a crossroads, that is, either to overwhelm the planets support capabilities or to return matters around and preserve its life giving qualities for future generations, calls for the reorientation of mans activities with a view not to make the earth a desolate rooming planet. To this effect, therefore, human beings are now being called upon to save the future. The future, it is presumed, lies entirely in their hands; tomorrow cannot take thought of itself; it is they, now who have to save tomorrow.

Environmental Sociology

21

The above factual situation of environmental problems which reveal the diffused right of human beings to live in a clean and healthy environment, and the pressing need of public participation to save the environment before it reaches no turning point, calls for the reorientation of the law to accommodate public interest litigation. The need for the reorientation of the law emanates from the fact that traditional litigation is designed in a way to enforce the rights of an individual against another, and not to enforce the diffused basic human rights of the public. In other words, the narrow ambit of locus standi permitted entry only to an aggrieved person and not to any member of public at large acting bonafidely. To have a full fledged justice, therefore, the procedural law should be designed with a leeway to accommodate public interest litigation to enable alert citizens and public interest groups redress public wrongs which remained unremedial under the traditional rules of locus standi.

2.3.1. Pollution
Dear learners, what is pollution? Pollution can be defined as the accumulation and adverse effects of contaminants or pollutants on human health and welfare, and/or the environment. In order to understand pollution truly, it is important to define the identity and nature of potential contaminants (Marquica K. 2004). Contaminants can result from waste materials produced from the activity of living organisms, especially humans. However, contamination can also occur from natural process such as arsenic dissolution from bedrock to ground water, or air pollution from smoke that results from natural fires. Pollutants are also ubiquitous in that they can be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. Many of the pollutants occur directly through the activities such as mining or agriculture. In addition, pollution is produced as indirect result of human activities. For example, fossil fuel burning increases atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and increases global warming. Other classes of pollutants can

Environmental Sociology

22

also occur due to poor waste management or disposal, which can lead the presence of pathogenic micro-organisms in water. Environmental pollution, can therefore, be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil) which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. Environmental pollution is caused due to over-use of natural resources, presence of areas, use a large of number of people and livestock in congested agro- chemicals, setting up of factories, running of

automobiles, burning of fuel, etc. 2.3.2. Global Warming Dear learners, what do you think global warming mean and its causes? Global warming is defined as the observed and projected increases in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans. The Earth's average temperature rose about 0.6 Celsius (1.1 Fahrenheit) in the 20th century. Climate change is nothing new. 10 000 years ago. About 18 000 years ago, Earth was

experiencing the last of many ice ages, from which it only emerged about More recently, between the years 1430 and 1850, portions of the Earth passed through a little ice age. The role of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide and water vapor, in warming the Earth is also ancient, and indeed has long served life on Earth well. Radiation from the sun reaches and warms the Earths surface. In turn, Earth emits radiant heat (infrared radiation) back toward space; part of this radiant heat is captured by water vapor and greenhouse gases. Without this so-called greenhouse effect to trap the warmth, the Earth could be 35 C colder than it actually is, and would not support life, causing worldwide temperature to rise and shrinking even Greenland ice sheet. Our worldwide report warned

Environmental Sociology

23

that the melting of Greenlands ice sheet and melting of glaciers in Alaska and Canada are increasing by contributing to a rise in the worlds sea level. 2.3.3. Hazardous Wastes Since the majority of the world population concentrates in urban area which increases disposal of waste products including hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes present immediate or long-term risks to humans, animals, plants, or the environment. It poses greater risk to the environment and human health than non-hazardous wastes. Hazardous waste is any discarded solid or liquid waste. In this section you will learn about the degree of hazardous waste disposal and its effect. Hazardous waste is essentially waste that contains hazardous properties that may render it harmful to human health or the Environment. Hazardous waste poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. 2.3.4. Stratospheric-ozone Depletion Obviously the earth atmosphere has different layers. These are troposphere (up to 10km), stratosphere (1050km), Mesosphere (5090km), Thermosphere (90500km), and Exosphere (>500km). Ozone concentrates in the second layer, i.e., stratosphere or around an altitude of 25km. The ozone molecules absorb dangerous kinds of sunlight, which heats the air around them. In this section you will learn about stratospheric-ozone depletion. The layer closest to the surface is called the troposphere which extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10 kilometers. It is the atmospheric layer within which we live. The troposphere contains about 90% of all air molecules. The stratosphere lies just above the troposphere, 10 to 50 km above Earth.

Environmental Sociology

24

The ozone layer is located above the troposphere in the stratosphere (10 km to about 50 km high). Although stratosphere contains only 10% of the atmospheres air molecules, it has 90% of its ozone. Only 10% of ozone in the troposphere. Dear learners, what is the advantage of ozone layer for human beings? Stratospheric ozone is Earth's natural protection for all life forms, shielding our planet from harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation. UV-B radiation is harmful to humans, animals, and plant life. Stratospheric ozone absorbs more than 95% of the suns UV radiation, which would otherwise reach and damage human, animal, plant, and microbial life. In the stratosphere there is an ongoing natural cycle in which ozone is formed, destroyed, and reformed. The ozone layer is being destroyed by certain industrial chemicals including ozone depleting refrigerants, halons, and methyl bromide, a deadly pesticide used on crops. Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favor of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion. The ozone in the ozone layer is being broken down by chlorine atoms from chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecules and bromine atoms from halons. CFCs and halons are produced by humans used in many applications such as refrigerants, anaesthetics, aerosols, fire-fighting equipment and the manufacture of materials such as Styrofoam. They were thought to be completely safe, chemically inert, and environmentally neutral. However, it was soon found that they were not so ideal when they reached the upper atmosphere. is

Environmental Sociology

25

When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere they are first degraded by the very high energy of UV (ultra-violet) radiation. Degradation of CFC leaves a free chlorine atom. The basic cause of ozone layer depletion is that this chlorine atom then breaks up ozone molecules. Ozone then disappears. The chlorine atoms are recreated in subsequent reactions. One chlorine atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules. Chlorofluorocarbon molecules in the stratosphere release chlorine atoms which break up ozone molecules to form oxygen. Degradation of halons leaves a free bromine atom that destroys ozone in the same way as chlorine. CFCs and halons last a long time (100 years on average). After it was confirmed that an environmentally disastrous sideeffect was taking place in the upper atmosphere, plans and agreements were made to phase out CFCs and halons. However, at the moment CFCs and halons are still being produced and are being put into the stratosphere about 5 times as fast as they can be removed naturally. Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to 100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds are known as industrial halocarbons. Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion. Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century. Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in the atmosphere.

Environmental Sociology

26

Up to 60% of the ozone disappears over some parts of Antarctica. Ozone thinning is seen in places other than Antarctica. Ozone losses measured by ground-based and satellite instruments are also seen over middle-latitude countries such as the United States, Canada, and Europe too. In 1987, an international pact called Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer set specific targets for all nations to achieve in order to reduce emissions of chemicals responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer. In fact, in fall of 2000, the role in the ozone layer Antarctica was the largest they recorded. Scientists believe the ozone layer over Antarctica may not fully recover until 2065. 2.3.5. Land Degradation Dear learners, what is land degradation? Land degradation is a global problem and is the process in which biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human induced processes acting upon the land. Land degradation is a composite term; it has no single readily-identifiable feature, but instead describes how one or more of the land resources (soil, water, vegetation, rocks, air, climate, relief) has changed for the worse. Land degradation generally signifies the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land (UN/FAO definition). Another definition describes it as, "the aggregate diminution of the productive potential the land, including its major uses (rain-fed, arable, as an forest), its farming systems (e.g. small holder subsistence) and its of irrigated, rangeland, value

economic resource." This link between degradation (which is often

caused by land use practices) and its effect on land use is central to nearly all published definitions of land degradation. The emphasis on land, rather than soil, broadens the focus to include natural resources, such as

Environmental Sociology

27 and vegetation. The productivity of grassland

climate, water, landforms definition.

and forest resources, in addition to that of cropland, is embodied in this

2.3.6. Loss of Biodiversity Dear learners, what is loss of biodiversity? Explain Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or on an entire planet. The number of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs all are part of biodiversity. Human activity, despite increased efforts at conservation, has been causing loss of biodiversity. Dear learner, in this section you will learn about loss of biodiversity. The Global Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in 1992 at the Earth Summit, describes biodiversity as the "variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems." 2.3.7. Climate Change and Desertification Climate change is already happening and represents one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats facing the planet. Emission of carbon dioxide and other gases are rising temperature of our earth. In this section you will learn about climate change, causes of climate change and impacts of climate change. Dear learners, what is Climate? What is the difference between climate and weather?

Environmental Sociology

28

Weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. It may rain for an hour and then become sunny and clear. Weather is what we hear about on the television news every night. It includes wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, sunshine and precipitation. Climate is the average weather for a particular region over a long time period. It is the average weather in a place over more than thirty years. Climate describes the total of all weather occurring over a long period of years in a given place. This includes average weather conditions, regular weather seasons (winter, spring, summer, and fall), and special weather events (like tornadoes and floods). Climate tells us what it's usually like in the place where you live. Historically, San Diego is known to have a mild climate, New Orleans a humid climate, Buffalo a snowy climate, and Seattle a rainy climate. The climate of a regional depends on many factors including the amount of sunlight it receives, its height above sea level, the shape of the land, and how close it is to oceans. Scientists who study Earth's climate and climate change study the factors that affect the climate of our whole planet. While the weather can change in just a few hours, climate changes over longer timeframes. Climate events, like El Nino, happen over several years, small-scale fluctuations happen over decades, and larger climate changes happen over hundreds and thousands of years. Today, climates are changing. Our Earth is warming more quickly than it has in the past according to the research of scientists. Hot summer days may be quite typical of climates in many regions of the world, but global warming is causing Earth's average global temperature to increase. The amount of solar

Environmental Sociology

29

radiation, the chemistry of the atmosphere, clouds, and the biosphere all affect Earth's climate. 2.3.8. World Population Growth Dear learners, explain environment? The world population has grown tremendously over the past two thousand years. Increase in population has an impact on the environment. It may result in deforestation and waste accumulation. In this section you will learn about trends in population growth, impacts of population growth or overpopulation on the environment. In 1840, German chemist Justus Von Liebig first proposed that population cannot grow indefinitely, a basic principle known as the law of the minimum. Biotic and abiotic factors, singly or in combination, ultimately limit the size that any populations may attain. This size limit, known as population carrying capacity, occurs when needed resources such as food, breeding sites and water are in short supply. Population growth is increase in the number of people who inhabit a territory or state over time. Population dynamics are one of the key factors to consider when thinking about development. In the past 50 years the world has experienced an unprecedented increase in population. 2.4. The roots Cause of Environmental problems The roots causes of environmental problems are both natural and manmade factors. In this section, you will learn the various causes of environmental problems. This section introduces the major impacts that humans exert on the earths natural system while also emphasizing our profound dependence on the services provided by those systems. the relation between population growth and

Environmental Sociology

30

Dear learners, List some of the factors that contributed to environmental problem? Much of the history of Western civilization has been characterized as exploitation, destruction, and no caring for the environment. Why are such destructive species? Various arguments have been advanced to explain the root causes of our environmentally destructive tendencies, including our religious, our social and economic structure, and our acceptance of technology. Religion: in the first chapter of Genesis, people are commanded by God to subdue nature, to procreate and to have dominion over all living things. This anthropocentric view of nature runs through the Judeo-Christian doctrine, placing human at the pinnacle of development and encouraged humans to use nature as we se fit. In his essay, The Historical roots of Our Ecological Crisis, Lynn White argues that those who embrace the Judeo-Christian religious are taught to treat nature as an enemy and that natural resources are to be used to meet the goals of human survival and propagation. From this dogma, (so goes the argument) have developed technology and capitalist economy and ultimately environmental degradation. Because Judeo-Christians are most prominent in the United States, we often forget that this is not a majority religious tradition in the world. Billions of people embrace very different deities and dogmas, and yet they also live in capitalistic economies with perhaps even greater destruction of environmental quality. So it can not be just the Judeo-Christian religions that are to be blamed. We have to remember also that both Christianity and Islam both developed at a time when there were a number of competing religions from which to

Environmental Sociology

31

choose. For many the Christian ideas and ethics derived from the Judeo traditions seemed to fit comfortably with their existing ethics and value systems, while others choose Islam over other religions. It seems quite obvious that Christianity was not the reason for the development of science, capitalism and democracy, but simply provided an ethical environment in which they flourished (at least in Europe). It seems farfetched, therefore, to blame our environmental problem over our religions. Social and Economic Structures: Perhaps it is our social structures that are responsible for environmental degradation. Garret Hardins The Tragedy of the Commons illustrates this proposition with the following history: A village has a common green for the grazing of cattle, and the green is surrounded by farmhouses. Initially, each farmer has one cow, and the green can easily support the herd. Each farmer realizes, however, that if he or she gets another cow, the cost of the additional cow to be negligible because the cost of maintaining the green is shared, but the profits are the farmers alone. So one farmer gets more cows and reaps more profits, until the common green can no longer supports any ones cows, and the system collapses. Hardin presents this as a parable for the overpopulation of the earth and consequent resource depletion. The social structure in the parable is capitalism the individual ownership of wealth and the use of that wealth to serve selfish interests. Does that mean that non-capitalist economies (the totally and partially planned economies) do a better job of environmental protection, natural resource preservation and population control? The collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 afforded the world a glimpse of the almost total absence of environmental protection in the most prominent socialist nations in the developed world. Environmental devastation in the common wealth of Independent States (the former USSR) is substantially more serious than in the West. In the highly structured and centrally

Environmental Sociology

32 system, production was the single goal and

controlled

communist

environmental degradation became unimportant. Also there was no such thing as public opinion of course, and hence nobody spoke up for the environment. When production in a centrally controlled economy is the goal, all life, including human life, is cheap and expendable. The democratic societies of the developed world have in fact moved consciously toward environmental and resource protection more rapidly than either totally planned economies or the less developed nations. The United States has the oldest national park system in the world, and pollution control in the United States predates that of other developed nations, even Canada, by about 15 years. Science and technology: Perhaps the problem is with science and technology. It has become fashionable to blame environmental ills on increased knowledge of nature (science) and the ability to put that knowledge to work (engineering). During the industrial revolution the Luddite movement in England violently resisted the change from cottage industries to centralized factories; in the 1970s a pseudo -Luddite back to nature movement purported to reject technology altogether. However, the adherents of this movement made considerable use of the fruits of the technology they eschewed, like used vans and buses, synthetic fabrics, and, for the matter jobs and money. People who blame science and technology for environmental problems forget that those who alerted us early to the environmental crisis sounding the environmental alarm as a result of scientific observation. Had we not observed and been able to quantify phenomena like species endangerment and destruction, the effects of herbicides and pesticides on wild life, the destruction of the stratospheric layer, fish kills due to water pollution, we would not even have realized what was happening to the world. Our very

Environmental Sociology

33

knowledge of nature is precisely what altered us to the threats posed by environmental degradation. If knowledge is value free, is technology to blame? If so, less technologically advanced societies must have fewer environmental problems. But they do not. The Maori in New Zealand exterminated the moa, a large flightless bird, there is considerable overgrazing in Africa and on the tribal reservations in the American Southwest; the ancient Greeks and Phoenicians destroyed forests and created deserts by diverting water. Modern technology, however, not only provides water and air treatment systems, but continues to develop ways in which to use a dwindling natural resource base more conservatively. For example, efficiency of thermal electric generation has doubled since World War II, food preservation techniques stretch the worlds food supply, and modern communications frequently obviate the need for energyconsuming travel, and computer use has markedly decreased the use of paper. Technology by itself is not good or bad. On the balance, technology can be used to both good and evil ends, depending on the ethics of the users. In short the way we use it determines its effects. Humans Activity As described in an article in Science, Human domination of Earths in the of the of all

ecosystems, Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide atmosphere has increased by nearly 30% since concentration the beginning than half

Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is now xed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about onequarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction a trace to a single cause, the growing scale of the human enterprise. The rates,

Environmental Sociology

34

scales, kinds, and combinations of changes occurring now are fundamentally different from those at any other time in history; we are changing Earth more rapidly than we understand it. In a very real sense, the world is in our hands and how we handle it will determine its composition and dynamics, and our fate. 2.5. Summary Dear learner, you learned different types of environmental problems and the factors that contributed to environmental problems in this unit. The severity and coverage of environmental problems is increasing from time to time particularly in the 21st century. Human beings are suffering from water, air and soil pollution. In addition, global warming/climate change as a result of mostly human activities, waste accumulation and the resultant consequences and ozone depletion are environmental problems challenging human society. Ecosystem was disturbed in some areas and loss of biodiversity contributed a lot to the aggravation of climate change and expansion of desertification. Population growth observed after industrial revolution increased the service human being need from ecosystem. This also created a problem to the environment. Environmental problems can be caused through natural process and man made factors. However, human intervention is more accelerating the process that lead to environmental problems than natural process. Generally, the root causes of environmental problems are rooted in social, technological and economic factors. 2.6. Self Test Questions 1. What do you think is the sociological significance of studying environmental problems?

Environmental Sociology

35

2. List down basic global and national environmental problems that we faced? 3. Most of the time different individuals and scholars argued that environmental problem is massively the result of human activities? Are agreeing with this and explain? 4. Enumerate the major root causes of environmental problems?

Chapter Three: Human and Nature Interaction Dear learners, this chapter will introduce you with the basic ideas of the dualistic interaction between human and their environment and the theoretical explanation of the interaction between the two.

Chapter Objectives After the completion of this chapter, you will able to: Identify the interdependence between nature and human beings Explain the role of values in influencing the dualistic interaction between the two Identify the theoretical explanation of between human and environment (nature)

3.1. Introduction Throughout history humans have both affected, and been affected by, the natural world. While a good deal has been lost due to human actions, much of what is valued about the environment has been preserved and protected through human action. While many uncertainties remain, there is a realization that environmental problems are becoming more and more complex, especially as issues arise on a more global level, such as that of atmospheric pollution or global warming.

Environmental Sociology

36

Interactions between human society and the environment are constantly changing. The environment, while highly valued by most, is used and altered by a wide variety of people with many different interests and values. Difficulties remain on how best to ensure the protection of our environment and natural resources. There will always be tradeoffs and, many times, unanticipated or unintended consequences. However, a well-managed environment can provide goods and services that are both essential for our well being as well as for continued economic prosperity. The environment has become one of the most important issues of our time and will continue to be well into the future. The challenge is to find approaches to environmental management that give people the quality of life they seek while protecting the environmental systems that are also the foundations of our well being. Human beings are dependent on the natural environment for everything from basic food, clothing and shelter to the materials and advanced sources of energy. We humans take action consciously to remake the world according to our own interests and desires. This action creates problems such as waste accumulation, acid rain, global warming and loss of biodiversity. These ecological issues are issues for social understanding. Sociologists have the following roles in dealing with the environment. First, sociologists can explain how human social patterns have caused mounting stress on the natural environment. Sociologists explain how environmental problems are linked to particular global, historical and cultural change. Second, sociologists can demonstrate how environmental damages are unequally distributed. Third, sociologists conduct research on public opinion towards environmental issues. Finally, sociologists can explore what the environment and nature mean to people of various culture and social backgrounds.

Environmental Sociology

37

Environmental degradation is not a new phenomenon. However, the awareness of the problem grew in the latter years of the 20th century. Todays understanding of the problem is global in scope. This is because the planet constitutes a single ecosystem. This reveals that changes to any part of the natural environment ripple through the entire ecosystem. 3.2. Theoretical Explanation of Human and Nature Interaction Dear learners, sociologically, how can you explain the interaction between we human beings and nature? Most of the writers and scholars have written extensively on the human environment in general and the human environment interaction in particular. For instance, the social, economic, and political factors that result in people having to protect themselves from a polluted environment, and the social, economic, and political consequences of such pollution have attracted the attention of scholars. Demographers in particular, have measured population growth and have equally considered humans in their environment. The effect of human population on the natural environment has been considered by demographers while sociologists have shown interest in the relationship between size, human organizations, environment and technology. Ecologists and agricultural specialists have on their part focused interest in the restoration of land altered by human activity. For instance, restoration ecologists stress the importance of conservation biology, the protection of existing ecosystems through national park and wildlife programmes. Such conservation ensures that species are preserved and can be used to decolonize reclaimed land in restoration projects. One good example of human factors in environmental problems is the management of fisheries. A major goal of fisheries is sustainability; that is, to limit catches so that fish populations are never damaged or depleted. For instance, over-fishing can result in the loss of jobs for those employed in

Environmental Sociology

38

fisheries and loss of food for a nations population. Most of the writers and commentators on human-environment interactions have failed to look beyond outer appearances in order to encounter new levels of social reality. This is what constitutes the core of the sociological perspectives. The sociological perspective invites us to look beyond what we take for granted about our social lives and to examine them in fresh and creative ways (Berger, 1963). There are for instance, many layers of meaning in the human experience; things are not always what they seem. Networks of invisible rules and institutional arrangements guide our behavior. Many of these understandings are below the usual threshold of our awareness. The objective of sociologist to uncovers new levels of reality on humanenvironment interactions. Specifically, three contemporary sociological perspectives: the functionalists, the conflict, and the interactionist perspectives to explain this relationship. A theoretical perspective provides a set of assumptions, interrelated concepts, and statements about how various social phenomena are related to one another. Theoretical perspectives are tools mental constructs that allow us to visualize something. The Functionalist Perspective: An accepted premise of the functionalist position is that no human custom, institution, or set of behavior exists in vacuum; there must always be an interplay between, the component elements of a social system (including the environment), and a continuing interdependence between them is created on many different levels. Structural functionalism seeks to describe the social system in terms of structures, mechanisms, processes, and functions and to explain why a given structure rather than another contributes to the satisfaction of a given functional requisite at a given time. The functionalist draws mainly upon the

Environmental Sociology

39

ideas of the pioneer sociologists Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim. And one of the features of a system stressed by functionalists is its tendency toward equilibrium, or balance, among its parts and among the forces operating on it. The functionalist perspective though has the following draw backs: has difficulty in dealing with history and processes of change, has the tendency to exaggerate consensus, integration, and stability while disregarding conflict, dissent and instability it is still a useful tool for describing society and identifying its structural part and the functions of these parts. Functionalism for instance, provides a big picture of the whole social life, particularly as it finds expressions in patterned, recurrent behavior and institutions. The perspective can be used to analyze various aspects of the humanenvironment interaction. The functionalists approach the ecological environment by examining the inter-connections between the various parts composing the ecosystem. Functionalists see the ecosystem as exhibiting a tendency toward equilibrium; in which its components maintain a delicate balanced relationship with one another. Functionalists stress that our survival depends on our ability to maintain a precarious balance among the living and nonliving component comprising the biosphere (Hughes, 1989). The reciprocal ties that bind human beings and their physical environment in the Sub-Sahara region of Africa present a good example of the humanenvironment interaction. This region is facing the danger of the growing desert causing starvation among its people and an increase in the death of cattells. Much of the desertification is not attributable to basic climatic change, but to the overworking of marginal lands for crops, grassing, and firewood. The introduction of western techniques, such, as irrigation, deep plowing, and the use of chemical fertilizers, has compounded the sub-African regions problems. The irrigated land became waterlogged, accumulated too

Environmental Sociology

40

much salt, and became useless. The wells dug in the arid region led people and cattle to congregate in the vicinity of the wells, with the herds overgrazing the pastures and trampling the ground with their hoofs. The most obvious impact of desertification in addition to widespread poverty is the degradation of a large expanse of land. This generally leads to potential for human and animal carrying capacity, and decline in soil fertility. Deserts are known to be environmental extreme on their own; human-induced desertification has the potential to counteract any ameliorating effect of climatic change on most deserts unless appropriate management actions are taken. The NigerDelta (oil-producing) Region of Nigeria presents another good example of the human-environment interaction. The activities of the oil companies- Shell, Chevron-Texaco, and British Petrol among others in this region have caused lots of damages especially pollution. Pollution causes environmental damage and human health problems. On the economic side, pollution control and clean up in this area costs money. And anything involving money is always affected by politics. The interwoven role played by politics, the economy, human health, and the environment is fully analyzed under the conflict and interactionist perspectives. Expanding human activities on land and seas lead to a vicious cycle because humans intensify their exploitation of the land in order to compensate for desertification and pollution. This can cause a lot of damage, thereby resulting in what Merton calls dysfunction on the land. To avoid this damage to the ecosystem, functionalists emphasis that human beings must become more sensitive to both the manifest (those consequences that are intended and recognized by the participant in a system), and latent (those consequences that are neither intended nor recognized by the participants in a system) consequences of their actions on the environment. Such precaution will lead to a state of balance or equilibrium.

Environmental Sociology

41

The Conflict Perspective: Like functionalists, conflict theorists, focus their attention on society as a whole, studying their institutions and structural arrangements. The main source of conflict in human societies is scarcity of the resources people require, according to conflict perspective. Wealth, prestige, and power are always in limited supply, so that gains for one individual or group are often associated with losses for others. Power, the ability to control the behavior of others, even against their will-determines who will gain and who will lose. Conflict theorists are concerned with how it is that some groups acquire power, dominate other groups, and affect their will in human efforts. Generally speaking, conflict perspective does not offer a unified point of view on many issues. Issues relating to environmental matters are no exceptions. Some conflict theorists have linked environmental problems to the distribution of the worlds resources than to a limited amount of resources available. That is, the main issue is not one of how much is available but one of which individuals and groups will secure a disproportionate share of what is available. Consequently, the critical decisions that affect the environment are made not in the interests of present and future generations but in the interests of those groups that can impose their will on others (Hughes, 1999). From a conflict perspective people are usually separated into two camps on environmental matters. Those who favor economic development and growth even if it results in some measure of environmental damage, and those who see environmental protection over economic goals. Although conflict theorists also see many of the same circumstances earlier discussed in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular, they however, come to somewhat different conclusions. For instance, desertification is not blamed for Africas problems, but rather the growing indebtedness pressure exerted on African governments to promote cash crops for export rather than for food crops for their people. This phenomenon is concisely described in the World Bank Report in the 1980s. The Report explained the situation in five

Environmental Sociology

42

ways: one, from 1980 to 1987, African farmers increased their food output by only 1.3 percent, less than half the rise in population; two, commodity prices fell simultaneously on the world market, and this made it impossible for African nations to repay their debts; three, much of the money provided by Western aid agencies was diverted to highly visible projects such as roads, port facilities, airports, and office buildings, thereby recycling the aid money to Western corporations, to the neglect of the African farmers; four, even when Western nations provided funds for African governments, they have found an outlet for surplus food in need of market which has benefited the United States of America and European farmers; finally, assistance is often rendered to African governments that are friendly toward the donor nations, thus guaranteeing the stability of such cooperative African nations (Johonnes, Gareth 2004). The Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria also fits into the human-environment interactions. The coastal area of Niger-Delta Region contains diverse and productive habitats in addition to minerals that are important for settlements, development and local subsistence. Coastal resources in particular are vital for many local communities and indigenous people. But what exists in the Niger-Delta Region points to the contrary. In addition to the pollution resulting from gas flaring, degradation of the marine environment has also resulted from a wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use, construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, are affecting the marine environment. Shipping also causes marine pollution and sea based activities. In Nigeria, for instance, marine pollution is basically caused by oil producing activities. The marine environment including the oceans and all the seas and adjacent coastal areas form an integrated whole that is an essential component of the global life-support and a positive asset that presents opportunities for sustainable development (Sumit, 1992). Also in Nigeria, in addition to desertification and the hazards of oil producing activities, soil erosion, deforestation and

Environmental Sociology

43

overgrazing are adversely affecting productivity in the farming; forestry and livestock sectors, thereby slowing overall economic growth in a country that is an agriculturally based economy. According to conflict theorists, expanding human requirements and

economic activities are placing ever increasing pressures on land resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in sub-optional use of both land and land resources, and at times loss of lives and property as reported above. If human requirements are to be met in a sustainable manner, it is essential to resolve these conflicts and move towards more effective and efficient use of land and its natural resources. Integrated physical and landuse planning and management are an eminently practical way to achieve this. The Interactionist Perspective: While the functionalist and conflict

perspectives focused on the macro or larger scale structure of society, the interactionist perspective has traditionally been more concerned with the micro or smaller-scale aspect of social life. Interactionists emphasize that humans are social beings who live group existence. Basically, symbolic interaction focuses upon the ways in which meanings emerge through interaction. Its prime concern is to analyse the meanings of everyday life, in a close observational work and intimate familiarity, and from these develop an understanding of the underlying forms of human interaction. Symbolic interactionism has four key foci (Marshall, 1996). The first highlights the ways in which human beings are distinctly always concerned to study the ways in which people give meaning to their feelings, their actions, and to the wider social worlds in which their lives exist. The second highlights process and emergence. For the interactionist, the social world is a dynamic and dialectal web, situations are always encounters with unstable outcomes, and lives and biographies are always in the process

Environmental Sociology

44

of shifting and becoming, never fixed, not upon rigid structures, but upon streams of activity with their adjustments and outcomes. The third focus highlights that the social world is interactive. From this point of view there is no such thing as solidarity individual; humans are always connected to others. The most basic unit of interaction analysis is that of the self, which stresses the ways in which people can come to view themselves as objects, and assume the role of others through a process of the role taking. The final focus is that interactionists look beneath the symbols, processes, and interactions in order to determine the underlying patterns or forms of social life. From interactionism, we gain an image of human beings as active agents who fashion their behavior, as opposed to an image of individuals who simply respond passively in a manner prescribed by social rules and institutional arrangements. Symbolic integrationists focus their sociological eye upon people

behaviors. The two major points of focus here are: the difference between peoples attitudes and their actions, and the difference between expert and public perceptions of risk. The difference between peoples attitudes and their actions. Specifically considered here is the issue of whether people are ready to take action or not. People are generally divided into two groups those who believe that action should be taken to preserve the environment, that is, environmental protection should take priority over economic growth, and those who believe that economic gains should take precedence over environmental protection. 3.2.1. Public versus Expert Perceptions of Risks A gap exists between public and expert perceptions of risk. Two examples can be used to explain this difference: oil spillage, gas flaring, and global

Environmental Sociology

45

warming. In Nigeria, reports from Newspapers and general public discussions show that oil spillage and gas flaring are not only hazardous waste, they also release radioactive materials. Up-to-date, the Nigerian government has not found a solution to how the daily flaring of gas that causes air pollution can be converted to economic advantage. This is not only hazardous to human health; it is also an economic waste. Although the federal government had in the past established Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), the political wrangling, dissolution and reestablishment that had marred the agency does not show that the government and/or the agency realize much about the magnitude of the risks in these problems. By contrast, if Nigerians in general and Delta Region people of Nigeria in particular, are asked about global warming, and alteration of natural habitats, the general opinion will rank relatively low in public concerns, but the Nigerian scientists, who know much about the destructive nature of global warming will place it among the top risks because their long-term potential consequences are known to be damaging. Also their effects can be so widespread and difficult to reverse. One is not saying outright that the Nigerian government does not realize the risk hazards, of oil spillage or gas flaring, but the economic gains more often override ethical considerations. For instance, the Federal Government established the Oil Mineral Producing Area Development Commission (OMPADEC) through Decree Number 23 of December, 1992. The basic objectives of OMPADEC were the physical and human development of the oil producing communities (Mitchel, Bruce 1997). From the symbolic interactionist perspective, one can conclude that environmental issues qualify for the adjective social because of two reasons. One, they involve human judgements, decisions, and choices. Two, they entail an exercise of power. For instance, the poor and minorities of the Niger-Delta Region are much more exposed than other Nigerian citizens to the dangers of environmental hazards. But political skirmishes, settlement

Environmental Sociology

46

syndrome, and division among the Niger-Delta people have prevented all efforts to find solutions to these environmental problems. 3.3. Summary Dear distance learners, in this chapter we have seen the dualistic interaction between human beings and the natural environment as an inevitable process that has both positive and negative implications for environmental sustainability . This is because we human beings are dependent on the natural environment to access our basic needs and wants in which we perform different activities to realize those needs. Those actions directly or indirectly affect the physical, social, economic and cultural aspect of the environment. Hence, such inextricable linkage between human beings and the environment is sociologically explained with structural functionalism, conflict and interactionism theories. 3.4. Self-checking exercise 1. What makes the interaction between environment and human beings is inevitable? 2. What is the difference between the common sense explanation of environmental societal interaction and sociological explanation? 3. Compare and contrast the three major sociological theories in explaining nature and human interaction?

Environmental Sociology

47

Chapter Four: Social Construction of Environmental Issues and Problems Dear learners, this chapter will enables you with the basic rational behind the inclusion of environmental issues as the area of sociological investigation and specifically, it will introduce you with how environmental issues and problems are socially constructed .

Chapter Objectives After the completion of this chapter, you will able to: Define the concept of social constructivism Explain how environmental issues become socially constructed Identify constructivism theory as the basic instrument of claim Identify the major tasks used in social constructivism

4.1. Introduction Central to the social construction of environmental issues and problems is the idea that these do not rise and fall according to some fixed, asocial, selfevident set of criteria. Rather, their progress varies in direct response to successful claims-making by a cast of social actors that includes scientists, industrialists, politicians, civil activists. Environmental problems are similar in many ways to social problems in general. There are, however, a few notable differences. While social problems frequently cross over from a medical discourse to the arenas of public discourse and action (Rittenhouse, 1991), they nevertheless derive much of their rhetorical power from moral rather than factual argument. By contrast, environmental problems such as pesticide poisoning or global servants, journalists and environmental

Environmental Sociology

48

warming are tied more directly to scientific findings and claims (Yearley, 1992). This is true even in the case of environmental justice claims, which are among the most morally charged indictments of corporate and state polluters. Furthermore, although they are traceable to human agents, environmental problems have a more imposing physical basis than social problems, which are more rooted in personal troubles that become converted into public issues. The constructionist interpretation has one primary set of roots in a paradigm shift that transformed the sociology of social problems in the early 1970s. Constructing Social Problems Dear learners, what do think social construction of realities mean? Nearly a quarter of a century ago, the sociology of social problems first began to experience a major conflict with the appearance of a seminal article by Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse (1973) entitled Social problems: a reformulation. Spector and Kitsuse challenged the structural functional approach to social problems that had theretofore dominated the field. Functionalism, as exemplified by the work of Merton and Nisbet (1971), assumed the existence of social problems (crime, divorce, mental illness) which were the direct products of readily identifiable, distinctive and visible objective conditions (Pettenger E., Mary 2007). Sociologists were regarded as experts who employ scientific methods to locate and analyze these moral violations and advise policy-makers on how best to cope. In addition, the sociologists role was to bring to lay audiences an awareness and understanding of worrisome conditions, especially where these were not readily evident. Spector and Kitsuse argued that social problems are not static conditions but rather sequences of events that develop on the basis of collective definitions. Accordingly, they defined social problems as the activities of groups making assertions of grievances and

Environmental Sociology

49

claims to organizations, agencies and institutions about some putative conditions. From this point of view, the process of claims-making is treated as more important than the task of assessing whether these claims are truly valid or not. For example, rather than document a rising crime rate, the social problems analyst is urged to focus on how this problem is generated and sustained by the activities of complaining groups and institutional responses to them. Since 1973, social constructionism has increasingly moved towards the core of social theorizing, generating a critical mass of theoretical and empirical contributions both within the social problems area and across sociology as a whole. The social construction of Environment Dear learners, how do you think we human beings can construct the environment? One of the core concepts of sociology is the social construction of realitythe idea that we shape our understanding of reality through our interaction with each other. Sociologists promote the view that our ideas about nature are necessarily embedded in our personal experience, sociopolitical history and cultural context. In this section we examine different ways in which humans construct nature. In doing so, we emphasize how different social actors may have more power to impose on others their own stories or understandings about the natural world. The differences in the way groups define nature has to do with the collective identities of those groups; and the question of who gets to do with the defining has to do with the groups relative access to political, financial, and other resources. Humans reside in a natural world that is there. But this world is meaningless by itself. Meanings are not inherent in the nature of things. Each culture constructs its own world out of the infinite variety of nature. Nature is

Environmental Sociology

50

socialized, recognized and made into a material manifestation of social structure. Why does the social construction of environment matter? Reification, according to Berger and Luckmann, implies that man is capable of forgetting his own authorship of the human world. Human meanings are no longer understood as world-producing but as being, in their turn, products of the nature of things. It is not an environmental change per se, but the meanings of that change that are negotiated within and between groups of people, that result in socio-cultural outcomes. For example, socio-cultural changes resulting from the environmental change we called Hurricane Katrina. Individuals perceive and categorize that which is given- the social and natural environment in terms of subjective, taken for granted symbols and meanings and thereby define the situations in which they are located. These definitions of the situation constitute reality for those who share these meanings. As the context changes- as environmental change occurs, for example, there is no inherent meaning to the change. In stead, people negotiate the meaning of the environmental change as a reflection of their changing definitions of themselves. In this sense, then nature and the environment are socially and culturally constructed through these social processes negotiation. When society addresses diverse environmental questions, knowledge of the groups with vested interests in that particular physical environment by having incorporated it into their landscapes becomes a factor in understanding subsequent events. This knowledge enables us to consider who influences the definition of the situation and how these influence is accomplished, as well as how the definitions of the situation reflects the and become landscapes through social interaction and

Environmental Sociology

51

groups definitions of themselves. The sociological framework of landscapes provides a vehicle for understanding the use of power and political conflicts that emerge around the issue of global environmental change. Lamont and Wuthnow (1990) define power as the capacity to impose a

specific definition of reality which is disadvantageous to others or as the capacity to structure the situation of others so as to limit their autonomy and life chances. In the context of landscapes, power is the capacity to impose a specific definition of the physical environment, one that reflects the symbols and meanings of a particular group of people. The particular landscape that comes to dominate and thereby influence social actions and the allocation of social resources is the one that represents the group exercising the greatest degree of power. Dear learners why is understanding power is important? Differential access to the media through which the landscape are maintained or changed affects the degree to which one landscape is likely to prevail over others. Access to those media is affected by the power relationships in local, national and global arenas. The power of some groups to access and control the increasingly global media has direct consequences on whose symbolic definitions of nature and the environment get imposed, some times through the use of force, on others with less power. It is suggested that the idea of global environmental change is another landscape and that groups of people are calling for social and political actions on the basis of this definition of the situation. As such the role of sociologists in this global struggle should be expanded to focus more attention on classic sociological questions. What are the classes, ideological, institutional and organizational bases for the struggle over the landscape of

Environmental Sociology

52

global environmental change and how does this struggle illustrate the changing nature of power in global context? Biophysical changes in the environment are meaningful or socio-culturally significant only insofar as cultural groups come to acknowledge them through a redefinition of themselves. 4.4. Constructionism as an Analytic Tool Best (1989) has noted that constructionism is not only helpful as a theoretical stance but also that it can be useful as an analytic tool. In this regard, he suggests three primary foci for studying social problems from a social constructionist perspective: the claims themselves; the claims-makers; and the claims-making process which can be explained as initially conceptualized by Spector and Kitsuse, claims were complaints about social conditions which members of a group perceived to be offensive and undesirable. According to Best, there are several key questions to be considered when analyzing the content of a claim: What is being said about the problem? How is the problem being typified? What is the rhetoric of claims-making? How are claims presented so as to persuade their audiences? Of these, it is the third question that has generated the most interest among contemporary social problems analysts. Using the example of the missing children, e.g. runaways, child-snatched abductions by strangers, Best (1987) analyses the content of social problems claims by focusing on the rhetoric of claims-making. Rhetoric involves the deliberate use of language in order to persuade. Rhetorical statements contain three principal components or categories of statements: grounds, warrants and conclusions. Grounds or data furnish the basic facts that shape the ensuing policy-making discourse. There are three main types of grounds statements: definitions, examples and numeric estimates. Definitions set the boundaries or domain

Environmental Sociology

53

of the problem and give it an orientation, that is, a guide to how we interpret it. Examples make it easier for public bodies to identify with the people affected by the problem, especially where they are seen as helpless victims. Atrocity tales are one especially effective type of example. By estimating the magnitude of the problem, claims-makers establish its importance, its potential for growth and its range (often of epidemic proportions). Warrants are justifications for demanding that action be taken. These can include presenting the victim as blameless or innocent, emphasizing links with the historical past or linking the claims to basic rights and freedoms. For example, in analyzing the professional literature on elder abuse, Baumann (1989) identified six primary warrants: (1) the elderly are dependent; (2) the elderly are vulnerable; (3) abuse is life-threatening; (4) the elderly are incompetent; (5) ageing stresses families; (6) elder abuse often indicates other family problems. Conclusions spell out the action that is needed to alleviate or eradicate a social problem. This frequently entails the formulation of new social control policies by existing bureaucratic institutions or the creation of new agencies to carry out these policies. Best further proposes two rhetorical themes or tactics which vary according to the nature of the target audience. The rhetoric of rectitude (values or morality require that a problem receive attention) is most effective early on in a claims-making campaign when audiences are more polarized, activists are less experienced and the primary demand is for a problem to be viewed in a new way. By contrast, the rhetoric of rationality (ratifying a claim will earn the audience some type of concrete benefits) works best at the later stages of social problems construction when claims-makers are more sophisticated, the primary demand is for detailed policy agendas and audiences are more persuadable. Rafter (1992) has added another rhetorical tactic to Bests list: that of archetype formation. Archetypes are the templates from which stereotypes are minted and

Environmental Sociology

54

therefore possess considerable persuasive power as part of a claims-making campaign. A further set of rhetorical strategies in claims-making has been proposed by Ibarra and Kitsuse (1993) who outline a variety of rhetorical idioms, motifs and claims-making styles. (Hannigan, 2006). Rhetorical idioms are image clusters that endow claims with moral significance. They include a rhetoric of loss (of innocence, nature, culture, etc.); a rhetoric of unreason that invokes images of manipulation and conspiracy; a rhetoric of calamity (in a world full of deteriorating conditions, epidemic proportions are claimed for a few; for example, AIDS or the greenhouse effect); a rhetoric of entitlement (justice and fair play demand that the condition, or as Ibarra and Kitsuse term it, the condition-category, be redressed), and the rhetoric of endangerment (condition-categories pose intolerable risks to ones health or safety). Rhetorical motifs are recurrent metaphors and other figures of speech (AIDS as a plague, the depletion of the ozone layer as a ticking time bomb) that highlight some aspect of a social problem and imbue it with a moral significance. Some motifs refer to moral agents, others to practices and still others to magnitudes (Ibarra and Kitsuse 1993 cited in Hannigan, 2006). Claims-making styles refer to the fashioning of a claim so that it is synchronous with the intended audience (public bodies, bureaucrats, etc.). Examples of claims-making styles include a scientific style, a comic style, a theatrical style, a civic style, a legalistic style and a subculture style. Claimsmakers must match the right style to the situation and audience. Claims-makers In looking at the identity of claims-makers, Best (1989) advises that we pose a number of questions. Are claims-makers affiliated to specific organizations, social movements, professions or interest groups? Do they represent their

Environmental Sociology

55

own interests or those of third parties? Are they experienced or novices? (As we have seen, this can influence the choice of rhetorical tactics.) Many studies that have been undertaken in the social constructionist mode have pointed to the important role played by medical professionals and scientists in constructing social problems claims. Others have noted the importance of policy or issue entrepreneurs politicians, public interest law firms, civil servants whose careers are dependent upon creating new opportunities, programmes and sources of funding. Claims-makers may also reside in the mass media, especially since the manufacture of news depends upon journalists, editors and producers constantly finding new trends, fashions and issues. The cast of claims-makers who combine to promote a social problem can be quite diverse. For example, Kitsuse et al. (1984) identify three main categories of claims-makers in the identification of the kikokushijo problem in Japan, that is, the educational disadvantage of Japanese schoolchildren whose parents have taken them abroad as part of a corporate or diplomatic posting: officials in prestigious and influential government agencies; informally organized groups of diplomatic and corporate wives; and the meta a support group of young adults who have been victims of the kikokushijo experience. (Hannigan, 2006). It is also important to keep in mind that not all claims-makers are to be found among the grassroots or civil society. For example, it has been suggested that the contemporary obesity crisis has been captained by a relatively small group of scientists and doctors, many directly funded by the weightloss industry, [who] have created an arbitrary and unscientific definition of overweight and obesity. The Process of Claims-making

Environmental Sociology

56

Wiener (1981) has depicted the collective definition of social problems as a continually ricocheting interaction among three sub-processes: animating the problem (establishing turf rights, developing constituencies, funneling advice and imparting skills and information); legitimating the problem (borrowing expertise and prestige, redefining its scope, e.g. from a moral to a legal question, building respectability, maintaining a separate identity); and demonstrating the problem (competing for attention, combining for strength, i.e. forging alliances with other claims-makers, selecting supportive data, convincing opposing ideologists, enlarging the bounds of responsibility). These are overlapping rather than sequential processes which together result in a public arena being built around a social problem (Hannigan, 2006). Hilgartner and Bosk (1988 cited in Hannigan, 2006) have identified these arenas of public discourse as the prime location for the evaluation of social problem definitions. However, rather than examining the stages of problem development, they propose a model which stresses the competition among potential social problems for attention, legitimacy and societal resources. Claims makers or operatives are said to deliberately adapt their social problem claims to fit their target environments; for instance, by packaging their claims in a novel, dramatic and succinct form or by framing claims in politically acceptable rhetoric. 4.5. Key Tasks/ Processes in the Social Construction of Environmental Problems In defining environmental problems, bringing them to societys attention and provoking action, claims-makers must engage in a variety of activities which includes; assembling, presenting and contesting claims that is summarized below in the table: Table 1; Key tasks in constructing environmental problems

Environmental Sociology Tasks Assembling -discovering the problem -naming the problem -determining the basis of the claim -establishing parameters Science Scientific trend spotter Lack of clarity ambiguity conflicting scientific evidence creating an experiential focus streamlining knowledge claims scientific division of labor

57

Primary activities

Presenting -commanding attention -legitimating claim

the

Contesting -invoking action -mobilizing support -defending ownership

Central forum Predominant layer of proof Predominant scientific role(s) Potential pitfalls

mass media Moral Communicator low visibility declining novelty linkage to popular issues and causes use of dramatic verbal and visual imagery rhetorical tactics and strategies

Politics Legal Applied policy analyst co-optation issue fatigue countervailing claims networking developing technical expertise opening policy windows

Strategies success

for

Source: modified from Hannigan, 2006

Summary Dear distance learners, this chapter explains the social construction of social reality and environmental issues and problems. Hence, social constructivism as the basic advocacy of sociologists explains every reality that exists in this world is the result of societal labeling and naming through social interaction. More specifically, social construction of environmental issues and social problems are the cumulative result of the claim, claim maker and claim making process through performing the three major tasks of assessing, presenting and contesting. 4.6. Self-Checking Exercise

Environmental Sociology

58

1. Why do you think the social construction of social reality becomes the basic point of sociological inquiry? 2. What is the difference between the conceptualization of environmental problems and social problems?

3. Enumerate and explain the basic components of constructing social realities?

Chapter Five: Sociological Perspectives on Environmental Problems 5.1. Chapter Objectives Dear students, upon the accomplishment of this chapter, you are expected to become able to: 1. Identify the possible relationship between the social and natural realms of the world; 2. Apprehend the main intentions of different social explanations about environmental problems on earth; and Questions for discussion 3. Understand the main tenets of ecofeminism. 1. What is the relationship between the social and environmental dimensions of the planet? 2. What do you think about the intention of sociological explanations in addressing environmental problems? 3. What are the prominent sociological perspectives for the explanation of environmental problems? 4. What is the subject matter of sociological theories of environmental problems?

Environmental Sociology

59

5.2. Introduction Sociological theories can be understood as the main school of thought within the discipline of sociology. Theoretical perspectives within sociology provides researchers and students with guidance as to what sorts of problems and questions may be in need of investigation, the concepts and hypotheses that might guide that investigation or explain its outcomes, and the methods appropriate to undertake it. While there are diverse theoretical perspectives within sociology, they have in common an assumption that the root cause of all social phenomena is social relationships (White, 2004). Here, we can see that environmental problems are the outcomes of social relationships of people in different parts of the world. In other ways, out values, ideologies, norms, customs and traditions all act upon our immediate natural and social environment. The behaviors and conducts of members of a given society towards the natural as well as social environments are guided by the elements culture. All social behaviors like becoming economically advanced or less advanced are related with our sociocultural settings which are mostly formed by the type of social interaction we have one another (Redckuft & Benton, 1994). Until 1970, sociologists found themselves without any prior body of theory or research to guide them towards a distinctive understanding of the relationship between society and environment. However, each of the three prominent classical sociological pioneers (Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber) questionably had as implied environmental realms to their

Environmental Sociology

60

works. Eventually, isolated works regarding natural resources and the environment had appeared particularly within the area of rural sociology though this had never combined into a cumulative body of work (Hannigan, 1995). Dear students, as you know from your lesson on the courses introduction of sociology and sociological theories, both biological and geographical theories of social development and social change lost their predominance when the discipline sociology came to the scene as a unique discipline in the early 20th century. Thus, it is appropriate to address the issue how both geographical and biological theories failed when sociology emerged. Environmental sociology has gone through two distinct stages since its emergence in the 1970s as a discrete disciplinary area: (1) to identify a key factor that created and enduring crisis of environmental degradation and destruction; to more and (2) to discover and the most effective friendly mechanism of environmental reform of improvement which will help chart the way forward socially secure environmentally arrangements (Hannigan, 1995). Sociological theories on environmental problems are

explanations of social causes and responses of environmental problems. 5.3. Structural Functionalists Perspective Dear learners, please think over these things before reading functionalists point of view on environment. Functionalism and Functionalist Equilibrium and Stability Consensus and Pathology For structural functionalist perspective environmental sociology deals with the interaction between the natural environment and people. It underlines a stable relationship between the two. Hence, structural functionalists emphasize on the interdependence between human beings and the natural

Environmental Sociology

61

environment because they are taken as parts of the social system. As to this perspective, human actions, social patterns and cultural values affect the environment, and, in turn, the environment affects social life. Environmental problems, for functionalists, are therefore pathological that should be solved for the stability of the human lives on earth (Mooney, 2005). It focuses on how change in one aspect of the asocial system affects other in a society. For example, after the national election of May, 2004 in Ethiopian, public concerns about most of environmental problems declined sharply, most likely due to the increasing concern about the political issues over the same period, or the environment has been squeezed out of media headlines or both. This perspective is concerned with the latent functions-consequences of social actions that are unintended and not widely recognized. For example, more than 840,000 dams worldwide provide water to irrigate farmlands and supply 17% of worlds electricity (Mooney, 2005). Yet, dam building has had unintended negative consequences for the environment including the loss of water lands and wildlife habitats, the emission of methane from rotting vegetations trapped in reservoirs, and the altering of river flows downstream kills plant and animal lives. Being mindful of latent functions means paying attention to the unintended and often hidden environmental consequences of human activities. 5.4. The Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective, in general focuses on how wealth, power and the pursuit of profit underlie many environmental problems. Wealth is related to consumption patterns that cause environmental problems. Wealthy nations have highest per capita consumption of petroleum, wood, metal, cements, and generate large volume of waste. Our capitalist economic system has been identified as a primary source of conflict over polluting (or conserving)

What is the central thing for conflict theory in relation to the

Environmental Sociology

62

our national world. Competing political and economic interests ensure that this conflict will continue. As to environmental scholars, the capitalist system encourages pollution, simply because air and water are treated as infinite and free resource. Polluters do not really consider who or what is being affected by environmental problems.

According to Hannigan (1995), of the three main sociological traditions, it is associated with Karl Marx (the founding father of conflict theory) has provoked the most intensive response from present-day environmental interpreters. It was Marxs analysis of social structure and social change that has become the starting point for several formidable contemporary theories of the environment. Marx and his followers believed that social conflict between the two antagonistic classes in a society the capitalists and the proletariats alienates ordinary people from their jobs and leads to their estrangement form nature itself (Mooney, 2005). As to Marx and his colleagues, when the industrial revolution proceeded through the 18th and 19th centuries, rural workers were removed from the land and driven into crowded, polluted cities while the soil itself was drained of its vitality. Thus, according to Karl Marx and his colleagues, capitalism was taken as the single factor that produces a wide range of social ills from overpopulation and resource depletion to the alienation of people from the natural world with which they were once united. Therefore, for Marx and his followers, the solution for environmental problems of the world is the overthrow of the dominant system of production, capitalism, and to establish in its place of a rationale, humane, environmentally unalienated social order (Hannigan, 1995). Subsequently, the establishment of a new relationship between nature and people becomes the panacea of environmental problems. But, Marx did not put clear about the form of the relationship between the natural setting and

Environmental Sociology

63

the people even though he argued that a distinctly anthropocentric direction depicting humans as achieving mastery over nature. Contemporary Marxist theory emphasizes not only the roles of capitalists but also that of the state in fostering ecological destructions (Gross & Heinrichs, 2010). According to the conflict theories in the contemporary world, resource distribution is the main factor for the destruction of the natural environment. This condition can be seen in the argument that states: the wealthiest 20% of the worlds population are responsible for 86% of total private consumption of natural resources (Mooney, 2005). The capitalist pursuit of profit encourages making money from industry regardless of the damage done to the environment since profit motives are the main driving forces for the capitalists which make them blind of the hazardous depletion of environment. Besides, to minimize sales, manufacturers design products to become obsolete. As a result of this planned obsolescence, consumers continually throw away used products and purchase replacements. Industries profit at the expense of environment which must sustain the constant production and absorb ever-increasing amount of waste. They also use their wealth and power to politicians environmental policies. 5.5. Ecofeminist Perspective Dear learners, you may female or if you are male, please assume that you are a female, and think about the relationship of being a female with the natural environment. In what ways a female can be seen as someone who is nearer than male? Or, is there anything in the natural environment that related women with a hard glue? According to ecofeminists respect for nature generally promotes humans welfare and genuine respect for all human beings tends to protect nature. Ecofeminism, according to Pepper (1996), is a perspective within environmentalism which is influenced by the general development of feminism. Ecofeminists unite in a central belief in the essential convergence between women and nature since, as to the proponents, womens biological make-up inevitably associates with the natural functions of reproduction and

Environmental Sociology

64

nurturing. The other reason for the convergence between women and nature is, according to Pepper (1996), that women and nature have in common that they are exploited by men, both economically and in being objectified and politically marginalized. Here, the argument is that (1) men/humans are different from women/nature; (2) men/humans are superior to women/nature, and therefore justified in dominating them. Ecofeminism denies that differences imply superiority of justify domination. Hence Ecofeminism, as one strand of the feminist perspective, began in 1974 to call attention to womens potential to realize an ecological revolution. This perspective view environmental problems as resulting from human domination of the environment and see connection between the domination of women, people of colors, children and the poor and the domination of the nature (King & McCarthy, 2009). Throughout the world and developing countries in particular, men are dominant in deciding on how natural resources are used. Men are dominant in positions of government and corporate leadership and own most of the land. By some estimates, women around the world hold little to less than 2% of the land that is owned. Ecofeminists often use a spiritual approach to addressing environmental problems drawn on pagan Native American, New Age Eastern religions that emphasize the close connection between women and the nature. Ecofeminists argue the reality that many third world nations are facing in the new future is one with half of their populations under the age of 18, roaming shanty towns in overcrowded cities looking for food and work while the ecosystem die around them (Hannigan, 1995). An ecosystem response to this suffering would involve: (1) the health of the biosphere demands that the rate of population growth level off everywhere and then decline (with the exception of tribal peoples in danger of extinction); (2) Third World women have made clear that they are not interested in contraception unless the health and economic conditions are improved (studies have shown that when

Environmental Sociology

65

the death rate of children goes down, the birth rate goes down); (3) women at the regional level must be involved with the planning of population control programs, healthcare, education, and small-scale economic opportunities; (4) governments and institutions must address the patriarchal attitudes that condition men to demand a large number of offspring in order to prove one's virility --as well as the patriarchal attitudes that bring such misery, and sometimes death, to young mothers who give birth to a female under China's"successful" one-child-only policy (Hannigan, 1995). Pepper (1996), argued that during and since the 1970s, debates within ecofeminism have concentrated on two leading schools of thought: cultural/radical ecofeminism and social ecofeminism (socialist/anarchist ecofeminism). 5.5.1. Cultural/Radical Ecofeminism This school of ecofeminism depends on the the problems of our mother could be solved by a women culture. This culture would draw on ancient myths combining women and nature, mother and earth, in a cooperative relationship: caring, nurturing, mutually giving and receiving. the idea is that since the menstrual cycles follow phases of the moon, and fertility the rhythm of the seasons, then women feel themselves as part of the eternal cycle of birth, growth, maturation, and death, which follows through them, not outside them (Pepper, 1996, p. 106). Similarly, ecofeminism celebrates feminine closeness to nature. cultural/radical ecofeminism contends, then, that female culture is

concerned with the body, the flesh, the material, natural processes, emotions and subjective feelings and private life, while male culture emphasizes the mind, intellect, reason, culture, objectivity, economics and public life. This school constantly seeks to transcend natural constraints on what humans can do: men constantly fight to conquer, exploit and mould

Environmental Sociology

66

nature, leaving their mark behind and thus achieving a form of immorality and transcendence (Pepper, 1996). According to the writer, cultural ecofeminism means liberating nature from the repressive male ethos so that is will be suspected as a sustainer of life (Buttel, 2003). However, this school of ecofeminist though is not free from problems. First, if it claims that women have a special relationship with nature by virtue of their biological roles (birth, nurturing) then men might stand permanently condemned because of their biology to an inferior sort of relationship with nature. In fact, men increasingly involve themselves in nurturing the young thus departing from the male cultural stereotype. Secondly, if the special relationship is claimed on the grounds of common opposition by men, this is also problematic, for women are not the only oppressed group in a society. Indeed, it could be argued that men are oppressed in capitalism. Patriarchy may not, either, explain racism or class oppression (Buttel, 2003). Thirdly, it is difficult to prove that patriarchy is responsible for exploiting both women and nature. As Pepper (1996) argued, it is a vague and loose argument to suggest that merely because both men and nature are dominated they are so for the same reason. Emancipating women may not, therefore, automatically emancipate nature, and vice versa. Fourthly, any cultural/radical feminism that wishes to elevate a female stereotype rather than a male stereotype is problematic since both stereotypes are deficient.

5.5.2. Materialist social ecofeminism

Environmental Sociology

67

Pepper (1996) combined different works and considered that social (socialistanarchist) ecofeminism picks up many traditions in non-mainstream European socialism: utopian socialism, classical anarchism, early Marx, Engels dialects of nature, Morris News from nowhere and the critical theory of Frankfurt school of neo-Marxism. They all insist that exploitation of nature relates to exploitation in society, emphasizing social and political rather than personal aspects of the domination of women and nature. Social ecofeminism resists essentialism in general and biological determinism in particular. A womans exploitation is interwoven with class, race, and species oppression. It also rejects the crude economic class reductionism of some Marxism; is does not accept that womens oppression is merely a special case of exploitation of the proletariat, or that to establish socialism would mean automatically ending womens or natures oppression. People also argue that there is a need to construct a social feminism often introduce more idealism that materialist analysis. some of the idealist social ecofeminism proponents consider that there can be no liberation for women in a society whose fundamental model of relationships is hierarchical, so women must unite with the environmental movement to reshape the underlying values of this society, that is its prevailing ideas, from which hierarchical organization and domination are held to stem. 5.6. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective This perspective focuses on how meanings, labels and definitions learned through interaction and through the media affect the environment. Whether an individual recycles, car-pools, or joins an environmental activist group is influenced by the meanings and definitions of these behaviours that the individual learns through interactions with others. Large corporations and industries commonly utilize marketing and public relation strategies to construct favourable meanings of their corporations or

Environmental Sociology

68

industries (Mooney, 2005). There are several examples related with this idea. The term green-washing refers to the way environmentally antisocially damaging companies portray their corporation image and products as being environmentally friendly or socially responsible. Philip Morris, the infamous cigarette and food producer, donated $6 million to charity in 1999, but spent $108 million in advertising to tell the world about their generosity. DuPont, the biggest private generator of toxic waste in the US, attempt to project a green image by producing a TV and showing seals clapping, whales and dolphins jumping and flamingos flying. A logging company facing opposition from environmentalist in New Zealand, describe their activities as sustainable harvesting indigenous production forests- a phrase that sounds more environmentally friendly than logging of old growth forest (Mooney, 2005). 5.7. Chapter Summary Although there are several sociological theories that can explain the possible relationships between human beings with the natural environment, this chapter attempted to discuss only some general perspectives. The chapter tried to show the interactions between the natural and social environments. In elaborating the relationship between the two is vital in the development of the knowledge-base. Different sociological theories of global, regional, and national environmental problems have been addressed under this chapter. Structural functionalists often observe the stabled and patterned ways of relationships between the environment and peoples life. It believes that there is interconnectedness between the two while conflict perspective deals with the conflicting relationship between people and natural environments. Similarly symbolic interactionists are interested in understanding how people define the existing environmental problems and their consequences. Finally, the chapter addressed the ecofeminist perspective on the relationship between the natural environment and

Environmental Sociology

69

peoples ways of life which centered on belief in the essential convergence between women and nature since womens biological make-up inevitably associates with the natural functions of reproduction and nurturing. 5.7. Self-checking exercises: 1. What is the main reason for concentrating on the relationship between the social and natural environment? 2. Do you think that functionalists believe in the idea of interconnection between the natural and social environments? Why? 3. What is the cause for the prevalence of conflict between the social and natural environments for conflict theorists? 4. Discuss the subject matters to ecofeminism. 5. What are the differences between cultural and material ecofeminists? 6. What makes ecofeminism different and similar with other feminist theories? 7. How do people make meanings about the consequences environmental problems on earth?

Environmental Sociology

70

Chapter Six: Sustainable Development, Principles and Controversies 6.1. Chapter objectives

A dear learner, the main intentions of this chapter is, at the end, to make you capable of: understanding the concept sustainable development; becoming aware of the controversies on sustainable development; identifying various discourses of sustainable development; familiarizing development; understanding several issues raised within sustainable development; apprehending what environmentally sustainability is meant; and being aware of the issues raised at different world summit of sustainable development and their importance. 6.2. Sustainable Development: the concept Questions for Discussion 1. What is sustainable development? 2. Do you think that sustainability and development are compatible? The definition of sustainable development is difficult since it embodies a number of ideas imported from different disciplines like economics, ecology, sociology and environmental studies. Sustainable development involves meeting the needs of the present world without endangering the ability of the future generations in meeting their own needs (Mawhinney, 2002). The aim, here, is for those alive today to meet their own needs without making it impossible for future generations to meet their needs. This, in turn, calls for an economic structure within which we consume only as much as the natural environment can produce and make only as much waste as the environment can absorb (Mawhinney, 2002). yourself with the focusing areas of sustainable

Environmental Sociology

71

The central objective of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit was to establish the need to replace the existing exploitative and environmentally damaging forms of economic development with more sustainable and environmentally friendly form of development. It relates to the capacity of a system to maintain a continuous flow of whatever each part of that system needs for its healthy existence (Hancey & Danny, 2000). Conservativists and ecologists have long been aware of the significance of sustainability within the natural environment system. However, it was not until the late 1980s that the broader concept of sustainable development was first introduced by the world commission on environment and development (Hannigan, 1995). Generally, we can say that development involves more than economic growth; it involves sustainability-the long term environmental, social, and economic health of societies. Sustainable development is not a matter of conserving the natural environment. 6.3. Controversies on Sustainable Development The issue of sustainable development has several controversial matters among several scholars and politicians around the world. One possible confusion on the issue is related with needs. It is obvious that needs themselves change. So it is unlikely that those of future generations will be the same as of the present generation (White, 2004; White 2008).
Think over the following question: Why the concept sustainable development is controversial? What measures can be taken to mitigate environmental problems having controversies on sustainable development?

The other area of confusion is related with the definitions of needs themselves. How needs are defined in different situations and cultures? Most of the consensus surrounding sustainable development has involved a

Environmental Sociology

72

syllogism. Sustainable development is necessary for all of us, but it may be defined differently in different sociocultural settings (White, 2004). Still there are also considerable confusions surrounding what is to be sustained. One of the reasons that there are so many contradictory approaches to sustainable development is that different people identify the objects of sustainability differently: economic, social, environmental, cultural, or ecological? (Barrow, 2006). For those whose primary interest is in ecological systems and the conservation of natural resources, it is the natural resource base which needs to be sustained. However, there are several key questions posed to this conception: how can development activities be designed which help to maintain ecological processes, such as soil fertility, the assimilation of wastes, and water and nutrient recycling? Another related issue is the conservation of genetic materials, both in themselves and (perhaps more importantly) as part of complex and vulnerable systems of biodiversity (Strange & Bayley, 2008). The natural resource base needs to be conserved because of its intrinsic value. There are other approaches, too. Some environmental economists argue that the natural stock of resources, or critical natural capital, needs to be given priority over the flows of income which depends upon it. They make the point that manmade capital cannot be an effective substitute for natural capital. If our objective is the sustainable yield of renewable resources, sustainable development implies the management of these resources in the interest of that natural stock (Pepper, 1996). This raises a number of issues which are both political and distributive: who owns and controls genetic materials and manages the environment? At what points does the conservation of natural capital unnecessarily inhibit the sustainable flows of resources? Second, according to what principles are the social institutions governing the use of resources organized? What systems of tenure dictate the ownership and

Environmental Sociology

73

management of the natural resource base? What institutions do we bequeath, together with the environment, to future generation? (Strange & Bayley, 2008). Several discourses are, therefore, have been developed in relation to the concept sustainable development. These discourses are briefly addressed in the next subtopic. 6.4. Discourses Statements of sustainable development implicitly or explicitly position themselves in terms of the crisis of justice and the crisis of nature. Different social actors generate different types of knowledge; they highlight certain issues and underplay others. Where attention gets focused, how the problem is defined, where solutions are sought, which agents are privileged all depend on how the debate on sustainability is framed (Radclift & Woodgate, 2010). There is, however, one assumption that is common to all sustainability discourses: it is the hunch that the era of infinite development hope has passed, giving way to an era in which the finiteness of development becomes and accepted truth. Yet these discourses differ drastically in the way they understand finiteness; they read the limits to development either more in terms of space or mote in terms of time.
6.4.1. The Contest Perspective

With

the

most

recent

waves

of

economic

transnationalization,

competitiveness has become the urgent imperative for economic and political actors around the world. The contest perspective depends on this competitiveness. For this perspective, environmental concern emerges as a force propelling economic growth. Shifting consumer demand spurs innovation, trimming down resource use lowers production costs, and environmental technology opens up new markers. Ecology and economics appear to be compatible; the pursuit of both promises to be, as the magic formula goes, a positive-sum game (Radclift & Woodgate, 2010). Growth is regarded as part of the solution, not as part of the problem. Indeed, it is

Environmental Sociology

74

perhaps this conceptual innovation which has done most to propel environmentalism into mainstream thought. The search for competitive strength can live with the concept of the finiteness of development in space, but cannot concur with the notion of finiteness of development in time. According to Radclift and Woodgate (2010), for the contest perspective is, therefore, the growth of civilization, and its further diffusion through free trade remained unquestioned in terms of time, while their limitations in geographical space is secretly accepted.
6.4.2. The Astronauts Perspective

Many environmentalists claim to be saving nothing less than the planet. For them, the blue earth, that suggestive globe, suspended in the dark universe, delicately furnished with clouds, oceans and continents, has become the reality that ultimately matters, Radclift and Woodgate (2010) argued. Since the 1970s, the world has been increasingly perceived as a physical body sustained by a variety of biogeochemical processes rather than as a collection of states and cultures. Sustainability is, thus, increasingly conceived as a challenge for global management. Experts set out to identify on a planetary scale the balance between human extractions/emissions, on the one hand, and the regenerative capacities of nature, on the other, mapping and monitoring, measuring and calculating resource flows and biogeographical cycles around the globe. This is essential if a more accurate estimate is to be provided of the carrying capacity of the planet Earth and of its resilience under the many stresses placed upon it by human activities.(Agenda 21, ch. 5.1). Fundamental to this perspective, is, because the effects of industrial civilization spread globally, the range of responsibility of the North should also embrace the entire globe. As a consequence, the globe is considered the proper arena for environmental adjustment, and not chiefly the South, as

Environmental Sociology

75

in the contest perspective. Scarcity against global threats is sought primarily in the rational planning of planetary conditions, not in the defence of the empires of wealth. The fragility of the biosphere put under stress by human action is the story line of this approach (Radclift & Woodgate, 2010).
6.4.3. The Home Perspective

Sustainable development in this perspective is neither about economic excellence not about biospherical stability, but about local livelihoods. From this point of view, the number one cause of environment degradation is overdevelopment and not an inefficient allocation of resources or the proliferation of the human species. Under this perspective, the focus is the goal and the structure of development which is seen in the North as one diminishing well-being, and in both instances as environmentally disruptive (Radclift & Woodgate, 2010). Sustainable development is suspected of being an oxymoron; in one way or the other, practical and theoretical efforts therefore aim at alternative to economic development. Moreover, it is in this perspective that the crisis of justice figures prominently in the debate. 6.5. Areas of Sustainable Development The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development listed such areas as, education and awareness, international law, science, atmosphere, capacity building, land management, international cooperation for enabling environment, institutional arrangements, demographics, chemicals, desertification and drought, national sustainable development strategies and settlement (Mooney, 2005). Often times, sustainable development is an ambiguous concept, as wide array of views fall under its umbrella. As it has been tried to address above, the concept sustainable development has included the notions of weak sustainability, string sustainability, and deep ecology. Different conceptions also reveal a strong tension between econcentrism and

Environmental Sociology

76

anthropocentrism (Pepper, 1995). Thus, the concept remains weakly defined and contains a large amount of debate as to its precise definitions. During the last ten years, different organizations have tried to measure and monitor the proximity to what they consider sustainability by implementing what has been called sustainability metric and indices. 6.6. Issues within Sustainable Development There are three key issues that are taken seriously in sustainable development: 1. Intergenerational implication of resource use how effectively do decisions about the use of natural resources preserve an environmental heritage or estate for the benefit of future generation? 2. Equal concern who has access to resources? How fairly are available resources allocating between the competing claimants? 3. Time horizon how much are resource allocation decisions oriented towards stability. 6.7. Principles of Sustainable Development Respect and care for the community life, Improve the quality of life, Conserve the earths utility and diversity, Minimize the depletion of nonrenewable resources, Keep with the earths carrying capacity, Change personal attitudes and practices, Enable communities the care for their own environment, Provide the national framework for integrating short-term economic gain or long-term environmental

development and environment, and Create a global alliance.

Environmental Sociology

77

6.8. Environmental Sustainability Environmental sustainability is defined as the ability of the environment to continue to function properly indefinitely. This involves meeting the present needs of humans without endangering the welfare of future generations. The goal of environmental sustainability is to minimize environmental degradation, and to halt and reverse the processes they lead to (Ukaga, Maser & Reichenbach, 2010). Anunsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the sum total of natures resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished (Mawhinney, 2002). Sustainability requires that human activity only uses natures resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally, as it is presented in the following table. Table 1: Sustainability of the environment Consumption of renewable resources More than nature's ability to replenish Equal to nature's ability to replenish Less than nature's ability to replenish State of environment Environmental degradation Environmental equilibrium Environmental renewal

Sustainability Not sustainable Steady-state Sustainability Sustainable development

Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation would be local environments that are no longer able to sustain human populations to any degree. Such degradation on a global scale could imply extinction for humanity.

Environmental Sociology

78

6.9. World Summit on Sustainable Development The United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), also known as Earth Summit II or Rio +10, took place in Johannesburg, South Africa between August 26th and September 4th 2002. This was some 10 years after the Rio Earth Summit. 6.9.1. Progress on Sustainability so far As highlighted in the introduction page, the record on moving towards sustainability so far appears to have been quite poor and the vast majority of humanity still lack access to basics such as clean water, adequate sanitation, electricity and so on. And this is in the backdrop of an increasing amount of wealth in fewer hands. Given that previous international meetings on sustainable development seem to have had little effect on the world's majority, the Johannesburg Summit was considered by some to appear quite ambitious to say the least and many were skeptical as to whether anything of importance would even come of this summit (Hancey & Dann, 2000). A broader agenda than the Rio Summit in 1992, the summit in Johannesburg also included a huge number of delegates representing nations, business interests and non-profit environmental and development/citizen/social justice groups. Various key issues were addressed, including:

Poverty Water quality and availability Cleaner energy Health Good governance Technology Production and Consumption

Environmental Sociology

79

Oceans and Fisheries Tourism

These are just a sample and were all discussed in varying degrees among different stakeholders and other responsible bodies. Other related issues such as globalization, women's rights were also discussed. Some understandably criticized the summit as over-ambitious to try and talk about so many issues. Yet, true or not, it shows that there is at least an apparent growing recognition that sustainable development (admittedly a somewhat overused word) means a myriad of inter-related issues, not something solely in the realms of environmentalism, but also deep into economics (which governs how resources are used), and a variety of sociopolitical issues (Hancey & Danny, 2000). 6.10. Chapter summary This chapter has addressed the concept sustainable development that refers to development process which involves meeting the needs of the present generation without endangering the ability of the future generation in meeting their own needs. However, it is also mentioned that the concept sustainability does not gain the same definitions among different people there are controversies. Hence, the chapter dealt with such discoursing perspective as the contest, the astronaut and the home perspectives. Besides, the areas of sustainable development have also been treated along with those issues within its nature. Finally, such topics as principles of sustainable development, environmental sustainability and the summary of world summits on sustainable development were also addressed in the chapter.

Environmental Sociology

80

6.11. Self-checking exercises 1. This chapter from the very beginning defined sustainable development as the
effort to meet the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their need. Is it possible? What about the rationality of human beings within their immediate environments? 2. Please discuss the controversial issues within sustainable development. 3. What about the focus of the three discoursing perspective? 4. List down the possible principles of sustainable development.

5. What areas of focus are identified for sustainable development? 6. Which state of the natural environment is considered as environmental sustainability? At what point the economic development is seen as environmentally sustainable? 7. Is there any possibility for all parts of the world to deal with sustainable development so as to preserve the environment? 8. Is sustainable development a panacea for the degradation of natural environment?
Chapter Seven: Environmental Governance and Environmentalism 7.1. Chapter objectives Upon the accomplishment of this chapter, students will become able to: 1. understand the nature of environmental crimes around the world; 2. categorize different environmental crimes in the world; 3. deal with different strategies of environmental conservation; 4. see the importance of environmental awareness raising efforts in conserving the natural environment; 5. become familiar with the idea of environmentalism; and 6. identify various environmental organizations and conferences.

Environmental Sociology

81

7.2. Introduction
The first part of the chapter concentrates on crimes related with the natural environment with the special attention to their categories. Injustice in terms of environment is also seriously addressed under this chapter. Likewise, some important strategies so far implemented were also the subject matters of the chapter. The concept environmentalism was also addressed in the chapter with other matters as environmental education, organizationa, and conferences.

7.3. Environmental Crime

Dear learners, please list down some possible environmental crimes based on your own personal experiences, before reading this subsection. Environmental criminology, as a recent formulated branch of criminology, tries to address several types of crimes or harms committed against the natural environment. Drawing upon a wide range of ideas and empirical investigations, recent work dealing with environmental harm has ventured across many different areas of concern regarding the environment (White, 2008). Some of the areas of concern are: 1. exploitation of biotechnology and the corporate colonization of nature, particularly in regards to the development and marketing of genetically modified food; 2. the transborder movement and dumping of waste products; 3. the problem of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and how best to intervene in preventing overexploitation of ocean resources; 4. under globalized systems of production, the generation of toxic waste in less developed countries by companies based in advanced industrialized nations;

Environmental Sociology

82

5. the diminishing in the quantity and quality of drinking water worldwide and the influence of transnational corporations in controlling water resources; 6. Environmental degradation on indigenous peoples lands perpetrated by governments and companies. 7. inequalities in the distribution of environmental risk, especially as this related to poor and minority population; 8. the one-on-one and the systematic institutionalized abuse of animals, as well as how changing environments affect the lives and well-being of nonhuman animals; and 9. The environmental and social damage caused by enforced pursuit of structural adjustment policies generated by the World Bank.

7.4. Categories of Environmental Harms

Environmental crimes are also called green crimes which are broadly defined simply as crimes against the environment (White, 2008). These crimes can be classified as primary and secondary or symbolic green crimes. Dear students, please refer to the following textbox.

Primary green crimes:

How do you categorize the above mentioned lists of environmental harms into different groups?

1. crimes of air pollution (e.g. burning of corporate waste) 2. crimes of deforestation (e.g. destruction of rainforest) 3. crimes of species decline and against animal rights (e.g. traffic in animals and animal parts) 4. Crimes of water pollution (e.g. lack of drinking water). Secondary green crimes: 1. State violence against oppositional groups (e.g. French bombing of Rainbow), and 2. Hazardous waste and organized crime (e.g. toxic and general waste dumping not both legal and illegal). Source: White, 2008: p. 93.

Environmental Sociology

83

Primary crimes are those crimes that result directly from the destruction and degradation of the earths resources, through human actions, while secondary or symbiotic green crime is that crime arising out of the flouting of rules that seek or generate environmental disasters (White, 2008). Although environmental problems are global in nature, the effects of them are not one and the same across different parts of the world. The extent of the problem varies in terms of social group, racial group, society, and geographic location. This situation is known as environmental injustice which is addressed below. 7.5. Environmental Injustice or Racism What is environmental injustice? What are the elements of environmental injustice? Even though environmental pollution and degradation and depletion of natural resources affect us all, some groups, as mentioned above, are more affected than others. This is environmental injustice which refers to environmental racism that is the tendency for socially and politically marginalized groups to bear the burnt of environmental ills as Kiss and Shelton (2007) mentioned. In most industrialized countries, polluting industries, industrial wastes, and transporting facilities are often located in minority, powerless communities who are the most disadvangous in terms of

Environmental Sociology

84

power, wealth and prestige distributions which are the bases for social stratification in modern societies. Environmental injustice affects marginalized populations in the world, including minority groups, indigenous peoples, and other vulnerable and impoverished communities such as peasants and nomadic people. These groups are often powerless to fight against government and corporate power that sustain environmentally damaging industries (Champan, Kumar, Fraser & Gaber, 1997). 7.6. Strategies for Environment Conservation Several efforts have so far been done by different concerned bodies in the world so as to conserve the natural environment. Some of such efforts include environmental education, establishment of environmental pressure group, environmental movement and development of environmental organizations and international conferences. These issues are addressed below in a brief manner. 7.6.1. Environmental awareness Environmental awareness can be seen as environmental education which refers to efforts organized to teach about how the natural environments function. It also concerns with human beings management of their behaviour and their immediate environments (ecosystem) so as to live in a sustainable manner. Environmental education is not only imply some forms of education delivered within the formal school level but also includes other broad dimensions that includes all the commitments done for educating public and other spectators using printing materials, websites, media campaigns, and so on (William, 1996). Environmental education is one of those mechanism by which we can alleviate environmental problems. These mechanisms may include low

Environmental Sociology

85

fertility rate, slow population growth, energy conservation, innovation, environmental activisms, government regulations and legislations, sustainable development, and international cooperation and assistance. All these mechanisms for the realization of environmental education can bring about changes on the natural environmental directly or indirectly. One of those vital goals organizations and acrivists established for environmental awareness is to educate the public about environmental issues and the seriousness of environmental problems. As per the idea of Sandler and Pezzullo (2007), they seriously address the extents and types of environmental problems, and the negative consequences and mitigation measures of these problems with the presupposition that lack of accurate information about the environment can make individuals to remain less serious towards environmental problems. Therefore, it is believed that an increased knowledge is the key to bring about change in attitude and behavior regarding the natural environment. The media is the vital sources of environmental information for most people in the world. Here, dear students, we can mention the nuclear liking occurred in Japan due to natural hazard last time. Where did you get the information about this environmental information? It is obvious that you were informed that several people were seriously harmed by the phenomenon which was aggravated by the problem occurred in those nuclear plants of the country via different mass media like television, radio, newspapers and others. However, because media are owned by corporations and wealthy individuals, in the case of western industrialized nations, with corporate ties, unbiased information about environmental impacts of corporate activities may not readily be found in the mainstream media channels.

Environmental Sociology

86

7.6.2. Environmental Pressure Groups

Environmental pressure groups have existed since the 1970s although for about the first 100 years they were not labeled as pressure groups (Mooney, 2005). However, progress was greatest in the new world and the passing of the Conservation Act by the US congress in 1872 was the first to allow to be set aside for the exclusive benefit and employment (Williams, 1996). However, the first modern environmental pressure group appeared at the beginning of the 1970s. Even though the ranges of the issues covered by environmental pressure group have been remarkably diverse; they have the common 2004). Several different categories of environmental pressure group now exist, ranging from the small local group that tries to prevent local development on the Greenfield, to the global operation of organization. aim of successfully influencing public attitudes towards environmental issues at the local, national, and international levels (Durant,

7.7. Environmentalism

Q: What do you think about the concept environmentalism?

Dunlap and Marshall (2006) stated that modern environmental movement in the world, particularly in the West, evolved out of the older conservation movement and the social activism of the 1960s for which sociologists contributed to documenting its evolution. Environmentalism is concerned with the improvement or preservation of the natural environment through such schemes as natural resource conservation, pollution prevention, and some land use actions and techniques. Early sociological studies of environmental movements focused heavily on the characteristics of people who joined environmental organizations as well as the nature of the organizations themselves. Environmentalism mostly works for the achievement of the efforts done by indigenous people against the expansion

Environmental Sociology

87 their culture. Understanding of an applied

of

globalization

to

environmentalism is divided into two:

the mainstream anthropocentric or

hierarchic and the more radical ecocentric or egalitarian. In the other words, environmentalism deals with two points of views: (1) to focus on human kind, or (2) to emphasize on the well-being of the econsystem. Buttel (2003), on the other hand, mentioned that over the past 35 years, there have been four major types of environmental movements emerged in Western world. These new types of environmental movement discourses include the ecocentric, political ecology, deep ecology, and ecofeminist discourses. According to Buttel (2003) ecocentric environmental groups adhere to the view that natural systems are the basis of humanity, that humans survival is linked to the ecosystem survival, and that human ethics should be guided by ecological responsibility. The political ecology discourse, as to the writer, is guided by the view that the domination of humans by other humans leads to the domination of nature and that politics and economic power creates major environmental problems. Solutions to environmental problems, according to Buttel, required fundamental social change based on empowering subordinate groups such as the local communities and the poor people within these communities. Deep ecology groups discourses are based on the fundamental principles that the richness and diversity of all life, including nonhuman life forms, have value and should be protected and that human life should be privileged only on the extent required to satisfy humans vital needs (Buttel, 2003). Several ecology groups have been appeared in the world. Some of them include the Militant Group Earth First, Rainforest Action Network, and Wild Earth. Finally, ecofeminism is based primarily on the notion that ecosystem destruction is based on androcentric or patriarchical concepts and institutions and that eradication of androcentric institution is the lynchpin of

Environmental Sociology

88

solving environmental and other social problems, for example, World Women in Defense of the Environment and Women and Development are typical ecofeminist groups (Buttel, 2003; Grendstad, Selle, Bortne & Stromsnes, 2006). Buttel further argued that the past decade has witness the rise of other new, and often highly provocative, environmental movement organizations and movements like the environmental justice movement, the grassroots environmental movement, and the radical ecological resistance movement in the developing world. Environmentalism, as one subject matter of the sociology of social movement, can be defined in a descriptive manner sine the descriptive definition of social movement can incorporate much of the elements of environmentalism (Yearley, 2005). According to the writer, although there are many similarities between environmentalism and other social movements, there are three ways in which the ecological movement stands out: (1) its intimate relationship to science, (2) its practical claims to international solidarity, and (3) its ability to offer a concerted critique of, and alternative to, capitalist industrialism. Yearley further explained that the three factors mentioned earlier should be addressed in a careful manner for the clear understanding of the difference between environmentalism and other forms of social movements. Generally, environmentalism as the social movement includes all forms of movements focusing on the conversation, prevention and improvement of the natural environment. An environmental movement, which includes such terms as the conservation and green movements, is a varied empirical, political and social movement. it subject matter is mostly concerned with advocating the management of resources sustainably, and the protection on natural environments through the intervention of public policy and individual behaviour changes. The movement is centered on such issues as ecology,

Environmental Sociology

89

health, and human rights since it recognizes humanity as a participant in ecosystem. a range of organizations represent the movement, from the large to grassroots. However, due to the persistence of large membership, varying and strong beliefs the movement is not entirely united. 7.8. Environmental Organizations and Conferences The nature and types of environmental organizations vary based on different things. In terms of their coverage, they can be global, regional, national or local while they can be categorized into governmental or nongovernmental organizations on the basis of the actor of the intervention. These organizations work in the areas of information dissemination, participation in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstration, and purchase land for preservation. There are also other smaller groups involved in conducting research on the ecosystem and endangered species. Still, there are some more radical organizations that directly opposed behaviours they regard as environmentally harmful (Redclif & Woodgate, 2010). Although it is addressed under chapter eight, it is worthwhile to briefly deal with environmental conferences here simply to relate is the issue we have already discussing. Globally, attention for the environment was the subject of a United Nations conference held in 1972 in Stockholm which was attended by 114 nations. Participants of this conference were responsible to develop the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the follow-up UN conference on Environment and development in 1992. Organizations like Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were some other bodies in support of environmental policies development (Pezzullo, 2007; Durant, Florino & Oleary, 2004).

Environmental Sociology

90

7.9. Chapter summary The main focusing area of chapter seven is environmental movements that can be manifested in different forms of social movement at the global level. It addresses the issue of environmental crimes with their different varieties as well as the injustice occurred within the natural environment, the strategies for the conservation of the environment, environmentalism, and different organizations and conferences. Generally, the chapter deals with the environmental harms in the form of crime and those organized an environmental movement which uses different strategies of combating the problem of global environment. 7.10. Self-check Exercise Dear learners, please address the following questions that help you to summarize the main contents of the chapter. 1. What are environmental crimes? What are the differences of

environmental crimes from other forms of crimes like crimes against properties, crimes against person, and white collar crimes? 2. List down all the possible environmental harms and discuss with your colleague. 3. What is environmental injustice? What about it uniqueness? 4. Mention two important strategies for global environmental

conversation. Discuss each of them? 5. What is the difference between social movement and

environmentalism? 6. What do you think the benefits of international environmental organizations and conferences?

Environmental Sociology

91

Chapter Eight: Global Environmental Conventions and Treaties

8.1. Chapter objectives Dear learners, after you have covered this chapter, you will be able to: Familiar with different international conventions and treaties pertaining to environmental problems; and Understand the need for an international effort in combating environmental problems. 8.2. Introduction Several environmentalists found that all economies are supported by natural resources; and many environmental problems do not recognize political boundaries. They call for all countries to make environmental conservation their major focus of diplomacy and governmental policy at all levels. Since 1972 UN Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm Sweden, some progress has been made in addressing environmental issues at the global level. Today, 115 nations have environmental protection agencies, though nominal they are, and nearly 240 international environment treaties and agreements among various countries have been signed. They address issues such as endangered species, ozone depletion, ocean pollution, air pollution, climate change, loss of biodiversity, and hazardous waste exporting. The 1972 conference also created the UN Environmental Program (UNEP) to negotiate environmental treaties and to help, monitor, and implement them. In June 1992, the second UN environmental conference- Rio Earth Summitwas held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. More than 100 heads of states, 1000

Environmental Sociology

92

officials, and more than 1600 accredited NGOs from 178 nations met to develop plans to address environmental issues. The major results of the 1992 conference include the following: 1. An Earth Charter: a nonbinding statement of broad principles for environmental guiding environmental policy that commits countries, those sign it, to pursue sustainable development and work towards poverty eradication. 2. Agenda 21: a nonbinding detail action plan to guide counties towards sustainable development and protection of the global environment during the 21st century. 3. A forestry agreement: a broad nonbinding statement of principles of forest management and protection. 4. A convention on climate change: this convention requires countries to use their best effort to reduce their emission of green house gases. 5. A convention on protecting biodiversity: calls for countries to develop strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This was not signed by bush. 6. The UN commission for sustainable development established: this was composed of a high level of government representative charged with carrying out and overseeing the implementation of the agreements. However, most environmentalists around the world were disappointed at the Rio earth summit as those accomplishments consisted only of nonbinding agreements without sufficient incentives or funding for their implementation. Costs for agenda 21(contained 40 chapters)
Items Protecting the atmosphere Mountains and deserts Rivers and seas Costs($billions) 21.00 21.70 31.20

Environmental Sociology Forest Biodiversity Population growth Land use and agriculture Human settlements Poverty and consumption Health Waste Government and UNs Major groups Trade and money Total 67.90 23.50 7.10 31.85 218.00 30.00 51.00 28.10 20.70 0.37 8.90 561.32

93

Funding $460000 million or 77% of the above amount is from local sources. $140000 million or 23% of the above amount is from international sourcesWB, Foreign aid. Even though some aims were not achieved at Rio, it was nonetheless an important step on the long-term path towards environmentally sustainable development. Whilst agenda 21 was not legally binding, it is based on political and moral commitments from those who signed it. And much more work need to be done at the national level by integrating environmental consideration into policies, programs and development projects. 8.3. Concise Summary of Global Conferences, Agreements and Convention on the Environment In 1972, the declaration of the UN conference on human environment in Stockholm Sweden. The 1985 Vienna convention and the 1987 Montral protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer-they are major examples of international agreements done to protect the atmosphere. Two revisions on the 1987 protocol have been made, the latest being made in 1992.

Environmental Sociology

94 of 1988 called for the resolution of

The

Toronto

conference

carbondioxide emissions by 20% of the 1988 level by 2005. In 1988 International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by UNEP and the world meteorological organization. In 1992 the UN conference on environment and development (UNCED) was held in Rio de Janeiro. There were a number of statements including the framework convention on climate change (FCCC). This came into force in March 1994. Joint implementation (JI) was outlined in the FCCC. Countries active in implemented jointly (AIJ) include Australia, Canada, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the USA. A range of AIJ projects are now operating, include forestry schemes, fuel switching, wind power, hydroelectric power, geothermal power and hand-fill gas. In 1997, governments established the Kyoto protocol, ratification of which would set up targets for reduction of greenhouse gas emission. The Hague conference of 2000 was described as a make-or-break gathering at which countries accepted or refused the terms of the Kyoto protocol. This protocol was ratified by 55 developed industrial countries which account for 55%of the carbondioxide emissions. However, there were pro0blems with the Kyoto protocol: many pressure groups were concerned about a technical detail in the protocol which allows a participating country meeting its emissions reduction target through trading any surplus reduction with another country. This means richer countries could buy such reductions and avoid making significant cuts to their emissions. The USA Canada, Japan, New Zealand and Australia want most of their emission targets to be fulfilled by these emission trading mechanisms. The EU has been keener to make real cuts in emission, but many EU governments including Britain want the USA to ratify the Kyoto protocol.

Environmental Sociology

95

The Kyoto protocol according to Nagle (200), there are many ways for countries to keep the protocol target without cutting domestic emissions. These are: Plant forests to absorb carbondioxide or change agricultural practices, e.g. keeping fewer cattle. Install clean technology in other countries and claim carbondioxide reduction credits for themselves. Buy carbondioxide credits from other countries such as Russia where traditional heavy industries have declined and the national carbondioxide limits are underused. Even if greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is cut by 60-80 percent, there is still enough greenhouse gas in the atmosphere to raise temperature by 5%. Thus the Kyoto agreement was only meant to be the beginning of the largeterm process, not the end of the one. The guidelines for measuring and cutting greenhouse gases, as to Nagle (2000), were not finished into Kyoto. It was not decided to what extent the planting of forests and carbondioxide trading could be raised upon. Whatever it is, without agreement the world poor will suffer a lot. Flooding, drought and famine will continue. But, if we can cut fuel use, emission of greenhouse gases and use more renewable resources of energy, conditions might not deteriorate as much. Generally, it is very clear that achieving global cooperation on environmental issues is difficult, in part, because developed countries, primarily in the northern hemisphere, have different economic agenda from those developing countries, primarily in the southern hemisphere. The northern agenda emphasizes preserving wealth and affluent lifestyles whereas the southern agenda focuses on overcoming mass poverty and achieving a higher quality of life. Southern countries are concerned the northern

Environmental Sociology

96 achieved economic wealth, will impose

countries,

having

already

international environmental policies that restrict the economic growth of developing countries just as they are beginning to industrialize. Global strategies to preserve the environment must address both wasteful lifestyles in some nations and the need to overcome overpopulation and widespread poverty topic. 8.4. Chapter Summary Chapter eight has briefly dealt with some important global interventions for environmental problems that can be manifested in terms of international conventions and trearies. Generally, it was intended to show students the importance of having global level actions, in the forms of rules and regulations, problems. 8.5. Self-check Exercise 1. Discuss some of the important global meetings held in different countries with their attentions. 2. Why several environmentalists of the world criticized the 1992 conference? 3. What was the subject matter of the 1987 Montreal Protocol? 4. Mention the amount of carbondioxide to be reduced by the year 2005 as to the Kyoto protocol. 5. Discuss the Kyoto Protocol in detail. 6. What about the Hague conference? policies, and programmes, for addressing environmental in others. And this is the need for sustainable economic development in the world which is the issue to be addressed in the next

Environmental Sociology

97

7. According to the Kyoto Protocol, what are the different ways for countries to keep the protocol target without domestic emission?

Chapter 9: Environmental Policy of Ethiopia Chapter objectives 1. to know the subject matter of Ethiopian environmental policy; 2. to understand the rationale of the policy; 3. to apprehend the main intention of the nation in terms of the natural and human environment; 4. to see the interdisciplinary nature of environmental policies; and 5. to become able to analyze Ethiopian environmental policy against that of other countries. Introduction Dear students, here below, we have directly copied and presented the national environmental policy of Ethiopia to show you the intention of our country towards the natural environment. This policy is consisted of five topics: (1) the rationales of the policy, (2) the policy goal, objectives and guiding
principles, (3) sectoral environmental policies, (4) cross-sectoral environment policies, and (5) policy implementation. Please read the detail of the policy below and evaluate it based on the principles and points of view of environmental sociology. Before you read the whole document, we would like to advise you to keep the following questions in your mind.

1. Do the policy rationales address social elements, in what degree? 2. What about the policy goals, objectives and guiding principles? 3. Is it a policy that targets to solve a real problem or a policy developed for the sake of having a policy document? 4. What are the methods and methodologies of policy implementation?

Environmental Sociology

98

9.3. Ethiopian environmental policy

I. The Resource Base and the Need for a Policy 1.1 The Natural Resource Base and the Rural Environment Natural resources are the foundation of the economy. Smallholder peasant agriculture, in some areas including forestry, is the dominant sector accounting for about 45 per cent of the GDP, 85 per cent of exports and 80 per cent of total employment. Agriculture has also been the main source of the stagnation and variability in GDP growth caused in the main by policy failures and exacerbated by recurrent drought, civil war, natural resource degradation, and poor infrastructure. Renewable natural resources, i.e. land, water, forests and trees as well as other forms of Biodiversity, which meet the basic needs for food, water, clothing and shelter have now deteriorated to a low level of productivity. In many areas of highland Ethiopia, the present consumption of wood is in excess of unaided natural sustainable production. Estimates of deforestation, which is mainly for expansion of rainfed agriculture, vary from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum. The burning of dung as fuel instead of using it as a soil conditioner is considered to cause a reduction in grain production by some 550,000 tonnes annually. In 1990, accelerated soil erosion caused a progressive annual loss in grain production estimated at about 40,000 tonnes, which unless arrested, will reach about 170,000 tonnes by 2010. Livestock play a number of vital roles in the rural and national economy but according to one estimate some 2 million hectares of pasture land will have been destroyed by soil erosion between 1985 and 1995. Land degradation is estimated to have resulted in a loss of livestock production in 1990 equivalent to 1.1 million tropical livestock units (TLUs), and, unless arrested, will rise to 2.0 million TLUs or to 10 per cent of the current national cattle herd by 2010. In economic terms, soil erosion in 1990 was estimated to have cost (in 1985 prices) nearly Birr 40 million in lost agricultural production (i.e. crop and livestock) while the cost of burning dung and crop residues as fuel was nearly Birr 650 million. Thus in 1990 approximately 17 per cent of the potential agricultural GDP was lost because of physical and biological soil degradation. The permanent loss in value of the country's soil resources caused by soil erosion in 1990 was estimated to be Birr 59 million. This is the amount by which the country's soil "capital"

Environmental Sociology

99

should be depreciated in the National Accounts or which should be deducted (as capital depreciation) from the country's Net National Income (NNI). The Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP) estimated the full value of forest depletion in 1990 to have been about Birr 138 million or some 25 per cent of the potential forestry GDP of Birr 544 million. Despite the presence of mineral resources in quantities and qualities suitable for exploitation, they currently contribute only about 2 per cent of the GDP. Only 1 per cent of the potential of Ethiopia's vast water resources for irrigated agriculture and hydropower generation have been developed. The energy sector is one of the least developed in the world with 90 per cent of needs being met from biomass fuels, particularly wood, charcoal and animal dung. The genetic diversity of Ethiopia's domesticated plants and its unique flora and fauna is increasingly being eroded because the long history of disruptive interventions by the state and the weakening of local management in the face of an expanding population and the increasing needs of agriculture.

1.2. The Urban Environment The current urban proportion of the population is relatively low at only 15 per cent although the annual rate of growth is 5.4 per cent and this rate is likely to rise to 30 per cent by the year 2020. The current stock of urban housing is both insufficient and of very poor quality. About 31 per cent of households in Addis Ababa have no sanitation facilities, while in other urban areas the proportion is about 48 per cent. The serious deficiencies in sanitation services and the inadequacy of sewerage infrastructure and random defecation in urban areas have created dangerous health and environmental problems. Rivers and streams in the vicinity of Addis Ababa and other large urban centres have become open sewers and are one of the main sources of infections resulting in diarrhoea and other diseases. Privacy is almost impossible as many latrines are shared among many people and even simple doors are often absent. 1.3. Natural and Cultural Heritage Ethiopia's rich natural and cultural heritage permeates every facet of daily life and provides a powerful and socially cohesive force in the national consciousness. It can also provide a major attraction for tourists and is an important element in the development of a tourist industry. However, much of this heritage and culture is under threat through neglect, decay, removal or destruction as well as through the less visible and tangible impacts of changing socio-cultural values, foreign ideas and imported technologies. 1.4. The Need for a Policy on Natural Resource and the Environment The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) has established a macroeconomic policy and strategy framework. Sectoral development policies and strategies have been, or are currently being, formulated. Environmental sustainability is

Environmental Sociology

100

recognized in the constitution and in the national economic policy and strategy as a key prerequisite for lasting success. However, there is as yet no overall comprehensive formulation of cross-sectoral and sectoral issues into a policy framework on natural resources and the environment to harmonize these broad directions and guide the sustainable development, use and management of the natural resources and the environment. Therefore, given the current stage of the country's political and policy development, the time is opportune for developing a comprehensive environmental policy on natural resources and the environment. II. The Policy Goal, Objectives and Guiding Principles 2.1 The Overall Policy Goal The overall policy goal is to improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

2.2 Specific Policy Objectives The Policy seeks to: a. Ensure that essential ecological processes and life support systems are sustained, biological diversity is preserved and renewable natural resources are used in such a way that their regenerative and productive capabilities are maintained and where possible enhanced so that the satisfaction of the needs of future generations is not compromised; where this capability is already impaired to seek through appropriate interventions a restoration of that capability; b. Ensure that the benefits from the exploitation of non-renewable resources are extended as far into the future as can be managed, and minimize the negative impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of other natural resources and the environment; c. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently underutilized by finding new technologies, and/or intensifying existing uses which are not widely applied; d. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of natural resource development into the planning, implementation and accounting processes by a comprehensive valuation of the environment and the services it provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and benefits which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;

Environmental Sociology

101

e. Improve the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social, economic, cultural and other needs of their inhabitants on a sustainable basis; f. Prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost-effective way so that the cost of effective preventive intervention would not exceed the benefits; g. Conserve, develop, sustainably manage and support Ethiopia's rich and diverse cultural heritage; h. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations at all levels in environmental management activities; and i. Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development. 2.3. The Key Guiding Principles Underlying these broad policy objectives are a number of key principles. Establishing and clearly defining these guiding principles is very important as they will shape all subsequent policy, strategy and programme formulations and their implementation. Sectoral and crosssectoral policies and environmental elements of other macro policies will be checked against these principles to ensure consistency. The Key Guiding Principles are: a. Every person has the right to live in a healthy environment; b. Sustainable environmental conditions and economic production systems are impossible in the absence of peace and personal security. This shall be assured through the acquisition of power by communities to make their own decisions on matters that affect their life and environment; c. The development, use and management of renewable resources shall be based on sustainability;

d. The use of non-renewable resources shall be minimized and where possible their
availability extended (e.g. through recycling); e. Appropriate and affordable technologies which use renewable and non-renewable resources efficiently shall be adopted, adapted, developed and disseminated; f. When a compromise between short-term economic growth and long-term environmental protection is necessary, then development activities shall minimize degrading and polluting impacts on ecological and life support systems. When working out a compromise, it is better to err on the side of caution to the extent possible as rehabilitating a degraded environment is very expensive, and bringing back a species that has gone extinct is impossible; g. Full environmental and social costs (or benefits foregone or lost) that may result through damage to resources or the environment as a result of degradation or pollution shall be incorporated into public and private sector planning and accounting, and decisions shall be based on minimizing and covering these costs;

Environmental Sociology

102

h. Market failures with regard to the pricing of natural, human-made and cultural resources, and failures in regulatory measures shall be corrected through the assessment and establishment of user fees, taxes, tax reductions or incentives; i. Conditions shall be created that will support community and individual resource users to sustainably manage their own environment and resources; j. As key actors in natural resource use and management, women shall be treated equally with men and empowered to be totally involved in policy, programme and project design, decision making and implementation; k. The existence of a system which ensures uninterrupted continuing access to the same piece(s) of land and resource creates conducive conditions for sustainable natural resource management; l. Social equity shall be assured particularly in resource use; m. Regular and accurate assessment and monitoring of environmental conditions shall be undertaken and the information widely disseminated within the population; n. Increased awareness and understanding of environmental and resource issues shall be promoted by policy makers, by government officials and by the population, and the adoption of a "conservation culture" in environmental matters among all levels of society shall be encouraged; o. Local, regional and international environmental interdependence shall be recognized; p. Natural resource and environmental management activities shall be integrated laterally across all sectors and vertically among all levels of organization; q. Species and their variants have the right to continue existing, and are, or may be, useful now and/or for generations to come; r. The wealth of crop and domestic animal as well as micro-organism and wild plant and animal germplasm is an invaluable and inalienable asset that shall be cared for; and s. The integrated implementation of cross-sectoral and sectoral federal, regional and local policies and strategies shall be seen as a prerequisite to achieving the objectives of this Policy on the Environment.

III. Sectoral Environmental Policies 3.1 Soil Husbandry and Sustainable Agriculture The Policies are: a. To foster a feeling of assured, uninterrupted and continuing access to the same land and natural resources on the part of farmers and pastoralists so as to remove the existing artificial constraints to the widespread adoption of, and investment in, sustainable land management technologies; b. To base, where possible, increased agricultural production on sustainably improving and intensifying existing farming systems by developing and disseminating technologies which are biologically stable, appropriate under the prevailing

Environmental Sociology

103

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

k.

l.

m.

n.

o.

environmental and socio-cultural conditions for farmers, economically viable and environmen-tally beneficial; To promote the use of appropriate organic matter and nutrient management for improving soil structure, nutrient status and microbiology in improving soil conservation and land husbandry; To safeguard the integrity of the soil and to protect its physical and biological properties, through management practices for the production of crops and livestock which pay particular attention to the proper balance in amounts of chemical and organic fertilizers, including green manures, farm yard manures and compost; To promote effective ground cover as one of the most important factors in soil erosion control, taking advantage of the wide range of sustainable agronomic, pastoral and silvicultural approaches used in various areas of Ethiopia as potentially flexible alternatives to mechan-ical soil conservation systems; To promote in drought-prone and low rainfall areas water conservation which is as important as physical soil conservation for more secure and increased biomass production, including crop production; To ensure that, for reasons of cost and acceptability, improvements in land husbandry are made with an appreciation of existing husbandry systems, technologies and knowledge; To ensure that, given the heterogeneous environment of the Ethiopian highlands, agricultural research and extension have a stronger focus on farming and land use systems and support an immediate streng-thening of effective traditional land management systems; To promote, for the relatively more environmentally uniform Ethiopian lowlands, a long-term approach to agricultural research programmes to develop appropriate farming and land management systems that yield high outputs; To ensure that planning for agricultural development incorporates in its economic cost-benefit analysis the potential costs of soil degra-dation through erosion and salinization as well as soil and water pollution; To ensure that inputs shall be as diverse and complementing as the physical, chemical and biological components of the soil require, and shall not focus solely on a quick and transitory increase in plant nutrients to the long-term detriment of soil structure and microbiology; To institute the stall feeding of domesticated animals through a combination of providing agricultural residues, on-farm produced forage and fodder as well as the cutting and carrying of grass and browse from meadows and hillsides in order to encourage revegetation of grazing lands and the reduction of soil erosion; To develop forestry on the farm, around the homestead and on eroding and/or eroded hillsides in order to increase the stock of trees for fuelwood, construction material, implements and crafts, for forage and for other tree products ; To shift the emphasis in crop breeding from single line plant varieties and animal breeds to multiple lines involving as many different but adapted lines as possible in order to increase both plasticity in adapting to environmental variations, and resistance to pests and diseases; To use biological and cultural methods as well as resistant or tolerant varieties or breeds, pheromones or sterile male techniques in an integrated manner as a pest and disease management method in preference to chemical controls;

Environmental Sociology

104

p. To safeguard human and environmental health by producing adequate regulation of agricultural (crop and livestock) chemicals; q. To use the precautionary principle in assessing potentially damaging impacts when taking decisions that affect social and ecnomic conditions, natural resources and the environment, especially in the pastoral areas, which are perhaps the least studied in the country; r. To ensure that new technical recommendations are compatible with existing pastoral and agricultural systems, agro-ecological conditions and the prevailing socioeconomic environment; and s. To undertake full environmental, social and economic impact as-sessments of all existing irrigation schemes in the rangelands and wherever needed establish programmes of correcting their negative environmental, social and economic impacts. 3.2. Forest, Woodland and Tree Resources The Policies are: a. To recognize the complementary roles of communities, private entrepreneurs and the state in forestry development; b. To encourage all concerned individuals and communities as well as the government to actively involve in the planning and implementation of forestry programmes to ensure sustainability, minimize cost, and forestall conflict; c. To ensure that forestry development strategies integrate the development, management and conservation of forest resources with those of land and water resources, energy resources, ecosystems and genetic resources, as well as with crop and livestock production; d. To ensure that afforestation with exotic species be restricted to backyard woodlots, to peri-urban plantations and to plantations for specific industrial and other projects; otherwise until reliable information and knowledge on exotic species are available afforestation shall use local species as these are in tune with the environment and thus ensure its well-being; e. To assist the natural process of afforestation of uncultivable areas by controlling felling and grazing and by planting judiciously selected local species, as well as by other affordable interventions. f. To adhere to the principle that "sustainable forest management" is achieved when social acceptability and economic viability have been achieved and the volume of wood harvested in a given period is about equal to the net growth that the forest is capable of generating; g. To pursue agricultural and other policies and programmes that will reduce pressure on fragile woodland resources and ecosystems; and h. To promote changes in agricultural and natural resource management systems which will limit the need for free grazing of animals in protected forest areas. i. To find substitutes for construction and fuel wood whenever capabilities and other conditions allow, in order to reduce pressure on forests.

Environmental Sociology

105

3.3. Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Biodiversity The Policies are:

a. To promote in situ systems (i.e. conservation in a nature reserve, farmer's fields,

etc.) as the primary target for conserving both wild and domesticated biological diversity; but also promote ex situ systems (i.e. conservation outside the original or natural habitat) in gene banks, farms, botanical gardens, ranches and zoos as supplementary to in situ conservation;

b. To promote in situ conservation of crop and domestic animal biological diversity as

well as other human made and managed ecosystems through the conscious conservation of samples of such ecosystems, even when change as a whole is taking place; c. To ensure that the importation, exportation and exchange of genetic and species resources is subject to legislation, e.g. to ensure the safeguarding of community and national interests, the fulfilling of international obligations, quarantine, etc. Above all biological material which is self-regenerative and impossible to control once allowed to get out of control may result in the most insidious and damaging form of pollution which is biological pollution, thus the importation and use of biological material including those genetically engineered should be under stringent regulations; d. To ensure that factors such as the level of vulnerability, uniqueness, importance and economic and environmental potential of the genome be taken into account in determining priorities in conservation;

e. To ensure that the conservation of genetic resources in situ maintains a dynamic

system of genetic variability in an environment of constant selection pressure that is normally present in the natural or human made ecosystem as the case may be; f. To promote the involvement of local communities inside and outside protected areas in the planning and management of such areas; g. To ensure that the conservation of biological diversity outside the protected area system be integrated with strategic land use plans, local level plans and sustainable agricultural and pastoral production strategies; h. To include in protected areas as wide a range of ecosystems and habitats as possible and where appropriate to link them by corridors of suitable habitats along which species can migrate; i. To ensure that pricing policies and instruments support conservation of biological diversity; j. To ensure that park, forest and wildlife conservation and management programmes which conserve biological diversity on behalf of the country allow for a major part of any economic benefits deriving therefrom to be channelled to local communities affected by such programmes; and k. To recognize that certain animal and plant species are vermin or pests or may be a reservoir of disease to humans, crops and livestock, and to control them. 3.4. Water Resources

Environmental Sociology The Policies are:

106

a. To ensure that the control of environmental health hazards be a necessary condition in the design, construction and use of dams and irrigation systems; b. To recognize that natural ecosystems, particularly wetlands and upstream forests, are fundamental in regulating water quality and quantity and to integrate their rehabilitation and protection into the conservation, development and management of water resources; c. To ensure that any proposed introduction of exotic species into water ecosystems be subject to detailed ecological studies and environmental impact assessment; d. To promote the protection of the interface between water bodies and land (e.g. lake shores, river banks and wetlands); e. As most large and medium scale irrigation potential is located in the rangelands of the lowlands occupied by pastoralists, to consider the opportunity costs of irrigating important dry season grazing areas of the pastoralists for crop production in any cost benefit analysis of such irrigation projects; f. To involve water resource users, particularly women and animal herders, in the planning, design, implementation and follow up in their localities of water policies, programmes and projects so as to carry them out without affecting the ecological balance; g. To subject all major water conservation, development and manage-ment projects to the environmental impact assessment process and to include the costs and benefits of protecting watershed forests, wetlands and other relevant key ecosystems in the economic analysis of such water projects; and h. To promote, through on-site training, effective water management techniques at the farm level for improved performance of medium to large-scale irrigation schemes. i. To promote, to the extent possible, viable measures to artificially recharge ground and surface water resources. j. To recycle waste water when it has been found to be safe for health and the environment or when it has been made safe without entailing high cost. 3.5. Energy Resource The Policies are: a. To adopt an inter-sectoral process of planning and development which integrates energy development with energy conservation, environmental protection and sustainable utilization of renewable resources; b. To promote the development of renewable energy sources and reduce the use of fossil energy resources both for ensuring sustainability and for protecting the environment, as well as for their continuation into the future; c. To make institutions and industries which consume large amounts of wood fuel establish their own plantations or make contractual arrangements with plantations to meet their wood requirements; d. To encourage Government leases for private entrepreneurs to plant fuel woodlots in peri-urban areas; e. To ensure that feasibility studies for hydroelectricity facilities and other significant generating facilities include rigorous environmental impact assessments to allow

Environmental Sociology

107

informed decision-making that maximizes benefits to the community and to the country at large and eliminates or at least minimizes damage to the natural resources base and/or to environmental well-being; f. To review current institutional, pricing and regulatory arrangements in the energy sector to suggest reforms that will better meet community energy needs and maximize the opportunities for private commercial and community sector initiatives to develop and market environmentally sound energy sources; g. To recognize that water resources play an important role to meet Ethiopia's energy demand and that, by generating power cause no pollution on the environment; h. To focus extension programmes on farm and homestead tree planting to ensure that each homestead grows enough trees to satisfy its wood requirements; and i. To locate, develop, adopt or adapt energy sources and technologies to replace biomass fuels.

3.6. Mineral Resources The Policies are: a. To adopt as mineral resources are depleted sooner or later, that the long-term usability of the land be safeguarded from the outset so that with due care during and following the mining activities, it can still be used for agriculture and/or other economic activities; b. To encourage and support artisanal and small-scale miners to practice mining which is organized and responsible so as to be consistent with environmental laws, rules and regulations to safeguard the well-being of the land and its other natural resources; c. To advise and train mining communities in methods of environmental protection and reclamation of abandoned mining areas; d. To strengthen the capacity of the state sector mining agencies to regulate and administer environmental protection in view of the increased role of the private sector and of possible foreign investment in large-scale mining; e. To implement continuous programmes of education for the public and industry, environmental monitoring, and the provision of technical advice and assistance in environmental management during mining operations; f. To provide technical and material assistance to artisanal miners to improve environmental protection and output efficiency; g. To use conditions of contract to ensure that licensed mining operations prepare predevelopment environmental impact studies, adopt sound environmental management practices during operations, and undertake appropriate mitigation and reclamation measures both during and after operations; h. To prepare and enact specific mining environmental protection legislation; and i. To establish a guarantee system for enforcing measures that should be taken by the licensee for the restoration of the land to its previous conditions or to the best improved level that the prevailing ecological conditions allow. 3.7 Human Settlement, Urban Environment and Environmental Health

Environmental Sociology The Policies are:

108

a. To incorporate ruralurban migration, human settlement and environmental health

b. concerns which arise from urbanization created by social and economic development into regional, wereda and local level planning and development activities; To integrate harmoniously, human-produced and natural elements in the development and management of urban areas in order to maintain the natural ecosystems; To ensure that improved environmental sanitation be placed highest on the federal and regional agendas for achieving sustainable urban development; To promote the construction by individual families of their own houses and create conducive conditions for communities and individual families to make improvements to their immediate habitats as well as to provide human and domestic waste disposal facilities; To recognize the importance of and help bring about behavioural change through education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in trying to achieve demand-driven community led programmes of improved urban environments as well as the sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation facilities; To bring about a sound partnership between the government and communities in the development of an integrated sanitation delivery system, and to foster the supplementary role of NGOs; To ensure that housing and sanitation technologies and regulatory standards are set at a level and cost that are within reach of the users and flexible enough to be adaptable to the very varied socio-economic, epidemiological, climatic and physical site conditions which are found in urban areas; To give priority to waste collection services and to its safe disposal; On the one hand to recognize the importance of adequate water supply as an important component in achieving a sustainable and healthy urban environment, and on the other hand to recognize the minimization of the need for water as an important factor in the choice of sanitation technologies; To construct shared VIP latrines in the low income and very high density housing areas of Addis Ababa and the older towns with frequent emptying by tankers integrated with programmes on user education, health and hygiene, with follow up maintenance and cleaning, all implemented as a component of a broader urban environmental upgrading programme including storm water drainage; To ensure the construction of family latrines in lower density urban and peri-urban areas as a conditionality of the house plot lease and to integrate this with health and hygiene awareness programmes; To create conducive conditions for families, housing groups and communities to construct latrines and for private entrepreneurs to undertake latrine emptying as well as waste collection and disposal services; To undertake studies which identify suitable sanitary landfill sites in the major cites and towns of Ethiopia; To plan and create green spaces within urban areas, including com-munity forests and woodlands for fuelwood as well as for recrea-tional amenity, providing habitats for plants and animals and ameliorating urban micro climates; To promote the development of sewerage systems and sewage treatment facilities in urban centers; and

c. d.

e.

f.

g.

h. i.

j.

k.

l.

m. n.

o.

Environmental Sociology

109

p. To the extent possible to recycle liquid and solid wastes from homesteads and establishments for the production of energy, fertilizer and for other uses. 3.8. Control of Hazardous Materials and Pollution From Industrial Waste The Policies are: a. To adhere to the precautionary principle of minimizing and where possible preventing discharges of substances, biological materials or their fragments from industrial plants and personal or communal appliances or any other external sources that could be harmful, and to disallow the discharge when they are likely to be hazardous; b. To adopt the "polluter pays" principle while endorsing the precautionary principle since pollution is likely to occur, and ensure that polluting enterprises and municipalities and wereda councils provide their own appropriate pollution control facilities; c. To establish clear linkages between the control of pollution and other policy areas including water resources, agriculture, human settlements, health and disaster prevention and preparedness; d. To provide adequate regulation of agricultural (crop and livestock) chemicals and micro-organisms; e. To ensure that pollution control is commensurate with the potency, longevity and potential to increase or reproduce of the pollutant; f. To establish safe limits for the location of sanitary landfill sites in the vicinity of wells, bore holes and dams, and issue regulations to enforce them; g. To review and develop guidelines for waste disposal, public and industrial hygiene and techniques to enable the cost-effective implementation of defined standards of control, and to issue regula-tions to enforce them; h. To formulate and implement a country-wide strategy and guidelines on the management of wastes from the medical, agriculture and other sectors that may use potentially hazardous biological organisms, their fragments or chemicals, and to issue the necessary regulations to enforce them; i. To establish a system for monitoring compliance with land, air and water pollution control standards and regulations, the handling and storage of hazardous and dangerous materials, mining operations, public and industrial hygiene, waste disposal, and water quality; j. To maintain an up-to-date register of toxic, hazardous and radioactive substances, and to make the information available on request; k. To maintain regular environmental audits to ensure the adoption of environmentally sound practices in all public and private development activities including industrial and mining operations; l. To enforce the exhaustive labelling and detailing of the contents usage and expiry date of foods, drugs, cosmetics, other chemicals, and when any of the contents are poisonous or dangerous in any other way, the fixing of strikingly visible labels to that effect; m. To promote waste minimization processes, including the efficient recycling of materials wherever possible;

Environmental Sociology

110

n. To create by law an effective system of control, distribution, utilization and disposal after use or expiry of chemicals, biological organisms or fragments of organisms that could be hazardous but are required for use; o. To prohibit from importation to and from transit through Ethiopia hazardous materials, organisms or fragments of organisms as agreed by African states in Bamako;

p. To hold as legally liable an employer who deploys employees in using or handling

hazardous materials without adequately training them on how to deal with the hazard and without adequate equipment to protect each one of them for physical harm or disease that is caused by working conditions whether the harm or disease starts in the place of work or away from it; and q. To foster better understanding of the dangerous effects of chemicals and organisms and their fragments through the provision of information in a form understandable to users, and provide or enforce the provision of information on the appropriate methods and technologies for the treatment and disposal of wastes. 3.9. Atmospheric Pollution and Climate Change The Policies are: a. To promote a climate monitoring programme as the country is highly sensitive to climatic variability; b. To recognize that even at an insignificant level of contribution to atmospheric greenhouse gases, a firm and visible commitment to the principle of containing climate change is essential and to take the appropriate control measures for a moral position from which to deal with the rest of the world in a struggle to bring about its containment by those countries which produce large quantities of greenhouse gases; c. To recognize that Ethiopia's environmental and long-term economic interests and its energy prospect coincide with the need to minimize atmospheric inputs of greenhouse gases as it has a large potential for harnessing hydro-, geothermal and solar energy, none of which produce pollutant gases in significant amounts and to develop its energy sector accordingly; d. To actively participate in protecting the ozone layer since, as the highlands of Ethiopia already have a thin protective atmosphere and are liable to suffer agricultural losses and adverse health effects from exposure to ultraviolet rays; e. To recognize that the continued use of biomass for energy production makes no net contribution to atmospheric pollution as long as at least equal amounts of biomass are produced annually to compensate this and to maximize the standing biomass in the country through a com-bination of reforestation, agroforestry, the rehabilitation of degraded areas, a general revegetation of the land and the control of free range grazing in the highlands and to seek financial support for this from industrialized countries for offsetting their carbon dioxide emission; 3.10. Cultural and Natural Heritage The Policies are:

Environmental Sociology

111

a. To promote the perception of heritage conservation as part of, and integrated with, Ethiopia's general social and economic development; b. To recognize that the country's heritage conservation should not be seen as the responsibility of government alone and to encourage communities to play a leading role in assessing and nominating places or items of heritage significance and in conserving them; c. To promote a sustainable heritage conservation and management programme that seek to understand all the elements of the system, their interrelationships and the ways in which each contributes to social and economic development; and

d. To ensure that the environment of heritage sites is so managed as to protect the

landscape, the monuments, and the artifacts or the fossils as the case may be. IV. Cross-Sectoral Environment Policies 4.1. Population and the Environment The Policies are: a. To integrate population planning, resources management and the rehabilitation of and care for the environment to achieve a sustainability of life styles; b. To give attention to the education and care of children, especially in the context of development and the sustainable use of natural resources since virtually all values and the discipline of work are established during childhood; c. To tackle simultaneously the issues of poverty, health, education and empowerment as these are interlinked with those of population growth, availability and access to resources and the well-being of the environment; d. To undertake a comprehensive and country-wide assessment of the human carrying capacity of the natural resources and the environment to identify potential areas for voluntary resettlement; e. To ensure a complete empowerment of women especially to enable their full participation in population and environmental decision making, resource ownership and management; and f. To promote off-farm and on-farm income generating programmes which aim at the alleviation of poverty, especially, among women whether they have access to land or not and among men who have no access to land.

4.2. Community Participation and the Environment The Policies are:

Environmental Sociology

112

a. To ensure that all phases of environmental and resource development and

management, from project conception to planning and implementation to monitoring and evaluation are undertaken based on the decisions of the resource users and managers; To reorient management professionals employed in natural resource and environmental extension programmes to embrace participatory development, and to strengthen their communication skills so as to more effectively disseminate both the results of scientific research and the practical experience of local farmers; To develop effective methods of popular participation in the planning and implementation of environmental and resource use and management projects and programmes; To develop the necessary legislation, training and financial support to empower local communities so that they may acquire the ability to prevent the manipulated imposition of external decisions in the name of participation, and to ensure genuine grassroots decisions in resources and environmental management; To authorize all levels of organization to raise funds locally from the use of natural resources to fund the development, management and sustainable use of those resources; To greatly increase the number of women extension agents in the field of natural resource and environmental management; and To ensure information flow among all levels of organization including the Federal and Regional States and the people at the grassroots level by developing a two way mechanism for data collection and dissemination.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f. g.

4.3. Tenure and Access Rights to Land and Natural Resources The Polices are: a. When taking decisions to recognize that the constitution now ensures that the user of land has the right to a secure and uninterrupted access to it and to renewable natural resources on it (e.g. trees, water, wildlife and grazing); b. To recognize and protect wherever possible the customary rights of access to and use of land and natural resource which are constitutionally acceptable, socially equitable and are preferred by local communities. 4.4. Land Use Plan The Policy is: To ensure that Federal, Regional and Community Strategic Land Use Plans (SLUP) define broad land use and land user categories together with generalized resource management recommendations which can then be used to guide the formulation of detailed local resource use and management plans by individuals or communities as the case may be.

Environmental Sociology 4.5. Social and Gender Issues The Policies are:

113

a. To ensure that formal and informal training in environmental and resource management include methodologies and tools for analysis and elimination of inequities; b. To make environmental awareness and public education programmes include both men and women in all social, economic and cultural groupings of society; c. To subject all policies, programmes and projects to impact assessments in order to maximize equity for economic, ethnic, social, cultural, gender and age groups, especially the socially disadvantaged; and d. To facilitate the participation of women across all sections of society in training, public awareness campaigns, formal and informal education and decision making in environment and resource management. 4.6. Environmental Economics The Policies are: a. To ensure that environmental costs and benefits, used in the develop-ment planning process including programme and project preparation consider environmental gains and losses include the values of benefits foregone which are thus costs; b. To recognize that estimating environmental costs and benefits is often imprecise both because of the lack of accurate information and because of the lack of standardized methodologies, and to account for these costs using the best available information and methodologies; c. To recognize that environmental impacts have long time spans, usually to be reckoned in decades, and to lengthen the time frame in economic analysis accordingly; d. To initiate a pilot project on the application of environmental accoun-ting in Ethiopia; e. To explicitly consider in 5-, 10-, 50- and 100-year time perspectives the economic costs and benefits to the environment in the planning of all major development programmes, projects and activities; f. To assess and charge the appropriate level of user and access fees and performance bonds, for example, to parks, for use of closed grazing areas, for water use and consumption, and for logging in order to sustainably maintain the resource or the environment, and identify the appropriate target groups and assess and provide subsidies, taxes or tax concessions to achieve the sustainability of the use of natural resources and the environment (e.g. soil conservation works, installing pollution treatment facilities); and g. To develop the capacity of government agencies to analyze the impact of user fees and incentives and to monitor contracts, leases, concessions and performance bonds used for achieving sustainable resource management and environmental protection. 4.7. Environmental Information System The Policies are:

Environmental Sociology

114

a. To adhere to the principle that the right to live in a clean and healthy environment carries with it the right to be informed about environmental issues and to develop an appropriate information system; b. To create by law a system for the protection of community intellectual property rights. c. To make available environmental information as a legal right to all interested parties except where the release of such information would compromise national security, community intellectual property rights or individual intellectual property rights; d. To base information generation on an identification of user needs, i.e. it be demanddriven; e. To ensure that all environmental data collection and analysis as well as information dissemination are coordinated and as far as possible standardized but not centralized; f. To ensure that there be a central point or agency at which it is possible to have access to widely used information and to ascertain the type and location of any specialized data and information. g. To provide clear legislation and guidelines on environmental data and information generation, collection and dissemination specifying the nature of restrictions required; 4.8. Environmental Research The Policies are: a. To develop strategic environmental research which aims at identifying the social, economic and technical factors which influence resource management; b. To promote the training and the improvement of the working conditions of researchers so that they become technically competent and familiar with the agroecological and socio-economic conditions of the potential end users; c. To put in place an appropriate information exchange system and institutional structure which facilitate closer interaction among farmers, pastoralists, government professionals, development NGO's, and researchers; d. To support research on appropriate technologies for environmental management and sustainable development through a partnership between scientists and potential end users so as to benefit from the universal knowledge of the former in science and technology and the unique knowledge of the latter in the very often site specific conditions under which the technology is to be used; e. To coopt existing traditional systems of research and learning into a new system which incorporates both modern and traditional components; f. To allocate funds to support strategic, applied and adaptive research programmes and projects; and g. To establish Science and Technology Associations in all communities to identify and support their traditional systems of research and development and provide a channel for feedback of information concerning the suitability or otherwise of research outputs; 4.9. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Sociology The Policies are:

115

a. To ensure that environmental impact assessments consider not only physical and biological impacts but also address social, socio-economic, political and cultural conditions; b. To ensure that public and private sector development programmes and projects recognize any environmental impacts early and incorporate their containment into the development design process; c. To recognize that public consultation is an integral part of EIA and ensure that EIA procedures make provision for both an independent review and public comment before consideration by decision makers; d. To ensure that an environmental impact statement always includes mitigation plans for environmental management problems and contin-gency plans in case of accidents; e. To ensure that, at specified intervals during project implementation, environmental audits regarding monitoring, inspection and record keeping take place for activities where these have been required by the Environmental Impact Statement; f. To ensure that preliminary and full EIA's are undertaken by the relevant sectoral ministries or departments, if in the public sector, and by the developer, if in the private sector; g. To create by law an EIA process which requires appropriate environmental impact statments and environmental audits for private and state development projects; h. To establish the necessary institutional framework and determine the linkages of its parts for undertaking, coordinating and approving EIAs and the subsequent system of environmental audits required to ensure compliance with conditionalities; i. To develop detailed sectoral technical guidelines in EIAs and environ-mental audits; j. To ensure that social, socio-economic, political and cultural conditions are considered in environmental impact assessment procedures and included in sectoral guidelines; and k. To develop EIA and environmental audit capacity and capability in the Environmental Protection Authority, sectoral ministries and agencies as well as in the regions. 4.10. Environmental Education and Awareness The Policies are: a. To promote the teaching of environmental education on a multi-disciplinary basis and to integrate it into the ongoing curricula of schools and colleges and not treat it as a separate or additional subject, though this should also be done at the tertiary level; b. To target the public, particularly those involved in public and private sector activities that have significant environmental impacts, for environmental education and awareness programmes; c. To formulate environmental awareness programmes in such a way as to make them address specific environmental problems of particular localities in view of the extreme variability of environmental conditions and problems in Ethiopia; d. To recognize the important role the mass media play and to effectively use them in creating and promoting environmental awareness in view of the physical problems of access and communications in Ethiopia;

Environmental Sociology

116

e. To strengthen existing higher level training and education institutions so that they can offer programmes and courses in sustainable resource and environmental management for economists, planners, lawyers, engineers, sociologists and medical practitioners as well as for natural resource and environmental scientists; f. To provide in-service training in such specialized subjects as environ-mental economics, environmental law, environmental monitoring, geographical information systems (GIS), pollution monitoring and control, and hazardous waste management; g. To encourage the local development of environmental awareness associations and programmes specific to particular agro-ecological zones and support them with scientific inputs; h. To develop environmental awareness programmes for urban environ-ments for dissemination by the mass media and foster the develop-ment of urban environmental awareness associations; and i. To initiate, encourage and support the involvement of local community and religious leaders in programmes to promote environmental awareness.

V. Policy Implementation 5.1. Institutional Framework, Responsibilities and Mandates The Policies are: a. To give political and popular support to the sustainable use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and environmental management for effectiveness at the federal, regional, zonal, wereda and community levels; b. To ensure that legally established coordination and management bodies from the federal down to the community level handle the sectoral and cross sectoral planning and implementation issues identified as the responsibilities of concerned line ministries commissions, authorities and bureaus, as applicable to the level of organizations, including those of the relevant federal executive organs as well as regional and municipal governments, elected councillors, non-governmental organizations, community representatives, representatives of professional or other environmental associations and the private sector; c. To use to the maximum, whenever possible, existing institutional structures; d. To determine institutional arrangements for the formulation of conservation and natural resource development and management strategies, legislation, regulation, monitoring and enforcement using the following criteria: (i) conformity with the Constitution, especially with respect to the decentralization of power; (ii) harmonization of sectoral interests; (iii) integration of environmental planning with development planning; (iv) minimization of incremental financial requirements; e. To avoid conflicts of interest by assigning responsibilities to separate organisations for environmental and natural resource development and management activities on the one hand, and environmental protection, regulation and monitoring on the other;

Environmental Sociology f.

117

To ensure that enforcement of government laws and regulations with respect to environmental protection remain the responsibility of federal and regional courts and administrations; nevertheless, where government's own development activities are controlled by laws and regulations, the monitoring of such laws and regulations to ensure compliance of specific ministries and other government entities should be carried out by the government organization responsible for environmental protection and regulation.

5.2. Legislative Framework The Policies are that the Law should: a. To provide a framework for encouraging participation by the people of Ethiopia in the development of federal and regional policies, laws and plans for the sustainable use and management of the natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment; b. To enable the creation of programmes that motivate the peoples of Ethiopia into restoring, protecting, managing and sustainably using the natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment of the country; c. To ensure agreement with the constitution and the prevailing, political, social, cultural and economic policies, laws and practices and to harmonize these with the principle of sustainable development;

d. To be consistent with Article 44 of the Constitution and assure all people living in the
country of their fundamental right to an environment adequate for their health and well-measures. 5.3. Monitoring, Evaluation and Policy Review The Policies are: a. To ensure that individual programme and project monitoring becomes the responsibility of the appropriate federal and/or regional implementing and/or mandated agencies; b. To ensure that the monitoring of the overall impacts of the implementation of the Federal Environmental Policy on the country's renewable natural resources and environmental support systems, and that the compilation of recommendations for any modification that is required, should be consistent with the institutional arrangement specified in the CSE and also be responsive to popular opinion; c. To ensure that the Environmental Protection Authority carries the overall monitoring of the Policy implementation and is responsible for proposing modifications, in consultation with the mandated line ministries and/or the opinion of stakeholder communities and groups, and for having them approved by the Inter-Ministerial Environmental Protection Council; d. To ensure that line ministries and regional and lower level bureaus and branches of bureaus monitor the overall impact of the implementation of this Federal Environmental Policy on those sectors and elements for which they have the legal mandate;

Environmental Sociology

118

e. To ensure that, starting with the Community Environmental Coordinating Committee and aggregating upwards through the appropriate level offices of Water Resources, Mines and Energy, Agriculture, and Economic Development and Cooperation, reviews of the status of natural resources and the environment, including evaluation of the implementation of this Federal Environmental Policy, are completed annually at the appropriate levels; and to ensure that the Environmental Protection Authority will be responsible for prompting the compilation of the reports and for reporting on the process;

f. To ensure that, at least annually, meetings held by communities at the village level
with their Community Environmental Coordinating Committees then successively from the Wereda and the Regional Environmental Coordinating Committees through to the Environmental Protection Council, evaluate these reviews and make their recommendations; the Environmental Protection Authority will be being; e. To create the conditions for formulating, reviewing and updating sectoral regulations on, and procedures for, the restoration, protection, management and sustainable use of the natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment; and

f. To provide a broad framework for both punitive and incentive responsible for
prompting that the evaluation takes place and for reporting on the process.

Chapter Summary The chapter has addressed the detail presentation of Ethiopian

environmental policy. It presents its rationales, general and specific objectives as well as the cross-sectoral and sectoral issues of the policy.
Self-checking Exercises

What are the rationales of the policy? What about their relevance? 1. List down all the reasons that inspire the government of Ethiopia to develop this policy? 2. evaluate the policy against different international environmental documents 3. Is the policy feasible? How? 4. What is your point of view about the successfulness of the policy?

Environmental Sociology

119

References
1. Armstrong, B. William (1996) Human Impact on the Earth. UK: Cambridge University Press. 2. Barrow, C. J. (2006). (Ed). Environmental Management for Sustainable Development, 2nd Edition. London & New York: Routledge. 3. Chapman, G., Kumar, K., Fraser, C. & Gaber, I. (1997). Environmentalism and the Mass Media: The North South Divide. London & New York: Routledge. 4. Dimento, J. F. C. (2003). The Global Environment and International Law. USA: University of Texas Press. 5. Dunlap, R. E. & Marshall, B. K. (2006). Environmental sociology. Oklahoma
State University, Stillwater.

6. Durant, R. F., Florino, D. J. & O Leary, R. (2004). (Eds). Environmental

Governance Recognized: Challenges, Choices, and Opportunities. Cambridge: MIT Press.

7. Grondstad, G., Selle, P. Bortne, O. & Stromsene, K. (2007). Unique

Environmentalism: A Cooperative Perspective. USA: Springer.

8. Gross, M. & Heirichs, H. (2010) (Eds). Environmental Sociology: European

Perspectives and Interdisciplinary Challenges. New York: Routledge.

9.

Hancey, L.D. Danny (2000). Global Warming: The Hard Science. London, et.al: Prentice Hall.

10. Hannigan, J. (1995). Environmental Sociology, 2nd Edition. London & New York: Routledge. 11. Hannigan, John (2006). Environmental Sociology. 2nd edition. Rutledge. New York 12. Huber, Josef (2001). Environmental Sociology in Search of Profile: Paper prepared for autumn meeting of the section Sociology and Ecology of the German Society of Sociology. Bremen, 19 November 2001. 13. Johones, Gareth (2004). People and Environment: A Global Approach. Pearson Prentice Hall. England

Environmental Sociology

120

14. King, L. & McCarthy, D. (2009). Envoronmental Sociology: From Analysis to Action. New York: Rouman & Littlefield. 15. Kiss, A. & Shelton, D. (2007). Guide to International Environmental Law. Boston: Nartinus Nijhoff Publishers. 16. Marquica K., Hill (2004). Understanding Environmental Pollution. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press. 17. Mawhinney, M. (2002). Sustainable Development: Understanding the Green Debates. Oxford: Blackwell. 18. Mehta D., Michael and Ouellet Eric (1995). Environmental Sociology: Theory and Practice. Canada 19. Meyer, B. Williams (1996). Human Impact on the Earth. UK: Cambridge University Press. 20. Mitchel, Bruce (1997). Resource and Environmental Management. Addison Wesley Longman. England 21. Mooney, Linda A. (2005). Understanding Social Problems, 4th ed. Australia, et. al: Thomson. 22. ONeill, J., Holland, A. & Light, A. (2008). Environmental Values. London & New York: Routledge. 23. Pepper, D. (1996). Modern Environmentalism: An Introduction. London & New York: Routledge 24. Pettenger E., Mary (2007). The Social Construction of Climate Change. Ashagate Publishing Limited. England. 25. Redicliff, Michael and Wooodgate (1997). The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.USA 26. Redclift, M. R. & Woodgate, G. (2010), (Eds). The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology, 2nd edition. UK & USA: Edward Clgar. 27. Redclift, M. & Bento, T. (1994), (Eds). Social Theory and the Global Environment. London & New York: Routledge. 28. Sandler, R. & Pezzullo, P. C. (2007). (Eds). Environmental Justice and Environmentalism: The Social Justice Challenge to Environmental Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Environmental Sociology

121

29. Strange, T. & Bayley, A. (2008). Sustainable Development: Linking Economy, Society and Environment. OECD. 30. Ukaga, O., Maser, C. & Reichenbach, M. (2010) (Eds). Sustainable Development: Principles, Frameworks and Case Studies. USA: CRC Press. 31. White, R. (2008). Crime against Nature: Environmental Criminology and Ecological Justice, USA: William Publishing. 32. White, R. (2004) (Ed). Controversies in Environmental Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 33. Yearley, S. (2005). Culture of Environmentalism: Empirical Studies in Environmental Sociology. New York: McMillan.